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Rural development:
The term rural development is the process of improving quality of life of the
people living in rural areas who live often relatively isolated and sparsely
populated area.
According to Robert Chambers, Rural Development is a strategy to enable a
specific group of people, poor rural women and men to gain for themselves and
their children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest
among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more
of the benefits of rural development. The groups include small scale farmers,
tenants and the landless.
4. Sociological
5. Institutional
6. Political
1. Stop transformation of agricultural land for other uses; the national land use
policy needs to be finalized upholding the rights of agriculture laborers. First and
foremost, in zoning of land, National Agricultural Policy should be followed. Land
in the rural area under agriculture should not be used for any other purpose;
2. Government should establish a land commission to identify the accurate amount
of khas land;
3. Land policy towards chars should give high priority that all accreted new chars
are undertaken by the government and protected from illegal occupation of land
grabbers;
4. All char lands that are still under occupation of land grabbers should be
recovered immediately and distributed among landless households;
5. The committee for the identification of khas land should be reorganized. The
representatives of peasants’ organization, khetmajur (agricultural labor),
political parties, NGOs, school teachers should be included in the committees at
all levels.
6. The land reform policy should be on the basis of land for the tenants; policy
should permit immediate distribution of khas land among the genuine landless.
7. Eviction of slum dwellers and the rural landless from khas land should be stopped
and they should be fast rehabilitated as promised.
8. List of grabbers of khas land and khas water bodies should be regularly updated
and published; Occupation and filling of khas land, water body, jalmahal in the
name of real estate business or housing should be strictly prohibited.
9. Provisions should be made permitting regular publishing of information
pertaining to the problems of identification of khas land in the daily Bangla
Newspapers, TV, Radio and the same should be disseminated up to the grassroots
level.
10. All khas land distributed should be recovered from the illegal occupants, as soon
as possible.
11. Measures should be taken to minimize the influence of the local influential and
officials in the committee who exercise corrupt practice.
12. Reduce the amount of ceiling of land up to 35 bighas;
13. Khas water bodies should be distributed based on principle “water body to the
fishermen”: Land use policy should assign high priority in identification and
regular updating of information about khas water-bodies by geographical areas;
14. Implementation of rights of sharecroppers and land reform ordinance 1984.
14.1: Land Reform Ordinance 1984:
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RURAL SETTLEMENT
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Hill tracts. In Sylhet Basin area this type of settlements are found on artificially built
mounds (hillocks).
Linear Settlement:
In the active delta region, linear villages have been formed on only one side of the
river. Found in the Barind, in the moribund delta region (Jessore, Kushtia, and Faridpur)
or in areas where river erosion is no longer active. These types of settlement are found
on both side of the river. This is the dominant type of settlement on the bank of
Jamuna, Mahananda, Tista, Ganges and the hilly valleys of Chittagong.
Dispersed Settlement:
Found in fertile flood plain where heavy inundation takes place during the rainy season.
People build their houses by raising the homestead land with earth generally by digging
a pond. This type of settlement common in haor areas of greater Sylhet and
Mymensingh.
RURAL MARKETING
Rural Marketing:
Rural Marketing can be defined as a two way process, comprising a set of
integrated activities which ensure the smooth exchange of products and services
within the rural sector and also between rural and urban sectors.
The term ‘rural marketing’ used to be an umbrella term for the people who
dealt with rural people in one way or other. It got a separate meaning and
importance after the economic revaluation in India after 1990.
Rural marketing is defined as managing all the activities involved in assessing,
stimulating and converting the purchasing power of the rural consumers into
effective demand for specific products and services and moving them to the
people in rural areas to create satisfaction and a better standard of living and
thus achieving organizational objectives.
mechanization
was low
Markets
unorganized”
context) to the point of consumption (urban area). It is the way products and services
get to the end-user, the consumer; and is also known as a distribution channel.
