EDWARD SAPIR B y RUTH BENEDICT

H E death of Edward Sapir on February 4, 1939 removes from Ameri-

can linguistics and anthropology one of their most brilliant and
challenging students. His long illness, after his breakdown in the summer
of 1937, had schooled his friends and his students to the hardly faced fear
that his work might be prematurely ended, but the alternating succession
of hope and despair proved finally to be no adequate preparation for the
news of his death.
Sapir was born on January 26, 1884 in Lauenburg, Germany, and his
parents when he was five years old brought him with them to America
when they emigrated to this country. A child of New York’s East Side, he
could depend on no inherited advantages of birth or position. His gifts,
however, opened for him the best education available, and he won scholar-
ships a t Horace Mann and later a t Columbia College where he graduated in
1904 a t the age of twenty. He immediately continued graduate work in
Germanics and Semitics, and with Boas in primitive languages and an-
thropology. After one year of graduate work he undertook his study of the
language of the Wishram on the lower Columbia River, the texts appearing
in 1909 as the second volume of the Publications of the American Ethno-
logical Society. The following year he went to Oregon to study the Takelma
language, the difficulties of which made his grammar, presented as his
doctoral dissertation, a particularly brilliant achievement. There was no
period of apprenticeship in Sapir’s linguistic work; his phonetic and
morphological gifts are as apparent in this boyhood work as in that of a
student of long and arduous experience. Immediately also, in 1907, the
appearance of his two papers on Takelma ethnology in the Anthropologist
and in the Journal of American Folklore, showed his insight into the culture
of a then unguessed-at area.
Kroeber had just become assistant professor a t the new department of
anthropology a t the University of California and for a year, 1907-08, Sapir
was assistant in that department, preparing his Yana texts. When no
permanent place was made for him there, he went for two years to the
University of Pennsylvania, first as fellow and then as instructor. His
work on the Southern Paiute was done in Philadelphia, the first thorough
study of a Shoshonean language, and a piece of work he often referred to as
his “best.” Neither grammar nor texts appeared until 1930, a delay which
was grievous to him, but the historical implications of his investigations he
discussed carefully in the 1913 and 1915 articles published in Paris. These
465
466 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N.S . , 41, 1939

papers substantiated the existence of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock

which had previously been posited.
These were lean years in Sapir’s life and he often spoke of the financial
hardships. They were, however, the period of most concentrated achieve-
ment in his life, and his year in California especially was a favorite memory.
After two years in Pennsylvania he was called in 1910 to Ottawa as chief of
the newly established Division of Anthropology under the Geological
Survey of Canada. This same year he married Florence Delson, his cousin,
and his three children of this marriage, Michael, Helen, and Philip, were all
born in Ottawa during the fifteen years he remained there. His first field-
work under the Canadian auspices was among the Nootka Indians of
Vancouver Island, and this work greatly influenced his own thinking in
ethnology, but he never prepared either the ethnology or the grammar for
publication. This was the time also of his work on Sarcee and other Atha-
bascan languages of Canada. His interest had shifted; he was devoting him-
self to the study of linguistic change and to the study of genetic relation-
ships among languages not hitherto classified together. His intensive studies
of various Athabascan languages, continued in later years with a highly
refined study of Navaho, gave him the material with which to explore
processes of linguistic change with rigorous methodology and to construct
an Ur-Athabascan language in the best philological manner. Trained as he
was in the methods of Indo-Germanic philology he applied these methods
to the study of primitive linguistic stocks, establishing phonetic shifts and
characterizing specific sound patterns which dominated the phonetic
variety of a given language. I n his detailed Athabascan work mere super-
ficial resemblances did not constitute, for him, a basis upon which to build
theories of genetic relationships; he trusted rather to carefully verified and
regular phonetic shifts. The Athabascan linguistic reconstruction led him
to posit the Na-Dene linguistic group, composed of Athabascan, Tlingit,
and IIaida. He also contributed substantially to the discussion of the Penu-
tian and Hokan stocks then recently proposed by Kroeber and Dixon. His
latest classification of American Indian languages, that published in 1929 in
the Encyclopaedia Britamica, 14th edition, goes in certain cases beyond
proved and documented relationships, and any final evaluation can be
made only after intensive research upon the languages in question.
The call to Chicago University in 1925 was most welcome to Sapir. He
had been isolated from linguistic and anthropological contacts for many
years, and had fallen victim to lassitude. He had rescued himself to the
extent of writing his book on Language in 1921, but his gifts as teacher and
lecturer had been unused for a decade or more; his intellectual interests,
BENEDICT] EDWARD SAPIR 467

