Steam and Energy Systems

UOP Confidential - Do Not Copy 1
The primary goals in this section are understanding of the importance of steam in
the energy balance in a refinery, the understanding of other types of energy as they
relate to steam, and an understanding of some basic ways to improve energy
efficiency in the refinery.
We will first touch on steam itself - what is steam and what are its properties. Next,
we will discuss the steam system, its source components and the end users. We will
pay particular
i l attentioni to the
h steam usedd by b turbines
bi
Cogeneration, or the simultaneous production of electrical and heat energy, will lead
into a discussion on general energy integration. We will wrap up with a discussion
on energy efficiency and and some suggestions on recovery energy.
Attached to this presentation are three appendices which will not be discussed. The
first covers an example of a refinery steam study. The second covers multistage
turbines. This is a complement to the single stage turbine calculations presented.
The third appendix provides full page copies of the graphs in the presentation.
These will be easier to use on in the future if needed.

Also provided is an example of how to calculate the steam rate of turbines using
Mollier diagrams as well as using detailed vendor design curves.
Both full load conditions and part load conditions, which give us a more rigorous
calculation in determining the economic turbine selection, will be discussed.
Extraction
c o turbines
u b es aree oonee of
o thee most
os important
po pieces
p eces oof equ
equipment
p e when
w e looking
oo g
at a steam system. The reason is that instead of letting steam down from on level to
another in a control valve, one can let the steam down through an extraction turbine
which provides the refinery with better efficiencies.
Elements of a steam system and some of the tools used to analyze steam systems are
discussed. Mollier diagrams
g and steam tables pprovide the necessaryy thermodynamic
y
data.

The steam tables provide the basic thermodynamic properties of steam and water at
essentially all pressures and temperatures. These include specific volume, enthalpy, and
entropy. Internal energy can also be found on some tables.
The tables are set up in three main tables ( there are additional tables as well).
The first table lists the properties of saturated steam and water. It is set up based on
temperature; i.e. if you know the saturation temperature, you can get other properties. The
second table is similar to the first except that it is tabulated based on pressure. The third
table lists the properties of superheated steam given the pressure and temperature.
The steam tables presented are from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) Steam Tables. A complete set of the ASME steam tables can be obtained from
ASME. Many boiler and turbine vendors will provide copies upon request. A very
complete set of steam properties has been prepared by Keenan and Keyes. It has many
more data points so that interpolation is often not necessary and is more accurate when
needed.
Steam tables have been computerized for quick reference. The programs are not as
accurate as the steam tables, but they should be sufficient for everyday use. The
M h i l Engineering
Mechanical E i i magazinei recentlyl listed
li d www.winsim.com/steam/steam.shtml
i i / / h l as
a website to get free steam table software.

This graph shows the difference between the densities of saturated steam and water
over a range of pressures. Notice how, as the pressure increases, the difference is
reduced. At the critical pressure, the phase distinction between liquid in vapor no
longer exists. At this point, conventional steam drums are not used to separate
vapor from liquid.
As a measure of the effects of pressure on the force producing circulation, the chart
compares the specific weights of saturated water and saturated steam. The
differential between the specific weighs shrinks as pressure increases until, at a
pressure of 3206.2 psia, the critical point, there is no more differential.
The difference between the densities is important in the boiler. It allows the natural
circulation in a boiler and allows the separation of water and steam in the steam
d
drum. At th
the pressures in
i a typical
t i l refinery
fi steam
t system,
t there
th is i usually
ll enoughh
differential to prevent any separation problems.

This graph indicates temperature versus enthalpy and shows the enthalpy difference
between saturated water and saturated steam. As you can see, the horizontal
distance from saturated water to saturated liquid is reduced as the pressure and
temperature increases. This distance is equal to the latent heat of vaporization. As
pressure increases, the heat of vaporization decreases.
For example, it takes about one third less energy to change water into steam at 1000
psig as compared to water at atmospheric pressure. This difference in latent heat of
vaporization continues to decrease until the critical temperature is reached. At this
point, phase distinction between liquid and vapor is no longer possible.

The Mollier diagram is a very useful table containing a large amount of
thermodynamic data in a very small space. Unfortunately, the compactness of the
table is countered by its inability to provide precise values, and the table can be
rather confusing. Larger Mollier diagrams are available.
At atmospheric pressure, the temperature at which water becomes steam is 212F.

On the graph, isobars, or equal pressure lines, run diagonally from the bottom left
corner to the top right corner. The atmospheric pressure line is dashed, and the
point to look for is along the bold saturation line, just above 200F; with some
interpolation, we can see we are at 212F. If we read horizontally to the left or to
the right of the axis, we see the value of enthalpy is 1150 Btu/lb. If we return to our
starting point on the saturation line and read vertically up or down, we find the
entropy of saturated steam is 1.76 Btu/lb-F.
Return to the starting point at 212F and atmospheric pressure. Now we are going
to superheat the steam at constant pressure. To do this, we follow the dashed
atmospheric pressure line diagonally to the upper right. We continue until the
desired temperature, say 700F, is reached. At this superheat point, the enthalpy is
1384 Btu/lb and the entropy is 2.1 Btu/lb F. Return to the starting point at 212F
and atmospheric
p pressure
p and move diagonally
g y down and to the left. This region
g is
the subcooled vapor region. As we move diagonally to the left, the temperature and
pressure are constant, but the percent moisture increases. This is because water is
condensing.

Steam system includes many pieces of equipment. The steam system has
demineralizers, deaerators, boilers, bfw pumps, flash drums, blowdown drums,
steam turbines and the list goes on. The steam system is critical the operation of the
refinery. If the steam system were to fail the complete refinery would have to
shutdown.

The boiler is the heart of the steam system. Even though steam is produced by process units,
the boiler controls the steam header pressure. The highest steam pressure header is usually
controlled by fired boilers. The lower pressure steam header pressures are controlled using
letdown valves or turbines. The lowest steam header pressure is primarily controlled by
limiting the amount of steam to the header. If there is excess low pressure steam production,
it is necessary to vent steam when the refiner does not have an induction type condensing
turbine that allows him to bring in low pressure steam or a steam condenser to conserve
water.
water
Condensate from condensing turbines and heat exchangers is then recycled and returned to
the deaerator to complete the cycle.
The steam system normally has three main levels:
High Pressure: 600 psig (or higher depending on power generation)
Medium Pressure: 125 to 250 psig - used by backpressure turbines and heat exchangers.
MP Steam is often generated in process units.
Low Pressure: 15 to 50 psig - used mainly for lower grade heating and the deaerator.

Boilers can be categorized many ways. For refining, we usually see circulation type boilers.
There are two main types of circulation boilers, natural and forced. Refining applications
also see kettle type boilers for smaller duties.
This is a schematic of a natural circulation boiler. The boiler feed water enters in the steam
drum and mixes with the saturated liquid. Then, due to gravity, water is drawn down to the
mud drum. The mud drum is a low velocity settling region where any solids accumulate.
The water then enters the riser, which is usually a high flux region where the phase change
takes place thus reducing the density of the mixture. The steam and water rise into the
steam drum. Natural circulation occurs from the density differences in the downcomers and
the risers.
The steam drum serves as both a storage section and a separation area. The steam/water
mixture
i t slows
l down
d in
i the
th vapor area so that
th t large
l liquid
li id particles
ti l disengage
di andd fall
f ll to
t the
th
water surface. This is only a crude separation, removing droplets greater than 135 microns.
The steam drum also contains cyclone or chevron steam separators which remove virtually
all the liquid droplets (to less than 10 microns). It is important to remove the droplets
because the droplets have the same concentration of dissolved impurities at the bulk liquid
in the drum. If these droplets were to enter a superheater and evaporate, they would leave a
salt ppowder on the surface of the tubes inhibitingg heat transfer and potentially
p y plugging
p gg g a
tube. Boiler manufacturers will typically guarantee a value of 1 ppm TDS in the outlet
steam.

The forced circulation boiler is the most common process boiler specified by UOP. It is
a waste heat recovery boiler found in a fired heater used in CCR Platforming,
Unionfining, or UOP Hydrocraking Units. In this scheme, the boiler water is forced
through the system using a pump.
Make up water enters the economizer where low level heat is picked up from stack gases
to preheat the boiler feed water before entering the drum. From the drum, the boiler
water enters the pump. The water first passes through the radiant section of the heater
and then into the convection section picking up some high level waste heat in the flue
gas. Note that in a natural circulation boiler, the economizer and superheater functions
will be the same.
UOP specifies the pump to pump 7 times the amount of water that is vaporized. A high
velocity
l it is
i usedd to
t keep
k the
th tubes
t b cooll andd promotet mixing.
i i The
Th resultlt is
i a pressure drop
d
of about 40 psi. The mixture of steam and water is separated in the steam drum and
steam purifiers and then flows to the superheater where the temperature is raised from 50
to 300°F above the saturation temperature as required to meet steam conditions
In the U.S., most utility boilers are of the natural circulation type. In Europe, forced
circulation boilers are common in the utility plants.
plants One reason for this is that forced
circulation boilers can be installed vertically, using less plot space.

The above graph is explained with the equations Q=UAT and Q=AeT4. The
first equation of heat transfer is used to model heat transfer by convection, and the
second equation is used to model heat transfer by radiation. From both of these
equations, we know that the hotter the temperature and greater the surface area, the
more heat we can transfer. Unlike convection, radiation requires direct line of sight
to the object and a large temperature difference.
In this graph, the furnace and water wall absorb 50% of the total relative heat
absorbed, but only require 10% of the surface. The furnace is the hottest place in
the boiler at 2000ºF, and the flames have direct line of sight to the furnace water
wall. In the furnace, the two methods of heat transfer occur so less area is required.
Throughout the remainder of the boiler, radiation is no longer a major method of
heat transfer and convection dominates. Temperature difference is the driving force,
and as combustion gases travel through the boiler bank, superheater, economizer,
and air heater, they cool more and more. Meanwhile, the water is heated to produce
steam. At some point, the combustion gases become too cool to produce steam and
are used to preheat water in the economizer and to heat the combustion air.
The air heater requires large amounts of surface area relative to the amount of heat
absorbed. As shown above,, the air heater requires
q 45% relative heat transfer surface
and only absorbs 10% of the heat. Given this, air heaters are often not installed
except in applications where high efficiency is desired.

This is an example of a utility boiler producing steam using a solid fuel such as
coke, coal, or even wood. Air is injected to create turbulence and ensure complete
combustion of the fuel to minimize unburned fuel from accumulating with the ash.
A utility boiler in the refinery would most likely be burning fuel gas and/or fuel oil.
These fuel would be added through nozzles, and the stoker and ash equipment
would be deleted.
The path of the flue gas is typical for most boilers traveling through the superheater,
boiler tubes, economizer, and air preheater just as we discussed with relative area
diagram. The water wall tube appears to use considerable surface area but, because
the tubes only line the walls of the boiler, this drawing exaggerates the water wall
area.
IIn Heat
H t Recovery
R Steam
St Generators
G t (HRSG's),
(HRSG' ) radiation
di ti iis nott off a large
l concern
because of the lower temperatures associated with waste heat. As a result, there
probably will not be water wall tubes. Otherwise, the boiler will look similar.

Boiling water sounds like such a simple process because we do it every day to make
tea or to cook, but the steam boiler is a chemical process and requires
instrumentation and controls. The most critical are the level controls used to ensure
there is water in the boiler. If there is no water in the boiler, how can we make
steam? A three element control system is typically specified to control the makeup
boiler feed water. The three elements include steam flow out, water flow in, and
water level in the steam drum.
Other important auxiliaries are pressure gauges, safety relief valves, and blowdown
valves. There are many valves for fuel, steam, air and water, which are all
combined in a compact area. Often people color code and label the valves to
prevent operator error, but you should always know the valve you are turning and
not believe the label.
In the U.S. and much of the world, the manufacturing of steam generators is
governed by the A.S.M.E codes. These codes regulate many of the auxiliary
equipment, as well as set the design criteria.

The dissolved solid concentrate as steam is produced and eventually crystallize.
Special chemicals are added to combine with the solids and keep them suspended in
solution so they can be removed by blowdown. Alternatively, the chemicals can
make them settle out easier so they can be removed through the mud drum. Since
chemicals have an important part in steam generation, we will discuss them briefly.
There are two types of blowdown; continuous and intermittent. As the names imply,
continuous blowdown occurs constantly, removing dissolved solids from the
saturated water in the steam drum. Blowdown is taken from the steam drum.
Intermittent blowdown is primarily intended to remove solids that have settled out.
In a natural circulation boiler, intermittent blowdown is taken from the mud drum.
In a forced circulation boiler, the intermittent blowdown is taken from a 'quiet' area
of the steam drum.
The blowdown is too hot to send to the sewer. Intermittent blowdown is sent to the
intermittent blowdown drum. The blowdown flashes, with the steam going to
atmosphere and the 212°F water going directly to the sewer if allowed or to a
cooler. The continuous blowdown is treated similarly, except that the drum is at an
elevated pressure so that the steam is sent to the LP or MP steam headers. The
water is still too hot so it is sent to either the intermittent blowdown drum for
additional flashing or to a cooler. The hot blowdown can be used to preheat makeup
water. This saves on cooling water and saves heat.

