Week 10 Lecture

The Fourier Transform

In the previous lectures, we discussed the Fourier Series, which is for periodic signals.
This lecture will cover the Fourier Transform which can be used to analyze aperiodic
signals (aperiodic means non-periodic). Fourier Transform is powerful in the sense that it
can also be used for periodic signals. Thus the Fourier Transform is a more general
method of representing signals and systems in the frequency domain.

Definition of the Fourier Transform

Given an aperiodic signal x(t),


X ( j )   x(t ) exp
 jt
dt is the continuous time Fourier transform of x(t), where x(t) is


an aperiodic signal.

The Fouruer Transform is an extension of the Fourier Series. The Fourier transformation
creates X(jω) in the FREQUENCY domain. We will see that X(jω) can be seen as a
"continuous coefficient" of a Fourier Series if we let the period of a periodic function go
to infinity so that the resulting function becomes aperiodic in the limit.

Derivation of the Fourier Transform

Let x(t ) be a periodic function in which over ONE period, it is EXACTLY the same as
the aperiodic signal x(t) as shown.

Therefore, we can x(t ) express it with a Fourier series:

1
 
1
x(t )  a
k 
k exp jk0t ak  
T0 T0
x(t ) exp jk0t dt

2
As usual, T0  is the period of x(t )
0

If x(t ) is a periodic rectangular pulse train, then the magnitude spectrum ak vs. ω=kω0 is
as shown. Note that for fixed T1, and we if lengthen the period T, as in (a) T = 4T1, (b) T
= 8T1, (c) T = 16T1, we notice that the frequency spacing becomes closer.

Each ak is the frequency component of x(t ) at the frequency ω = k ω0.

2
Now, if we let T0, the period of x(t ) , go to infinity (meaning that x(t ) becomes
aperiodic), then the fundamental frequency ω0 will go to zero. Then the lines in the plot
will get closer and closer together and merge into a continuous spectrum.

As ω0 → 0, the distance between lines goes to 0, so let's write Δω for ω0 in our Fourier
Series representation of x(t ) . Also we replace ak in our Fourier Series representation of
x(t ) by using the formula used for the calculation of ak (Fourier Series coefficients)


1
 x(t ) exp  jk0t dt ↔ X ( j )   x(t ) exp
 jt
ak  dt
T0 T0 

So X(jω) replaces the ak as Δω → 0 and is a continuous function of ω.

Finally, we have the Fourier transform pair:


X ( j )   x(t ) exp
 jt
dt ANALYSIS



1
 X ( j ) exp d SYNTHESIS
jt
x(t ) 
2 

Notice the two formulas are more or less identical except for the sign change in the
1
exponent (  ) and the multiplicative factor in front of the synthesis formula.
2

Now, let's compute our first Fourier Transforms:

Example 1

Find the Fourier Transform for the signal x(t) given below :-


X ( j )   x(t ) exp
 jt
dt


3
  exp jT1  exp jT1 2 j sin T1 
T1
exp jt
T1

X ( j )   1exp
 jt
dt   
T1
 j T1
j j

2sin T1  2T1 sin T1 

X ( j )    2T1Sinc T1 
 T1

The Fourier Transform of the rectangular pulse function defined between –T1 and T1.

sin( x) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Note : The Sinc function is defined as Sinc( x)  . . The term 𝑥 is a decaying sin
x
function because of the x term in the denominator.

To obtain the first zero crossing, we equate 𝜔𝑇1 = 𝜋 as 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = 0. Thus the first
𝜋
crossing occurs at 𝜔 = 𝑇
1

To obtain the second zero crossing, we equate 𝜔𝑇1 = 2𝜋 as 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 = 0. Thus the
2𝜋
second crossing occurs at 𝜔 = 𝑇
1

sin 0
For 𝜔 = 0, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 0
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚. By applying the L'Hopital
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑇1
rule, i.e differentiate the numerator and denominator of , we obtain =
𝜔𝑇1 𝑇1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑇1
The value of = 1 at ω= 0. Thus the value of 2𝑇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐(𝜔𝑇1 ) = 2𝑇1 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 = 0
1

