DYNOMATION

Four Cycle
Wave Action Simulator

Copyright 1995 VP Engineering, Inc.

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 WHAT MAKES THIS PROGRAM UNIQUE

I t probably requires little effort to convince the engine builder of the benefits of engine simulation. The shear number of
variables, which have an influence on the internal combustion engine, make the development process a long and costly
procedure. This truth is probably nowhere greater than in the research and development stage for engine manufacturers.
Considerable capital is expended on design, prototype models, and testing before the manufacturer can release its engine to
the general public. A technique which would help engineers and researchers analyze various engine designs without the
expense and time of producing one-off prototypes would be an invaluable asset. This “asset” is the computer simulation,
and its use in industry has been a mainstay for over 30 years.

There has always been (and always will be) an effort by engine researchers to develop computer models which will more
accurately represent the true physical process occurring within the internal combustion engine. For many years now
sufficient knowledge of the thermodynamic and fluid mechanic process has been known to develop simulation models
which are sufficiently accurate to help with design optimization. Needless to say, these models vary in their complexity and
ability to incorporate critical phenomena.

In general there are three types of engine simulation models that incorporate varying levels of completeness. Moving from
the least to most complete are “Quasi-Steady Flow” models, “Filling and Emptying” models, and “Wave Action” models.

Quasi-Steady models are relatively simple models that rely heavily on empirical data to determine restriction values for
interconnected components such as air cleaners, throttle, port, and valve systems. This method is easily recognized by the
fact that it cannot predict power levels at various engine speeds. It can only predict maximum power potential. It also
completely ignores the important wave tuning effects created by intake and exhaust ducting dimensions and cannot
calculate the inertia ram effect of the gas particles which occurs before the intake valve closes.

Filling and Emptying models are next in the line of sophistication. These models use the finite volume of the manifold
sections and then calculate the mass flow rates across these sections. Filling and Emptying models are capable of predicting
power levels across differing engine speeds. However, like the Quasi-Steady models they also ignore the wave tuning
phenomena and cannot calculate the ram effect of the gas particles which occurs before the intake valve closes.

For many years, researchers as well as engine builders have known of the significant influence of “tuning effects” created
by intake and exhaust ducting dimensions. The Wave Action models were developed to take these effects into account.
The pioneering work in this field was conducted in Great Britain during the early 1940’s. By the mid-1950’s a mathematical
technique was developed which would describe the wave motion phenomena. This technique was known as the “method
of characteristics”. Unfortunately, the arithmetic involved was nothing short of horrendous and this added little help for
the design engineer of the day. Fortunately, in 1964 a breakthrough occurred when researcher Roland Benson developed a
solution of the method of characteristics for the digital computer. Now it was possible to let the computer “grind” through
the tedious mathematics, thus giving engineers a practical method for analyzing the effect of wave dynamics.

Wave Action simulators are the most sophisticated of the simulation models available for analysis of the “gas exchange
process”. They are extensively used in industry for engine research and development and should likewise be of extreme
value to the high performance engine builder. In fact, wave tuning effects play such an important role in the high
performance engine that the Wave Action simulation technique is the only logical choice for development of these engines.
The Dynomation program was developed for just this purpose. It is a true Wave Action simulation program which will
allow the “high tech” engine builder to conduct research and development at a new level.

Only recently has the personal computer developed adequate processing power to solve the complex wave action
calculations in a reasonable time. If there is a downside to the Wave Action simulation it is the required process time . [A
200mhz Pentium can conduct one complete sweep simulation in under 4 minutes, and a powerband sweep in less than 2
minutes]. However, with the computer industry’s trend toward more and more processing power this will cease to be a
problem shortly. Meanwhile, the high level of information provided by Wave Action simulation certainly outweighs the
required waiting times.

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 THEORY AND PRACTICE

T he gas flow which operates inside the internal combustion (IC) engine is one which behaves in an unsteady manner.
This stems from the gases constant change pressure, temperature, and velocity throughout the engine cycle. For
example, when an intake valve is closed the gas velocity is zero. When the valve is open the pressure differential begins to
accelerate the gas particles into the cylinder. This motion never occurs in a steady flow manner hence the discipline of
Unsteady Gas Dynamics is used to model the motion of gas particles inside the IC engine. A knowledge of this subject and
the ability to apply it to the IC engine is probably the single most important tool available to the high performance engine
builder.

The reader may ask why, if it so important, has he not read of this before? There are two reasons. First, the subject is quite
complex and not always well understood. Second, the solution to unsteady gas flow equations require sophisticated
computer programs which, until now, have not been available to the high performance engine builder.

The following sections will not be a development of unsteady gas dynamics equations but instead a qualitative description
of the mechanisms at work. This should supply the engine builder with adequate knowledge that can be applied to high
performance engine tuning.

ACOUSTIC WAVES vrs FINITE AMPLITUDE WAVES

Small pressure disturbances which are detected by the ear are referred to as acoustic waves. The pressure amplitude of
these waves are of very small order. As an example, the pain threshold which is about 120 dB creates a pressure wave
which is only 0.00435 PSI above the ambient undisturbed air pressure. If ambient pressure is taken as Pa = 14.7 PSI then
the pressure ratio which is defined as
Pr = P/Pa
where
P = 14.7 + 0.00435 = 14.70435 psi
which gives:
Pr = P/Pa = 14.70435 / 14.7 = 1.00029

As can be seen, the acoustic wave creates a relatively small pressure disturbance when compared to the ambient pressure.