Chemicals are used to treat the water for a variety of reasons. New deaerators
remove oxygen to a level of 7 ppb (after a brief period their performance degrades
and they only remove oxygen to the 20-70 ppb levels), but even that small
concentration of dissolved oxygen can be corrosive at the elevated temperature
inside the boiler. To remove this final amount of oxygen, an oxygen scavenger is
added. These chemicals are added to the boiler feed water in the deaerator to react
with the oxygen. A slight excess of the chemical, known as a residual, is required to
ensure that the boiler is oxygen free
free. The two most common classes of oxygen
scavenger are sodium sulfite and hydrazine. Sodium sulfite is a salt, so it adds to
the conductivity and to the total amount of dissolved solid in the boiler. Sodium
sulfite is reserved for low pressure boiler (<1000 psig) applications where higher
levels of dissolved solids are acceptable in the water. Hydrazine is the oxygen
scavenger used at higher pressures. Unfortunately, hydrazine is a carcinogen, but
the water treatment companies have developed special chemicals that are safe at
room temperature, but decompose in the boiler to produce hydrazine and benign
byproducts. Nalco produces Eliminox and Betz produces Hydroquinone.
The dissolved minerals are often removed by clarification, zeolite softening, reverse
osmosis, demineralization, etc. These methods are known as external treatment
because they remove impurities external to the boiler. Chemicals added into the
b il are often
boiler ft called
ll d internal
i t l treatment
t t t chemicals.
h i l

These internal treatment chemicals either keep the minerals dissolved in solution, or
they bind with them to prevent them from scaling. Chemicals that bind with the
dissolved mineral and keep them in solution are known as non-precipitating. They
are often called chelants or chelant polymers.
The precipitating chemicals can be polymers, but are typically known as

phosphates. Precipitating chemicals used for lower pressure applications combine
with the dissolved solids to create a non-scaling solid that can be removed in the
blowdown. Sludge conditioners are used to keep the solids from hardening and
forming large amorphous slabs that are unable to pass through the blowdown lines.
Antifoaming chemicals are used with lower pressure boilers where the hardness
level is low, but where the dissolved solid is high.
Another
A th type
t off chemical
h i l treatment
t t t is
i the
th use off amines.
i Amines
A i are usedd to
t protect
t t
the condensate system against corrosion, especially carbon dioxide corrosion.
Amines are injected into the boiler feedwater at the deaerator. The amines are
volatile and so go with steam throughout the steam system. When steam condenses,
so does the amine. The two main types of amines are neutralizing and filming. A
common neutralizing amine is morpholine. Neutralizing amines are generally
ppreferred but their use is expensive
p if there is a lot of carbon dioxide.

In this example, the feedwater has 100 PPMW of total dissolved solids (TDS). The
boiler is producing 900,000 kg per day of steam with essentially no solids carry
over.
The goal in this example is to keep the solids level at 1000 PPMW in the boiler
water. To determine the amount of blowdown, we perform a mass balance over the
boiler. If we add 100 kg per day of solids, we must remove 100 kg per day of solid
in the blowdown. We find that 100,000 kg of water and dissolved solids must be
removed per day and, to maintain the liquid level and steam production, the
feedwater must be 1,000,000 kg per day.
In the refinery, the level of concentration of solids in the steam drum is controlled
by the operator. The American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) sets
maximum
i limits
li it off 2,000
2 000 ppm TDS for
f boiler
b il drums
d in
i the
th 601-750
601 750 psig
i range andd
3,500 ppm TDS for boiler drums in the 0-300 psig range. There are additional
limits on other constituents, such as silica, which may control blowdown
requirements. The lower the solids level in the steam drum water, the higher the
steam purity and so refiners often maintain lower solids levels.

This is a graphical solution to the mass balance equation. It determines the percent
blowdown as a function of the feedwater. Using the example from the previous
slide, a feedwater concentration of 100 PPM with a concentration of 1000 PPM in
the boiler water results in a 10% blowdown on feedwater. Therefore, 10% of the
feedwater is removed from the boiler to keep the boiler water at 1000 PPM. When
vendors or engineers mention percent blowdown, be sure to ask on what basis
because some people will quote blowdown as percentage of steam production.
If blowdown requirements exceed ten percent, serious consideration should be given

to improving the quality of the boiler feedwater. Demineralized water will typically
require only 1 or 2% blowdown at the 600 psig steam level.
The intermittent blowdown system should be sized for 10% blowdown. The
continuous
ti bl
blowdown
d system
t should
h ld be
b designed
d i d for
f the
th maximum
i blowdown
bl d
levels required. Sizing the system for a minimum of 10% blowdown, even if only 2
or 3 % blowdown is normally required, is a good design practice.

Oxygen dissolves in water with a concentration of about 8 ppm at room temperature
and atmospheric pressure. This dissolved oxygen is what keeps the fish alive, but it
causes corrosion in boilers at elevated temperatures. Oxygen levels need to be
reduced to below 7 ppb to avoid serious carbon steel corrosion.
Fortunately, at high temperature, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is

reduced so, by heating the water, we can remove unwanted oxygen. We generally
heat the water to 250°F to reduce the oxygen levels to very near zero. To perform
this task, we use a piece of equipment known as a deaerator.
Note that despite the elevated temperatures and the high levels of oxygen in the
deaerator, there is no corrosion in the deaerator. This is because the oxygen can
escape.

This is a spray type deaerator. It is common in smaller steam applications. Water is
sprayed from the top, creating very tiny droplets which improve heat and mass
transfer. As the water is heated by steam injected below the water, oxygen is
removed and vented out the top with a small amount of steam.
A new and properly functioning deaerator can remove oxygen down to 7 ppb.
However, the spray valves commonly plug or fail open and reduce the deaerator’s
effectiveness. After a brief period the performance degrades and the deaerator only
removes oxygen to the 20-70 ppb levels. Chemical treatment is thus required.

This type of deaerator is much more common in a refinery setting and is capable of higher
capacities and turndown. In this design, the steam contacts the water through a series of trays,
and the storage section is typically below the stripping section. A typical size for the storage
section is ten minutes of water capacity.
More recently, the spray and tray type deaerators have been combined to form a spray-tray
deaerator. This type generally maintains a better deaeration capacity as time progresses. Both
the tray and spray-tray deaerators will produce 7 ppb of oxygen when new. The spray tray
deaerator will generally degrade only to the 20-30 ppb levels.
There are a few good ways to determine how well a deaerator is working. The easiest way,
although less accurate, is to take the temperature of the water in the storage section and then
compare that to the saturation temperature at the deaerator pressure. The temperature should be
within
ithi 2-3
2 3FFahrenheit
h h it degrees
d off the
th saturation
t ti temperature.
t t Other,
Oth more elaborate,
l b t ways
involve actually testing the dissolved oxygen level using calorimetric vials or dissolved oxygen
meters.
The amount of steam vented should be that required to remove the dissolved gases. The 200
lb/hr shown above should be viewed as an upper limit. One rule of thumb says that a two foot
high steam plume gives good venting.
venting The refinery can combine dissolved oxygen testing with
visual examination of the steam plume to produce a curve that will be an easy guide.

When performing a deaerator design for a boiler, you will know the steam
conditions, the amount of condensate returned, and the amount of boiler feed water
required. To determine the proper design of a deaerator, the treated water and steam
rates must be determined. This is calculated by using a combined heat and mass
balance. The equations are very similar to those for a desuperheater, except we
have several extra streams entering and leaving the deaerator.
The
h picture
i shown
h above
b is
i an actuall operating
i deaerator.
d Note the
h vent off steam
out of the top of the deaerator.

If we look at the deaerator as a black box and perform a mass balance, we can
reduce the equation to where the mass of the make-up water is equal to 65,200 lb/h
minus the deaeration steam. In the field, you might know the reverse values and
need to determine the steam vented from the deaerator. Excessive steam lost to the
atmosphere is a waste of heat and treated water.

The heat balance looks similar to the mass balance. Since the conditions of steam,
make-up water, vented steam, boiler feedwater, and condensate are known, we also know
their enthalpies. Using the steam table and combining all of the information, we find the
steam rate is 12,707 lb/h and the make-up water rate is 52,293 lb/h.
Often, instead of determining the amount of make-up water, one needs to determine the
amounts of returned condensate and vented steam because makeup water and boiler
feedwater are typically metered. The same method of combining a heat and mass
balance applies. It might be necessary to estimate the steam vent using equations of
flow, or assume the flow is negligible for a first pass estimation. If the size of the steam
vent orifice is known, the amount of steam vented can be calculated.
Deaerators need to be elevated to provide NPSH for the boiler feedwater pumps. The
water
t ini the
th storage
t section
ti isi essentially
ti ll att the
th saturation
t ti point i t andd so cavitation
it ti will
ill
occur if the deaerator is not elevated to give a pressure head.
There is usually only one deaerator for a new steam system. It is reliable enough not to
require a spare. When refineries are expanded, additional deaerators might be added to
supply extra capacity. Also, more than one deaerator might be required if different types
of treated water are produced
produced.

The boiler feed water pressure must be sufficient to supply water to the steam drum
at design flow rates during relief conditions. There must be sufficient head to
overcome pressure drops in the economizer, heat exchangers, control valve, etc. as
well as static head. For a 600 psig steam system, a boiler feed water pressure of 800
to 900 psig is needed.
If steam is generated at both MP and HP levels, it is often economical to install two

sets of pumps. This way, the HP boiler feed water will not need to be let down by
about 600 psi to the MP level. The extra pumps are not justified if there is only a
small amount of MP steam being generated in boilers.
Boiler Feedwater pumps should be spared. Typically, there are two normally
operating and one spare. Of the three pumps, at least one should be driven by a
steam
t turbine
t bi to t ensure steam
t system
t reliability.
li bilit Backpressure
B k turbines
t bi allow
ll a
supply of steam to the nearby deaerator.

When turbines are not used to letdown steam, control valves are used. In this
example, we start with 600 psig, 750°F superheated steam and let it down to 150
psig, controlling the temperature at 400°F. If we did not add water to cool the
steam, it would cool at constant enthalpy to 707°F. This high temperature steam
increases the design requirements for all equipment using 150 psig steam, when the
saturation temperature of steam is only 366°F. It is likely that, if we required a
temperature above 366°F, we would have used higher pressure steam or a fired
heater so
so, in effect
effect, we do not require the high temperature for heat transfer and,
and to
minimize equipment costs, we desuperheat the steam. Process reasons sometimes
require desuperheated steam. Steam to amine regenerators is often desuperheated to
prevent the accelerated breakdown of the amine.
Power boilers or waste heat steam generation boilers produce high pressure
superheated steam and also contain desuperheaters. These desuperheaters control
the temperature of the steam header. Why not get all the heat you can from the
boiler? The reason is that there are uncertainties in design of the boiler, and
conditions, such as firing rate and excess air, influence the steam temperature from
the superheater. We also control the temperature to protect downstream equipment
from excessive temperatures and provide a temperature basis for design. The heat is
not lost because the desuperheater is adiabatic.

To determine the amount of water required to desuperheat steam, we must perform
a simultaneous mass and energy balance. We know the inlet conditions of our
steam because it comes from the header. Although it is not necessary to know the
temperature of the outlet stem from the control, we can easily determine it by using
a steam table or Mollier Diagram. We assume the valve is adiabatic, so the enthalpy
of the steam in is equal to the enthalpy out. For this example, we have assumed a
pressure drop of 5 psi through the superheater device so we have 155 psig upstream
of the desuperheater.
desuperheater

There are several types of desuperheaters. Two of these are shown above. The
selection of the desuperheater depends on the application. Variables include
turndown ratio, pressure drop, cost, and temperature control. Ideally, the
desuperheater will have a high turndown ratio, a low pressure drop, a low cost, and
tight temperature control.
A listing of the more usual desuperheating types, along with their typical turndown
ratio and pressure drop ( the pressure drop is the steam pressure drop; the pressure
drop of the water will be higher), is shown below.
Delta P (psi) Turndown

Venturi 5-10 5:1
p
Attemperator 0.1 2:1
Variable Orifice 5 50:1
Surface Absorption High > 100-1
Steam Atomizer 0.1 50:1
Mechanical Spray 0.1 40:1

The equations to determine the amount of water required to cool the superheated
steam are shown in this slide. The first equation is the energy balance, and the
second is the mass balance. We combine these two equations and then solve for the
mass of the water in. We substitute our known conditions. We are controlling the
outlet temperature of the steam, so we know the conditions - all we have left is to
determine the mass flow of water.
Ideally, desuperheating water should be of the same quality of the steam, i.e. no
dissolved solids. Condensate is therefore the water of choice for desuperheating.
However, condensate pumps in the refinery do not provided the high pressures
required. Separate desuperheating water pumps are required if condensate is to be
used.
Since this
Si thi iinvolves
l extra
t expense, many refiners
fi choose
h tto use BFW as th
the
desuperheating water. This is generally acceptable if the TDS of the BFW is less
than 5 wppm, although condensate is still preferred. When BFW is used, oxygen
scavengers and amines should be injected downstream of the takeoff for the
desuperheating water.

Steam is distributed throughout the refinery in main steam headers. From these
headers, laterals go into each process block to supply the steam to the users. A
single header is provided for each pressure level of steam. Sparing of piping or
circuit type piping (as with firewater) is not required.
The pressure levels of the steam system can be dictated by either the generation side
or the use side. For example, low pressure steam is often set at about 50 psig since
the saturation temperature at that pressure is good for maintaining liquid sulfur at a
good viscosity. Flange rating can also be important. For 500°F steam, the steam
pressure can not exceed 170 psig in order to allow less costly 150 pound flanges.
Note these are design values, not normal operating values.
Letdown stations have already been discussed. They should be sized appropriately
preferably
f bl to t supply
l maximum
i steam
t requirements
i t att the
th lower
l pressure level.
l l As A a
minimum, they should provide normal steam usage requirements if the largest
supplier of steam is out of service.
Each steam header should be provided with over-pressure protection. If each steam
generator (a boiler, steam turbine, etc.) has its own safety valve, then the safety
valve need only be sized for letdown station capacity.
capacity

An average refinery might have 10,000 steam traps. Surveys have shown that 20%
of these steam traps are in the failed open position at any given time. With proper
maintenance, this can be reduced to less than 5%. With each failed steam trap
venting 25-50 lbs of steam per day, there is a significant amount of steam loss. This
amount is in addition to the amount that the trap normally vents. A good steam trap
maintenance program will perhaps do more for refinery energy efficiency than any
other single action.
A strainer should be installed upstream of the steam trap to protect the trap against
dirt, scale, etc.
A well known supplier of steam traps is Armstrong International. They publish

various media to provide information on steam traps (and sell their product).