4
Example 2

t
Compute the Fourier Transform of y (t )  x  
4


Y ( j )   y(t ) exp
 jt
dt


 exp j 4T1  exp j 4T1 2 j sin  4T1 

4T1
exp jt
4T1

X ( j )  
 jt
1exp dt   
4T1
 j 4T1
j j

2sin  4T1  8T1 sin  4T1 

X ( j )    8T1Sinc  4T1 
  4T1

Example 3

Calculate the Fourier Transform of x(t )   (t )


X ( j )   x(t ) exp
 jt
dt


  
X ( j )    (t ) exp dt    (t ) exp dt    (t )dt  1
 jt  j 0

  

5
Example 4

Compute the Fourier Transform of 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐶𝛿(𝑡 + 𝑡𝑜 )


F ( j )  

f (t ) exp  jt dt
 

 c (t  t0 ) exp dt   c (t  t ) exp
jt0
F ( j )   jt
0 dt  c exp jt0
 

Magnitude of F ( j ) Phase of F ( j )

Note that when a signal is shifted (advance) in time, this is as good as multiplying the
unshifted transform with 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕𝟎

6
Example 5

Calculate the Fourier Transform of x(t)


X ( j )   x(t ) exp
 jt
dt


exp a  j t
0
1 0
0
1
X ( j )  e
 jt
at
exp dt   

a  j 
a  j a  j

Example 6

Calculate the Fourier Transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

+∞

𝑿(𝐣𝛚) = ∫ 𝐱(𝐭)𝐞−𝐣𝛚𝐭 𝐝𝐭
−∞

+∞ +∞ ∞
−𝐚𝐭 −𝐣𝛚𝐭 −(𝐚+𝐣𝛚)𝐭
𝐞−(𝐚+𝐣𝛚)𝐭 𝐀
= ∫ 𝐀𝐞 𝐮(𝐭)𝐞 𝐝𝐭 = ∫ 𝐀𝐞 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐀 | | =
−(𝐚 + 𝐣𝛚 𝟎 𝐚 + 𝐣𝛚
−∞ 𝟎

Inverse Fourier Transform

Example 7

Compute the inverse transform of F ( j ) . This function is also known as the rect
  
function. In this example F ( j )  rect  
 2b 

7
 
1
 F ( j ) exp d
jt
f (t ) 
2 

b
exp jbt  exp  jbt 2 j sin bt 
b
1 1 exp jt
 d 
jt
f (t )  1exp  
2 b
2 jt b
2 jt 2 jt

sin bt  b sin bt  b

f (t )    Sinc bt 
t  bt 

The Impulse Function in the Frequency Domain

If we are given a Fourier Transform of an aperiodic signal x(t) is X  j    (  0 ) ,

what is x(t) ?


1
 X ( j ) exp d ,
jt
Using the synthesis equation x(t ) 
2 

1
      exp d
jt
x(t ) 
2
0


Since    0  exp jt     0  exp j0t

 
1 1
      exp       exp

x(t )  jt
d  j 0t
d .
2 2
0 0
 


exp j0t
Since     0  d  1 , x(t ) 

2

8
 exp j0t
Therefore if an aperiodic signal is x(t )  , then its Fourier Transform is
2
X  j    (  0 ) .

Alternatively, you are given a complex exponential signal of a SINGLE frequency 0 i.e
x(t )  exp j0t , then the Fourier Transform of x(t) is X  j   2 (  0 ) . For a signal
of frequency k0 , xk (t )  exp jk0t , its Fourier Transform will then be
X  j   2 (  k0 ) .

Note that if we do not use the impulse function of frequency technique above, and start
off with the other way round i.e given a signal x(t )  exp j0t , and you are ask to find its
Fourier Transform. You will find that this is not an easy task as the Fourier transfrom of
x(t )  exp j0t do not converge.

j  k0  t
j  k0  
 exp 
  exp j k0   
j  k0  t exp
 exp 0 exp dt   exp
jk t
X ( j )   jt
dt  

 
j  k0    j  k0   

Clearly X ( j ) do not exist. In order to find X ( j ) , we must use the impulse frequency
technique. This leads us to the idea of a “Fourier Transform pair” i.e the relationship
between x(t) and X ( j ) Knowing one can help us solve the other easily. In our example
exp j0t
here, knowing the inverse transform of    0  is (we remember this pair !!).
2
So each time we want to find the Fourier transform of x(t )  exp j0t , we directly say the
answer is 2   0  confidently, as the relationship between X ( j ) and its inverse
x(t) is one to one and also unique.