Market Structure:
Market structure refers to the competitive environment in which buyers and sellers of
the product operate. Market structure is best defined as the organizational and other
characteristics of a market. We focus on those characteristics which affect the nature
of competition and pricing. The concept of a market structure is therefore understood
as those characteristics of a market that influence the behavior and results of the firms
working in that market. The main aspects that determine market structures are: the
number of agents in the market, both sellers and buyers; their relative negotiation
strength, in terms of ability to set prices; the degree of concentration among them; the
degree of differentiation and uniqueness of products; and the ease, or not, of entering
and exiting the market. There are four basic types of market structures. They are-
(1) Perfect competition: many buyers and sellers, none being able to influence
prices.
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(2) Monopolistic competition: many buyers and sellers who sell differentiated
products.
(3) Oligopoly: a few large sellers who have some control over the prices.
(4) Monopoly: single seller with considerable control over supply and prices.
a unique product, it is the price maker and can charge a higher or lower price than its
rivals. There are a few barriers to entry for the new entrants in the market which
distinguishes it from monopoly.
Real life example in Bangladesh: Restaurants in Bangladesh is an example of
Monopolistic competitive industry. Every restaurant make their own decisions
about pricing and output, consumers might have knowledge about the
restaurants but cannot be sure about it being perfect matching the knowledge
until he/she dines in the restaurant. There is freedom to enter or exit the market
as there are a large number of businesses in this industry. Restaurants are often
in competition with each other offering a similar product or service, and may
need to advertise on a local basis, to let customers know their differences. In
the short run super normal profits may be possible, but in the long run new
similar restaurants would be attracted towards the industry, because of low
barriers to entry, good knowledge and an opportunity to differentiate. Other
examples of monopolistic competition include the banking, tobacco, saloons,
beauty parlor industry etc.
3. Oligopoly: Oligopoly is the form of market structure where there are only a few firms
that make up an industry. This group of firms has control over the price and like
monopoly; an oligopoly has high barriers to entry. The products that the oligopolistic
firms produce are often nearly identical and therefore the companies which are
competing for market share are interdependent as a result of market forces. For
example let us assume that an economy needs only 1000 products. Company A produces
500 and its competitor Company B produces the other 500. The prices of the two brands
will be interdependent and therefore similar. So if Company X starts selling the product
at a lower price, it will get a greater market share thereby forcing Company Y to lower
its prices as well.
Real life example in Bangladesh: Telecom industry of Bangladesh is Oligopoly.
There are only a few companies in Bangladesh operating in this sector therefore
even a slight change in pricing of one company forces other companies to change
their profit in order to retain their market share. There is a sense of
interdependence in this industry the companies give identical services like same
features with almost the same input. New companies can enter the industry but
that would be very tough.
4. Monopoly
Monopoly is a market structure in which there is only one producer or seller for a
product. In other words, the single business is the industry and as a result there are no
close substitutes for the monopolist’s market offering. Entry into such a market is
restricted due to high costs or other factors which may be economic, social or political.
Another reason for the barriers against entry into a monopolistic industry is that
oftentimes one entity has the exclusive rights to a natural resource. For example, a
government can create a monopoly over an industry that it wants to control, such as
electricity, water and other utility services. Therefore the one in monopoly is the price
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maker. The price of the commodity is decided by the monopolist. However the general
perception is that the marginal revenue should be equal to the marginal cost.
Real life example in Bangladesh: In the context of Bangladesh there are a large
number of sectors which can be characterized as monopoly market structure.
These are Water supply (WASA), Railways, Electricity supply etc. For the purpose
of this report the railways will be discussed. Firstly railway service in Bangladesh
has the monopoly in the market because of the support of the government. Thus
there is single seller in the market for the services. Secondly the price maker for
the railways is the government. Thus the government decides what the prices
are to be set. Railways have their own segment in the transportation thus it does
not have any close substitutes when the prices and facilities are to be
considered. Thus the railways are not having any close substitutes. Lastly the
entry is restricted. There can be no competition to the railways in Bangladesh.
The new entrants are not allowed. This is because if the government loses
control over this segment the public might be exploited. Thus to protect the
public from increased burden of fares the government has maintained monopoly
of railways by having full control over it and not allowing new entrants in the
market.
1. Oligopolies
2. Monopolistic competition
3. Perfect competition
LGED:
Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) is an organ of Bangladesh
government created for provision of transport infrastructures in rural areas and to
provide technical support to the rural and the urban local government institutions
(LGIs), planning and implementation of infrastructure development projects in the rural
and urban areas to improve communication and transport network, job creation, and
poverty reduction.