Typically, electric motors provide the cheapest and most reliable source of shaft
work. Turbines are often used when the service is extremely large, when the service
is critical, and when the electricity supply is unreliable. Turbines are also used as
required to balance the steam system. A driver study should be made at the
beginning of any major project to assure that the steam system will be balanced
when the plant is in operation.
When
h choosing
h i the h best
b turbine
bi for
f an application,
li i capital
i l cost is
i generally
ll the
h
limiting factor. If possible, we would want the most efficient turbine applicable for
the widest ranges of operation; unfortunately, having these options costs money.
In this section, various types of turbines, including straight non-condensing, straight

condensing, extraction, induction, and induction-extraction are reviewed. Each is
usedd for
f different
diff t reasons and
d also
l ffor diff
differentt applications.
li ti The
Th types
t off turbine
t bi
are presented in what is essentially their frequency of use.
The photograph above is a large, straight condensing turbine. Notice the size of the
turbine.

Straight non-condensing turbines are usually the least expensive and usually the
least efficient. The turbines are used in all applications but, generally, since they are
inefficient and the least expensive type, they are used as spares for critical services
or are used when they fit well into the steam balance. Because they are not very
efficient, you find few back pressure turbines large load requirements.
This type of turbine can use either high pressure steam, discharging to either the
medium pressure steam or low pressure steam headers, or medium pressure steam,
discharging to the low pressure steam header.

Straight condensing turbines are the most efficient type and are suitable for large
loads. These turbines are also the most expensive because the low pressure end of
these turbines must be very large to accommodate the partial vacuum conditions of
the steam.
The low pressure end must also be able to resist the pounding of any water droplets
or contaminants. Once the steam has exited the turbine, it must be condensed and,
at low pressure and high volumes, equipment sizes for the heat exchangers become
large and thus add to the capital cost. Large cooling water systems can also be
required.

Extraction turbines are similar in cost and use as the straight condensing turbine.
The extraction turbine, however, is flexible in that it allows removal of the steam at
a desired level. For example, a refiner may choose to generate steam at a high
pressure, say 1500 psig, to maximize fuel efficiency in the generation of electricity.
The refinery doesn't want to also install other boilers to supply refinery steam at 600
psig. The extraction turbine is able to capture work from the steam as it passes
through the turbine, and then remove steam as required to meet the refinery 600 psig
steam demand
demand. Steam that is not required for the refinery continues on through the
rest of the turbine and is ultimately condensed. Extraction turbines can also be of
the back-pressure type.
Extraction turbines also provide a means of letting down steam from one pressure
level to another. This is a big advantage in efficiency if the only other method to
letdown steam is by using a control valve.

The induction turbine is almost the opposite of the extraction turbine. It removes
steam from the refinery header system. Typically the induction turbine is more
expensive because the steam removed from the system is at a lower pressure. As
stated earlier, low pressure steam requires a large volume and thus increases the
capital costs of the low pressure end of the turbine and of the condenser.
The induction turbine is a good way to balance the steam system. If there is too
much medium pressure steam in the steam system, instead of letting down the steam
through a control valve, we can induct the steam into the turbine and thus create
more electricity (or minimize high pressure steam flow into the front of the turbine
if the shaft work is constant).

The induction-extraction turbine is the best of both the induction and the extraction
turbine. This diagram shows induction and extraction happening at the same steam
level. In a refinery, you would typically see extraction at a medium or higher
pressure, and then induction at the lower steam pressure. This maximized the
efficiency and flexibility of the steam system. The turbine itself loses some
efficiency because of the internal turbulence and obstructions created for induction
and extraction.
With most large turbines, the load is either an electric generator supplementing the
electrical system or a very large process service that is critical to the entire refinery
and has very small load changes.

This is an example of how to calculate the steam rate of a steam heated exchanger.
The process duty has been given to use in this example. It should be noted the the
process side of this exchanger cannot rise above 350°F, otherwise heat transfer
would not occur. Using this fact, designers often increase the design pressure of
fractionation columns so they “pinch-out” and can reduce the size or eliminate relief
valves.
It is important to note that heat exchangers get their heat at constant temperature as
the steam is condensed. Also, almost all of the heat is latent heat. While there may
be some superheat in the steam, the percent of duty supplied by sensible heat is very
small.
There are many types of heat exchangers. The most prominent type is the shell and
t b heat
tube h t exchange,
h but
b t U-tube,
U t b double
d bl pipe,
i shell
h ll andd plate,
l t etc.,
t exchangers
h also
l
play their role.
Another “type” of heat exchanger is steam tracing. The steam tracing system can be
the largest steam user in the refinery.

The main users of steam in a process unit are probably heat exchangers and steam
turbines. Beyond this, steam is used in many processes for many different reasons.
Perhaps the common thread in these uses is that the steam is not turned into clean
condensate. It is either vented to atmosphere or is contaminated by sulfur.

Condensate has value in its heat content, its high quality (it has essentially no dissolved
solids), and its water content. Where water is expensive, there is a much higher incentive
to capture condensate.
Condensate should be recovered only if there is no oil contamination. Condensate from

steam turbines is inherently clean. Condensate from heat exchangers where the steam
pressure is greater than the oil temperature should also be clean. Condensate from heat
exchangers where the steam pressure is less than the oil pressure is potentially dirty, that is
the condensate will be contaminated if the
If condensate is at a high enough pressure, it may be returned directly to the storage tank or
the deaerator taking care to assure it is cool enough for the end point. Two phase flow
should be taken into account. Low pressure condensate may need to be flashed in a drum,
andd then
th pumpedd back
b k tot the
th tank.
t k
When there is an excess of low pressure steam, a steam condenser may be warranted. The
air cooled condenser should be justified economically by comparing the cost of the
condenser and the operating power requirements against the cost of larger water treatment
facilities and the value of water.
Condensate should have its own storage tank and set of pumps to supply it to the refinery
users.

It is possible for a multi-stage turbine to have extraction ports where steam is
removed from the turbine at the the pressure desired. This makes the turbine
somewhat less efficient than a multi-stage condensing turbine alone, but it allows
steam to be let down to lower pressures without losing the potential to perform
work.

As with the multi-stage turbine, we have an example of a turbine performance curve
that a vendor may provide. In this example, it is a multi-stage condensing turbine
with the option of extracting steam. The turbine runs at a constant load that is
typically set by a generator, and then steam is extracted to meet any process steam
demands. If we assume a constant load of 15000 kW and extract zero pounds of
steam, all the steam passing through the turbine is condensed. In the other extreme
case when a large fraction of the inlet steam is extracted, the turbine acts more like a
back pressure non-condensing turbine and very little steam is condensed.
condensed

This diagram is a simplified steam system, and shows how an extraction turbine is
used to efficiently balance the low pressure steam header. For this example, we will
assume the load on the turbine is an electric generator at a constant power
production.
In case A, the spare turbines using expanding MP steam to LP steam are turned off
reducing LP steam production by 25000 lb/h. At the same time, process units
generate steam at 50000 lb/h. The heat exchanger duty remains at 80000 lb/h hour.
In order to maintain the LP steam header pressure,
press re 30000 lb/h of steam is extracted
e tracted
from the turbine.
Case B has the process unit shut down and steam is not produced. Even more steam
must be extracted to meet the 80000 lb/h heat exchanger steam demand. Notice the
steam to the condenser is also reduced, but not reduced in the amount equal to that
of the extracted steam increase. The extraction steam increased by 50000 lb/h and
the condensed steam reduced by 30,000lb/h. This is because the section of the
turbine before the extraction point produces more power per pound of steam. You
should expect this since steam expanding from 600 psig to 50 psig releases more
energy than 50 psig to 1.5 psia. However, since less steam is passing through the
whole turbine, to maintain a constant power generation, the total steam to the
turbine was increased by 20000 lb/h.
Case C shows the flexibility of an extraction turbine. The extraction rate is reduced
to 5000 lb/h; however, the steam condensed has increased to 70000 lb/h. Building
operational flexibility requires sizing exchangers for excess capacity especially
when Case A is normal operation.

The fundamental principle behind heat recovery is simple: capture waste heat and
transfer it to a place where it can be 1) reused as space heat, or 2) vented to reduce
equipment overheating possibility. Heat is exhausted by the equipment and is in
turn captured in a ducting system and forced to another place using extraction fans
and damper controls. By introducing a water or air cooling system similar to an
aftercooler, heat can be recovered and used to heat hot water which, in turn, can be
used as process heat, space heat, or simply hot water for washing and cleaning.
There are many different instances and configurations for heat recovery. We will
see a number of examples in the following slides.

A familiar example is the use of additional heat exchanger surface between process
streams, preferably between interconnected steams; for example, reactor effluent
versus feed or fractionator product versus feed. The quantity of heat exchanged is
limited by any number of constraints, such as capital cost and increased pressure
drop, which raises operating costs of pumps and compressors, and reduced
flexibility and control of the process.
After a practical limit has been reached on heat exchanged between coupled or
interconnected streams, large quantities of heat may still be rejected to the
atmosphere in some systems, while other unassociated processes and offsite systems
require heat input at the useable level that is being lost. There are two choices. One
is to integrate or couple the systems together directly by running long lengths of
process piping, and the other is to use an independent vehicle such as steam
generated from the waste heat to move the recoverable heat to where it is needed.
The above example is for transferring heat from a condensing vapor to a vaporizing
liquid, as would happen in a steam reboiler. Most process heat exchangers would
probably be of the liquid to liquid type.

There are advantages and disadvantages to these choices. For example, use of steam
requires two sets of exchangers that, in the case of equal heat transfer coefficients,
means a minimum of four times the surface area is required. When the temperatures of
the source and sink are close together, it may be impractical to use a heat transfer fluid
because the two temperature differentials become so small. The main advantage offered
by using a heat transfer fluid is unit operability. The heat source and sink are indirectly
connected by steam, water, or a hot oil system that, together with a backup system,
should be able to accommodate the shutdowns,
shutdowns process changes,
changes and turndowns that
could upset directly coupled steams in unassociated units. A heat transfer fluid scheme
also facilitates distribution of heat collected from many small sources to larger sinks.
Some compromise must be made between integration and operability. Heat integration
has been an old standard practice with Fluid Catalytic Cracking and Gas concentration
units. Circulating oil stream are used to transfer heat from the main column, at a wide
range of temperature, to the gas concentration unit where the heat is used in strippers
and fractionators.
Heat integration must be handled with care. There must be some handle so that
required processing conditions are controllable. This control is either a demand for
outside heat,, or a rejection
j of heat from the units that can swingg with process
p changes.
g

A different type of integration involves two process units in series, where the
product from one unit becomes the feed to the other. A common example is a
naphtha hydrotreating integrated with a UOP Platforming process unit, where the
hydrotreating naphtha is fractionated to obtain the required initial boiling point for
the platforming unit feed. The splitter column bottoms product is the feed to the
Platforming unit reactor section. Close attention to the degree of exchange between
splitter column bottoms and feed is required for maximum economy.
If the fresh feed to the Platforming reactor section is high and there is not a feed
bottoms exchanger, the temperature to the reactor products condenser will be high.
This means that more heat must be rejected to the atmosphere in the reactor
products condenser. Since it is desirable to reduce the temperature of the reactor
effluent to products condenser, it is necessary to increase the heat exchanged
between the splitter column bottoms and the feed. This not only requires additional
surface in the splitter feed-bottoms exchanger, but also more surface in the
Platforming reactor feed-effluent exchanger to compensate for the colder feed
temperature. This, in turn, could increase gas compressor capital cost as well as add
to the cost of compression of the recycle gas. The consequence of increasing the
splitter feed-bottoms heat exchange is to effect a fuel savings by reducing the
splitter reboiler duty.

Too much feed preheat can have a detrimental effect on fractionation performance
of the splitter column which can be restored only by increasing reflux. Obviously, a
balance must be found for the right amount of feed-bottoms exchange.
Careful consideration of capital cost, energy consumption, and controllability must

be made before the most efficient and profitable way is chosen to connect the two
units.

There are many instances in the process industry where large quantities of heat at a
temperature too low to be useful is rejected to the atmosphere. Much attention has
been given to the potential for heat pumping, or raising the temperature of waste
heat to a useable level. UOP has designed fractionation facilities to separate
propane-propylene mixtures where a heat pump was used, and a comparison with a
conventional fractionation system is interesting.
A conventional fraction scheme for splitting propane-propylene is shown above.

The temperature of the cooling medium available (cooling water or air) has set the
minimum allowable pressure to run the column so that the overhead product can be
condensed. This fixes the top and bottom temperatures and the relative volatility,
from which the reflux rate and number of trays is calculated.

If a colder heat sink were available, the column pressure could be reduced, which
results in an increase in the relative volatility and a reduction in the reflux rate and
number of trays. A refrigerated column scheme is shown above.
The operating pressure has been lowered from 1800kPa to 620 kPa (90 psia), the
reflux ratio is reduced from 9 to 6.5, and the number of trays reduced from 216 to
170.

This scheme shows a classical heat pump scheme, where the overhead vapors are
compressed to a pressure where the propylene bubble point temperature exceeds the
temperature in the reboiler.
The operating condition of the column is the same as for the refrigerated condenser
case, but a considerable reduction in energy consumption has been achieved.

It is possible to design a reverse heat pump system as shown above. Here the
propane product is flashed to a lower pressure, where its dew point temperature is
lower than the bubble point temperature of the overhead vapor and is used as the
condensing medium.
The vaporized propane, after compression, supplies heat to the column. For the case
selected, this scheme shows lower power consumption than the classical heat pump
case.