Properties of the Fourier Transform

Knowing some important properties of Fourier Transform can save you a lot of work.

Linearity

Because the Fourier Transform is linear, we can write:

F[a x1(t) + bx2(t)] = aX1(jω) + bX2(jω)

where X1(ω) is the Fourier Transform of x1(t) and X2(ω) is the Fourier Transform
of x2(t).

9
Time Scaling

x(t )  X ( j)

1 
x(at )  X(j )
a a

Time Shifting x(t )  X ( j)

x(t  t0 )  X ( j ) exp jt0

 x(t  t ) exp
 jt
Proof : F [ x(t  t0 )]  0 dt


Let u= t-t0 and du = dt

 

 x(u) exp  x(u) exp

 j ( u t0 )  jt0  ju )
F [ x(t  t0 )]  du  exp du
 

= exp jt0 X  j 

Note that if the signal is a delay impulse i.e x  t     t  t0  , then the Fourier Transform
is exp jt0 as the Fourier Transform of X  j   1

Example

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −5𝑡 and 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 3), find the Fourier transform of x(t)g(t). This is as good
as finding 𝑒 −5𝑡 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)
1
We know 𝑒 −5𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) ↔ 5+𝑗𝜔

𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝟑
By the time shift property 𝒆−𝟓(𝒕−𝟑) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟑) ↔
𝟓+𝒋𝝎

𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝟑
𝐞−𝟓𝐭 𝐮(𝐭 − 𝟑) = 𝒆−𝟏𝟓 𝐞−𝟓(𝐭−𝟑) 𝐮(𝐭 − 𝟑) = 𝒆−𝟏𝟓
𝟓 + 𝒋𝝎

Thus
𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝟑
𝐞−𝟓𝐭 𝐮(𝐭 − 𝟑) ↔ 𝒆−𝟏𝟓
𝟓 + 𝒋𝝎

10
Conjugation and Conjugate Symmetry

x(t )  X ( j)

x (t )  X  ( j )

Differentiation

dx(t )
 j X  j 
dt

Differentiation of a signal x(t) in the time domain has the effect of multiplication by j
in the frequency domain.

Example

Calculate the Fourier transform of the signal x(t) as shown

-6 -4 4 6

𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
2

6
4

-6 -4

-2

11
Let the Fourier transform of x(t) = X(jω)

𝒅𝒙(𝒕)
Let 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒅𝒕

Since 𝒀(𝐣𝛚) = 𝐞𝐣𝟓𝛚 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝛚 − 𝐞−𝐣𝟓𝛚 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝛚

𝐞𝐣𝟓𝛚 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝛚 − 𝐞−𝐣𝟓𝛚 𝟒𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝛚

𝐗(𝐣𝛚) =
𝐣𝛚

The Convolution Property

The convolution property tells us that performing a convolution in time corresponds to

performing multiplication in the frequency domain. Therefore, we can avoid doing
convolution by taking Fourier Transforms! In many cases, this will be much more
convenient than directly performing the convolution.

The convolution property states that:

x  t   h(t )  X  j  H  j 

Multiplication of Signals

Our next property is the Multiplication Property. It states that the Fourier Transform of
the multiplication of two signals in time is the convolution of the two Fourier Transforms
in the frequency domain.

1
𝑠(𝑡)𝑝(𝑡) ↔ 𝑆(𝑗𝜔) ∗ 𝑃(𝑗𝜔)
2𝜋

12
Frequency Shifting or Modulation

Given a signal s(t) and another single frequency periodic p  t   exp j0t . What is the
Fourier Transform of the resulting signal r(t) = p(t)s(t)

𝟏
𝐑(𝐣𝛚) = 𝐒(𝐣𝛚) ∗ 𝐏(𝐣𝛚)
𝟐𝛑

Since 𝒑(𝒕) = 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒕 , 𝑷(𝒋𝝎) = 𝟐𝝅𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 )

𝟏
Therefore 𝑹(𝒋𝝎) = 𝟐𝝅 𝑺(𝒋𝝎) ∗ 𝟐𝝅𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 ) = 𝑺(𝒋𝝎) ∗ 𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 ) = 𝑺(𝒋(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 )

This tells us that modulation i.e multiplication in time of s(t) by a single periodic
complex exponential of frequency 0 corresponds to a frequency shift of 0 in the
frequency domain.