History: LGED took root in the early 1960s, when implementation of Works Programme
(WP) started to develop physical infrastructure for poor people. In the 1970s, it grew
into a cell of the Local Government Division (LGD) under the Ministry of Local
Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives. In 1982, it became an independent
body named the Works Programme Wing per recommendations of the Enam
Committee[a] to administer Works Programme nationwide, and was renamed as the
Local Government Engineering Bureau (LGEB) per a decision of the National
Implementation Committee for Administrative Reforms (NICAR) in October 1984. It was
upgraded as LGED in August 1992.
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Function/Activities:
Preparing of Pre-Project implementation plan, e.g Project Concept Paper(PCP),
Technical Assistance Project Concept Paper (TAPCP), Project Plan(PP) and
Technical Assistance Project Proposal(TAPP) for newly planned projects
Coordination/Communication among Pre-Project Appraiser, Technical Assistance
Consultant and Fact Finding Mission
Participating in workshops related to approval of new projects of LGED and
workshop organized by other relevant ministry of government of Bangladesh
Preparing Project Proposal / Project Concept Paper on rural development and
submitting to top order authority
Preparing work plan on ongoing projects of LGED and submitting to Chief
Engineer desk
Establishing linkage of with Flood Action Plan and World Food Programme (WFP)
related planning
Providing technical assistance to development projects undertaken by LGED
Analyzing the physical/financial progress on development works carried out of
Zila Parisad, Upazila Parisad, Union Parisad and Pourashava and finally
recommending the pending tasks.
Planning of schemes under GCCR and Food for Work programme
Schedule field visit (7 days /month) to field unit of development project and
project physical areas to monitor project implementation works, other
development works and finally preparing report and planning of next phase
pending works.
Preparing Annual work plan on LGED undertaken development works
Preparing Five years work plan on LGED undertaken development works
Create linkage among Local Government Division (for planning new projects),
Planning commission, Economic Relation Division and Ministry of Finance
Preserving/Archiving of study report prepared by PMU’s of development projects
and using for future project planning
Approval of causal leaves of Gazetted/Non-Gazetted officers and initiating/co-
signing Annual Credential Report
Preparing LGED’s tender lists and updating
Carrying out the priory work assigned by Chief Engineer of LGED
BREB:
Bangladesh Rural Electrification Board or BREB, is government owned and operated
corporation in Dhaka, Bangladesh and is responsible for rural electrification. It is major
power distribution company in Bangladesh.
History: Development plans of Bangladesh has identified rural electrification as one of
the major components of overall infrastructure, implementation of which, it is held,
can accelerate the pace of economic growth, employment generation, alleviation of
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poverty and improve living standard. A well planned and organizational rural
electrification program was however, not existed till 1970s. The electrification program
as carried out by the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) was mainly limited
to urban centers and at best to their peripheries. At that time, the Government of
Bangladesh engaged two consulting firms of USA to carry out a comprehensive feasibility
study on rural electrification in Bangladesh. The firms studied all related issues in depth
and put forward recommendation towards a sustainable and viable rural electrification
program. In addition to the new institutional framework, the study emphasized for Area
Coverage and Co-operative concept. It is against this backdrop, Rural Electrification
(REB) was created by the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) in late 1970's through REB
ordinance LI of 1977. The Board is a statutory Government organization primarily
responsible for implementing countrywide rural electrification.
Objective:
Ensure peoples participation in policy formulation in a democratic way.
Provide reliable and sustainable electricity to the rural people at affordable
price.
Improve economic condition of the rural people by using electricity in
agriculture, cottage and agro based industry.
Improve living condition of rural peoples.
Bring about entire rural Bangladesh under RE program or an area coverage basis.
Activities: Along with its assistant organization PBS (Palli Bidyut Samity), it works in
the following ground.
Initial organizational activities.
Training of manpower.
Operational and management activities.
Procurement of funds.
Providing liaison between Bangladesh Power Development Board, Dhaka Electric
Supply Authority (Bulk power supplies) and other concerned Government and
Non-Government agencies.
Conducting election of PBS.