The table summarizes the energy savings between the various schemes presented in
the last few slides. At first glance, the reverse heat pump requires the lowest
amount of utilities, but one must consider each case based on the situation. For
example, if a low pressure steam system or source of low level heat were available,
the conventional scheme may be viable.
The energy analysis must be related to what "crosses the fence". If the compressor
i motor driven,
is di 7,750 kW
k can be b added
dd d to the
h purchased
h d electricity,
l i i which
hi h is
i
equivalent to about $1.8 MM/per year where power costs 3c per kW. If the reboiler
heat requirement is to be supplied by firing fuel directly in a heater, the fuel cost
would be about $6.5 MM per year where fuel costs $2/GJ. However, 54°C (130°F)
is rather a low temperature to use a fired reboiler heater. In many places throughout
the refinery, heat is rejected to the environment at temperatures greater than the
required 54
54°CC (130°F).
(130 F). There may be condensing steam turbine duties that could be
switched to back pressure stream turbines exhausting at near atmospheric pressure
that would provide less expensive heat. It is impossible to say which scheme is
superior in a general sense. Each application must be considered within the
constraints and environment of a specific installation. The energy consumption and
costs are related to what "crosses the fence".

Besides compression, there are other methods available to increase the temperature
of waste heat. Perhaps the simplest way is to produce waste heat at a higher
temperature. Heat cascading distillation uses the latent heat of the fractionator
overhead vapor to reboil other associated columns in a fractionation train. In the
above example, we have three columns to reboil.
As currently shown, the column temperature is too close to use one of the process
streams to reboil or condense the others. However, we can raise the bubble point of
the overhead vapor by increasing the pressure of one of the columns. This,
unfortunately, lowers the relative volatility of the column, which means that more
reflux and trays are required. This, in turn, raises the reboiler duty. The benefit is
the other lower pressure columns are reboiled by condensing the overhead vapor
from the higher pressure column as shown in the next slide.

We have increased the pressure of the column with the duty of 67.22 MW (229.4
MMBtu/h), and increased the duty to 102.8 MW (350.7 MMBtu/h). The overhead
of the column has increased from 152ºC to 243ºC (306°F to 470°F), which is now
hot enough to provide thermal driving force for heat transfer.
Steam is generated as waste heat when the cascaded reboiler duties are smaller than
the overhead condensing duty. The steam generator also provides a sink to reject
heat and maintain the heat cascade system in control.
This type of system has been demonstrated commercially by UOP in several

aromatic complexes. In general, the xylene splitter overhead vapors were used to
reboil two columns in the UOP Parex Process unit. Although particularly suited
well for aromatics processing, this technique or its variants could give significant
savings
i in
i many applications
li ti and,
d in
i fact,
f t has
h shown
h consistently
i t tl better
b tt economicsi
than heat pumping schemes when fractionating higher boiling materials.

This slide summarizes the economic advantages of the cascaded heat. The
difference between the total fuel combusted is 46 MW (158 MMBtu/h) less than the
conventional method and waste heat in the form of steam is generated. Are there
any cases when the conventional method would be used over the heat cascaded
system?
Recall, we had a special case where the temperatures of the columns were all very
close
l andd part off a distillation
di ill i train.
i By elevating
l i the h temperature off the
h largest
l
column, we we able to cascade the heat. If the columns must operate independently
of each other, the conventional reboilers might fit better into the processing scheme.
We also assumed the steam generated has a user and a positive value. If the steam
generated was useless, the scheme still uses less fuel and might be used however the
h t might
heat i ht be
b rejected
j t d in
i a cooler.
l

The single largest consumption of energy in refineries is the combustion of fuel in process
heaters to transfer heat directlyy to pprocess streams. Since combustion is simply
p y another
chemical reaction, it would make sense to look closely at the combustion of fuel with the
same techniques employed for process units.
A first law, or waste heat analysis, of a fired heater usually compares heater performance
by defining a combustion efficiency:
% Eff. = Process Duty x 100 / H of fuel used at 15ºC (60ºF )
Given complete combustion, the most important parameter affecting heater efficiency is
the temperature of the flue gas leaving the heat absorbing section. This temperature is
limited by the inlet temperature of the coldest fluid being heated or by the dew point of the
flue gas. If the fuel is low in sulfur, and if the primary fluid has a high heater inlet
temperature, a secondary fluid requiring heat at a lower temperature can be used to lower
the stack gas temperature. The secondary fluid can be another process fluid, steam, boiler
feed water, or the ambient temperature combustion air.
Adding an air preheater is the most direct way to lower the fuel firing in process heaters.
Air ppreheaters improve
p efficiencyy without tying
y g together
g unassociated pprocess streams or
using the steam system. Also, generating steam at pressures lower than the boiler plant
pressure is not as efficient as using an air preheater. An air preheater of any type requires a
forced draft fan. This liability ( if a forced draft fan was not already included) can be
turned into an asset by providing positive flow control of the combustion air for maximum
efficiency.
This is a detailed example of system in which air preheating is applied. The
absorbed duty and inlet air temperature remain constant. The amount of excess air
is reduced when fans are used because it provides a direct means of controlling the
combustion air.
The result is a tighter control on the amount of air and preheated air. The next two
slides that follow itemize the benefit in percentage point improvement in efficiency
b reducing
by d i the h excess air
i andd by
b preheating
h i the h air.
i Theh totall percentage point
i
increase in efficiency in the above example was 14.5.
Note here that the furnace duty is 83 MMBtu/h (24 MW). Air preheaters are
typically economical only when the furnace duty is beyond 40 to 70 MMBtu/h (12
to 21 MW). With small duties, you still save fuel, but the return on investment will
b small.
be ll

In the previous example, before adding the preheat system, the furnace used 30%
excess air. Compared to operating at the 10% excess air reference point, the furnace
is giving up 2.86 percentage points of efficiency. When the air is reduced to 15%,
as is the case with the air preheat system, we now only give up 0.65 percentage
points of efficiency compared to the 10% excess air reference.
If we take the difference between the 2.86 and 0.65, we find an improvement of
2.21 percentage points increase in efficiency. This 2.21 percentage point increase is
the direct result of reducing the amount of excess air. The contribution of
preheating the combustion air is shown on the following page.

Recall that the total increase in efficiency by adding the air preheat package was
14.5 percentage points. Approximately 2.2 of those points were the result of
reducing the excess air. The contribution of preheating the air should be nearly 12.3
percentage points as determined by these charts.
The initial combustion air temperature was 80F (26.7C), and finding this point on
the graph by extrapolating the line, we can assume a fuel savings of zero percentage
points. Because the stack gas temperature is 815F (435C), we are able to preheat
the air up to 660F (349C). Again, we must extrapolate the line to the 660F mark
on graph. Note that we have an approximate 12.3 percentage point decrease in fuel
use, which is a 12.3 percentage point increase in efficiency.
Air preheat is a very effective way to directly improve the efficiency of a fire heater.
H
However, th
there are some limitations
li it ti that
th t mustt be
b considered
id d when h designing
d i i an air i
preheater.

Often the amount of sulfur in the stack gas creates a lower limit on the temperature
of the outlet stack gas. As mentioned earlier, we want to keep the stack gas above
the acid dew point, otherwise the preheat system is subjected to a corrosive
environment.
This graph shows that a furnace using fuels low in sulfur can cool the stack gas
temperatures further than when using high sulfur fuels. You may have heard of the
term “cold end corrosion.” Cold end corrosion occurs when the colder inlet air
cools the hot stack gas below its acid dew point, usually at the inlet to the air
preheater. This is especially a problem in colder climates. To protect against this
problem, low pressure steam heating coils are used to preheat the combustion air
before the stack gas heat exchange. There is some loss in heat transfer efficiency
because of the hotter air entering the preheater but, with an extra surface area, the
same quantity of heat is absorbed.

The above slide is a schematic example of an air preheater application. The preheat
system includes a forced draft fan to supply the combustion air to the burners, and the
induced draft fan pulls the combustion stack gas from the furnace through the heater and
to the stack.
The induced draft fan is placed after the preheater to minimize the temperature design
requirements. In this example, the furnace fire box operates under positive pressure.
Furnaces are designed to operate if the forced draft or induced draft fan fails by installing
a full size stack capable of creating the draft required for operation.
There are many types of air preheaters. The two main classes include the recuperative
and regenerative air heaters. In a recuperative heater, heat is transferred continuously
through stationary solid heat transfer surfaces. The most common is probably the tubular
air
i heater.
h t With this,
thi the
th hot
h t flue
fl gases pass through
th h the
th tubes
t b whilehil the
th cold
ld air
i passes
over the tubes. Plate and frame heaters are also used as are heat pipes.
With regenerative heaters, heat is transferred indirectly as a heat storage medium is

alternatively exposed to hot and cold flow streams. The most common type consists of a
cylindrical shell with many radial plates. The shell is rotated slowly by a drive motor,
allowing the plates to be warmed by the flue gas and then cooled by the air.
air The ducting
for the air and flue gas are stationary.

Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of heat and work. As we will see, this
is generally thought of as the production of electrical power and steam. It can also
be thought of as the concept of producing work, as a by-product, whenever the
principal concern is the transfer of heat through large temperature differentials.
Although the combustion efficiency of a conventional furnace is high, the

thermodynamic efficiency is low. This is because of the transfer of heat from the
hot flame at 1400-1600°C (2500-3000°F) to a process fluid at relatively low
temperatures 260-540°C (500-1000°F). The high potential of the flame is lost
through the irreversible process of heat transfer. The concept of cogeneration
employs a heat engine to transfer heat from the flame to work on the process.
For a topping cycle, the heat engine utilizes the high temperature potential of the
fl
flame as the
th heat
h t source andd the
th process fluid
fl id as the
th heat
h t sink.
i k For
F a bottoming
b tt i
cycle, the process fluid is the high temperature heat source and the environment is
the low temperature heat sink.

In a topping cycle, the heat engine operates between the high temperature flame and
the process fluid. The heat engine is a gas turbine, diesel engine, or steam turbine as
shown above. For the steam turbine, the process fluid will be at a relatively cold
temperature.

In the bottoming cycle, the heat engine operates between the process fluid and the
low temperature atmospheric sink as shown above (in the upper part of the
drawing). In this example, low pressure steam has been employed in a power cycle.
Other fluids might also be used. Since the heat may be lower level heat, the
resulting steam may be low pressure.
Those familiar with low pressure piping know that it can be quite large. As a result,
the practical matters of using the bottoming cycle depends on the temperatures of
the process fluid, which affect the ultimate size and equipment selection of the
power recover system.

When these new elements are incorporated, the processing system takes on a new
appearance as shown above. In modern refineries, this is the typical layout.
Electrical power generation not only improves the thermal efficiency of the refinery,
but provides a reliable power source when local power systems are unstable.
In the United States, most refineries were originally built without topping cycles
because the electrical distribution system was reliable and because electrical
distribution was regulated. With the introduction of laws such as PURPA, that
required utility companies to purchase power from cogenerators, and the current
deregulation of electrical utility system, topping cycles have become and will
continue to become more popular in U.S. refineries.
The refiners will also find that, as the general public's demand for electrical power
i
increases, the
th currentt distribution
di t ib ti systems
t become
b more andd more inadequate,
i d t
particularly in the summer. Refineries can see large profits by providing electric
power to themselves and to the public.

Here we see a topping cycle with a simple cycle gas turbine that rejects the exhaust
gas to heat a process fluid. In this case, the gas turbine drives an electrical
generator. Gas turbines can also be used to drive large compressors.
This case uses considerably more fuel than the conventional heater without air
preheat because large amounts of excess air are required to drive the turbine. This
fuel is converted into electrical power, however, so that the overall efficiency is
improved.
An air preheater can not be used in this system. Preheating the air upstream of the
gas turbine's compressor decreases the efficiency of the turbine cycle and reduces
overall mass flow through the turbine.

The stack gases in the previous example were still hot. They can be used to supply
some lower temperature heat to a different fluid. If the stack gas is cooled from
340°C (644°F) to 150°C (302°F), then 32.9 MW (112.38 MM Btu/h) will be made
available for exchange. So by adding extra heat recovery equipment, the overall
efficiency of the system increases.
In this example, we see the flue gas heating BFW before going to a steam generator
at some other location. Medium pressure steam could also be produced.
Superheated high pressure steam could not be produced because the gas temperature
is below the normal temperature of the HP steam (which is typically 750F).

Shown above is another adaptation of the base simple cycle gas turbine. As
mentioned the gas turbine uses large amounts of excess air. This air can be used as
combustion air in a furnace to produce more heat. This refiring, sometimes call
auxiliary firing or supplemental firing, can be very efficient. For steam generators
downstream of the turbine, efficiencies of greater than 100% are common.
The gas turbine is based loaded to a point that ensures adequate oxygen availability
for the auxiliary fuel to freely swing to maintain process control. This scheme
easily accommodates the condition of continuing operation even when the turbine is
down for maintenance. A forced draft fan would probably be required.

An application of a bottoming cycle that has been quite successful is the power
recovery unit on a Fluid Catalytic Cracking unit. The FCC regenerator can be
thought of as the front half of a gas turbine. Air is compressed and used to burn off
the coke deposited on the catalyst. The complete combustion of the coke raises the
flue gas temperature well over 650°C (1200°F) and the hot gas is discharged from
the regenerator.
The flue gas is at such a high temperature leaving the regenerator that the recovery
of this heat, usually with steam generation, is almost universally practiced. The
steam generated is then used to drive rotating equipment such as the air blower and
the wet gas compressor. The amount of work that can be produced depends upon
the pressure and temperature of the steam. The thermodynamic efficiency of the
process is greatly improved by employing a hot gas expander ahead of the heat
recovery equipment. The expander produces sufficient shaft work to drive the air
blower thus completing the gas turbine cycle.