Example

This example illustrate that an aperiodic signal s  t  is multiplied (modulated) by another

periodic signal p  t   cos 0t  .

1
p(t )  cos 0t   exp  exp 
j0t  j0t

2 

2 2
P( j )     0      0      0      0 
2 2

𝟏 𝟏
𝐑(𝐣𝛚) = 𝐒(𝐣𝛚) ∗ 𝐏(𝐣𝛚) = 𝐒(𝐣𝛚) ∗ [𝛑𝛅(𝛚 − 𝛚𝟎 ) + 𝛑𝛅(𝛚 + 𝛚𝟎 )]
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐑(𝐣𝛚) = 𝐒(𝐣𝛚) ∗ [𝛅(𝛚 − 𝛚𝟎 ) + 𝛅(𝛚 + 𝛚𝟎 )] = 𝐒(𝐣(𝛚 − 𝛚𝟎 ) + 𝐒(𝐣(𝛚 + 𝛚𝟎 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
13
14
Example

Find the Fourier transform of the signal 𝑥(𝑡) = cos(4𝜋𝑡) (𝑢(𝑡 + 3) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 3))

The Fourier transform of (𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜋𝑡) ↔ 𝜋𝛿(𝜔 − 4𝜋) + 𝜋𝛿(𝜔 + 4𝜋)

The Fourier transform of 𝒖(𝒕 + 𝟑) − 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟑)) = 6sinc(3ω)

By the multiplication property

𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟒𝝅𝒕) (𝒖(𝒕 + 𝟑) − 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟑)) ↔ 𝟐𝝅 [𝝅𝜹(𝝎 − 𝟒𝝅) + 𝝅𝜹(𝝎 +
𝟒𝝅)]*6sinc(3ω)

𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟒𝝅𝒕) (𝒖(𝒕 + 𝟑) − 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟑)) ↔ 𝟑sinc(3(ω-4π)+ 𝟑sinc(3(ω+4π)

Partial Fraction Expansion


Remember that the frequency response of an LTI system is H  j    h  t  exp
 jt
dt .


The frequency response of a system is the Fourier Transform of the impulse response of
the LTI system. Partial fraction expansion technique is useful for finding the impulse
response h(t) of an LTI system if we know the frequency response i.e we take the inverse
Fourier Transform of the frequency response.

Systems Described By Differential Equations

Given a Linear Constant Coefficient Differential Equation

dy  t  d 2 y  t  dx  t 
2 y t   3  
dt dt 2 dt

Take note of the differentiation property i.e multiplying by j in the frequency domain
has the effect of differentiation in the time domain.

Thus Y  j  2  3  j    j     j  X  j 
2
 

The frequency response

15
 Y  j   j 
H  j   
X  j  2  3  j    j 2

To find h(t), we need to apply partial fraction

𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 𝐴 𝐵
Let (𝑗𝜔)2 +3(𝑗𝜔)+2 = = (𝑗𝜔+2) + (𝑗𝜔+1)
(𝑗𝜔+2)(𝑗𝜔+1)

𝑗𝜔
To find A, cover (𝑗𝜔 + 2) and substitute 𝑗𝜔 = −2 in (𝑗𝜔+2)(𝑗𝜔+1)

−2
Thus A = −1 = 2

𝑗𝜔
To find B, cover (𝑗𝜔 + 1) and substitute 𝑗𝜔 = −1 in (𝑗𝜔+2)(𝑗𝜔+1)

−1
Thus B = = −1
1

𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 2 −1
Thus H(jω) = = = (𝑗𝜔+2) + (𝑗𝜔+1)
(𝑗𝜔)2 +3(𝑗𝜔)+2 (𝑗𝜔+2)(𝑗𝜔+1)

The impulse response h(t) = 2𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Example

Given a differential equation as shown below and by using the Fourier Transform
method, find the frequency response and also the impulse response of the LTI system.

d 2 y t  dy  t 
2
4  3 y t   x t 
dt dt

Using the differentiation property and taking the Fourier Transform of both sides we
obtain

 j  Y  j   4  j Y  j   3Y ( j)  X  j 
2

Factor out Y  j  on the left hand side and X  j  on the right hand side we obtain