Waves which are of higher pressure than acoustic waves are referred to as Finite Amplitude Waves. These waves are the
type of waves found in the IC engine. To give an example of how much higher the pressure amplitude of such a wave is
when compared to an acoustic wave, it is not uncommon to find pressure ratios Pr in the exhaust system greater than 2.5.
To put this in perspective, if using our first example of a 120dB pressure wave, a finite amplitude wave of Pr = 2.5 has over
5000 times greater amplitude than the acoustic wave. As will be discussed later, this large discrepancy between acoustic
waves and finite amplitude waves will clarify why acoustic formulas for determining “tuned lengths” of intake and exhaust
ducting are unreliable.

There are two types of waves which can travel through ducting. The Compression Wave is a wave which has a pressure
peak above the undisturbed pressure Pa. Therefore, a compression wave will always have a pressure ratio Pr which is
greater than one. The other possible wave is the Expansion Wave which is a wave that is below the ambient pressure Pa.
Expansion waves are also known as “rarefaction” or “suction” waves and have pressure ratios Pr which are less than one.

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Figure 1 depicts a compression wave as it travels from left to right through a pipe. As the pressure wave travels rightward,
it also propels gas particles in the rightward direction. However, the velocity of the gas particles are considerably slower
than the pressure wave which travel through them. An analogy to this situation is when driftwood is floating toward shore
on a lake. As the waves pass by the wood, they propel it towards shore; however, the wood does not travel towards shore
with the same velocity at which the waves travel. The wood travels at a much slower pace and this is analogous to pressure
waves as they pass through gas particles.

FIGURE 1

The expansion wave of Figure 2 is also traveling from left to right; however, as the pressure wave passes through a gas
particle, it propels it in the opposite direction, leftwards. This is analogous to taking a deep breath. During inhalation, gas
particles are traveling into the mouth yet sound is traveling out. By now the reader has probably figured that compression
waves generally occur in the exhaust and expansion waves occur in the intake. In reality both are found in the exhaust and
intake ducting.

FIGURE 2

Finite amplitude waves undergo an interesting and beneficial phenomena when they reach sudden area changes along a
pipe. These sudden area changes can be an open ended, a closed ended, or a partially open ended pipe. The reader can
probably envision where most of these conditions occur within the IC engine. The end of the exhaust pipe where it
empties into the collector is an open ended pipe as well as where the collector empties into the atmosphere. The beginning
of the intake runner or velocity stack is also an open ended pipe. The intake and exhaust valves create a pipe end that is
either closed or partially open.

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Figure 3 shows the reflection of a compression wave as it rebounds from the closed end of a pipe. As can be seen the wave
simply returns with its original profile still intact except now it is traveling in the opposite direction. As far as the gas
particle motion is concerned, when the compression wave travels rightwards it displaces the gas particles toward the right.
Upon reflection the compression wave moves leftwards and thus propels the gas particle leftwards back to their original
position for a net change of zero. This zero flow situation is what one would expect from a closed ended pipe!

FIGURE 3

Figure 4 shows an expansion wave as it approaches a closed end. Its behavior is similar to the previous example with the
expansion wave again preserving its profile while changing directions.

FIGURE 4

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The reflection of finite amplitude waves at an open-ended pipe is not only more interesting but also has a practical
application for the high performance engine builder. Figure 5 shows the arrival of a compression wave at an open-ended
pipe. As can be seen from the illustration, the reflection of the original rightwards moving compression wave is now a
leftwards moving expansion wave. The reader at this time should take a moment to ponder the significance of this
phenomenon. As the compression wave travels rightwards, it also propels gas particles rightwards toward the pipe end.

FIGURE 5

When reflection occurs, the expansion wave which is now traveling leftwards will propel gas particle rightwards again
toward the pipe end. In essence the open pipe end creates a reflection that helps with the removal of gas particles. Figure 6
shows the arrival of an expansion wave at the open pipe end. Here the rightward traveling expansion wave propels gas
particles towards the left. The reflected compression wave, which is now moving leftwards again, propels gas particle
leftwards. Just as in the previous example, the open pipe end gives the gas particles an added “boost”, except now in the
opposite direction.

FIGURE 6

It was not until the 1940’s that this phenomenon of pressure wave reflections was understood. Up to that time it was
assumed that the gas particle “slug” which was released from the cylinder somehow created a vacuum behind itself as
it traveled through the pipe, thus helping to extract residual gases from the cylinder. This is a fallacy that is still accepted to
this day by many!