now centering themselves more and more upon psychological problems of

culture, had had no stage on which to display themselves. His personal life
had been disrupted by the long illness and death of his wife, and he was
most restless.
The position a t Chicago was one he was uniquely qualified to adorn. The
Department of Anthropology had been recently established under Fay-
Cooper Cole, and Sapir immediately attracted serious students both in
linguistics and ethnology. No one was a more delightful and fluent speaker;
his most casual lectures and occasional papers were full of felicities and in-
sights. I n Chicago he was in great demand to speak to groups of all kinds
outside the University and he was stimulated as he had not been for years
before. I n his classes too he was able for the first time to train serious stu-
dents of linguistics, to ground them in phonetic recording and in methods
of linguistic analysis. Few teachers are able to communicate the kind of
intellectual excitement with which Sapir filled those first students working
with him in the classroom or in the field on the phonetics or the grammar of
Navaho.
The call to Chicago marks also the beginning of the period, which con-
tinued to the end of his life, of a major interest in semantics. Language is a
system of communication, but, after all, how accurate is the communication
between two people? Many varying associations with the word are possible
and many varying affectual responses. Is communication achieved and in
how far can this be studied? This problem led him into an intensive .study
of the English language and of abortive verbal communication in English.
There was close relation between this problem and his growing interest
a t this time in problems of personality and culture. The possibilities in this
field had first begun to preoccupy him when he read Jung’s Psychological
Types and Ogden’s and Richards’ Meaning of Meaning during his last
years a t Ottawa, and the course he gave a t Columbia University in the
Summer Session just before taking his post in Chicago was brilliant evi-
dence of his immediate use of such material in connection with culture.
His approach to the problem was always through the individual, and
sociological approaches he either regarded as self-evident or as threatening
the autonomy of the self. As he was fond of saying, “There are as many
cultures as there are individuals in the population” and he was dissatisfied
with sociological generalizations. His strong conviction that the individual
was uniquely important in cultural studies, however, did not lead him to
train students to explore cultures through intensive observation of a series
of divergent individuals in their sociological matrix; it led him rather to the
disparagement of sociological studies and to the belief that the solution of
468 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N.S., 41, 1939

the problem lay in the use of techniques of individual psychology and

particularly of psychoanalysis. Certainly his skepticism of generalizations
about culture was salutary, and his efforts to bring psychiatry and ethnol-
ogy closer together for their mutual enrichment are significant for the
future.
Sapir’s six years a t Chicago were the happiest of his life. He married
Jean McClenaghan there in 1926 and their first son, Paul, was born there.
In 1931 he was called to Yale and accepted the Sterling Professorship in
Anthropology and Linguistics. In 1934 he was elected to the National
Academy.
During Sapir’s professorship a t Yale his research in languages trans-
cended the territory usually cultivated by the linguistic scholar in An-
thropology. His studies in Indogermanics and Semitics resulted in insights
of singular importance which were fully appreciated by linguists in these
fields, and which were embodied in brief but carefully documented papers.
Among the most significant was the discovery of a relationship between
Tibetan and Tocharian. In these studies he brilliantly applied the phonemic
approach which he had been instrumental in developing and which already
has proved a source of fresh vigor to the discipline of linguistics.
He continued at Yale to occupy himself with psychological problems of
anthropology, and under the auspices of the Division of the Social Sciences
of the Rockefeller Foundation he was enabled to gather together a group
of foreign students holding exchange fellowships in this country for a year’s
study of the Impact of Culture on Personality. In this seminar the members
made use of their own life experiences in different European and Eastern
countries. As Chairman of the Division of Psychology and Anthropology
of the National Research Council he also established the Committee on
Personality and Culture, a t first under the chairmanship of his friend, Dr.
Harry Stack Sullivan, and later of Lloyd Warner.
Even in an anthropological journal an appreciation of Edward Sapir is
incomplete without mention of him as a poet. The same sensitivity and the
same gifts of expression which made him a poet made him also a great
linguist, and shaped his keen understanding of the content of speech-the
poetry of native ritual, the vigor of a primitive oration. For many years
his poetry appeared constantly in The New Republic, The Nation, Poetry,
and similar magazines. He once made a selection of those he would like to
retain and it is a loss that they have never been published in book form.
Few men in academic life have been so brilliantly endowed as Professor
Sapir, and the loss which linguistics and anthropology have sustained in his
death cannot be measured. To those who have been his friends, his death
leaves a vacancy which can never be filled.
BENEDICT] EDWARD SAPIR 469