Y  j   j   4  j   3  X  j 
2
 

Y  j  1
H  j   
X  j   j   4  j   3
2

To find the impulse response, we use the partial fraction technique

16
 1 1
H  j   
 j 
2
 4  j   3  j  1 j  3
1 A B
H  j    
 j  1 j  3  j  1  j  3
1
Using the cover up rule, we obtain A 
2

1
Similarly we obtain B using the cover up rule as B  
2

1 1
H  j   
2  j  1 2  j  3

The inverse Fourier Transform h(t) can be obtained by looking up the Fourier Transform
pair table. By inspection, h  t   expt u (t )  exp 3t u(t )   exp t  exp 3t  u  t 
1 1 1
2 2 2

Example

𝟏
What is the inverse Fourier transform of (𝒂+𝒋𝝎)𝟐. The answer is 𝒕𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

Proof

𝟏
𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) ↔
(𝒂 + 𝒋𝝎)

Differentiate both sides by a, we obtain

For the left hand side, −𝒕𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

𝟎−𝟏
For the right hand side, (𝒂+𝒋𝝎)𝟐.

−𝟏
Thus , −𝒕𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)↔(𝒂+𝒋𝝎)𝟐.

𝟏
Or 𝒕𝒆−𝒂𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)↔(𝒂+𝒋𝝎)𝟐.

17
Example

If an input signal 𝐱(𝐭) = 𝟑𝐞−𝟐𝐭 𝐮(𝐭) is input into the system with impulse response
𝐡(𝐭) = 𝟓𝐞−𝟐𝐭 𝐮(𝐭), calculate the output y(t).

𝟑 𝟓
X(jω) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) H(jω) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)

𝟑 𝟓 𝟏𝟓
Y(jω) = 𝑿(𝐣𝛚)𝐇(𝐣𝛚) = . = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 .
(𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟏𝟓𝒕𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

Example

If an input signal 𝐱(𝐭) = 𝟑𝐞−𝟐𝐭 𝐮(𝐭) is input to LCCDE system

𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
+𝟑 + 𝟐 = 𝒙(𝒕), calculate the output y(t).
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

𝟑 𝟏
X(jω) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) H(jω) = (𝒋𝝎)𝟐 +𝟑(𝒋𝝎)+𝟐

𝟑 𝟏
Y(jω) = 𝑿(𝐣𝛚)𝐇(𝐣𝛚) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝒋𝝎)𝟐 +𝟑(𝒋𝝎)+𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
The term(𝒋𝝎)𝟐 +𝟑(𝒋𝝎)+𝟐 = = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) + (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)
(𝟐+𝒋𝝎)(𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

𝟏
By using the cover up rule, 𝑨 = 𝟏−𝟐 = −𝟏

𝟏
By using the cover up rule, 𝑩 = 𝟐−𝟏 = 𝟏

𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
Thus (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)(𝟏+𝒋𝝎) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) + (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

𝟑 −𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 𝟑
Therefore 𝒀(𝒋𝝎) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)
. + (𝟏+𝒋𝝎) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 +
(𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)(𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

𝟑 𝟑 𝑪 𝑫
Consider the term (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)(𝟏+𝒋𝝎). Let = + (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)
(𝟐+𝒋𝝎)(𝟏+𝒋𝝎) (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)

𝟑
By using the cover up rule, 𝑪 = 𝟏−𝟐 = −𝟑

𝟑
By using the cover up rule, 𝑫 = 𝟐−𝟏 = 𝟑

18
 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟑 𝟑
Therefore 𝒀(𝒋𝝎) = . + = + +
(𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝟏+𝒋𝝎) (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

Thus 𝒚(𝒕) = −𝟑𝒕𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) − 𝟑𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) + 𝟑𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

Alternative Method of Partial Fraction

𝟑 𝟏
X(jω) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) H(jω) = (𝒋𝝎)𝟐 +𝟑(𝒋𝝎)+𝟐

𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
Y(jω) = 𝑿(𝐣𝛚)𝐇(𝐣𝛚) = = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)
(𝟐+𝒋𝝎) (𝒋𝝎)𝟐 +𝟑(𝒋𝝎)+𝟐 (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)(𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