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The goal of the high performance engine builder is to tune these pipe lengths such that the reflected waves from the pipe
ends reach the cylinder at the most effective time, thus, inducing maximum fresh charge. The previous statement certainly
qualifies for the adage “easier said than done”. There are numerous factors which affect when the arrival of these waves
occurs. Such items as valve timing, cam profile, piston speed, pipe length, valve discharge coefficient, and cylinder
blowdown pressures are to name just a few. To compound the problem, the peaks of finite amplitude waves travel faster
than the base of the wave, therefore, the wave profile distorts as it travels through ducting (Figure 7). This can ultimately
lead to shock wave formation. All of this explains why simple formulas for engine builders to determine “tuned lengths and
diameters” are unreliable. There are only two methods to determine these values. One is to build the engine and connect
pressure reading transducers to the intake, exhaust, and cylinder, in order to read pressure data. The second method is to
simulate the pressure waves on a computer. The problem with the first method is obviously the cost of building an engine
and then testing. The problem with the second was that until now a four cycle pressure wave action simulation program for
a personal computer has not been available.

FIGURE 7

It is certainly not the author’s intent to imply that determining tuned lengths and diameters constitutes a high performance
engine builder’s job. However, the gas particle flow which occurs inside these ducts, and their relationship to valve timing,
valve lift, and piston speed is ultimately the engine builder’s concern. As will be seen in a later chapter, the Dynomation
program is extremely comprehensive and will allow the engine builder to accurately analyze pressure wave and particle flow
motion within the IC engine. The Dynomation program plots intake, exhaust, and cylinder pressure data along with intake
and exhaust flow velocity and direction. The engine builder will find this information of extreme value when developing
engine combinations.

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 PRESSURE - TIME HISTORIES

Now that the reader has armed himself with a working knowledge of unsteady gas dynamics we will apply this knowledge
to the IC engine. Figure 8 represents an IC engine which has three pressure transducers that will display intake, exhaust,
and cylinder pressure data. The intake and the exhaust transducers are typically located just a few inches from their
respective valves. The cylinder pressure transducer is located in the cylinder head. Undoubtedly, there are readers who are
familiar with this set up for high performance engine development.

FIGURE 8

Figure 9 shows the output which these pressure transducers provide. This plot is referred to as a pressure - crank angle or
pressure - time history diagram. The horizontal axis displays the crank angle from 0-720 degrees. Zero degrees being TDC
of the power stroke. As we move rightward the first vertical line is the exhaust valve open (EVO) which is typically around
the 110-120 degree position. Continuing rightwards the next vertical line is the intake valve open (IVO) . This typically
occurs around the 330-340 degree position. Next is the exhaust valve closing (EVC) around the 380-400 degree position.
The distance between the IVO and EVC is the valve overlap. At around the 600 degree position the intake valve closes
(IVC). Finally, the diagram finishes at 720 degrees.

The vertical axis of the diagram represents the pressure in terms of the pressure ratio Pr which was defined earlier. The
value of 1.0 represents the standard atmospheric pressure Pa. Any value below this represents a sub-atmospheric pressure
or suction wave. Values above 1.0 are pressures which are above atmospheric, therefore, compressive. The reader may also
view the diagrams vertical axis in units of bar instead of pressure ratio where again 1.0 bar represents standard atmospheric
pressure.

We will now use Figure 9 to correlate the pressure histories during engine operation. It is important for the reader to
remember that these values are being produced from the three pressure transducers which are located in the cylinder and
next to the intake and exhaust valves. When the exhaust valve opens (EVO) the formation of the primary exhaust pulse
occurs. This pulse develops from the exhaust valve releasing cylinder pressure into the exhaust port and pipe. Note how
the cylinder pressure quickly falls and begins to follow the exhaust pressure. During this time period the inlet valve is
closed thus the intake pressure wave is bouncing between the closed inlet valve and the open end of the runner. This is
being indicated by the oscillating intake wave on the diagram. During the valve overlap period between IVO and EVC the
expansion wave which was reflected from the exhaust pipe end has now returned to the cylinder. This “scavenging” wave

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is causing a sub-atmospheric pressure drop (suction) which will draw in additional fresh charge from the inlet before the
piston has started its intake stroke and continues until the overlap period is completed. This effect is what the engine
builder is attempting when “tuning” the exhaust. This subject will be covered in more detail in a later chapter. Returning to
the intake, the reader should note that the inlet pressure is closely following the cylinder pressure during the intake stroke.
Just before IVC a pressure surge or “hump” can be seen. This surge is caused by the compression wave returning from the
intake runner opening and helps to “ram” fresh charge into the cylinder and reduce the amount of back flow into the inlet
tract. Again, this is what the engine builder is attempting by “tuning” intake lengths. The cylinder pressure can be seen
rising as the piston heads for TDC of the compression stroke. The reader is encouraged to develop a comprehensive
understanding of the pressure-crank angle diagram as it is an engine analysis tool of extreme value.

FIGURE 9

Before we begin a more comprehensive discussion of unsteady flow in the IC engine the subject of gas flow direction and
its relationship to pressure needs clarification. It is common to assume that when the pressure transducer registers a
positive pressure wave that the gas flow is heading rightwards, assuming the pipe end is on the right. In some instances this
can be misleading. Figure 10 will help to clarify this problem. As wave 1 moves rightwards it propels gas particles toward
the right. Wave 2 is moving leftwards and propels gas particle towards the left. When waves 1 and 2 pass through each
other they form the superposition wave 1 + 2. At this point a pressure transducer will register a large pressure jump.
However, the gas particles which are being propelled towards each other will collide and come to rest. The reader of the
pressure data would be fooled into thinking that because of the higher pressure reading particle velocity has increased. This
phenomenon can make the interpretation of pressure data alone misleading.

