4 Chip formation

4.1 Basic concepts of chip formation

The chip which is a part of workpiece material is being produced by the main cutting edge,
the nose and a small part of the secondary cutting edge of the tool. The transformation of the
workpiece layer into the chip is often studied by means of an experimental technique using a
quick stop device which stop suddenly the cutting action and the chip being generated is
frozen on the workpiece.
The formation of chip is very complicated process:
When machining  Cutting force P  plastic and elastic deformation in cutting zone  
in plane of maximum elongation 2 and with continuous tool penetration  shear stress 
and plastic deformation   element of chip is sheared-off along shear plane 1.
Direction of
crystal
elongation


Sh
ea a2 P
2

rp
lan
e v
1
a1

workpiece


Zone of elastic and plastic

deformation

4.2 Criteria of the degree of chip deformation:

4.2.1 Shear angle 1: (Deformation   a2   1 )
The angle 1 can be determined experimentally when the process of cutting is interrupted
suddenly using quick-stop device and a sheared-off part of material can be obtained. Using a
photographic picture with magnification 1 is determined.

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4.2.2 Coefficient of chip upsetting (k): n
If: a …… chip thickness before chip formation. s
b …… chip width a

b
Then theoretical cross-section area of chip is:


Ft  a  b  s  t
Feed
but actual area will be different due to deformation.
L
Considering equal volume (V1 = V2):
where

b
V1 and V2 are volume of chip before and after cutting.
a1  L1  b1  a 2  L 2  b2

a
Chip segment
If: b1 = b2
Then a1  L1  a 2  L2
a 2 L1
  k 1
a1 L2
where k is the coefficient of chip upsetting. When deformation   a2   K 
The values of a1 and L1 can be obtained before cutting while a2 and L2 are measured.
Example: A cylindrical workpiece with a longitudinal slot is used as shown in the figure
where L1 can be calculated as follows:
L1   D  t   b
n

and L2 is measured by a string.

D
L1
Then K 
b

L2
t

4.3 Factors affecting chip deformation

1- Workpiece material:


1 K

HB HB

(HB   deformation   a2  1   K )

15
 2- Cutting conditions:
K

1

v v

(v   deformation   a2  1   K )

1
K

s , t s , t

(s , t   deformation   a2  1   K )

3- Tool geometry

 K
1


 
( (+)  P   deformation   a2  1   K)

1


30 60 90 

(  deformation   a2  1   K )

16
 4- Coefficient of friction (on tool face)
1 K

with cooling

 
(  deformation  a2  1   K )
4.4 Types of chip
1. Continuous chip: It appears when machining ductile and soft
materials such as Aluminum and low carbon steel and at v ,
s ,  .
2. Sectional chip: It appears when machining hard and ductile
materials such as high carbon steel and at v, s ,  .
3. Broken chip: It appears when machining hard and brittle materials such as cast iron
and hard bronze and at v, t ,  .
4. For the best surface quality, it is recommended to have sectional chip.
4.5 Types of cutting

4.5.1 Orthogonal cutting

When angle  = 0 (cutting speed v  main cutting edge).

Examples:
1- Turning of a tube 2- Broad nose finishing
v



4.5.2 Oblique cutting

When angle   0 and main cutting edge inclined to v s



Example: Rough turning operation

s
t

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4.6 Phenomena accompanying chip formation
4.6.1 Built-up-edge (B.U.E) formation
B.U.E consists of highly strained material
adhering to the tool tip. The normal
pressures between the chip and the tool are

a
very high (1000 – 2000 Mpa) and the

p
Chi

temperatures at the contact are high (600 -
1000C) depending mainly on the cutting B.U.E workpiece
speed. Under these conditions, a layer of
the chip material adheres to the tool.
Characteristics of B.U.E
 Formed from the workpiece  Unstable and not uniform in size.
 High deformation  High hardness.
 Non uniform microstructure

Condition favoring BUE formation B.U.E

1. High plastic properties of workpiece
material
2. Moderate cutting speed v (20 – 30),
mild steel.
3.  friction on tool face
4. Similarity between workpiece
material and tool material (for
adhesion) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 v
5. Pure metallic contact (no oxides)
Advantages of B.U.E
 a <   easy tool penetration.
 Protect main cutting edge  high wear resistance.
 Protect main cutting edge against heat.
Disadvantages of B.U.E
 Bad surface roughness of the machined surface .
 Bad accuracy of the machined surface due to machine tool vibration and due to
variation in the depth of cut (t).
 Due to instability of the B.U.E formation, parts of it are breaking away with particles
of the cutting edge and thus increase the rate of the tool wear.
How to avoid BUE formation:
1- avoid to use moderate speed ( v or  v)
2- Using cooling liquid (to reduce the friction)
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 3-  Plastic properties of workpiece material (adding S and Ph)
4-  Ra of tool face to reduce the friction
5-  dissimilarity between tool and workpiece materials ( weldability and adhesion)
6-  weldability of workpiece material.
4.6.2 Quality of the machined surface
It can be classified to:
a) Work-hardening (strengthening) of machined surface.
b) Residual stresses in machined surface
c) Surface texture (Roughness).
4.6.2.1 Work-hardening (strengthening) of machined surface
The work-hardening on subsurface layer of
machined surface is mainly due to friction Tool wedge

(Fi) between tool flank and machined surface. v Machined surface

Fi
Due to high friction  excessive deformation
of subsurface layer   hardness   Subsurface layer
workpiece
brittleness, strength and wear resistance .
Degree of work-hardening is given by: Hvmax and
machined surface
do which depend on of workpiece material, cutting
Hv max
conditions, tool geometry, cooling, …

d

Where: Hv1 is the initial hardness of core and do is Core

the subsurface layer thickness. Hv1
depth (m)

4.6.2.2 Residual stresses

Definition: Those stresses existing in bodies upon which no external forces are acting.
Causes:
1. Mechanical effects of cutting process:
When force P released the core which is P
elastically deformed retains its position machined surface - +
causing a compressive stress Plastic deformation subsurface layer


Elastic deformation
(-) on subsurface layer
d

Core

2. Thermal effects of cutting process:

When cutting, the temperature of the surface
increases and core. When cooling, core cools later  C - +
machined surface

subsurface layer
d

19 Core
and contracts causing a tensile stress on subsurface layer.
The residual stresses effect:
1. Constrain atoms mobility
2. tensile stress decreases fatigue life
3. compressive stress increases fatigue life
4.6.2.3 Surface texture
Ra = Ridle + Rnatural
Where:
Ridle is due to tool geometry and feed (s) (tool marks).
Rnatural is due to vibration, B.U.E formation, tool wear and variation of cutting force and
cutting temperature.
Ridle = Rmax th
Calculation of Rmax th
a) When r  0

 r  Rmax th 
s2 s/2
r2 
2

4
s2

  r 2  2rRmax th  Rmax th
4
2
 r 

Tool
Rmaxth2  0 (very small value). Then

s2
Rmax th 
8r
b) when r = 0
s  x1  x2

cot  
x1 `
Rmax th 
maxth

x2
cot   
R

Rmax th

cot   cot   
x1  x2

s x 1 x 2
r=0
Rmax th Rmax th
then
s
Rmax th 
cot   cot  

20