We end our discussion on heat integration with a brief discussion of a hot oil system.
One central furnace supplies heat to a circulating organic liquid that supplies the
various process heat requirements to the individual exchangers.
The hot oil functions much like steam. The hot oil is generated in a single 'boiler'
and is then piped throughout the process units as required. Its advantage over steam
is its ability to provide high temperature heat (up to ~ 700°F). For steam to heat at
this temperature, the pressure would need to be over 2,000 psig (assuming that the
steam would heat using its latent heat at its saturation temperature and not sensible
heat).
In the above example, the process absorption rate is set at 36.6 MW (125 MM
Btu/h), and the circulating liquid picks up 7.3 MW (25 MM Btu/h) from waste heat
sources. The
Th heater
h t mustt supply l 29.3
29 3 MW (100 MM Btu/h)
Bt /h) to
t heat
h t the
th oil
il from
f
260-340°C (500 to 644°F).
Control valves downstream of exchanger are acceptable but this often leads to
installation of safety valves at each exchanger. Placing control valves upstream of
exchanger allows a free path back to the hot oil surge drum ( not shown above) and
allows use of single common safety valve.
valve

UOP’s Default hot oil is Therminol 66 made by Solutia. Other companies make
good hot oils. Dow, for example, makes Dowtherm RP. Sasol makes the
Marlotherm line. Each of the major producers has a line of fluids for the exact
situation.
UOP recommends the use of a synthetic hot oil for applications where the hot oil
supply temperature is above 550°F. Below 500°F, a non-synthetic is fine and the
higher cost of a synthetic is not warranted. In between, there is a gray area with an
increased need to go synthetic as the temperature gets hotter.
Hot Oils will degrade after prolonged exposure to high temperatures. If system is
operated well at a temperature about 20°F below its max temperature rating, a good
synthetic will generally get 20+ years of life before needing a complete system
change.
h N t minor
Note i makeup
k is
i expected
t d on an ongoing
i basis.
b i

Use of a simulation tool is beneficial. The individual users will be merged together
to get total flow and then bulk heater inlet temperature.
Hot oil pumps can be quite large. It may be beneficial to have 3 @ 50% instead of
2 @ 100%. The issue is mainly cost, although 3 @ 50% may allow better
operations.
Similarly, the pump discharge pressure needs to be optimized so that you don’t
waste utilities, but so you can get all users with good controllability. Note that the
most distant user does not necessarily dictate pump ∆P.

We will be discussing cogeneration, gas turbines, heat recovery steam generators
(HRSGs) and software in the next few slides.

Gas turbines have come a long way in the last 20 years. The materials of
construction, particularly for the turbine blades, have improved such that the gas
temperatures are much higher. The higher gas temperatures allow for higher
efficiencies through lower heat input rate.
General Electric, the leading GTG manufacturer, publishes the "GE Turbine State of
the Art Technology Seminar." It is an excellent source on the latest in gas turbine
technology
As we have seen, cogeneration facilities can include gas turbines with tail end
process furnaces. Other examples include:
• p
power pplants that use regular
g boilers but that use backpressure
p turbines instead
of condensing turbines so that they can export their steam
• a diesel generator that exhausts heat to a building's heating system

Gas turbine generators (GTG's) and heat-recovery steam generators (HRSG's) can
now be found in virtually every chemical plant and now in many refineries. They
can be operated in either the cogeneration mode or the combined-cycle mode. In
the cogeneration mode, steam produced from the HRSG is mainly used for process
applications, whereas in the combined-cycle mode, power is generated via a steam
turbine generator.
Gas turbines have several advantages as a power source. The following are some
key advantages:
• Started up very quickly

• Power outputs can range from 1 MW to 300 MW
• Relativelyy easyy to assemble and erect
• Efficiencies of 25% to 35% for the simple cycle itself
• Require little cooling water compared to steam condensers
The above diagram shows a typical co-generation plant layout.
In the
h combined-cycle
bi d l mode,
d theh power generating
i efficiency
ffi i off the
h combined
bi d gas
turbine and HRSG system can be as high as 60% on the LHV basis. In the
cogeneration mode, system thermal efficiency can be 80% (or more).

The above photo is a cut-away view of a gas turbine. The gas turbine is essentially
a jet engine. There are two main types of gas turbines, aeroderivatives and
industrial turbines. The industrial turbines are more robust, with stronger materials
that provide longer lifespans. The aeroderivatives are essentially ground based jet
engines. They are light weight which allows them to have greater efficiency.
Utility companies like to purchase used jet engines to generate peak loads. Long
life spans are not as critical. For most refinery applications, however, industrial
turbines should be used.
used
The gas turbine is an air breathing engine that responds to the mass flow entering its
compressor. For constant speed units, the gas turbine output will generally vary in
proportion to the inlet air temperature (density). The gas turbine output may be
enhanced at high ambient temperatures and low humidity levels by application of an
evaporative cooler. This system decreases the compressor inlet temperature by the
chilling effect of evaporating water introduced into the inlet air flow upstream of the
compressor.

Burning heavy ash fuels has occurred on numerous machines in Saudi Arabia. For
example, at one plant, 16 Frame 7E machines have run continuously on crude at a
firing temperature of 1740F (949C) for the past twenty years. The fuel, light
Arabian crude, has 10 to 30 ppm vanadium. It is washed on site and a magnesium
additive is introduced. Turbine base heating is normal, and the units start and stop
on the crude fuel.
The above photo shows the gas turbine blades. Note how they get larger as the gas
expands

The above is the fuel combustor which reduces nitrogen oxide (NOx) and carbon
monoxide. These are often called “cans”. There might be 10-12 cans around the
circumference of the gas turbine's combustion section.
The multiple nozzles will enter into operation as needed based on gas turbine load.
At full speed no load conditions ( i.e. when the gas turbine is running but not
producing any power), perhaps a third of the nozzles will be used. Control valves
regulate the flow of fuel to the nozzles.

Maintenance is a large part of gas turbine design. The rotor design is a bolted
construction made up of forged compressor and turbine wheels, distance pieces,
spacers, and stub shafts. The most critical component in this rotor are the turbine
wheels, because of the combined conditions of elevated temperatures, and the
requirement for strength and toughness.
Further, unlike the aircraft gas turbine, these 4 wheels are of very large diameter and
sectional thickness. For this reason, extensive use of steel wheels has been made in
heavy-duty gas turbine design.

Water injection is an effective way to reduce NOx exhaust emissions. There are two
areas of caution in the design of this system which must be considered. First is the
dynamic effect that water injection has on the combustion zone in terms of flame
stability and dynamic pressures. Inadequate design could adversely affect hardware
life. Also, the rate of CO emissions increases with the rate of water injection. It is
also not effective in reducing organic NOx emissions and may actually contribute to
it.
The characteristics of gas turbine emissions must be considered for each application,
since each is unique to the turbine, installation, fuel, and operation. All of these
factors are important in matching the gas turbine to the job.
Steam can also be injected to control NOx. Further large amounts of steam can be
i j t d to
injected t augmentt power generation.
ti A gas turbine
t bi hash its
it highest
hi h t generating
ti
capacity in the winter when the air is cold and dense. In the summer, the air is warm
and not as dense so that the turbine's mass throughput is reduced. Steam makes up
for the mass deficit to keep power loads constant. Steam injection can also be used
in winter, up to the turbines power limitations which are usually dictated by the shaft
thickness.
Steam injection is an alternative to the evaporative cooler discussed earlier. One

nice feature about steam injection is that the cold climate refinery does not have as
large of a steam load in the summer so that steam is available.

The HRSG can be a major part of the steam system. In many locations, HRSG steam
represents the majority of the utility steam production.
The HRSG generates steam from energy in the exhaust of the gas turbine. The exhaust is hot
enough, usually, to generate refinery HP steam. Additional HP steam can be made with
supplemental firing. A set of burners is placed in the ducting between the GTG and the HRSG
to fire the GTG's excess air.
In most places, the GTG and the HRSG are operated as a single train. Some plants have the
capability of producing steam when the gas turbine is shutdown. This is done using a separate
forced-draft fan along with a burner to generate hot gases, which are then used to generate
steam. An isolating damper system(by-pass damper) with seal air fans is required in these units
to ensure that hot gases do not leak to the fan when the gas turbine is running and that
maintenance
i t can be
b performed
f d on the
th gas turbine
t bi whenh the
th fresh
f h airi is
i operating.
ti
Other plants have the capability of running the GTG when the HRSG is out of service. Similar
damper systems are required, with either extra ducting or a separate stack. Steam generators
are subject to downtime due to local inspection or mechanical problems like tube failures.
If power generation or steam generation is a necessity, serious thought should be given to

adding the extra equipment described.

Extended surfaces such as the finned tubes of LP superheater elements in HRSG are
widely used. They are also used in other superheaters, evaporators, and economizer.
The reason is the large surface area required in these systems as a result of the low
pinch and approach points and the low log mean temperature differences at the
various heating surfaces. Extended surfaces make the HRSG design very compact.
Lower gas pressure drops can be achieved with extended surfaces than with bare
tubes. For evaporators and economizers with clean gas streams, such as exhaust
from natural gas fired gas turbines, fin densities of 5 fins per inch are recommended.
Fin heights can vary from 0.5 inches to one inch. The fin thickness is typically from
0.05 inches to 0.075 inches. A low fin density is recommended for superheaters due
to their low tube side heat transfer coefficient.

Today, most plants utilize some type of software package either for the
planning/design and/or the operation of a cogeneration plant. The above example
shows a cogeneration plant operated at a university. The key components are shown
on the screen. Usually, the key flowrates, pressures, and temperatures are shown. If
more detailed information is required, separate screens can be brought up for flow
rates as well as temperatures.
This cogeneration system is producing high pressure, medium pressure, and low
pressure steam. The generation of steam at two or three pressure levels increases
overall efficiency but increases total installed cost and operating complexity. Most
refinery based HRSG's produce steam at only a single pressure level.
GTPro/GTMaster is an example of a software package for the planning/basic design

off a cogeneration
ti plant.
l t It is
i a powerful
f l tool,
t l with
ith the
th capability
bilit to
t model
d l
essentially every gas turbine on the market.

The above photograph shows the gas turbine foundation in the background and the
completed HRSG foundation in the foreground.

The above photos show the stack foundation and the steel chimney sections which
will be mounted on the stack foundation.
Air flow and combustion gases in steam generating units require a supply of proper
amounts of combustion air and to remove the gaseous combustion products. This
flow, confined to ducts, boiler settings, heat exchangers, flues, and stacks is created
and sustained by stacks and fans. Either the stack alone or a combination of stack
and fans must produce the required pressure differential for the flow. Draft is
designed static pressure in a furnace, air or gas passage, or stack. There are four
categories of draft:
Forced Draft - By use of a force draft fan
Induced Draft - By the use of an induced draft fan
Balanced Draft - Point in the system when the draft is zero
Natural Draft - A pressure differential caused by gravity. In this case, a difference

in density between the hot gas in the stack and the colder air of the surrounding
atmosphere results in a negative pressure, or natural draft at the stack entrance.

The above diagram is a power generation facility. This facility produces power
from both a gas turbine, HRSG, and boiler/steam turbine production. The #6 fuel
oil is being used for the boiler, while the gas turbine is utilizing natural gas from a
pipe line.
Boilers hang from reinforced steel joists in the boiler house which are like big
hollow boxes. The boiler house is 220m long, 60m high, and 55m wide. The boiler
walls are formed by 51 kilometers of 6.25cm bore tubing. Inside these tubes,
extremely
t l pure water
t isi converted
t d by
b heat
h t into
i t steam
t att high
hi h pressure. The
Th steam
t is
i
then super-heated to 568C. A modern 500 MW boiler can consume over 200 tons
of coal per hour and is capable of delivering 1,522,727 kgs of steam per hour at a
pressure of 1967 x 10-4 Pascal's.
To transfer large quantities of steam from the boiler to the turbine, the steam must
travel at very high speeds (200-300 Km/hr). In case of problems, the steam flow
must be halted immediately. This is done by placing a valve close to the turbine.
The valve's hydraulic systems ensure that it can close in a fraction of a second,
ensuring that the turbine does not over speed.
As temperatures rise and fall, the pipes expand and contract and, therefore, cannot
be too solidly enclosed. To allow expansion, pipes must be shaped so that internal
stresses do not cause buckling. This can be done by providing loops in the pipe.
The amount by which a pipe expands depends on its length. A 100m pipe, having
its temperature increased by 500C would expand by approximately 0.5 meter
(1/200th of its length).

Energy systems is one of the most important subjects to a refinery. This section
includes a description of a refinery steam system, actual determination of steam
turbine efficiency of both a single-stage and multi-stage turbine, thermal analysis of
major energy equipment, energy optimization and determining the cost of fuel and
steam.
Electricity is mostly produced in power stations, using large generators usually

poweredd by
b steam. The h steam is
i raised
i d by
b burning
b i coal, l oil,
il andd gas or from
f the
h
heat of nuclear reactions. Some generators are driven by gas turbines or diesel
engines, others by water and wind power. A generator is a machine which produces
electricity from mechanical energy when a magnet is turned inside a fixed coil of
wire. In a power station, the generator used is a powerful electromagnet (a rotor)
which is turned inside a “coil” of copper bars (a stator).
The generator is turned by the turbine, the blades of which are driven by jets of
steam provided by a boiler. After passing through the turbine, the steam is
condensed (turned into water) by passing it over pipes of cold water in the
condensers. The condensed steam (water) is pumped back to the boiler to be turned
back into steam. The water for the condenser comes from a river or the sea and is
cooled in coolingg towers ppumped
p directlyy back to source without cooling.g

It is key to design for energy efficiency during the early stages of a project.
Benchmarking is typically done using an energy index. It is a numerical number
that indicates the overall efficiency of a site relative to a standard. Most refineries
fall within a range of 80-120.

The energy index is calculated by adding the energy of natural gas import, refinery
fuel gas and fuel oil burned, imported electricity and other fuel burned such as
Delayed Coker Coke, Refinery Fuel Oil, etc.

The above formulas should be used to calculate the EI for either a process unit or
for the whole refinery.

The following table shows standard energy for a number of process units. This
chart shows that the hydrocracker uses about six times the amount of energy that a
vacuum unit uses per barrel of feed to the unit.

The overall energy index is calculated by summing all of the process energy factors
multiplied by the feed rate.

Solomon EII is the worldwide accepted metric for a refinery’s energy efficiency.
The intent of these indices is to have a consistent basis for comparison energy
performance between refineries.

EI can also be calculated on a per unit basis as shown above.
Actual energy may include other utilities such as instrument air, or boiler feedwater
used for heating.