BRDB:
Bangladesh Rural Development Board or BRDB, is a government board responsible for
the development in rural areas and is largest government program involved in rural
development in Bangladesh and is located in Dhaka.
History: Comilla model was designed as an experimental program for Rural
Development. On successful experimentation the Government put it on a national
program to replicate the two-tier co-operative system throughout the country under
the agency of Integrated Rural Development Program in 1971. IRDP since its journey in
1971 and based on its success and also to achieve the rural development efforts to be
more accelerated, IRDP was converted as “Bangladesh Palli Unnayan Sangasta in 1973.
But the recommendations from the donor side liked that without having more time to
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get result from this model, it was not wise to convert the IRDP into a government
organization like “Bangladesh Rural Development Sangasta”(BPUS). On the basis of the
recommendations from donor agencies, the “Bangladesh Rural Development
Sangasta”(BPUS) was again reverted as IRDP in 1974, just after the ten months of the
announcement. After that, an evaluation programs was jointly carried by the
Government of Bangladesh and the World Bank in 1980 and the evaluation program
recommended that the two-tier co-operative structure is a useful and effective device
in implementing the government’s rural development program. On the basis of the
recommendations the IRDP was upgraded into Bangladesh Rural Development Board
(BRDB) in 1982 through an ordinance.
Strategic objectives of BRDB: Translated from Bengali from BRDB website.
Providing economic service to its members
Human resource development
Application of modern technologies to expand agricultural product
Improvement of work capabilities of poor rural people.
Employment for rural people.
Activities of BRDB: Translated from Bengali from BRDB website.
Creating skilled human organization
Humanitarian and skill development programme
Management of capital for the consumers
Providing agricultural loan and microcredit
Integration among the stakeholders for rural development program
Rural development and poverty alleviation
Development of rural leadership and women empowerment
Providing and expanding technological support for agricultural and assisting to
yield minor crops.
Rural development through ensuring the sale of yielded crops and its integration
among consumers.
came to work in this country and at the same time, the members of local NGOs grew
fast.
Definition of NGO:
Generally speaking, the terminology may be used to include any institution or
organization outside the Government, and as such, may include political parties,
private and commercial enterprises, social and cultural organizations, academic and
research institutions, youth and sports clubs, and similar other organizations. In fact
the terminology covers all those organizations outside the government, which are
involved in various development and welfare activities with the objective of alleviating
poverty of the rural as well as urban poor. In Bangladesh, it includes all such
organizations and institutions that are registered with the Government under the
Voluntary Social Welfare Agencies (Registration and Council) Ordinance 1961 and the
Foreign Donation (Voluntary Activities) Regulation Ordinance of 1978.
In the contexts of Bangladesh, the term NGO has been defined “as an association of
persons formed voluntarily through personal initiatives of a few committed persons
dedicated to the design, study and implementation of development projects at the
grass root level. They function outside the government framework but they are bound
by and work within the laws of the land. They are variously involved in multi-sectoral
development projects combined with research welfare services, human capability
development through educational training, technology development m exchange of
information and social communication. Their broad objective is poverty alleviation and
their target groups are primarily the poor and the disadvantaged.
Types of NGO:
NGOs may be widely classified into the following broad groups, which are functioning
in Bangladesh.
1. Donor Agencies:
These comprise international NGOs dispensing funds they raise or receive from their
governments to various NGOs- national and expatriate-engaged in social, economic and
development activities. Apart from providing funds to the local and national NGOs,
some of them implement projects directly. Major such organizations operating in
Bangladesh include OXFAM, Swedish Free Church Aid (SFCA), Canadian University
Service Overseas (CUSO), South Asia Partnership (SAP), The Aga Khan Foundation (AKF),
etc.
2. International Action NGOs:
Such NGOS are those expatriate organizations who operate on various geographic and
sectoral areas with areas with operating funds obtained from foreign donors. Some of
these NGOs are also acting as co-financing agents of their respective governments. Such
major NGOs operating in Bangladesh include Rangpur, Dinajpur Rural Services (RDRS),
Mennonite Central Committee (MCC), CONCERN, Voluntary Services Overseas (VSO),
International Development enterprise (IDE), etc.