BIBLIOGRAPHY *
1906 The Rival Chiefs, a Kwakiutl Story recorded by George Hunt [Edited, with synopsis,
pp. 108-110, by Edward Sapir] (Boas Anniversary Volume, New York, pp. 108-136).
1907 Notes on the Takelma Indians of Southwestern Oregon (American Anthropologist, ns.,
Vol. 9, pp. 251-275.)
Preliminary Report on the Language and Mythology of the Upper Chinook (American
Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 9 pp. 533-544).
Religious Ideas of the Takelma Indians of Southwestern Oregon (Journal of American
Folk-Lore, Vol. 20, pp. 3349).
1908 Herder’s “Ursprung der Sprache” (Modern Philology, Vol. 5, pp. 109-142).
Luck-Stones among the Yana (Journal of American Folk-Lore, Vol. 21, p. 42).
On the Etymology of Sanskrit BSru, Auestan asru, Greek diikru (in “Spiegel Memorial
Volume: Papers on Iranian Subjects Written by Various Scholars in Honor of Frederic
Spiegel,” edited by J. J. Modi, Bombay, pp. 156-159).
1909 Characteristic Features of Yana [abstract] (Science, n.s., Vol. 29, p. 613; American
Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 11, p. 110).
Review of Frank G. Speck: “Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians” (Old Penn, Philadelphia,
Dec. 18, p. 183).
Takelma Teats (University of Pennsylvania, The Museum, Anthropological Publications,
Vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-263).
Wishram Texts, together with Wasco Tales and Myths, collected by Jeremiah Curtin and
edited by Edward Sapir (Publications American Ethnological Society, Vol. 2, Leyden).
pp. 314).
1910 A n Apache Basket Jar (University of Pennsylvania Museum Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1,
pp. 13-15).
Review of C. Hart Merriam: “The Dawn of the World” (Science, ns., Vol. 22, pp. 557-
558).
Some Fundamental Characteristics of the Ute Language [abstract] (Science, n.s., Vol. 21,
pp. 35Ck352; American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 12, pp. 66-69).
Song Recitalke i n Paiute Mythology (Journal of American Folk-Lore, Vol. 23, pp. 455-
472).
Takelma (in “Handbook of Americans North of Mexico,” Part 2, Bureau of American
Ethnology, Bulletin 30, pp. 673-674).
Two Paiute Myths (University of Pennsylvania Museum Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.
15-18).
Wasco (in “Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico,” Part 2, Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology, Bulletin 30, pp. 917-918).
Yana Tests, together with Yana Myths, collected by Roland B. Dixon (University of
California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 9, No. 1,
pp. 1-235.
1911 An Anthropological Survey of Canada (Science, ns., Vol. 34, pp. 789-793). [Notes on
Wishram] (Incorporated in Franz Boas, “Chinook.” Handbook of American Indian
Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40, Part 1, pp. 559677; pp. 578-
579,625-627, 638-645,65@654,673-677).
The History and Varieties of Human Speech (Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 79, pp.
45-67).

* Prepared by Leslie Spier.

470 A M E R I C A N ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 41, 1939

The Problem of Noun Incorporation i n American Languages (American Anthropologist,

n.s., Vol. 13, pp. 250-282).
Km’ew of R. B. Dixon: “The Chimariko Indians and Language” (American Anthro-
pologist, n.s., Vol. 13, pp. 141-143).
Some Aspects of Nootka Language and Culture (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 13,
pp. 15-28).
1912 The Indians of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba (in “The Prairie Provinces,”
London).
The Indians of the Province [of British Columbia] (in “British Columbia, its History,
People, Commerce, Industries, and Resources,” London, pp. 135-140).
I-anguage and Environment (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 14, pp. 226-242).
The Mourning Ceremony of the Southern Paiule [abstract] (Science, n.s., Vol. 35, p. 673;
American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 14, pp. 168-169).
Review of Franz Boas: “Kwakiull Tales” (Current Anthropological Literature, Vol. 1,
pp. 193-198).
Review of A . A . Goldenweiser: “Totemism, an Analytical Study” (Psychological Bulletin,
Vol. 9, pp. 454-461).
RezGnu of Carl Stumpf: “Die Anfange der Musik” (Current .4nthropological Literature,
Vol. 1, pp. 275-282).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada,for 1910 (pp. 3-4).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada, for 1911 (pp. 5-7, 15-16).
The Takelma Language of Soulhwestern Oregon (in “Handbook of American Indian Lan-
guages,” Part 2, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40, pp. 1-296).
The Work of the Division of Anthropology ofthe Dominion Government (Queens’ Quarterly,
Vol. 20, No. 1 , pp. 60-69).
1913 Algonkin p and s i n Cheyenne (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 15, pp. 538-539).
A Girls’ Puberty Ceremony among the Nootka Indians (Transactions, Royal Society of
Canada, 3rd series, Vol. 7, pp. 67-80).
A Note on Reciprocal Terms of Relationship i n America (American Anthropologist, n.s.,
Vol. 15, pp. 132-138).
Review of Erich M . von Hornbostel: “Uber ein akustisches Kriterium f u r Iiulturziuam-
menhdnge” (Current Anthropological Literature, Vol. 2, pp. 69-72).
Review of Carl Meinhof: “Die Sprachen der Hamiten” (Current Anthropological Litera-
ture, Vol. 2, pp. 21-27).
Southern Paiide and Nahitatl, a Study in Uto-Aztekan, Part I (Journal, Sociht6 des
Am6ricanistes de Paris, n.s., Vol. 10, pp. 379425).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada, for 1912 (pp. 448453, 505-506).
A Tutelo Vocabulary (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 15, pp. 295-297).
Wiyot and Yurok, Algonkin Languages of California (American Anthropologist, ns.,
Vol. 15, pp. 617-646).
1914 Indian Tribes of the Coast [of British Columbia] (in “Canada and its Provinces,” edited
by A. Shortt and A. G. Doughty, Toronto, Vol. 21, pp. 313-346).
Notes on Chasta Costa Phonology and Morphology (University of Pennsylvania, The Mu-
seum, Anthropological Publications, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 271-340).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada,for 1913 (pp. 355-363,389).
1915 Abnormal Types of Speech i n Nootka (Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 62, Anthro-
pological Series 5, pp. 1-21).
Algonkin Langmges of California: a Reply (American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 17,
pp. 188-194).
BENEDICT] EDWARD S A P I R 471