Fortunately, the Dynomation simulation also displays particle flow velocity and direction, thus giving the engine builder a
comprehensive knowledge of pressure, particle flow velocity, and direction. In fact, this is one of Dynomation's best
features since not even the expensive pressure transducer systems can determine particle velocity and direction.

FIGURE 10

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The subject of engine tuning that will follow is broken into three separate areas: intake tuning, exhaust tuning, and valve
event strategies.

INTAKE TUNING

Intake system pressure waves are generated as follows. If the burnt gases are sufficiently expelled by the exhaust process
and the sub-atmospheric pressure wave created by the exhaust end is present at IVO then gas particles will flow from the
inlet tract into the cylinder. The suction created by the cylinder will result in an expansion wave that will head for the open
end of the intake pipe. This expansion wave will be reflected from the pipe end as a compression wave. This wave will
head back towards the cylinder and aid the gas particle flow through the valve by increasing the pressure difference
between the port and cylinder. Optimum tuning of the return wave can result in substantial gains in retained fresh charge.
It must be remembered that at the time of IVC the piston is traveling upwards on its compression stroke, however, the
momentum and pressure created at the valve from the velocity of the incoming charge will counter the effects of the
increasing cylinder pressure. If the cylinder pressure is too great a reversion of fresh charge will escape the cylinder and
head back into the inlet tract. The Dynomation simulation can accurately predict when this will occur by viewing the port
flow velocity diagram, more on this later. After IVC the attenuating residual wave oscillates between the pipe end and the
closed inlet valve. Changing its sign from expansion to compression and vice versa each time the wave reflects from the
pipe end (Footnote 1). Figure 11 shows the typical intake pressure trace throughout the full 720 degrees of crankshaft
rotation. As can be seen the pressure wave reflects several times between the closed valve and the open pipe end. Upon
IVO the inlet pressure jumps up slightly because the cylinder pressure from the exhaust process has typically not fallen
lower than the inlet pressure. This condition is often so short that sometimes it is not even visible on the pressure-crank
angle diagram. If the exhaust system is properly tuned so that a sub-atmospheric wave has arrived at the cylinder during
overlap intake flow can begin before the starting of the induction stroke. Once the induction process is fully underway the
downward motion of the piston pulls the intake pressure down. As the piston starts its upward compression stroke
(remember the intake valve is not closed yet) pressure from the reflected compression wave is now building up behind the
intake valve to help combat the reversion process.

FIGURE 11

As can be seen from Figure 11, several pressure pulses are reflected between the closed valve and the open pipe end. With
each successive pulse the peak pressures reduce slightly. At peak power it is usually best to try and utilize the second pulse
as this is the strongest (it is impossible to utilize the first pulse). As rpm is reduced more pressure reflections will appear in
the diagram since the time period at which the intake valve is closed becomes longer . Hence at low rpm there will be a
visible increase in the number of inlet pulsations as compared to higher rpm. It is also possible to increase the number of
pulsations at any given rpm by simply decreasing the inlet pipe length. Likewise, to reduce the number of pulsations the

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intake pipe should be lengthened. A good formula for determining the length of the intake runner that will utilize the
second pulse is :

TUNED LENGTH (in) = 108,000 / RPM (second pulse)

This formula works best for engines that will operate at relatively high rpm. One problem with this formula is that at lower
rpm it creates a tuned length that is unduly long. In these circumstances it would be best to utilize the third, fourth, or
possibly fifth pulsation which would require a much shorter runner. The reader may be familiar with the old Chrysler ram
induction manifold from the early 1960's. These manifolds utilized incredibly long intake runners. This is an example of
where the engineers attempted to utilize the second pulsation instead of the third or fourth which would have required a
much shorter runner.

The formulas for the third, fourth, and fifth pulsation tuned lengths are as follows:

TUNED LENGTH (in) = 97,000 / RPM (third pulse)

TUNED LENGTH (in) = 74,000 / RPM (fourth pulse)
TUNED LENGTH (in) = 54,000 / RPM (fifth pulse)

It must be remembered that these are only approximations and will supply the engine builder with a good starting point for
use in the Dynomation simulation. In fact, the taper angle of the inlet runner has a significant effect on the tuning of the
runner's lengths. As the runner's taper increases it also increases the RPM at which the runner tunes. As an example a 13
inch runner with a 4 degree taper included angle would approximately tune at the same RPM as a zero taper 10 inch
runner. There is no question that the tapered runner is superior to the straight runner for high performance engines. A
good range for runner taper is typically between 2.5 to 5 degrees included. The reason for tapered runners performing
better than straight runners is complicated and would require several pages of explanation. The reader is strongly
encouraged to experiment on his own with the Dynomation program to develop a deeper understanding of this
phenomenon. One interesting point when using tapered runners is that it actually slows down the port velocity yet increase
volumetric efficiency. This occurs because the charge density increases with tapered runners. Try overlaying the port
velocities and cylinder pressure from two different taper angle with the program to help your understanding.

