TEST 2: MATERIAL

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

• When engineers design for a material, there is a
need to set an upper limit on the state of stress that
defines the material’s failure.
• For ductile material, failure is initiated by yielding.
• For brittle material, failure is specified by fracture.
• However, criteria for the above failure modes is not
easy to define under a biaxial or triaxial stress.
• Thus, four theories are introduced
-to obtain the principal stresses at critical states of
stress and
- to predict the failure of a material when is subjected
to multiaxial state of stress.
2
 *10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE
A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
• Most common cause of yielding of
ductile material (e.g., steel) is slipping.
• Slipping occurs along the contact
planes of randomly-ordered crystals
that make up the material.
• Edges of planes of slipping as they appear on
the surface of the strip are referred to as
Lüder’s lines.
• The lines indicate the slip planes in the strip,
which occur at approximately 45 with the axis
of the strip.
3
 *10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE
• This shear stress acts on a planes that
are 45O from the principal stress and
these planes coincide with the direction
of the Luder Lines indicating failure occurs
by shear
• Consider an element, it can be determined the
maximum shear stress from Mohr’s circle,

 max  Y 10 - 26
2
• Thus, in 1868, Henri Tresca
proposed the maximum-shear-stress
theory or Tresca yield criterion.
4
 *10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE
A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
• If the two in-plane principal
stresses have the same sign,
failure will occurout of the plane:
 max
abs 
max 2

• If in-plane principal stresses are of opposite

signs, failure occurs in the plane:
 max   min
 abs  5
max 2
 *10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE
A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
• Thus, we express the maximum-shear-stress
theory for plane stress for any two in-plane
principal stresses for 1 and 2 by the
following criteria:
1   Y } 1,  2 have same signs.
 2  Y } 1,  2 have same signs. 10 - 27 
1   2   Y } 1,  2 have opposite signs.

6
 What is corosion?
Corrosion is a metal degradation process
resulted from interaction with its environment
(Corrosion is the deterioration that occurs
when a metal react with its environment).

The term of corrosion is basically restricted to

environment attack of metals, therefore non
metals is not included in the present definition.
• The degradation processes may result in:
- thinning of metal
- leaks
- sudden failure and damage of equipment
- decreasing/loss its heat transfer rate (e.g. of
heat exchanger tubes)
- brittle surface
- surface softening
- unpleasant appearance, or
- others. (i.e the tarnishing of silver, iron rusting,
dissolution of metal in acid solution)
 THE
• Corrosion:
COST OF CORROSION
--the destructive electrochemical attack of a material.
--Al Capone's
ship, Sapona,
off the coast
of Bimini.

• Cost:
--4 to 5% of the Gross National Product (GNP)*
--this amounts to just over $400 billion/yr**
• Corrosion agent to metal
1. Water
2. Moisture
3. Acids
4. Bases
5. Salts
6. Oils

• Disadvantage: economic terms higher expense to

spent for corrosion prevention and maintenance/
replacement

• Advantage: etching, dry cell batteries

•
CORROSION RATE
The weight loss can be converted to a corrosion rate in
units:
– mm/yr (milimeters per year)
– mpy (mils per year)
• To determine the corrosion rate a test called a Tafel
extrapolation is conducted. It basicly obeys Faraday’s
Law:
where Q – Coulombs
n – number of electrons involved in half cell
reaction
F – Faradays Constant (96,500 coulombs/mol)
W – weight of electronegative species;
nFW
Q M – molecular weight
M
 CORROSION RATE
Equivalent weight (EW) = M/n
W = (Q x EW)/F
QM
W Q = it
nF where i –current in Amps,
t – time in seconds

Where W/t is the corrosion rate in gm per sec.

W = ⍴V where ⍴- density and V- volume
itEW
W ⍴V = itEW/F
F
V = TA , where T – thickness and A is the surface area
T/t = iEW/ (FdA)

T/t is mils per year when appropriate constant are

imposed for the number of seconds in a year and for
the unit changes for length.
 CORROSION RATE
• Corrosion rate (CR) in mils per year
ixEWx31.6 x109
CR 
xFxAx2.5 x106

where i/A is current density in Amps/cm2

(icorr xEW )
CR  0.13

For units of CR in mils per year, icorr in μA.cm-2.

EW is the equilibrium weight and ⍴ is the density of the metal.

 Example 2

A cadmium electroplating process uses 10 A

of current and chemically corrodes a
cadmium anode. How long will it take to
corrode 8.2 g of cadmium from the anode?
 Example 3
A mild steel rectangular tank 1.25 m length x 1.25 m
width x 1 m high contains aerated water to the 790mm
level and shows a loss in weight due to corrosion of
405 g after 8 weeks. Assume uniform corrosion on the
tank's inner surface and that the steel corrodes in the
same manner as pure iron. The density of mild steel is
7.9 g/cm3. Calculate,
i) the corrosion current.
ii) the current density.
iii) the corrosion rate of the tank.
Schematic figure of forms of corrosion
 Erosion-corrosion

Rapidly flowing solutions can often disrupt adherence surface

films and deposits that would otherwise offer protection against
corrosion.
Thinning or removal of surface film or adherence corrosion
product layer by erosion from the flowing stream results in
accelerated corrosion, called erosion-corrosion or impingement
attack. The attack is accelerated at elbows, turbines, pumps, tubes
constrictions, and other structural features that alter flow direction
or velocity and increase turbulence.
 Erosion-corrosion
Erosion corrosion often occurs when corrodent is in
liquid phase. Suspended solids further aggravate the
erosion of surface films and increase erosion-
corrosion.
Attack may be especially serious in two phase flow,
in which steam and water vapor condensate droplets
are present together
The lower-strength, less resistance alloys, such as
carbon steel, copper and aluminium are especially
susceptible to erosion-corrosion. The stainless steel,
nickel alloys and titanium are usually resistant,
because their tenacious and durable passive films.
 Erosion-corrosion
Turbulent eddy mechanism for downstream undercutting of
erosion corrosion pits