This is an example of a diesel hydrotreater. Since the EI is 83.9 the unit is running
very good since 100 is considered the standard.

The above chart shows the benchmarked energy to the actual energy consumed in a
number of process units. The red is the benchmarked energy and the blue bar is the
actual energy.

The above are examples of issues that can raise EI.

A recurring theme when conserving energy is that energy conservation costs capital.
To justify the capital, a refiner must know their utility costs. It is easy to know the
cost when the utilities are purchased from an outside provider. Electricity is the
most common utility purchased, but refineries typically produce their own steam,
cooling water, instrument air, etc.
When performing energy audits and studies, we must determine the costs of
i
internally
ll generatedd electricity
l i i andd steam (as
( well ll as other
h utilities,
ili i butb here
h we
focus only on steam and power), and use these costs as the economic drivers for
energy conservation. The following slides makeup an example that can be applied
to your site, allowing you to determine your steam and power costs.

To determine the cost of generating steam, we require the amount of energy required
to convert boiler feed water into steam. This is generated from the properties found
in the steam tables.

We know that we cannot transfer 100% of the energy of combustion to the boiler
feed water, so we must adjust the energy requirement based on the efficiency of the
boiler. There are several ways the efficiency of the boiler is determined. Be sure
you are using the efficiency that determines the amount of fuel per pound of steam
generated. Some efficiencies may be sited as total boiler efficiencies that include
energy expended for forced draft or induced draft fans that may use steam turbines
as their drivers.
The cost of fuel is typically the purchase price for the fuel on a lower combustion
heat basis. If the fuel being used is not purchased, often an equivalent heating value
is determined based on the local market and the cost of fuel in that local market.
Alternatively, the fuel cost can be set equal to the sales price of the refinery
produced fuel being burned in the boiler that would have otherwise been sold on the
world-wide
world wide market.
The difference between lower heating value (net) and higher heating value (gross)
of the fuel should be taken into account. In this example, the difference is taken into
account in the boiler efficiency.

From the fuel required and its cost to produce the steam, an incremental cost for
high pressure steam is determined. This cost does not consider raw water treatment,
pumping, and any capitalized costs.
This method only determines the fuel component to the steam cost. A more detailed
incremental cost could be determined if the pumping and treating costs were known.
These costs typically are around 10-25% of the total steam cost.

The next step is to determine the cost of electricity. Assume that a steam turbine
generator with an air temperature of 80F and a condensing temperature of 125F is
being used for this refinery.

First, determine the theoretical steam rate. The efficiency of the turbine is then used
to adjust the theoretical steam rate to that of the actual steam rate. It would be
possible to determine these directly from the instrumentation in the field, but it is
good engineering practice to check the values with an alternate method.
We have ignored the cost of cooling water and other associated utilities. The refiner
should, however, reflect all utility costs in determining the cost of power.
In this example, we calculate the cost of power assuming that the power is generated
on site with condensing steam turbines. Obviously, the cost of power is known if it
is purchased from an outside source. If power is generated on site with gas turbines
or some other driver, the equations will be different.

If we produce low pressure steam by letting it down through a turbine, the cost of
steam is actually less than high pressure steam because we were able to extract work
from the steam, instead of using electricity. As done previously, the theoretical
steam rate is determined and, from the efficiency, the actual steam rate is found.
Note that here we use a lower efficiency. While the efficiency difference is
probably not exact, it reflects qualitatively that condensing turbines are more
efficient
ffi i thanh backpressure
b k turbines
bi andd that
h the
h very large
l turbines
bi usedd to make
k
electricity are more efficient than the smaller turbines used in the process portions
of the refinery.

From the actual steam rate, the energy extracted in kWh per unit of steam
(1000lb/h) is determined. In the above example, extracting steam at 55 psig for a 50
psig header from a 67% efficient turbine starting at 600 psig produces 40.3 kWh of
electricity or shaft work per 1000 pounds of steam.

The cost of high pressure steam and electricity is known. Using these the values,
the work extracted is determined. The reason for the electricity comparison is, if
steam were not available, we would have used electricity as the energy source for
the shaft work.
So, for an equivalent amount of shaft work, there is $2.06 worth of electricity saved
per 1000lb of extracted steam. This $2.06/1000lb is then subtracted from the cost of
hi h pressure steam to determine
high d i theh value
l off low
l pressure steam at 50 psig.i This
hi
analysis can be repeated for all the steam pressures in the refinery.

The cost of using one cost unit of utility for one year, assuming 8760 hours per year
is shown above. At first glance, it looks as though electricity is extremely
inexpensive compared to steam.
However, if steam is used as a condensing service to heat a process, for each 1000
pound of high pressure steam condensed, 1.083 MM Btu (0.273 MMkcal) of energy
is transferred. To transfer the same amount of heat using electricity required 317.4
k h The
kWh. h result
l is
i electricity
l i i usedd for
f heating
h i forf one year costs $141,876
$ per year.

In this section, we will discuss an energy efficiency checklist for thermal energy
conservation. The list provides ideas and areas for you to focus on energy
conservation in your particular plant.
The above photograph shows the convection section of a fired-heater.

Another way to recover additional waste heat is to generate steam instead of air
cooling the stream. By integrating large heat train groups together, such as the
crude and vacuum unit, the refiner can increase thermal energy efficiency.
Before integrating, the refiner needs to look at startup and shut down scenarios very
closely. Additional equipment may be needed for startup.

As discussed previously, cogeneration should also be considered. Cogeneration is
using gas turbines and heat recovery steam generators for large users or to generate
electricity for the refinery. As shown, cogeneration is much more efficient than
using steam turbine drives alone.

Additional ways to reduce heat loss from equipment are practical ones. For
example, increasing the piping and vessel insulation thickness reduces heat loss.
When designing storage tanks, the decision to insulate and not to insulate depends
on the cost of the installation and the cost of the steam to heat the storage tank. But,
if trying to maximize thermal efficiency, insulating the last few tanks may be
necessary.
Many times
i the
h heating
h i andd coolingli off buildings
b ildi iis a bi
big energy consumer. We often
f
overlook building as a source of energy savings. A very real source of saving can be
found by designing buildings to conserve energy. If possible, try to integrate the
heating and cooling system with excess heat in a refinery.
One interesting story from UOP is that the administration Building A at the Des
Pl i
Plaines campus is
i heated
h t d only
l by
b electric
l t i heat.
h t Management
M t wanted
t d to
t save energy
and decided to have the lights throughout the building turned off at night. It was
discovered that no real energy saving occurred because the heat generated from the
lighting system supplied heat for the building in the winter months. Building
systems are complex and should not be overlooked, or thought of too simplistically.

One method of conserving energy, which is often assumed or overlooked, is
insulation. Insulation for its very name saves energy. However, because we live in
an economically driven society, we have limitations on how much insulation is
practical.
There is a balance between cost of insulation and the cost of energy. This tank
example shows that 4 inches of insulation on the sides of the tank and 2 inches of
i l i on the
insulation h top off the
h tankk minimize
i i i theh totall cost.
Deciding whether to insulate or not is the simple question. It is more difficult to

determine how much insulation is economically optimum. To determine this, you
must know the local labor costs, material costs, and fuel costs.

Using more efficient rotating equipment can reduce the overall power requirements.
This relates to pumps, compressors, steam turbines, gas turbines, and electric
motors.
There have been a number of articles written recently regarding high efficiency
electric motors. The high efficiency motors may be 5 to 10 percentage points more
efficient. If operated full time, these motors have a payback period of about two
years. Additionally,
ddi i ll the h motors have
h a muchh longer
l life.
lif

While reducing cooling water circulation rates will save energy, the refiner needs to
be aware that heat exchanger minimum velocity requirements and maximum
cooling water temperatures must still be met.
If a certain heat exchanger heats cooling water from only, say, 90°F to 100°F, then
the cooling water still has about 20 Fahrenheit degrees of cooling ability left. Use
this water to cool another process service. The second process service will need to
b one that
be h does
d not needd to be
b cooled
l d to as low
l a temperature.

Minimizing electrical distribution losses can be substantial in electrical system
design. Using a more efficient lighting system can reduce total electrical needs in a
refinery. Increasing steam utilization by a more efficient turbine (such as a
multistage rather than a single stage) can increase efficiency. The above photo is a
13.8 kV high voltage switch gear.

Not allowing more pressure drop in the lines will make the refinery more energy
efficient. As discussed in a separate section, reducing instrument air consumption is
an easy way to increase energy conservation.

The above shows how to reduce product losses with proper instrumentation. This
includes using on-line analyzers which may be IR. Also, feed forward controls may
result in less reblending of products which will ultimately save energy.

As discussed in the tankage seminar, using floating roof tanks can save a lot of
product. This savings is due to the fact that the emissions are about 95% less than in
a cone roof tank.

The above photo shows a sour water stripper.
UOP has many processes which will optimize pollution abatement design.
Monitoring overall energy conversation will help reduce environmental discharges
from the refinery.

The above slide is a review of how to calculate the brake horsepower of a pump
given the flow rate, pressure rise, and pump efficiency.
To get a normal brake horsepower from rated brake horsepower, the above equation
is a good method for approximation.

In this example, water is being pumped from the treated water tank to a deaerator at
the other side of the refinery. Using pump data sheets, you can determine the
efficiency of the pump at the flowing conditions. In this case, assume the efficiency
is 72%, and the differential remains constant, independent of the flow rate.
Note that the P here is not typical for the service, but is contrived to get a 100 HP
load for the turbine example to follow.

Substituting our flow rate and pressure rise for the pump, calculate the rate and normal
brake horsepower requirements.
The expression below is the previous equation substituting the values for normal and
rated flows. This equation approximates a pump curve when one is not available.
norm bhp = rated bhp x [(norm gpm + design gpm)/ (2 x design gpm)]
90.9 x (325 + 433)/(2 x 433)
If we were selecting a motor driver, we would do so as follows:
1) Take the pump's rated bhp and add ten percent to get the minimum motor size.
2) Round the result up to the next available motor size.
The power usage is then
Power Usage = ( Rated bhp / Motor ) x 0.746

0 746 kw/hp

This schematic shows the turbine coupled to the pump. Shown are the steam header
conditions. The reason the steam outlet temperature is unknown is that the outlet
temperature of a turbine is related to its efficiency.
The ultimate goal is to determine how much steam is required at rated and normal
operation. By performing these calculations, the outlet steam temperature will also
be known.

The method of using vendors curves is accurate and useful when the curves are
available. Often these curves are not available and other methods can be used. The
Cameron Hydraulic Data Book, Section 5, is a good source for approximate turbine
efficiencies. The Gas Processors Suppliers Association Engineering Data Book,
Section 15, also has good information.
Single stage turbines are regularly available up to 2500 HP. Above the 800 to 1000
HP level, however, a multistage turbine is usually more economical.

Step 5 corrects the steam rate base on the amount of superheat in the steam.
Step 6 determines the corrected steam rate based on the base steam rate and the
superheat correction factor as well as the horsepower and horsepower losses.

Step 1 requires knowledge of the inlet and outlet conditions. The inlet steam is
coming from the steam header; therefore, the temperature and pressure are known.
Using a steam table or Mollier Diagram, the enthalpy and entropy are determined.
On the outlet side, we only know the steam pressure.
The assumption of isentropic expansion helps determine the theoretical path the
steam takes and is used to determine the theoretical outlet enthalpy. We note that
the actual turbine does not produce an isentropic expansion and so the above outlet
conditions only represent the ideal case.
Assuming isentropic expansion, we have theoretically started to condense some of

the steam to water and, as a result, we are in the two phase region as shown on a
Mollier Diagram. This allows us to introduce the concept of steam quality.

Because the theoretical steam path ends in the two phase region, it is possible to
calculate the theoretical amount of liquid and vapor in order to avoid water
condensing in the low pressure end of the turbine. Water droplets act like rocks
when traveling through turbine blades. Significant blade damage can occur.
In a condensing turbine, droplets are almost always formed (hence the name). A
maximum of perhaps 10% liquid is acceptable. On backpressure type turbines, a
maximum of perhaps 1-2% liquid is necessary, although preferably no water will
results. The steam turbine can be equipped with moisture separators to remove
droplets. Moisture is usually a problem with only multi-stage turbines.

The theoretical steam rate (TSR) is determined by taking the enthalpy difference
between the starting and end points. Often we compare the amount of steam
required to the electricity demand, and have pounds of steam per kilowatt hour aid
is the comparison.
Theoretical steam tables have been published. Their use saves some calculations
time.

The base steam rate (BSR) is then determined by reading the vendor curves as
shown on the next slide. We are looking at two different turbine wheels to examine
the differences and then select the optimal wheel.
The above drawing is a picture of a low pressure turbine shaft.

Start at the theoretical steam rate of 18.55 lb/kWh and read across the graph until
the 3600 rpm point is reached. Interpolation between 4000 and 3000 rpm is
required but, after doing this and reading down, the base steam rate is
approximately 47 lb/hp-h.

The same is done with this slide, taking 18.55 lb/kWh, reading across and
interpolating between 4000 and 3000 rpm, then reading down to 28 lb/hph.
Why is there a difference between the two? A 14 inch wheel required 47 lb/hph and
the 28 inch wheel required 28 lb/hph. Based on the steam rates, the 28 inch wheel
is more efficient (66% as a base); however, as we will see, it has greater losses.

Next, the losses associated with the turbine are determined using vendor curves.
The above drawing is an inspection of a multi-stage turbine. Note this is much

larger than 100 Hp!

Using the back pressure of 50 psig (65psia), the horsepower loss is determined to be
2.2 hp. The losses include internal bearing resistance due to friction, but a large part
is windage caused by the turbine spinning against the internal steam.

Using the back pressure of 50 psig (65psia), the horsepower loss is 40 hp.
Summarizing the last five slides, the larger turbine requires 28 lb/hph and has losses
of 40 hp. The smaller turbine requires 47 lb/hph and has losses of 2.2 hp.
Even though the larger turbine has greater losses, it is more efficient for most of the
horsepower applications for which they would be used. At what horsepower are the
efficiencies of the two turbines equal?