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5. Service NGOs:
There does exist some service NGOs in Bangladesh. Generally, they work i the field of
medical service, education and family programme.
◙ Micro-Credit:
The identification of credit as critical need felt by the poor and cost effective delivery
mechanism to service have justifiably become the most well known of the development
NGOs innovations in Bangladesh. The model pioneered by Grameen Bank has established
micro-credit as the most widely replicated anti- poverty program.
◙ Women as beneficiaries:
The micro-credit revolution pioneered in Bangladesh has in fact a double innovation
because women have been consciously targeted as the principal beneficiaries group.
Currently over 80% of the Grameen Bank and other credit giving NGOs are women.
A number of NGOs have organized land less group also whom collectively leased Khas
lands and dry riverbeds. Some NGOs organize and mobilize fishing communities to
protect the fish released into open water. Others promote production of seedling in
village-based nurseries to protect-sal (a local, self regenerating tree) forest. Besides,
the following programs have been taken:
◙ Health education
◙ Non formal primary education
◙ Non traditional agricultural extension
◙ Development of appropriate irrigation technology.
BRAC
BRAC is the pioneer organization motivating the rural poor form homogeneous target
group as vehicles for integrated rural development and is the largest NGO in
Bangladesh. BRAC establishes in 1972 and changed its development strategy and
concentrated fully on the development of the land less.
The rural development activities of BRAC can be groped into three broad categories:
◙ Capacity building and institutional development of the rural poor.
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PROSHIKA
Proshika was founded by social workers trained in BRAC who decided to concentrate
mainly on human development training. Today they are the one of the largest
Bangladeshi NGOs, experimenting with the ideas of giving the resources less population
to change the bargaining power. Proshika was established in 1976. The rural
development activities of Proshika can be grouped into three broad categories:
Concluding Remark:
There are some problems regarding the activities of NGOs, which includes rural
development. There is no common or ideal modus operandi about the activities of NGOs
from government officials in rural areas. It is a great failure that the policy makers and
developers did not find yet any ideal, socially viable and economically sustained
mechanism for development action. Some scattered efforts have been found in this
respect. But to achieve a unified and ultimate goal in poverty alleviation and human
resource development, a unique ideal and unique mechanism can promote the fragile
situation. So it is highly recommended that, the overall activities of NGOs in rural areas
should be taken under deep observation by forming an especial department
Land: Land is the solid surface of the earth; an area or ground. Though land and soil
are same in general sense‚ but geographically and geologically there's a difference‚ and
that is- land includes both plant growing and non-growing surface of the earth‚ where
soil includes only plant growing portion of the earth's surface.
Land Use: Land use or utilization is the satisfaction‚ which the farm population derives
from the type of agriculture developed‚ the provision for future production and the
contribution to national needs. (Buck‚ 1951)
It also has been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake
in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it." (FAO‚1997)
Functions of Land:
1. Production Function.
2. Space function for socio-economic and infrastructural development.
3. Human settlement space function.
4. Biotic environmental function.
5. Climate regulative function.
6. Hydrologic function.
7. Waste and pollution control function.
8. Storage function.
9. Archive or heritage function.
1. Climate: Which includes 4 seasons- Pre-monsoon, Monsoon, Post Monsoon and Dry
Season.
2. Physiography and Relief: Bangladesh has three major physiographic units- Hills,
Terrace and Recent Floodplain.
3. Hydrology: It includes river flow, floods and flooding.
4. Soils: Bangladesh has a wide diversity in soils, and they often occur in complex
pattern.
8. Acidification
9. Plough Plan Formation
10. Sedimentation
11. Chemical Pollution
12. Arsenic Problem
13. Global Warming and Sea Level Rise
Land use planning measurement: Land use planning includes the following
measurements-
1. Protection of rural land
2. Conservation of the rural land in the peripheral area
3. Regional variation, economic opportunities and regional development
4. Tree farming
5. Other policy measures to support economic development
6. Rural living precincts
7. Managing and improving environmental and landscape attributes
8. Avoiding land use conflicts
9. Implementing of acts and policy
Conclusion:
Appropriate land use and adoption of suitable management technology can enhance
and sustain high productivity and soil management, include crop and livestock
management.