Corrigenda to Father Morice’s “Chasta Costa and the Dene Languages of the North”
(American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 17, pp. 765-773).
The Nu-dene Languages, a Preliminary Report (American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 17,
pp. 534-558).
Notes on Judeo-German Phonology (Jewish Quarterly Review, ns., Vol. 6, No. 2, pp.
231-266).
Noun Reduplication in Comor, a Salish Language of Vancouver Island (Geological Sur-
vey of Canada, Memoir 63, Anthropological Series 6, pp. 1-53).
A Sketch of the Social Organization of the Nass River Indians (Geological Survey of Can-
ada, Bulletin 19, Anthropological Series 7 , pp. 2-30).
The Social Organization of the West Coast Tribes (Transactions, Royal Society of Canada,
3rd series, Vol. 9, pp. 355-374).
Southern Paiute and Nahuatl, a Study in Uto-Aztekan, Part 11 (American Anthropolo-
gist, n.s., Vol. 17, pp. 98-120, 306-328; Journal. SocietC des Americanistes de Paris,
n.s., Vol. 11, pp. 443-488).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada,for 1914 (pp. 168-177).
1916 Percy Grainger and Primitive Music (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 18, pp. 592-
597).
[PhoneliL Orthography and Notes to “Nootka”], pp. 4-18, by E. Sapir (in “Vocabularies
from the Northwest Coast of America,” edited by Franz Boas, Proceedings, American
Antiquarian Society).
Phonetic Transcription of Zndian Languages [with other members of Commitee of
American Anthropological Association] (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol.
66, NO.6, pp. 1-15).
Review of 1’. Abelson, ed.: “English-Yiddish Encyclopedic Dictionary” (Jewish Quarterly,
Vol. 7, pp. 140-143).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada, for 1915 (pp. 265-274).
Terms of Relationship and the Leuirate (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 18, pp. 327-
337).
Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture, a Study in Method (Geological Survey
of Canada, Memoir 70, Anthropological Series 13, pp. 1-87).
1917 Do W e Need a “Superorganic”? (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 19, pp. 441-447).
-4 Freudian Half-Holiday [review of S. Freud: “Delusion and Dream”] (The Dial,
Vol. 63, pp. 635-637).
Linguistic Publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, a General Review (Interna-
national Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. l, pp. 76-81).
The Position of I’anu in the Hokun Stock (University of California Publications in Ameri-
can Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 1-34).
Psychoanalysis a s a Pathjinder [review of 0. Pfister: “The Psychoanalytic Method”
(The Dial, Vol. 63, pp. 267-269).
Review of C. C. Uhlenbeck: “Hat Identijiceerend Karakter der Possessieve Flexie in Tulen
van Noord-Amerika” (International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 1, pp.
8&90).
Review of C. C. Uhlenbeck: “He1 Passieve Garukler van het Verbum Transitivum of van het
Verbum Actionis in Talen van Noord-Ameriko” (International Journal of American
Linguistics, Vol. 1, pp. 82-86).
The Status of Wusho (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 19, pp. 449-450).
Summary Report, Geological Survey of Canada, 1916; Anthropological Division, Part I .
Ethnology and Linguistics (pp. 387-392, 394-395).
472 A M E R I C A N ANTHROPOLOGIST IN. S., 41, 1939