As engine RPM increases there is a transition from one pulse to another pulse arriving at maximum piston speed. During
these transitions the runner will be going in and out of tune as the negative expansion wave phases in and out with
maximum piston speed. When pressure waves bounce back and forth between the closed valve and the open runner end
the wave strength deteriorates with each reflection from the open runner end. Hence, an engine which is tuning on the
fifth pulse or greater is not receiving much help from these weak waves. However, this is not the case with the second
pulse where the wave strength is very strong and creates a large pressure differential between the atmosphere and the
cylinder. The obvious question is why not use second pulse tuning for all manifold designs. The problem is the untuned
gap between pulses becomes wider as you move up to the next pulse. Manifolds which utilize the second pulse will have a
large untuned gap as the engine phases from the third to the second pulse, thus creating a “peaky” power band.

As mentioned above the “tuned length” has not yet been determined. It must be adjusted such that the wave trough arrives
at the valve during the induction stroke when the piston is at maximum velocity. This event is extremely important for
proper intake tuning. The reason for this is that if the trough of the wave (Figure 11) arrives when piston speed is
maximum (volume change is then maximum) the suction created by the piston will “yank” the pressure wave even lower .
This extra low pressure will generate a stronger expansion wave which will travel to the open end and be reflected back as
an equally strong compression wave. This compression wave will not only move more fresh charge into the cylinder it will
also reduce or eliminate reversion when it arrives at the valve just before IVC. For most engines the piston speed will be
maximum at 73 to 82 degree after TDC. On the pressure-crank angle diagram this will be between 433 to 442 degrees and
is usually the lowest point on the cylinder pressure trace. It should also be mentioned that it may be possible to have the
trough occur at maximum piston speed yet the arrival of the following compression wave is either too early or too late. If
this occurs then the engine builder will have to perform a “juggling act” by adjusting the intake lengths to optimize
volumetric efficiency. So far the discussion has centered around the tuning lengths yet another important factor is port
flow velocity. The port flow velocity is essentially a function of port area and piston speed. If port velocity is to slow the

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momentum of the gas particles will not be able to overcome the rise in cylinder pressure at IVC. Therefore, a reversion of
fresh charge will move into the inlet tract from the cylinder. Another problem associated with slow port velocity is that the
important pressure wave action will be weak, thus, not allowing the engine to fully benefit from this mechanism. All in all,
the selection of port sizing is more important to engine performance than tuning lengths.

Research has shown that port flow velocity through the minimum cross sectional area should fall between 0.5 to 0.6 mach.
This translates into approximately 600 to 720 feet per second. Port velocities much past 0.6 mach will not show any
increase in volumetric efficiency. Also, as stated earlier, if port velocity is to low the engine will have problems with
reversion. As the reader has probably figured it is impossible to have a port area that will give adequate velocity for all
engine speeds. The engine builder must determine the required operating range in order to determine port size. If a broad
power range is required then port area should be sized such that at maximum power port velocity is around 0.75 mach.
This will allow better port velocities at lower rpm, thus, improving low speed volumetric efficiency. If top end power is the
concern then port velocity at peak power should be between 0.5 and 0.6 mach. An important note concerning port velocity
and reversion. In some circumstances it is possible to make port areas small enough such that reversion will not occur,
however, many times this can only be accomplished at the expense of low port volume flow. The final result is lower
horsepower than would occur if some reversion was allowed. It is also possible to achieve flow velocity between 0.5 or 0.6
mach yet not increase power. This situation can occur due to a valve flow restriction such as inappropriate lift and/or valve
size. The engine builder will simply have to try several different port sizes and/or valve lift/size combinations in order to
find the desired effect.

A formula which can be used to determine the approximate required minimum port area is :

AREA (sq in) = (RPM * STROKE * BORE ^ 2) / 190,000

(All units are in inches)

One reason the above formula can only be an approximation is that port velocity is also dependent on the valve discharge
coefficient. This value is the actual volume of flow across the valve divided by the perfect theoretical volume flow. This
value will always be less than one and is essentially a rating for the efficiency of the valve. The discharge coefficient is
determined through flow bench data and is unique to each cylinder head design. The Dynomation simulation allows for the
input of flow data so that the discharge coefficient can be calculated for specific cylinder head combinations. Since
approximately 31 percent of flow loss through the port occurs at the valve an improvement of the discharge coefficient can
result in substantial performance gains. The subject of cylinder head modification will not be covered here, however, David
Vizard's “How To Build and Modify Chevrolet Small Block Cylinder Heads” is an excellent book. Even if the reader will
not be modifying small block Chevrolet heads, this book should still be considered “required reading”.

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 EXHAUST TUNING

Incomplete removal of exhaust gases from the cylinder of an IC engine reduces performance in two ways. First, the
volumetric efficiency is lowered because residual gases occupy space within the cylinder which could be occupied by fresh
mixture. Second, due to the higher cylinder pressure caused by incomplete exhaust blowdown a portion of the residual gas
is pushed into the inlet tract upon IVO. There it mixes with fresh charge and is pulled back into the cylinder during the
intake stroke.