𝟑 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
Therefore Y(jω)= (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 (𝟏+𝒋𝝎) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 + (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) + (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

𝟑
By using the cover up rule, 𝑨 = 𝟏−𝟐 = −𝟑

𝟑
By using the cover up rule, 𝑪 = (𝟐−𝟏)2 = 𝟑

One need to be careful in obtaining B. Multiply L.H.S and R.H.S by (𝟐 + 𝐣𝛚)𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝐣𝛚)

Therefore 𝟑 = 𝑨(𝟏 + 𝒋𝝎) + 𝑩(𝟐 + 𝒋𝝎)(𝟏 + 𝒋𝝎) + 𝑪(𝟐 + 𝒋𝝎)𝟐

By equating the constant term only

3 = A +2B+4C, or 2B = 3-A-4C = 3+3-12 = -6

B = -3

𝟑 −𝟑 −𝟑 𝟑
Thus Y(jω)= (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 (𝟏+𝒋𝝎) = (𝟐+𝒋𝝎)𝟐 + (𝟐+𝒋𝝎) + (𝟏+𝒋𝝎)

Thus 𝒚(𝒕) = −𝟑𝒕𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) − 𝟑𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒖(𝒕) + 𝟑𝒆−𝒕 𝒖(𝒕)

The answer is same as before

19
The Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals

If you are given a periodic signal x(t), then its Fourier Series representation is


x(t )  a
k 
k exp jk0t

Now the Fourier Transform of each of the SINGLE frequency signal exp jk0t
is 2 (  k0 ) , where k is an integer value.


Therefore the Fourier Transform of x(t) is X ( j )   2 a    k 
k 
k 0

Thus the Fourier Transform of a periodic signal with Fourier Series coefficients ak  can
be interpreted as a train of impulses occuring at the harmonically related frequencies. The
area of the impulse (the size of the impulse) at the kth harmonic frequency k0 is 2 ak

Example

What is the Fourier transform of 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝟎 𝒕)

𝑨 𝑨 −𝒋𝝎 𝒕
Since 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝟎 𝒕) = 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒆 𝟎,
𝟐 𝟐

and the Fourier transform of 𝑨𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒐𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅𝑨𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 )

𝑨 𝑨
Thus 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝟎 𝒕) ↔ 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒕 = 𝝅𝑨𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 ) + 𝝅𝑨𝜹(𝝎 + 𝝎𝟎 )
𝟐 𝟐

𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝟎 𝒕) ↔ 𝝅𝑨𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 ) + 𝝅𝑨𝜹(𝝎 + 𝝎𝟎 )

20
Example

Consider the periodic square wave x(t) as shown below. Calculate the Fourier Transform
of x(t).
X(t)

-2 0 2 6

Fourier Series coefficients Plot

The Fourier Series coefficients for this periodic square wave

𝐴 2𝑘𝜋
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑘𝜋 sin 3
k 0

(See the relevant section on Fourier Series)

The plot of ak is as shown.

21
The Fourier Series coefficents obtained can be modified into the sinc function form as
follows.

𝐴 2𝑘𝜋 2𝐴 3 2𝑘𝜋 2𝐴 2𝑘𝜋

𝑎𝑘 = 𝑘𝜋 sin 3
= 3 2𝑘𝜋
sin 3
= 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 3
k 0


Th The Fourier transform of this periodic signal is X ( j )   2 a    k 
k 
k 0

𝒌=+∞
𝟐𝑨 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝑿(𝒋𝝎) = ∑ 𝟐𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄 𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 )
𝟑 𝟑
𝒌=−∞

Fourier Transform Plot

The Fourier transform of this periodic signal is

𝒌=+∞
𝟐𝑨 𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝑿(𝒋𝝎) = ∑ 𝟐𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄 𝜹(𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 )
𝟑 𝟑
𝒌=−∞

Note that the 2 is purposely let untouched to allow you to see the relationship between
the Fourier Series coefficients and Fourier Transform

Note that inj this Fourier transform plot, the A = A x 2π

In comparison with the 2 different methods for the same periodic square wave signal, the
Fourier Series coefficients and the Fourier Transform are quite similar. The only
differences are that there is a proportionality factor of 2 in the Fourier transform and
the use of impulses (in Fourier Transform) rather than a bar graph (in Fourier Series).

22