1918 An Ethnological Note on Che “Whiskey-Jack” (The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 32, pp. 116-
117).
Kinship Terms of the Kootenay Indians (American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 20, pp.
414-418).
Representative Music (Musical Quarterly, Vol. 4, pp. 161-167).
R m * w of Benign0 Biblolotti: “Mostenso Vocabulary and Treatises” (Intemarional Journal
of American Linguistics, Vol. 1, pp. 183-184).
Review of S. Bzltler: “God the Known and God the Unkleown” (The Dial, Vol. 64,pp.
192-194).
Yuna Terms of Relationship (University of California Publications in American Archaeol-
ogy and Ethnology, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 153-173).
1919 The American Indian [review of C. Wissler: “The American Indian”] (The New Re-
public, Vol. 19, pp. 189-191).
Corrigenda and Addenda lo W . D. Wallis: “Zndogermunic Relationship Terms as His-
torical Evidence” (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 21, pp. 318-328).
Corrigenda to “Kinship Terms of the Koolenay Indians” (American Anthropologist, ns.,
Vol. 21, p. 98).
Data on Washo and Hokan (in “Linguistic Families of California,” by R. B. Dixon and
A. L. Kroeber, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 108-112).
A Flood Legend of the Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island (Journal of American Folk-
Lore, Vol. 32, pp. 351-355.)
1920 French-Canadian Folk-Songs (Poetry, July 1920, pp. 175-185).
The Hokan and Coahuiltecun Languages (International Journal of American Linguistics,
Vol. 1, pp. 280-290).
Nass River Terms of Relationship (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 22, pp. 261-271).
A Note on the First Person Plurd in Chimariko (International Journal of American
Linguistics, Vol. 1, pp. 291-294).
Note on French-Canadian Folk-Songs (Poetry, July 1920, pp. 2lCr213).
Primitive Humanity and Anthropology [reviewof R. H. Lowie: “Primitive Society”] (The
Dial, Vol. 69, pp. 528-533).
Primitive Society [review of R. H. Lowie: “Primitive Society”] (The Freeman, Vol. 1,
pp. 377-379).
Primitive Society [review of R. H. Lowie: “Primitive Society”] (The Nation, Vol. 111,
pp. 46-47).
Review of I.Alden Mason: “The Language of the Salinan Indians” (International Jour-
nal of American Linguistics, Vol. 1, pp. 305-309).
1921 A Bird’s-eye View of American Languages North of Mexico (Science, ns., Vol. 54, p. 408).
The Blind, Old Indian tells his Names (The Canadian Bookman, Sept. 1921, pp. 38-40).
A Characteristic Penutian Form of Stem (International Journal of American Linguistics,
Vol. 2, pp. 58-67).
The Ends qf Man [Review of J. M. Tyler: “New Stone Age in Northern Europe,”
S. Paton: “Human Behavior,” E. G. Conklin: “Direction of Human Evolution”]
(The Nation, Vol. 112, pp. 237-238).
A Haida Kinship Term among the Tsimshian (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 23,
pp. 233-234).
Language, an Introdzution lo the Study of Speech (New York, Harcourt, Brace and Com-
pany, PP. 258).
BENEDICT] EDWARD SAPIR 473

The Life of a Nootka Indian (Queen’s Quarterly, Vol. 28, pp. 232-243; 351-367).
The Musical Foundations of Verse (Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 20,
pp. 213-228).
Myth, Historian, and Psychologisf [review of H. B. Alexander: “Latin American”
(Mythology)] (The National, Vol. 112, pp. 888-890).
The Mythology of All Races [review of “The Mythology of All Races,” Vols. 3, 11, 121
(The Dial, Vol. 71, pp. 107-111).
Review of W . A . Mason: “A History of the Art of Writing” (Freeman, Vol. 4, pp. 68-69).
Summary Report for Anthropological Division, Victoria Memorial Museum: Ethnology
and Linguistics, 1920 (pp. 18-20).
A Touchstone to Freud [review of W. H. R. Rivers: “Instinct and the Unconscious‘‘] (The
Freeman, Vol. 5, pp. 357-358).
A Supplementary Note on Salinan and Washo (International Journal of American Lin-
guistics, Vol. 2, pp. 68-72).
1922 Athubaskan Tone (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 24, pp. 390-391).
The Fundamental Elements of Northern Yana (University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 215-234.)
Language and Literature [chapter 11 of “Language“] (The Canadian Magazine, October,
1922, pp. 457462).
A n Orthodox Psychology [review of R. S. Woodworth: “Psychology, a Study of Mental
Life”] (The Freeman, Sept. 6, 1922, p. 619).
Pracfical Psychoanalysis [review of F. Pierce: “Our Unconscious Mind and How to Use
It”] (The Literary Review, July 1, 1922).
Review of “American Indian Life,” edited by E. C. Parsons (The Dial, Vol. 73, pp.
568-57 1).
Sayach’apis, a Nootka Trader (in “American Indian Life,” edited by E. C. Parsons,
New York, pp. 297-323).
Summary Report for Anthropological Division, Victoria Memorial Museum: Ethnology
and Linguistics, fiscal year ending March 31, 1922 (pp. 22-25).
Three Folk-Songs of French Canada (Queen’s Quarterly, Jan.-March 1922, pp. 286-290).
Vancouver Island Indians (in “Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,” edited by James
Hastings, Vol. 12, pp. 591-595).
1923 The Algonkin Aflnity of Yurok and Wiyot Kinship Terms (Journal, Socitt6 des Amhi-
canistes de Paris, n.s., Vol. 15, pp. 36-74).
A n Approach to Symbolism [review of C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards: “The Meaning
of Meaning”] (The Freeman, Vol. 7, pp. 572-573).
Archaeology and Ethnology [bibliography] (Canadian Historical Review, Vol. 4, No. 4,
pp. 374-378).
Humor of !he Chinese Folk [with Hsii Tsan Hwa] (Journal of American Folk-Lore, Vol.
36, pp. 31-35).
A Note on Sarcee Pottery (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 25, pp. 247-253).
The Phonetics of Haida (International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 2, pp.
143-158).
Review of Truman Michelson: “The Owl Sacred Pack of the Fox Indians” (International
Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 2, pp. 182-184).
Summary Report for the Fiscal Year ending March 31, 1923, Anthropological Division:
Ethnology and Linguistics (pp. 28-31).
Text Analysis of Three Yana Dialects (University of California Publications in American
Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 20, pp. 263-294).
474 A M E R I C A N ANTHROPOLOGIST [N.s., 41, 1939