The superheat correction factor is used because the turbine could operate at different
levels of superheat. Instead of the vendor testing the turbine at every possible steam
pressure and temperature, the venders produce curves. The curves simplify the
calculations with the values reflecting the relationship of the enthalpy at the
superheated condition versus by the enthalpy of the superheated vapor. In practice
and in theory, the superheat added to steam is extracted as work. The graph shows
that more saturated steam is required over superheated steam for a given theoretical
steam rate.
rate

In Step 6, we determine the Corrected Steam Rate (CSR) which gives us the actual
pounds of steam required per hour, per horsepower. The larger turbine is more
efficient because it only required 37.7 lb/hph instead of 46.2 lb/hph.

To determine the total steam consumption, multiply the steam rate by the
horsepower required. From the steam rates, we can determine the efficiency and, as
suspected, the larger turbine is more efficient.
However, if the horsepower load required was smaller, then which turbine is
efficient, and at what horsepower are the efficiencies equal? At around 54 hp, the
steam rate and efficiencies are equal, so it is crucial to size and select the proper size
turbine for each application.

Since the turbine selection was based on the design flow rate, we must consider
what happens at the normal flow rate. Again, use vendor curves that adjust the
design information.

Using the Part Load Graph that follows, the value of C is determined and applied to
the design steam rate. When vendor charts are unavailable, the difference between
the normal and design can be reconciled by using the ratio of the design horsepower
and the normal horsepower. The method is not completely accurate, but should be
adequate for fieldwork analysis when vendor data is unavailable.

The above diagram is to determine the part load correction factor. First, determine
R1 and go up the chart to the correct turbine wheel size. From that point, read
horizontally to R2 and then directly down to obtain the part load correction factor.

Before performing an economic comparison of the two turbines, the outlet steam
pressure temperature must be determined. Since the inlet steam conditions and
outlet steam pressure are known from the design procedure, we are able to calculate
the actual work extracted from the steam per pound passing through the turbine.
Using this value, we can determine the actual path the steam takes and its final point
on the Mollier Diagram.
Subtract the work extracted from the inlet enthalpy. If we assume a turbine is
adiabatic, then the outlet enthalpy of the steam is the difference. Since the outlet
enthalpy and pressure are known, use a steam table or Mollier Diagram to determine
the temperature.

Because steam tables do not have every conceivable combination of steam
temperature and pressure, we are required to interpolate. The equation shown is a
typical method to perform linear interpolation.
In the field, it is possible for us to work backwards to determine the turbine

efficiency. Often we will know the inlet steam temperature and pressure, and we
will know the outlet steam pressure. By taking a temperature measurement of the
steam at the outlet of the turbine, it is possible to determine the actual steam path
and efficiency. Once the efficiency is known, the steam rate can be determined
without performing the detailed design. If you know what is happening on the
process side of your pump, you can model the pump and pump efficiency in a
simulator. Then, knowing your steam conditions, you can quickly and easily
determine the efficiency and actual steam rate.

Based on our original process design, which turbine should be used? We know the
large turbine is more efficient, but a large turbine also costs more to build and
install. The costs of turbines in general are related to their design conditions,
mainly the temperature and pressure of the steam. The above table is an example of
turbine classifications. Recall our steam conditions were 525 psig and 600F which
means our turbine is of the Class II type.

This chart shows approximate costs of turbines. It shows that larger turbines are
more expensive and that the class ratings for higher temperatures and pressures
increase the cost as well. Using the table, we find the cost for a Class I 14 inch
turbine is $14,000 while the cost of a Class I 28 inch turbine is $20,800.

From the previous graph, we determined the approximate Class I costs. Since we
have Class II turbines, we are required to adjust for the more severe conditions.
This increases the cost by a factor of 1.2. Turbine cost is only part of the total
economic analysis. We must also consider the cost of steam. Later in this
presentation, we show how to determine the cost of steam, but for now, let us
assume the cost is $3.50 per 1000 pounds of steam. We also must choose a time
period for our analysis. We will assume 8000 hours per year of operation.
Now that we have our basis, we determine the steam costs to run the turbines for
one year and then the simple payback time. The payback time is the time it takes to
recover the extra capital costs incurred by purchasing the more expensive turbine
instead of the less expensive one. We find that it takes a little over a half-year to
recapture our added capital expense, so the rest of the year we are saving money by
running a more efficient turbine.

How would the outcome change if the operation time were less? Suppose we need
this turbine only as a spare. The turbine runs once a week in order to test it and then
when routine maintenance occurs on the normal motor driven pump. Let us assume
it only runs 80 hours per year. Now it take 100 times as long to pay out the
additional capital cost and the less efficient, less costly turbine should be selected.

In a multi-stage turbine, the expansion of the steam is a staged steady-state
expansion creating a more efficient turbine than the conventional single-stage
turbine. Multi-stage turbines, because of their high capital cost, are reserved for
large load applications, where a motor would be impractical, or when process
conditions required the operational flexibility and reliability of a turbine. Often a
process will produce waste steam and that steam can be reused efficiently in a
turbine so the turbine fits well into the overall energy system of the refinery or
chemical complex.
complex
In this example, we have 7000Bhp load and, as before, we are going to design for
110% of the expected load. For this turbine, we will assume there is a condenser
operating at 4 in Hga.

This is another vendor curve for several steam condition and turbine sizes and will
use it to illustrate the multistage condensing turbine.
The inlet pressure steam is 600 psig, 750F. Move down to our outlet steam
pressure of 4 in Hga. Now, move horizontally to the right until we reach the 4500 to
7500 rpm line, and then down to the to the 5000 to 15000 hp line. Finally, reading
horizontally to the left, we find an efficiency of approximately 76%.

We can perform the same analysis using the Mollier Diagram as we did with the
single stage turbine. We assume isentropic expansion and, knowing our inlet and
outlet conditions, we can determine the TSR.

From the efficiency chart, we found this turbine is nearly 76% efficient at the rated
conditions. However, we must now adjust for normal operation using part load
vendor curves that follow. At the beginning of the example, we were given the
normal break horsepower and the normal rated horsepower. Using ratios of the
normal and the rate operation parameters, we use the vendor curves.

The above chart determines the part-load and the speed correction factor based on
the percentage of speed or percentage of horsepower.

Using the values of 1.035 for the load correction and 1.05 for the speed correction,
the normal steam consumption is 51344 lb/h.

Now that we have learned the tools for performing an energy conservation study, we
will look at an actual site survey.

The initial goal of the energy survey is to produce an actual schematic drawing of
what equipment and lines currently exist.
The final goals are to identify operating changes and capital projects for the refinery
that will reduce steam consumption, improve thermal efficiency, and ultimately
improve refinery profitability.

In an energy survey, the data collection is normally the most difficult and the most
time consuming, but probably the most important step for the survey. The data
required for an energy survey include the header drawing directing the high
pressure, medium pressure, and low pressure steam headers. The P&ID must also
be developed as to what is currently in the refinery. Equipment data, refinery staff
input, walks through the refinery, and audits are all required.

The above photo shows a cogeneration plant which includes both the gas turbine
and HRSG. The primary source of steam is high pressure which is produced in
utility boilers and a CO boiler.

The primary source of steam in the medium pressure level is from extraction
turbines (like the one above) and back pressure turbine exhausts, process generation
from the Platforming unit, NHT, FCC, CDU, and VDU.

The primary source of steam for the low pressure header is from extraction turbine,
process unit generation, and letdown from the medium pressure header.

The steam system survey we did for a large refinery had four large extraction
turbines. The extraction turbines were not used effectively. The reason for this is
that a considerable amount of steam was letdown through control valves.
One result of the study was to shut down one of the four extraction turbines and
utilize the others at near full load.

The above diagram shows how the steam system is integrated into the electrical
system. Importing electricity costs are related to what time of the day it is and what
day of the year it is - a very complicated cost structure, but common in the industry
today.
The electricity for the plant is supplied by 2 x 11.2 MW extraction turbines, a 16

MW extraction turbine and 3 MW FCC Power Recovery Turbine. A refinery wants
to optimize the electrical system and may purchase power or generate their own
power, whichever is cheaper.

The results of the study is to identify all steam users and producers in the refinery.
In addition, ongoing changes in the refinery, such as a new process unit expansion,
should be included. We want to show expected flows for a number of controlling
cases.

The above schematic is a section of the steam system. Notice how complicated the
system is for a refinery. This diagram is similar to the one shown earlier, but this is
a real operating refinery.

Above is a spreadsheet showing the refinery steam balance for the high throughput
case. This steam balance is based on both mass and weight balance so it was
balanced thermodynamically.

One important point during a steam study is that of marginal or incremental against
the average cost. It is really the marginal or incremental cost rather than the average
cost we are concerned about in a steam study. This is because the equipment has
been purchased, so we want to see what the impact of that extra kg of steam to the
system will do to the economics.

As the above chart shows, the average efficiency for the steam rate is 75%. When
we look at the marginal steam rate, it is 98%. Therefore, once a steam turbine is
operating, the incremental increase in efficiency is much higher. This indicates that,
once a turbine is in operation, it is best to run the turbine up to its peak rate before
turning on the other turbines.

Shown above are the marginal costs of steam and electricity determined for a
refinery. As you can see, the high pressure steam is valued at $4.26 per 1000
pounds of steam, whereas the low pressure steam is valued at $1.70 per 1000 pounds
of steam. The electricity cost is 3.11 cents per kWh based on a fuel oil price of $20
per barrel.

During a steam study, to produce the electricity, there are an infinite number of ways
of allocating the turbines. The Linear Programming (LP) used is similar to those
used for the whole refinery. PIMS is one common LP model many refineries use
today.

The above shows the result of the optimal using all three machines. As you can see,
the shutdown of EG-3 provides the optimum results. This is quite different than
what the current situation of the three turbine generation is operating at now.

The above example shows that the medium pressure steam and the low pressure
steam headers are in balance.

One interesting result which came from the study was that of imported versus
internally generated power. The marginal cost of internally generated electricity is
3.11 cents/kWh. Therefore, during the summer months, it was cheaper to buy than
to generate the power. In the winter months, we found the power was actually
cheaper to make.
Once this is determined, one could bring the results to the utility company and
possibly
ibl negotiate
i a better
b contact.

The recommendation of the study was to eliminate any steam letdown through the
control valves by controlling header pressures with extraction flows. The only
problem with this was the turbine vibration which occurred. The solution was to
have a controller with less gain.

Another recommendation was to have improved performance of EG-2. This would
be to inject some steam for cooling when necessary for the CO Boiler MP
superheater coil.

One common place for energy efficiencies is to recover flash steam from process
area condensate. Rather than dumping the condensate down the sewer, a good
practice is to put in a collection drum where the condensed is flashed and the
flashed steam goes to atmosphere, but the relatively clean condensate can go back to
makeup.

Another solution is to flash the steam to the deaerator and have the condensate set
back to the deaerator directly. This is actually a little better energy efficiency wise
than the last example. The only problem is if the condensate is contaminated with
oil and one sends it directly to the deaerator.

Another area for energy recovery is in the boiler blowdown. Since 5% of the boiler
water feedrate is continuous blowdown, there is a lot of potential for energy savings.
One such example is to exchange it against steam condenser condensate which is
relatively cool.

Tank farm improvements is another potential savings. As shown above, the saving
can be in the order of $810,000 per year. This sounds good, but there is a lot of
capital investment involved as well as the potential for the condensate to become
contaminated with oil.

One possible solution is the ultimate repair of some of the piping. In addition, it
may only be worthwhile to collect the condensate from the large tank heaters.

The above chart shows the economic analysis of the savings versus cost. As you
can see, all of the four investments have no capital cost associated with them and,
therefore, the payback is immediate.

The capital projects shown above have an estimated investment but, in all cases,
they have less than a year payback. This is extremely good for a refinery
investment.

The above list some additional capital projects. All seem to be worthwhile except
the system repair, which the estimated investment could be quite high.

Steam traps are automatic valves used in every steam system to remove condensate,
air, and other non-condensable gases while preventing or minimizing the passing of
steam. If condensate is allowed to collect, it reduces the flow capacity of steam
lines and the thermal capacity of heat transfer equipment. In addition, excess
condensate can lead to “water hammer” with potentially destructive and dangerous
results.
Air that remains after system startup reduces steam pressure and temperature and
may also reduce the thermal capacity of heat transfer equipment. Non-condensable
gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, cause corrosion. Finally, steam that
passes through the trap proves no heating service. This effectively reduces the
heating capacity of the steam system or increases the amount of steam that must be
generated to meet the heating demand.
The objective of the steam trap is not an easy task and condensate pressures and
flow rates vary significantly at various points in a steam distribution system. As a
result, many different types of steam traps have been developed.

Condensate can cause several problems. In heat exchangers, condensate prevents
heat transfer. In pipes, condensate will collect and then discharge cause
waterhammer. Condensate can damage turbines, promote corrosion, and freeze in
pipes. For these and other reasons, condensate must be removed. The purpose of
the steam trap, then, is to remove condensate. A steam trap should be installed
anywhere where steam turns to condensate.
Ideally, the steam trap will get rid of the condensate without letting excess steam
pass. However, it is normal for some steam to be vented. Anywhere from 0 to 50
lbs/day (0 to 25 kg/day) of steam is lost depending on the type.
The steam trap is designed to purge air and other non-condensables without letting
excess steam escape. In the inverted bucket trap, there is a small vent hole. In the
fl t andd thermostatic
float th t ti trap,
t the
th thermostatic
th t ti ventt opens when
h there
th is i 'cool'
' l' air.
i
In compressed air systems, condensate is formed as the air is compressed and/or

cooled. This condensate must be removed with liquid drain traps. The liquid drain
trap is very similar to the steam trap, except it prevents air leakage instead of gas
leakage.