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HDI Calculations:
The HDI value of a country is calculated by taking three indicators:
Longevity, as measured by life expectancy at birth. The maximum and minimum
values taken for construction of longevity index are 85 years and 25 years,
respectively.
Educations attainment, as measured by a combination of adult literacy
(2/3rdsweight) and combined primary, secondary and tertiary enrollment ratio’s
(1/3rd weight). The maximum and minimum values of education index are 100
and 0, respectively.
Standard of living, as measured by real GDP per capita based on purchasing
power parity in terms of dollars (PPP $). The maximum and minimum values
taken for construction of standard of living index are 40,000 and 100,
respectively.
Rural electrification:
Rural Electrification a major component of overall rural infrastructure aimed at
accelerating the pace of socio-economic development of Bangladesh. In rural sector, it
is identified by the policy planners of the country as a key programme. In the vision
statement of the government it is stated that by the year 2020 electricity would be
made available to all the citizens of the country. The rural electrification board (REB)
was established in 1978 to expedite development efforts. Under the Rural
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Electrification Board Ordinance of 1977, all the areas of the country, except the
municipal areas of Dhaka, Narayanganj, Mymensingh, Gazipur, Narsingdi districts, rajuk
areas, industrial areas, divisional towns of Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet and
Barisal with other district towns, cantonments and universities which are already
electrified by Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) are under the jurisdiction
of REB. Based on the universal principle of cooperative, Palli Biddut Samities (PBS) of
REB are formed as democratic, decentralised and autonomous organisations where the
member consumers enjoy equal opportunities and are entitled to exercise equal rights.
Continuous support from the government and donor agencies and the people associated
with the programme and comparative transparent and accountable system of the PBS
has helped to set a high standard of performance of the organisation. The owners of
PBSs are its customer members and PBS management is accountable to a locally elected
Board of Directors and the overall performances of the PBSs are controlled by REB.
REB is basically running on funding from the government and development partners.
Some of the PBSs are still not financially self reliant as most of their consumers are
residential connection holders. A 'PBS Revolving Fund' was established with the help of
financially sound Samities for the PBSs which are yet to be self reliant to reduce their
dependence on government and development partners.
Rural Development Model
Figure 1: The evolution of rural development policies (Hodge and Midmore, 2008).
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Rural Development Model
Perroux, a 20th-century French economist, was largely influenced by the ecopolitical climate
around him when he wrote about the concept of the growth pole. At this time, France was in its
post-World War II phase of rebuilding itself under the Marshall Plan. Urban areas were the
primary centers of economic growth, relying on technology- and innovation-based industries that
thrived on primary resources such as iron ore or agricultural products from the surrounding
region. These concentrations of industries often affected the economies of geographical areas
outside their immediate regions. Also, apparent to Perroux was the dominance of colonial centers
over geographically dispersed colonized areas (Encyclopedia of World Geography, N.D.).
According to growth poles theory, the propulsive pole is a business unit (a company,
industry) or a set of these units and these units are the main force of the economic
development as they generate growth through the impact of strong input-output
linkages. All other industries, which lack the strong character, are called propelled. To
summarize, in this theory the economic development of a regions depends on the
intensity of the propulsive industries on the propelled.
Growth poles theory thus documents the contribution of polarization to the development of
poles as well as peripheries and this theory identifies 4 basic types of polarization (Adamčík,
2002):
• Technological and technical - based on the concentration of new technology in the growth pole,
• Income - the growth pole contributes to the concentration and the growth of income due to
expansion of services and dependence on demand and profit,
• Psychological based on the optimistic anticipation of future demand in the propelled region,
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Rural Development Model
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Rural Development Model
GRAMEEN MODEL:
Grameen model is a model discovered by Dr. Younus and applied in his bank-Grameen Bank.
It uses a broad set of "action tools" such as business development and health programs centered
around microcredit in order to impact the factors that contribute to poverty. These factors, or
"leverage points" for poverty include creating economic opportunity, raising the status of women,
and others. Grameen sees alleviating poverty as its single goal. Action tools impact multiple
leverage points. For example, housing loans increase adequate housing, economic opportunity,
and the status of women (the houses are in the woman's name). Also, that many connections
exist between leverage points where one impacts the other. For example, lowering the impact
of floods directly or indirectly improves all of the other leverage points (Garvin, 1999).