Two Chinese Folk-Tales [with Hsii Tsan Hwa] (Journal of American Fok-Lore, Vol. 36,
pp. 23-30).
The Two Kinds of Human Beings [review of C. G. Jung: “Psychological Types”] (The
Freeman, Vol. 8, pp. 211-212).
A Type of Athabaskan Relative (International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 2,
pp. 136-142).
1924 Anthropology at the Toronto Meeting of the Bridish Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1924 (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 26, pp. 563-565).
Culture, Genuine and Spurious (American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 29, pp. 401-429).
The Grammarian and his Language (American Mercury, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 149-155).
Personul Names among the Sarcee Indians (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 26, pp.
108-1 19).
Racial Sufleriority (The Menorah Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 200-212).
The Rival Whalers, a Nitinat Story (Nootka Text wilh Translation and Grammatical
Analysis) (International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 3, pp. 76-102).
1925 Are the Nordics a Superior Race? (The Canadian Forum, June 1925, pp. 265-266).
Folk Songs of French Canada [with Marius Barbeau] (New Haven, Yale University
Press, pp. 216). ‘
Is Monotheism Jewish? [review of P. Radin: “Monotheism among Primitive Peoples”]
(The Menorah Journal, Vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 524527).
The Bokan Aflnity of Subtiaba in Nicaragua (American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 27,
pp. 402435,491-527).
Indian Legends from Vancouver Island (Transactions, Women’s Canadian Historical
Society of Ottawa, Vol. 9, pp. 142-143).
Let Race Alone (The Nation, Feb. 25, 1925, pp. 21 1-213).
Memorandum on the Problems of an International Auxiliary Language (The Romanic
Review, Vol. 16, pp. 244-256).
Pitch Accent in Sarcee, an Athabaskan Language (Journal, Socihtd des Amhicanistes de
Paris, n.s., Vol. 17, pp. 185-205).
The Race Problem [review of F. G. Crookshank: “The Mongol in our Midst,” H. W.
Siemens: “Race Hygiene and Heredity,” J. Finot: “Race Prejudice,” J. H. Oldham:
“Christianity and the Race Problem”] (The Nation, July 1, 1925, pp. W 2 ) .
Report of the Department of Mines, Dominion of Canada, for the Fiscal Year ending
March 31, 1925: Anthropological Division, Ethnology and Linguislics (pp. 3741).
Review of A . Meillet and Marcel Cohen: “Les langues du monde” (Modern Language
Notes, Vol. 40, pp. 373-375).
Sound Patterns in Language (Language, Vol. 1, pp. 37-51).
Summary Report for the Fiscal Year ending March 31, 1924: Anthropological Division,
Ethnology and Linguistics (pp. 36-40).
1926 A Chinookan Phonetic Law (International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 4,
pp. 105-110).
Philology (in “The Encyclopaedia Britannica, The Three New Supplementary Volumes,”
13th edition, Vol. 3, pp. 112-115).
Review of George A . Dorsey: “Why W e Behave Like Human Beings” (American Journal
of Sociology, Vol. 32, p. 140).
Review of Knight Dunlap: “Old and N m Viewpoints i n Psychology” (American Journal
of Sociology, Vol. 31, pp. 698499).
Review of Father Berard Haile: “ A Manual of Navaho Grammar” (American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 32, p. 511).
BENEDICT] EDWARD S A P I R 475