The attack was seasonal and unpredictable and could be

simulated only with water containing a combination of
dissolved bicarbonate and silicate
 Erosion-corrosion

•
 Pitting
• Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion
by which cavities or "holes" are produced in the
material.
• Pitting is considered to be more dangerous than
uniform corrosion damage because it is more
difficult to detect, predict and design against.
• Corrosion products often cover the pits.
• A small, narrow pit with minimal overall metal
loss can lead to the failure of an entire
engineering system.
 FORMS• OF
StressCORROSION
corrosion
Stress & corrosion
• Uniform Attack work together • Erosion-corrosion
Oxidation & reduction at crack tips. Break down of passivating
occur uniformly over layer by erosion (pipe
surface. elbows).
• Selective Leaching • Pitting
Preferred corrosion of Downward propagation
one element/constituent of small pits & holes.
(e.g., Zn from brass (Cu-Zn)).
• Intergranular
Corrosion along
grain boundaries, • Galvanic
often where special Dissimilar metals are
• Crevice Between two
phases exist. pieces of the same metal.
physically joined. The
Rivet holes
more anodic one
corrodes.(see Table
17.2) Zn & Mg
very anodic.
THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS UNDER
INTERNAL PRESSURE
HEADS AND CLOSURES

1. Flat plates and formed flat heads

2. Hemispherical heads DOMED
3. Ellipsoidal heads HEAD

4. Torispherical heads
 THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
1. Flat plates and formed flat heads

FLANGED PLATE WELDED PLATE

WELDED PLATE BOLTED COVER

BOLTED COVER
 THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
1. Flat plates and formed flat heads

The thickness required will depend on the degree of

constraint at the plate edge. Thus, minimum thickness;

Cp= a design constant, depend on edge

De= nominal plate diameter
f= design stress
Cp and De based on design (see page 818)
THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS UNDER
INTERNAL PRESSURE
Cp and De based on design (see page 818) criteria a…e

a) Flanged-only end, for diameters less than 0.6m and

corner radii at least equal to 0.25e, Cp can be taken as
0.45; De is equal to Di.

b&c) Plates welded to the end shell with a fillet weld,

angle of fillet 45o and depth equal to the plate thickness,
take Cp as 0.55 and De=Di.

d) And e)… refer page 818

 THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
2. Domed End

a) HEMISPHERICAL

b) ELLIPSOIDAL

c) TORISPHERICAL
 Head (Closure) Designs
• Hemispherical
– Good for high pressures
– Higher internal volume
– Most expensive to form & join to shell
– Half the thickness of the shell
• Ellipsoidal
– Cheaper than hemispherical and less
internal volume
– Depth is half diameter
– Same thickness as shell
– Most common type > 15 bar
• Torispherical
– Part torus, part sphere
– Similar to elliptical, but cheaper to fabricate
– Cheapest for pressures less than 15 bar

© 2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Towler & Sinnott Chemical Engineering Design only. Do not copy
 THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
2. Domed End

a) Hemispherical heads

Brownell and Young (1959)- the stress in head

would then be greater than that in cylindrical
section, thus the optimum thickness ratio is
normally taken as 0.6.
 THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
2. Domed End

b) Ellipsoidal heads

Minimum thickness required;

 THE DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
2. Domed End

c) Torispherical heads

Cs= stress concentration factor for torispherical heads =

Rs=crown radius
Rk=knuckle radius,
Rk:Rc>0.06 prevent buckling
 Example 1
Estimate the thickness required for the component parts of
the vessel shown in the diagram. The vessel is to operate
at a pressure of 14 bar (absolute) and the temperature of
300oC. The material of construction will be plain carbon
steel. Welds will be fully radiographed. A corrosion
allowance of 2 mm should be used.
 Example 1
To determine cylinder shell minimum thickness,
refer;

1. Determine design pressure, Pi

2. Determine design stress, f
3. Its given Di= 1.5m
 Example 1
1. Determine design pressure, Pi
Take 10% above operating pressure;

Pi= (Pabsolute-Patm) x110%

= (14-1 bar) x 1.1
= 14.3 bar = 14.3 N/mm2

2. Determine design stress, f

Refer table 13.2 (carbon steel, T=300oC)

f= 85 N/mm2

e= (14.3 N/mm2)(1.5x103mm) =12.7mm

(2x85N/mm2)-14.3N/mm2

Add corrosion allowance 12.7 + 2mm= 14.7mm (15mm)

 Example 1
To determine heads minimum wall thickness;
1. Assume to be designed as torisphere.
2. Assume to be designed as ellipsoidal.

Compare which more economical.

1. Torisphere

Cs=
 Example 1
1. Assume to be designed as torisphere.
Rc= Di = 1.5m
Rk= 6% Rc =1.5m x 0.06 = 0.09m
J= 1 (no joint)

Cs=

= 0.25 (3 + (1.5m/0.09m)1/2
=1.77
Thus,

E = 1.43N/mm2 x1.5x103mm x 1.77

2x 85N/mm2(1)+1.43 N/mm2(1.77-0.2)
= 22.0 mm
 Example 1
2. Assume to be designed as ellipsoidal.

e= (1.43 N/mm2)x(1.5x103mm)

2(1)(85N/mm2)- 0.2(1.43Nmm/2)

= 12.7mm

So an ellipsoidal head would probably be the most economical.

Why? It takes as same thickness as wall thickness of cylinder

shell =15mm