FIGURE 12

When the primary exhaust pulse from the cylinder arrives at the pipe end a portion is reflected back as an expansion wave.
The continuing positive pressure wave will enter the collector and upon reaching the collector's end will again reflect back
another expansion wave (Figure 12). If the collector is of proper length then the result is an expansion wave that will arrive
at the cylinder just slightly later then the expansion wave from the header pipe end. This will effectively widen the
scavenging wave, thus increasing the time of the negative depression. With proper tuning of the header/collector lengths
and diameters this scavenging expansion wave will facilitate in the removal of residual spent gases and assist intake flow by
dropping the cylinder pressure below the inlet pressure during overlap. The desired effect can been seen in Figure 13. As
rpm increases the pressure-crank angle trace “stretches” to the right. If the scavenging wave is relatively wide and the
overlap short the effect is an exhaust that is tuned for a wide rpm range. This effect can be seen in Figures 14 and 15.
Another situation where a wide scavenging wave is desirable would be a cam which has a long overlap period. If the
scavenging wave is too narrow it will not effectively cover the overlap period. This illustrates an important point about the
tuning of exhaust headers. The proper lengths of the header pipe and collector is not as critical for low to medium
performance engines as for very high performance engines with long overlaps. The engine builder is allowed less flexibility
as the performance level is increased.

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FIGURE 13

FIGURE 14

FIGURE 15

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Collectors also create another reaction which in the author's opinion is considerably over estimated. When exhaust pulses
from individual cylinders enter the collector a considerable amount of interference occurs from the interaction of primary
and reflected waves from other cylinders. The influence of this interaction is often overrated and relatively insignificant
because these “interference” waves are of considerably less magnitude when compared to the primary and first reflection
of a the cylinder's blowdown pulse. Dr. Jon C. Morrison who has published many papers for the Institute of Mechanical
Engineers conducted experiments on the interference effect of collectors and also concluded that its contribution to engine
performance was essentially insignificant.

So far the discussion has centered on tuning lengths and their relationship to the pressure-crank angle diagram. Another
important topic concerns the gas particle velocity as it travels through the exhaust pipe. When the exhaust valve opens the
piston is still moving downward on the power stroke and has not yet officially started on its upward exhaust stroke.
However, a large percentage of spent cylinder gas is removed during this period which is known as “blowdown”. Valve lift
during this period is relatively low and this stresses the importance of the low lift characteristics of the exhaust valve and
port. If the pipe diameter is insufficient for proper blowdown then the piston will be required to physically force out the
extra remaining spent gas during the exhaust stroke. This will not only increase the required pumping work but also not
sufficiently lower cylinder pressure for the IVO event. If pipe diameter is too large then the pressure wave scavenging
phenomenon becomes weaker and will not help as well during the overlap period. Peak exhaust velocity can typically occur
at two locations. The first being approximately 60 degrees after EVO. The second occurring at the point of maximum
piston speed. In general the first peak will be the greater of the two. As a general rule, the first peak should fall between
0.45 to 0.5 mach. If values occur above 0.5 mach the exhaust is probably developing to much back pressure. If values fall
below 0.45 mach then the scavenging pressure wave is not being effectively developed. There is also a greater likelihood of
reversion because it is easier for the slower moving particles to reverse their direction. At middle to low rpm reversion will
be inevitable. Just as with the intake it is possible to establish proper flow velocity yet not see a performance improvement
If this occurs the problem may possibly be with restriction through the exhaust valve. This, however, is easily detected
using either the pressure-crank angle diagram or the pressure-volume diagram. This subject will be covered later.

As stated earlier in the text the pressure wave phenomenon is too complex for simple formulas that will describe tuning
lengths and diameters. However, the engine builder at least needs a starting point. The book “Performance Tuning in
Theory and Practice” by A. Graham Bell probably has the best empirical formulas for header pipe length and diameters. It
uses the important EVO point as a variable which is typically not found in other empirical formulas. The formula is as
follows:

When choosing rpm for the length calculation the engine builder must establish the desired performance intent. If the
engine will be used as a street engine then the rpm value should correspond with peak torque. For a racing engine the rpm
value can be either at peak horsepower or some value between peak horsepower and peak torque.

Unfortunately, empirical formulas for collector length and diameter have shown themselves to be completely unreliable.
There are, however, some important ideas to keep in mind when choosing these values. The longer the collector the lower
it develops peak torque in the rpm range. This occurs because at higher rpm the negative reflection from the collector end
cannot reach the cylinder in time to help with scavenging. Longer collectors should be used for broad powerbands,
whereas shorter collectors are required for higher rpm power.

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The subject of collector diameter will require some further development of previous theory. Earlier it was stated that when
a compression or expansion wave reaches an open pipe end there will be a reflection wave developed from this area
change. What was not stated, however, was that the magnitude of the reflected wave is dependent on the amount of area
change. If the wave reaches the an open pipe end that discharges into the atmosphere (effectively an infinite area change)
then the reflected wave will be of maximum possible amplitude. If the area change is small like a 1.00 inch pipe going into a
1.05 inch pipe there will still be a reflection, however, it will be of extremely small magnitude. The lesson here for collector
diameter is that smaller diameters decrease the header pipe's area change into the collector, thus, reducing the magnitude of
the header pipe's reflected wave. As diameter is decreased more emphasis is placed on the collector end than on the pipe
end. Since the collector end is farther away from the cylinder than the header pipe end this will help more with low to
middle rpm power. With larger diameter collectors more emphasis will be placed on the header pipe end than the collector
end and since this is closer to the cylinder it will help more with top end power. As a very general rule to help with a
starting point for collector sizing a drag racing engine should start with the following:

COLLECTOR DIAMETER = 1.9 * HPD

COLLECTOR LENGTH = .5 * HPL

VALVE EVENTS AND STRATEGIES

So far the discussion has centered on the optimal tuning of ducting for the intake and exhaust process. We will now discuss
the role of valve timing and its relationship to the gas exchange process. With an enhanced knowledge of valve timing and
the Dynomation ability to accurately plot flow velocity and direction the engine builder can establish valve timing strategies
which will help in the design or selection of camshafts. First we will discuss the four valve events and their relationship to
gas exchange.