A typical installation will consist of a steam trap proceeded by a strainer with block
valves both up and downstream. When maintenance is done on a steam trap, the
bypass can be used to provide uninterrupted steam service. A check valve can be
used to prevent flow in the opposite direction.
Steam traps are insulated not only for personnel protection, but also for minimizing
steam losses. When heat is lost, steam condenses and will be removed. For the
thermostatic trap types, heat loss will open the traps' valve more frequently as the
condensate cools faster.
The capacity of a specific steam trap is dependent on the pressure differential

between the steam and condensate headers. The greater the pressure differential,
the greater the capacity.
A factor of safety is used when sizing steam traps to avoid backing condensate into
the steam piping. A specific steam trap is selected which has 2 to 3 times the
anticipated condensate production rate depending on the application.

Suppliers of steam traps include Clark-Reliance, Armstrong International, and
Spirax Sarco. Both Spirax Sarco and Armstrong publish very nice literature on the
selection and sizing of steam traps. These can be downloaded from the internet.
The photo is that of a Float and Thermostatic type steam trap.
The literature discusses the type of steam trap for a given application. Spirax and
Armstrong generally do not agree on the type of trap to use for the same
application. However, each company lists a first and second choice for each
application. They do generally agree on the top two choices; it is mainly a matter of
which is the first choice.
In the end, it appears that the selection of a steam trap type for the service depends
on the experience the plant has had. If a steam trap has performed well and has had
a long
l service
i life,
lif then
th that
th t trap
t should
h ld be
b usedd in
i that
th t andd similar
i il services.
i
Websites
www.spiraxsarco.com
www.armintl.com

A mechanical steam trap (inverted bucket) is driven by the difference in density
between condensate and steam. The denser condensate rests on the bottom of any
vessel containing the two fluids. As additional condensate is generated, its level in
the vessel will rise. This action is transmitted to a valve via either a “free float” or a
float and connecting levers in a mechanical steam trap.
Steam entering the submerged bucket causes it to rise upward and seal the valve
against the valve seat. As the steam condenses inside the bucket or if condensate is
predominately entering the bucket, the weight of the bucket will cause it to sink and
pull the valve away from the valve seat.
Any air or non-condensable gases entering the bucket will cause it to float and the
valve to close. Thus, the top of the bucket has a small hole to allow non-
condensable
d bl gases to
t escape. The
Th hole
h l mustt be
b relatively
l ti l small ll to
t avoid
id excessive
i
steam losses.

Thermostatic steam trap operation is driven by the difference in temperature
between steam and sub-cooled condensate. Valve actuation is achieved by
expansion and contraction of a bimetallic element or a liquid filled bellows. Both
types of thermostatic traps close when exposure to steam expands the bimetallic
element or bellows. There are important differences in design and operating
characteristics.
Upstream pressure works to open the valve in a bimetallic trap, while expansion of
the bimetallic element works in the opposite direction. Note that changes in the
downstream pressure will affect the temperature at which the valve opens or closes.
The nonlinear relationship between steam pressure and temperature requires careful
design of the bimetallic element for proper response at different operating pressures.
Thermostatic traps allows rapid purging of air at the startup.

Higher temperature will close the valve the relationship between temperature and
bellows expansion can be made to vary significantly by changing the fluid inside
the bellows. Using water within the bellows results in nearly identical expansion as
steam temperature and pressure increase, because pressure inside and outside the
bellows is nearly balanced.
In contrast to the inverted bucket, thermostatic traps allows rapid purging of air at
startup. The inverted bucket trap relies on fluid density difference to actuate its
valve. Therefore, it cannot distinguish between air and steam and must purge air
and some steam) through a small hole.
A thermostatic trap, relies on temperature differences to actuate its valve. Until

warmed by steam, its valve will remain wide open allowing the air to easily leave.
Aft the
After th trap
t warms up, its
it valve
l will
ill close,
l andd no continuous
ti loss
l off steam
t
through a purge hole occurs. Recognition of this deficiency with the inverted
bucket trap or other simple mechanical traps led to the development of float and
thermostatic traps.

The condensate release valve is driven by the level of condensate inside the trap,
while an air release valve is driven by the temperature of the trap.
A thermostatic trap, relies on temperature differences to actuate its valve. Until

warmed by steam, its valve will remain wide open allowing the air to easily leave.
After the trap warms up, its valve will close, and no continuous loss of steam
through a purge hole occurs. Recognition of this deficiency with the inverted
bucket trap or other simple mechanical traps led to the development of float and
thermostatic traps.

Condensate enters the trap the increase in pressure lifts the disc off its valve seat
and allows the condensate to flow into the chamber and out of the trap. The narrow
inlet port results in a localized increase in velocity and decrease in pressure as the
condensate flows through the trap, following the first law of thermodynamics and
the Bernoulli equation.
As the condensate entering the trap increases in temperature it will eventually flash
to steam because of the localized pressure drop. This increases the velocity and
decreases the pressure even further, causing the disc to snap closed against the
seating surface. The moderate pressure of the flash steam on top of the disc acts on
the entire disc surface, creating a greater force than the higher pressure steam and
condensate at the inlet, which acts on a much smaller portion of the opposite side of
the disc.
Eventually, the disc chamber will cool, the flash steam will condense and inlet
condensate will against have adequate pressure to lift the disc and repeat the cycle.

Efficient handling of condensate is essential if overall plant efficiency, energy
conservation and product quality are to be maintained.
Condensate removal is necessary on all temperature-controlled heat exchange and

process equipment to provide stable operating conditions.
Efficient condensate removal prevents unstable product temperatures, product

quality problems, excessive corrosion, equipment damage, and noise caused by
waterhammer.
When condensate leaves the steam trap, it contains approximately 20% of the heat
energy transferred in the boiler to generate steam.
Total condensate management prevents excessive blowdown, loss of expensive heat

energy, waste of water treatment chemicals, high make-up water costs, added costs
t preheat
to h t feedwater.
f d t

Drain traps automatically pass liquid, but the liquid must first be collected and fed
to the trap. In the system illustrated to the left, a moisture separator is used to
"knock out" small liquid droplets in the gas flow.
The liquid collects in the bottom of the separator, and from there is piped to the
drain trap. A strainer protects the trap from dirt and pipe scale.
Because liquid which backs up in the separator may be re-entrained in the gas flow,
continuous drainage is important. The float drain trap is ideal for this system
because it adjusts instantly and automatically to load and pressure variations.
The continuous, modulated flow means that liquid never backs up ahead of the trap.

Traps failing in the open position allow steam to pass continuously, as long as the
system is energized. The rate of energy loss can be estimated based on the size of
the orifice and system steam pressure using the above chart. This figure is derived
from Grashof’s equation for steam discharge through an orifice (Avallone and
Baumeister 1986) and assumes the trap is energized (leaks) the entire year, all steam
leak energy is lost, and that makeup water is available at an average temperature of
15°C.
Boiler losses are not included in the graph and must be accounted for separately.
The principal uncertainty in using the above graph is estimating the equivalent hole
diameter for a trap suspected of leaking or blowing steam. Vendor advise can be
solicited to identify the orifice size for a trap when fully open. Some traps may not
fail fully open but not seat properly and this must be taken into account.

As seen above, the life of the average steam trap depends on type of trap and the
pressure at which it is used. In addition, the life expectancy will vary based on the
model of the steam trap, the manufacturer, installation, contaminants, etc.

An average refinery (say 150-200 KB/day) will have on the order of 10,000 steam
traps. Surveys have shown that 20% of the steam traps are in the failed open
position at any given time. With proper maintenance, it is thought that this can be
reduced to 5%.
A steam trap will typically vent 0 to 50 lbs (0 to 25 kg) per day of steam, depending
on the type. If the trap fails open, it will vent an additional 25 to 50 lbs (10 to 25
kg) per hour of steam. A good maintenance program can thus reduce refinery steam
loss by as much as 75,000 lbs/hr (34,000 kg/hr).
Maintenance can consist of cleaning strainers, replacing any worn parts, and
replacing any failed traps.
For low pressure applications, traps should be checked 1-3 times a year. For high
pressure applications, the traps should be checked more frequently, say 3 to 12
times a year. Experience will dictate check frequency. The more often a trap in a
particular application has failed in the past, the more often it should be checked in
the future.

Steam trap performance is basically concerned with answering the following two
questions:
• Is the trap working correctly or not?

• If not, has the trap failed in the open or closed position?
Traps that fail open result in a loss of steam and its energy.
energy Where condensate is not
returned, the water is lost as well resulting in significant economic loss. There are
three basic methods for evaluating a steam trap that are commonly discussed in
literature which is sight, sound, and temperature. A less commonly discussed
method is based on fluid conductivity.

The sight method is based on visual observation of the steam downstream of the
trap. This is possible if no condensate recovery or if a test valve has been installed.
The test valve will allow for a temporary discharge of the downstream fluid from
the condensate recovery system.
The evaluator must be able to distinguish between live steam and flash steam. Live
steam is characteristics of a trap which has failed open and is leaking or blowing a
significant amount of steam. Flash steam which is characteristic of a trap which is
working properly.
Live steam will form a sharper, higher velocity plume that may not be immediately
visible as it exits the test valve or steam trap. Flash steam is created when a portion
of the condensate flashes to vapor upon expansion to atmospheric pressure. Flash
steam
t is
i characterized
h t i d by b a relatively
l ti l lazy,
l fluffy
fl ff plume.
l

Slight glasses are also used for visual observation. Some problems with slight
glasses are as follows:
• Steam and condensate will exist upstream and downstream of trap.

• View through a slight glass deteriorates over time because of fouling
• Steam and condensate appear as clear fluids within the pipe.
The above figures show a sight glass incorporated into a pipe. Normal and
abnormal operating conditions are shown in the figures. In the normal figure above,
the operation results in a condensate level that is just above the internal flow baffle.
Moderate to high rates of steam flow past the baffle indicating a leaking or blowing
steam trap will sweep out most of the condensate as shown in the “blowing” figure.
A completely
p y flooded baffle,, shown in the figure
g “flooded” could be caused byy
excess condensate formed during startup. In addition, it could be that the steam trap
is undersized for normal condensate loads or blockage in the condesate return
system.

Mechanisms within steam traps and the flow of steam and condensate through
steam traps generate sonic and supersonic sounds.
Proper listening equipment, along with knowledge of normal and abnormal sounds
can yield reliable assessments of steam trap working conditions. Listening devices
range from a screwdriver or simple mechanic’s stethoscope that allow listening to
sonic sounds to more sophisticated electronic devices that allow “listening” to sonic
or ultrasonic sounds at selected frequency.
The most sophisticated devices compare measure sounds with the expected sounds
of working and non-working traps to render a judgment on trap condition.

Measuring the temperature of the steam trap is generally regarded as the least
reliable method of the visual, sound and temperature measurements. Saturated
steam and condensate exist at the same temperature so it is not possible to
distinguish between the two based on temperature. A cold trap (i.e. one that is
significantly cooler than the expected saturated steam temperature) indicates that
the trap is flooded with condensate.
A flooded trap normally indicates a problem that needs to be addressed.

Downstream temperature measurement can provide useful information. One
example, the temperature downstream of a trap should drop off relatively quickly if
the trap is working properly since mostly condensate is immediately past the trap.
If steam is getting past the trap, then the temperature may remain constant.
An iinfrared
A f d temperature
t t gun is
i probably
b bl the
th best
b t measurementt tool
t l since
i a
measurement can be taken on taps that are relatively difficult or dangerous to
access.

The conductivity method uses the difference in conductivity between steam and
condesate. A conductivity probe is integrated within the steam tram on just
downstream of the steam trap.
Normally the tip of the conductivity probe is immersed in condesate. If steam trap
is blowing steam (failed open condition), the conductivity probe tip and
conductivity corresponding to the steam will be measured. Conductivity
measurement must be accompanied by temperature measurement to ensure a correct
diagnosis.
One example an indication of steam and a trap has failed open could occur if a trap
has not been used recently and has filled with air. The conductivity of air is similar
to steam, but a trap filled with air would be close to ambient temperature, in
contrast
t t to
t a trap
t filled
fill d with
ith steam.
t

TLV Corporation (www.tlv.com) has TrapMan which is a computerized steam trap
management system. TrapMan includes a hand-held TM5, hardware that
incorporates ultrasonic and temperature testing equipment with TLV diagnostic
logic. Accompanying TrapManager™ software completes the system.
Operating Mechanism: Ultrasonic and temperature measurements are compared to

expected measurements stored in the TM5 hardware for the specific trap being
tested. The hardware judges whether the steam trap is operating correctly or not,
rather than relying on the judgment of the testing personnel. Data collected by the
TM% unit can be downloaded later to the TrapManger Software.
TrapMan systems are being used by many private and public organization.
The cost of the complete TrapMan system is $17,500.
Most of the time required to walk from one steam trap location to the next while the
data recording takes 15 seconds.

SteamEye uses a radio frequency (RF) steam trap monitoring. Radio frequency
monitoring of steam traps gives an instantaneous insight into trap performance that
is very accurate. The system consists of a transmitter which is threaded into an
inverted bucket or F&T steam trap, a repeater a receiver and a personal computer.
A temperature sensor indicates when a trap’s internal temperature falls below a

predetermined set point. Since the probe is essentially a liquid-level monitoring
device, absence of condensate in the inverted bucket steam trap indicates a blow
through or loss of prime. The job of the transmitter is to transmit the data back to
the receiver.


Steam and Energy Systems

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At atmospheric pressure, the temperature at which water becomes steam is 212F.

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The steam system normally has three main levels:

High Pressure: 600 psig (or higher depending on power generation)

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The precipitating chemicals can be polymers, but are typically known as

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If blowdown requirements exceed ten percent, serious consideration should be given

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Fortunately, at high temperature, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is

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If steam is generated at both MP and HP levels, it is often economical to install two

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Delta P (psi) Turndown

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A well known supplier of steam traps is Armstrong International. They publish

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In this section, various types of turbines, including straight non-condensing, straight

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Condensate should be recovered only if there is no oil contamination. Condensate from

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Careful consideration of capital cost, energy consumption, and controllability must

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A conventional fraction scheme for splitting propane-propylene is shown above.

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