Rewiew of Otto Jespersen: “Mankind, Nation and Individud from a Linguistic Point of
V i m ” (American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 32, pp. 49-99).
Review of Ludwig Lm’sohn: “Israel” (Menorah Journal, Vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 214-218).
Speech as a Personality Trait [Abstract from paper delivered before the Society, October
19, 19261 (Mental Health Bulletin, Illinois Society for Mental Hygiene, December
1926).
1927 Anthropology and Sociology (in “The Social Sciences and their Interrelations,” edited by
W. F. Ogburn and A. Goldenweiser, Boston, Chapter 9, pp. 97-113).
A n Expedition to Ancient America: a Professor and a Chinese Student Rescue the Vanish-
ing Language and Culture of the Hupas i n Northern Calqornia (The University of
Chicago Magazine, Vol. 20,pp. l(t12).
Language as a Form of Human Behavior (The English Journal, Vol. 16, pp. 421-433).
A Reasonable Eugenist [review of F. H. Hankms: “The Racial Basis of Civilization”]
(The New Republic, Dec. 21, 1927, p. 146).
Review of P. Radin: “Crashing Thunder: the Autobiography of an American Indian”
(American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 33, pp. 303-304).
Review of A . Hyalt Verrill: iiThe American Indian: North, Sotdh, and Central America”
(American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 33,pp. 295-296).
Speech and Verbal Thought in Childhood [review of Jean Piaget: “The Language and
Thought of the Child”] (The New Republic, Vol. 50,pp. 350-351).
Speech as a Personalily Trait (American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 32, pp. 892-905).
The Unconscious Patterning of Behuuior i n Society (in “The Unconscious, a Symposium,”
edited by Ethel S. Dummer, New York, pp. 114-142).
1928 The Meaning of Religion (The American Mercury, Vol. 15, pp. 72-79).
Observaiions on the Sex Problem in America (America Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 8, pp.
519-534).
Psychoanalysis as Prophet [review of S. Freud: “The Future of an Illusion”] (The New
Republic, Vol. 56,pp. 356-357).
Review of James Weldon Johnson, ed.: “The Book of American Negro Spirituals”
(Journal of American Folk-Lore, Vol. 41,pp. 172-174).
Revim of Roland G. Kent: “Language and Philology” (The Classical Weekly, Vol. 21,
pp. 85-86).
A Summary Report of Field Work among the Hupa, Summer of 1927 (American Anthro-
pologist, ns., Vol. 30, pp. 3.59-361).
1929 Central and North American Languages (in “The Encyclopaedia Britannica,” 14th edi-
tion, Vol. 5, pp. 138-141).
Design i n Pueblo Pottery [review of R. L. Bunzel: “The Pueblo Potter”] (The New Re-
public, Vol. 61, p. 115).
The Discipline of Sex (The American Mercury, Vol. 16, pp. 413-420).
Franz Boas [review of Franz Boas: “Anthropology and Modern Life”] (The New Re-
public, Vol. 57, pp. 278-279).
A Linguistic Trip among the Navajo Indians (The Gallup Independent, Friday, August
23, 1929,Ceremonial Edition, Gallup, New Mexico).
Male and Female Forms of Speech in E‘ana (in “Donum Natalicium Schrijnen,” edited
by St. W. J. Teeuwen, Nijmegen-Utrecht, pp. 79-85).
Nootka Baby Words (International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 5, pp. 118-119).
Religions and ReligiousPhenomena (in “Religious Life,” Vol. 11 in “Man and his World,”
edited by Baker Brownell, New York, pp. 1-33).
476 A M E R I C A N A N THROPO LOGIST [N.s., 41, 1939

Keciew of M . E . De Wilt: “Our Oral Word as Social and Economic Factor” (American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 34, pp. 926-927).
Some Gweabo Proverbs [with Charles G. Blooah] (Africa, Vol. 2, pp. 183-185).
The Status of Linguistics as a Science (Language, Vol. 5, pp. 207-214).
il Study i n Phonetic Symbolism (Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 12, pp.
2 25239).
1930 The Discipline of Sex [abbrev.] (Child Study, March 1930, pp. 170-173, 187-188).
A Note on Navaho Pottery [with Albert G. Sandoval] (American Anthropologist, n.s.,
Vol. 32, pp. 575-576).
T h Southern Paiute Language: Sodhern Paiute, a Shoshonean Language; Texts of the
Kaibab Paiutes and Uintah Utes; Southern Paiute Dictionary (Proceedings, American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 1-296; No. 2, pp. 297-536; No. 3,
pp. 537-730).
Totality (Language Monographs, Linguistic Society of America, no. 6, pp. 28).
What i s the Family Still Good For? (The American Mercury, Vol. 19, pp. 145-151).
Wishram Ethnography [with Leslie Spier] (University of Washington Publications in
Anthropology, Vol. 3, No. 3).
1931 The Case for a Consirucied International Language RbsumC) (DeuxPme Congres Inter-
national de Linguistes, Geneva, August 25-29, 1931, pp. 42-44).
Communication (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 4, pp.
78-81).
The Concept of Phonetic Law as Tested i n Primitive Languages by Leonard Bloomfield (in
“Methods in Social Science, a Case Book,” edited by Stuart A. Rice, Chicago, pp.
297-306).
Custom (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 4, pp. 658462).
Dialect (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 5, pp. 123-126).
Fashion (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 6, pp. 139-144).
The Function of an International Auxiliary Language (Psyche, No. 44, pp. 4-15).
Notes on the Gweabo Language of Liberia (Language, Vol. 7, pp. 3 0 4 1 ) .
Review of Ray Hoffman: “Nuer-English Dictionary” (American Anthropologist, n.s.,
VOl. 33, pp. 114-115).
Wanted: a World Language (The American Mercury, Vol. 22, pp. 202-209).
1932 Cultural Anthropology and Psychiatry (Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol.
27, pp. 229-242).
The Expression of the Ending-Point Relation in English, French, andGerman [with Morris
Swadesh, edited by Alice V. Morris] (Language Monographs, Linguistic Society of
America, No. 10, pp. 1-125).
Group (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,’’ New York, Vol. 7, pp. 178-182).
Review of James G. Leyburn: “Handbook of Ethnography” (American Journal of Science,
5th series, Vol. 23, pp. 186-189).
Two Navaho Puns (Language, Vol. 8, pp. 217-219).
1933 Language (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 9, pp. 155-169.)
La RCalitC Psychologique des Phondmes (Journal de Psychologie, Vol. 30, pp. 247-265).
1934 The Bush Negro of Dutch Guiana [review of Melville J. Herskovits and Frances S.
Herskovits: “Rebel Destiny: Among the Bush Negroes of Dutch Guiana”] (The Na-
tion, Vol. 139, p. 135).
The Emergence of the Concept of Personality i n a Study of Cultures (Journal of Social
Psychology, Vol. 5, pp. 408415).
Hittite hepatis “Vassal” and Greek bs6S6r (Language, Vol. 10, pp. 274-279).
BENEDICT] EDWARD SAPIR 411