EVO - exhaust valve opening. This timing always occurs during the power stroke and is the start of the blowdown process.
Proper EVO timing will allow the cylinder pressure to lower itself sufficiently enough that reversion from the cylinder to
the inlet tract will be minimal at IVO. It is, however, almost impossible for cylinder pressure to be equal or lower than inlet
pressure at intake valve opening during high rpm. If this does arise then it is likely (not definitely) that EVO is occurring to
soon and pressure which could be doing work on the piston is being bled off prematurely. This will result in a loss of
thermal efficiency. If EVO occurs too late then excessive residual gas will not be removed from the cylinder and the
upward moving piston will be required to push the spent gases out of the cylinder. This in turn will result in an increase in
pumping work and lower horsepower. There will also be an increase of reversion at IVO due to the higher cylinder
pressure.

From the view point of thermal efficiency research has shown that within the normal range of EVO this point is less
significant in terms of lost low speed performance than either IVC or EVC. Therefore, the timing of EVO should be
sufficiently early to satisfy high speed performance though no earlier than what can be justified to protect thermal
efficiency. Any EVO timing point which is earlier then necessary reduces thermal efficiency, albeit, only to a small degree.

IVO - intake valve opening, is the beginning of both the intake process and valve overlap. IVO is probably the least
sensitive timing point of all valve events. However, with proper exhaust tuning earlier IVO can be more effectively utilized.
This is due to the strong scavenging wave which will draw in fresh charge. If a strong scavenging wave is not present then t
the cylinder. When intake charge does begin to move back into the cylinder it will not only be diluted but also heated.

There are several conditions which will influence back flow into the inlet tract. Low engine speeds typically entail slow port
velocities. Since gas flow has less momentum at slower velocity it will be easier for the upward moving piston to force
residual gas into the inlet tract at IVO. Low intake manifold pressure which occurs during highly throttled conditions or
restricted carburetion create larger pressure gradients between inlet pressure and cylinder pressure at IVO. A similar
condition occurs if IVO is too early and has not allowed cylinder pressure to sufficiently lower.

EVC - exhaust valve closing, is not only the end of the exhaust process but also the ending of the overlap period. At low
rpm EVC governs the amount of exhaust gas that will back flow into the cylinder from the exhaust tract. This reversion at

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lower rpm occurs for two reasons. First, EVC takes places during the downward intake stroke. Since exhaust gas velocity is
slower at low rpm it is easier for the piston to draw in exhaust during the induction stroke. The second reason is more
interesting. The negative scavenging wave which is reflected off the pipe end is always followed by a positive compression
wave. Since the engine speed is low the scavenging wave along with the compression wave will arrive prematurely. The
compression wave will then force exhaust gases back into the cylinder. An interesting side note is the use of a reverse
megaphone commonly seen at the end of motorcycle exhaust systems. This device essentially dampens the compression
wave which follows the scavenging wave. This, of course, reduces exhaust reversion at middle to low rpm. The discovery
of the reverse cone was made by accident when motorcycle racers were trying to find a method of strengthening their
flimsy megaphone style exhaust. As with most performance improvements first came the discovery then came the theory.

At higher rpm EVC regulates how much exhaust is allowed to escape, and to some degree, the cylinder pressure at IVO.
Later EVC will shift the power curve up in the rpm range and damage low speed torque. At power peak the exhaust valve
should close just slightly before reversion occurs. It is also important to remember that exhaust tuning can have a
significant influence on reversion. Therefore, EVC should only be established after proper exhaust tuning.

IVC - intake valve closing, is the most important valve event for the IC engine. IVC occurs well into the compression
stroke and is susceptible to reversion if inlet velocity and/or pressure wave phenomenon are not sufficiently forceful
enough to resist the increasing cylinder pressure. This is especially true at low to middle rpm where port velocity is slow.
For this reason late IVC will reduce volumetric efficiency at lower rpm and increase volumetric efficiency at higher rpm.
The determination of IVC is obviously dependent on the desired performance level with higher performance requiring
later IVC. The most important factors which will determine IVC at power peak are port velocity, pressure wave
phenomenon, and piston speed.

The pressure-volume diagram is a useful tool for helping with the determination of valve events. It is essentially a pressure-
crank angle plot of the cylinder pressure except the crank angle X-axis is replaced by cylinder volume. Figure 16 is a
complete P-V diagram showing the full 720 degrees working process. TDC is on the left because it represents the
minimum volume, whereas BDC on the right represents maximum volume. Starting form the point of ignition which
occurs close to TDC, one would expect the cylinder pressure to increase. As the piston starts downward on its power
stroke, pressure will decrease. Slightly before BDC, the exhaust valve opens and releases cylinder pressure. During the
upward (volume decreasing) stroke, the exhaust valve is open and cylinder pressure remains relatively constant. At
approximately TDC, the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens to start the intake process. Again, as the intake
(volume increasing) stroke proceeds, cylinder pressure remains relatively constant. Once slightly past BDC, the intake valve
is closed and the compression stroke begins. Near TDC, the ignition fires and the entire process starts all over again. It also
needs mentioning that the lower loop will be completely different for a supercharged or turbo engine since there will be
positive pressure acting on the piston during the intake stroke.