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Rural Development Model
promote, coordinate efforts with, and lend assistance to other government and NGO programs
that specialize in family planning and education.
COMILLA MODEL:
The Comilla Model was a rural development programme launched in 1959 by the Pakistan
Academy for Rural Development (renamed in 1971 the Bangladesh Academy for Rural
Development). The Academy, which is located on the outskirts of Comilla town, was founded by
Akhter Hameed Khan, the cooperative pioneer who was responsible for developing and launching
the programme.
While the results of the Model ultimately frustrated Khan's ambitions, it has important
implications for rural community development, particularly cooperative microfinance and
microcredit (Yousaf, 2003).
Origin and Purpose: The Comilla Model was Khan's reply to the failure of Village Agricultural
and Industrial Development (V-AID) programme, launched in 1953 in East and West Pakistan
with technical assistance from the US government. The V-AID was a governmental level attempt
to promote citizens participation in the sphere of rural development.
Khan argued that for Comilla to develop rapidly, the farmers in its villages must be able to rapidly
expand their production and sales. The main constraint they faced was inadequate local
infrastructure, especially roads, drains, embankments and irrigation. However, even if the
government had the resources to build this infrastructure, Khan argued, the problem would not
be solved. Once constructed, infrastructure must be regularly maintained. The benefits of it must
be managed effectively based on rules that users could accept and predict. Khan thought that
view it was essential to develop 'vigorous local institutions' capable of performing this type of
local maintenance and management.
For that reason, the Comilla Model piloted a methodology for stimulating agricultural and rural
development, based on the principle of grassroots cooperative participation by the people. Khan
found inspiration for the cooperative development aspect of his model from German cooperative
pioneer Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen, whose rural credit unions had been an early example of
institution-building in predominantly non-literate communities.
Implementation: To simultaneously address problems caused by the inadequacy of both local
infrastructure and local institutions, the Model integrated four distinct components in every thana
(sub-district) where it was implemented:
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Rural Development Model
• The promotion of development and of refining of various institutions, both public and private, and
establishing a system of interrelationships between them;
• Involvement of both public and private sectors in the process of rural development;
• Development of leadership in every village, including managers, model farmers, women
organisers, youth leaders, and village accountants, to manage and sustain the development
efforts;
• Development of three basic infrastructures (administrative, physical and organisational);
• Priority on decentralised and coordinated rural administration in co-ordination with officials of
various government departments and the representatives of public organisations.
• Integration and co-ordination of the various developing services, institutions and projects;
• Education, organisation and discipline;
• Economic planning and technology;
• Development of a stable and progressive agriculture to improve the conditions of the farmers,
and provide employment to rural labour force (Quddus, 1993).
REFERENCES:
• Encyclopedia of World Geography (N.D.) Growth Pole, Retrieved from:
http://geography.name/growth-pole/ [Accessed on 1st April, 2017].
• Garvin, L. (1999) Population Environment Dynamics, Retrieved from:
http://www.umich.edu/~csfound/545/1998/lgarvin/popenv.html [Accessed on 1st April,
2017].
• Hodge, I. and Midmore, P. (2008) Models of Rural Development and Approaches To
Analysis Evaluation And Decision-Making, economierurale,307, p-23-38.
• Moseley, M. J. (2003) Rural development : principles and practice, London, p-5.
• Qussus, M.A. (1993) Rural Development in Bangladesh.
• Schulz von Thun Institute for Communication (N.D.) 4 Sides Model (in German),
Retrieved from: https://www.schulz-von-thun.de/index.php?article_id=71 [Accessed on
1st April, 2017].
• Ward, N and Brown, D. L. (2009) Placing the Rural in Regional Development, Regional
Studies, 43 (10).
• Yousaf, N. (2003) Allama Mashriqi and Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan: Two Legends of
Pakistan.
9
SCHUITZ MODEL
Evolution of the model:
Schuitz model was given by Schuitz in 1979.
The model is not applied in Bangladesh context.
Senapur and Punjab in India is the applicable place for this model.
The model is transforming concept of the traditional agricultural system into modern one.