I’ersonality (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 12, pp. 85-87).
Some Orthographic Recommendations [with others] (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol.
36, pp. 629-631).
Symbolism (in “Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,” New York, Vol. 14, pp. 492-
495).
1035 A Navaho Sand Painting Blanket (American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 37, pp. 609-616).
Revim of A . G. Morice: “The Carrier Language (DCnt?Family), a Grammar and Diction-
ary Combined” (American Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 37, pp. 500-501).
1936 Greek drrbropai, a Hittite Loanword, and its Reldives (Language, Vol. 12, pp. 175-180).
Hebrew ’argh, a Philistine Word (Journal, American Oriental Society, Vol. 56, pp. 272-
281).
Hiipa Tattooing (in “Essays in Anthropology Presented t o Alfred Louis Kroeber,”
edited by R. H. Lowie, Berkeley, pp. 273-277).
Internal Linguistic Evidence Suggestive of the Northern Origin of the Navaho (American
Anthropologist, n.s., Vol. 38, pp. 224-235).
~bD6a,a Karian Gloss (Journal, American Oriental Society, Vol. 56, p. 85).
Kutchin Relationship Terms (in “Contributions to the Ethnography of the Kutchin,”
by Cornelius Osgood, Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 14, pp.
136-1 37).
Review of D. Westermann and Ida C. Ward: “Practical Phoneticsfor Students of African
Languages’’ (American Anthropologist, ns., Vol. 38, pp. 121-122).
Tibetan Injuences on Tocharian, I (Language, Vol. 12, pp. 259-271).
1937 The Contribution of Psychiatry to an Understanding of Behavior i n Society (American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 42, pp. 862-870).
Hebrew “helmet,” a Loan-word, and its Bearing on Indo-European Phonology (Journal,
American Oriental Society, Vol. 57, pp. 73-77).
The Negroes of Haiti [review of Melville J. Herskovits: “Life in a Haitian Valley”] (The
Yale Review, Vol. 26, pp. 853-854).
Review of James A . Montgomery and Zellig S. Harris: “The Ras Shamra Mythological
Texts” (Language, Vol. 13, pp. 326-331).
1938 Foreword to W . Dyk: “Son of Old Man Hat” (New York, pp. v-x).
Glottalized Continuants in Navaho, Nootka, and Kwakillll (w‘th a note on Indo-European)
(Language, Vol. 14, pp. 248-274).
Hittite siyanta and Gen. 14: 3 (American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures,
VOI. 55, pp. 86-88).
Psychialric and Cziltural Pitfalls in the Business of Getting a Living (Advance Contribu-
tion to Symposium on Mental Health, Section on Medical Sciences, American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Winter Meeting, Richmond, Va.: Session IV,
Physical and Cultural Environment, Thursday Afternoon, December 29, 1938:
mimeographed).
Review of Thztrman W . Arnold: “The Folklore of Capitalism” (Psychiatry, Vol. 1, pp.
145-147).
W h y Czrlturol Anthropology Needs the Psychiatrist, Z (Psychiatry, Vol. 1, pp. 7-12).
1939 Nootka Texts: Tales and Ethnological Narratives with Grammatical Notes and Lexicol
Materiols [with Morris Swadesh] (William Dwight Whitney Linguistic Series, Lin-
guistic Society of America, Philadelphia, pp. 334).
Review of Zellig S. Harris: “A Grammar of the Phoenician Language” (Language, Vol. 15,
PP. -51.