FIGURE 16

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Of the two loops, the lower one is of concern when establishing valve events. Figure 17 shows an enlarged lower loop of
the P-V diagram. This portion of the cycle is know as the “Open Valve Cycle”, since at least one of the two valves will be
open during this period. The loop is also named the “pumping loop” and the average pressure of this loop is know as the
“pumping mean effective pressure” (PMEP).

FIGURE 17

FIGURE 18

Figure 18 shows typical pumping loops for several different engine speeds along with the atmospheric reference pressure
Pa. The first thing to notice is how the loop “balloons” as engine speed is increased. Upon closer inspection, the reader will
notice that the lower portion of the loop (intake) stays relatively unchanged as engine speed increases. However, the upper
portion of the loop (exhaust) rises as rpm is increased. This occurs because as rpm increases, it becomes more difficult to
adequately evacuate the cylinder of exhaust gases. This in turn will cause the cylinder pressure to be higher during the

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exhaust stroke. When this situation occurs it will also mean an increase in the PMEP. Figure 19 shows a P-V plot what has
a distinct bulge around the point of maximum piston velocity. This is typically a sign of insufficient exhaust valve size or
lift. This bulge can also be seen on the pressure-crank angle diagram as the cylinder pressure drops down to the inlet
pressure. Figures 20 & 21 show the effect of an exhaust valve that is opening too soon or too late respectively. Notice how
the blowdown pressure plot starting at the upper right hand corner is sloped. If EVO is too early, then the plot tends to
slope strongly from the left to right as it heads downward. If EVO is too late, then the plot tends to slope from the left to
the right and levels out considerably higher than Pa. A more ideal EVO will have a plot which will just slightly slope from
left to right. Figure 22 shows the sharp rise in cylinder pressure as the exhaust valve closes too early.

FIGURE 19 FIGURE 22

FIGURE 20
FIGURE 23

FIGURE 21
FIGURE 24
Figure 23 shows a P-V plot of an intake port and/or lift/valve size which is too restrictive. Notice how the bottom portion
of the loop is slightly lower than when compared to other P-V plots. Here the cylinder is trying to draw in fresh charge, yet
cannot because of the restriction. For intake valve closings (IVC) which are too early, Figure 24 represents the P-V plot.
Here a “pointed tail” can be seen as the early valve closing cuts off cylinder filling fresh charge. IVO, as stated earlier, is the
least sensitive valve event and its opening point (within reason) is not discernable on the P-V diagram.

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 A FINAL NOTE

Even though the wave action simulation technique has been around for many years it is only recently that personal
computers have developed adequate processing power to solve the unsteady gas flow equations. Before this time main
frames which could only be afforded by large institutions were able to conduct this method of simulation. Now that this
method has been introduced to the general public the author is confident that the many talented engine builders will
discover and develop a better understanding of the Dynomation output than himself. It is with sincere hope that those
talented individuals will share their discoveries with the author so that he may have the opportunity to learn from their
experiences.

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 EXAMPLES

As anyone knows, it is difficult to interpret theory without the aid of examples. Examples help to integrate knowledge by
allowing the student to coordinate information in a more complete and useful form. What follows will be examples of
actual screen output from the Dynomation simulation. The three diagrams which appear have already been discussed. An
important note about the port flow velocity diagram is that the intake and exhaust velocities are not directly comparable.
Both are in terms of there respective mach number. Since the temperatures of the intake and exhaust are different, their
acoustic velocities (which are used to calculate their mach numbers) will also be different. This will make the direct
comparison of intake and exhaust mach numbers impossible. The numeric output which is displayed on the screen is
described below.

CYCLE #
Describes the number of cycles (0 - 720 degrees = 1 cycle) that simulation has completed.

RPM
Outputs the revolutions per minute that the test engine is being simulated at.

HP
Outputs the simulated horsepower of the test engine.

TORQUE
Outputs the simulated torque of the test engine.

BMEP
Brake Mean Effective Pressure is a figure of merit which is independent of cylinder displacement (it can be used for
comparative purposes irrespective of engine size). The BMEP is equal to the IMEP – FMEP, where the IMEP (Indicated
Mean Effective Pressure) is the average cylinder pressure during the power stroke minus the FMEP (Friction Mean
Effective Pressure), here defined as the average pressure of the negative work during the other three strokes. This negative
work is essentially made up of friction and pumping mean effective pressures. Horsepower can be calculated from the
BMEP figure using the following formula:

HP = (BMEP * CID * RPM)/802,973 (4 cycle only)

where CID is the total cubic inch displacement of the engine.

PMEP
The average pressure during the pumping loop. Replace the BMEP with PMEP in the above formula to calculate the
horsepower lost to pumping.

VOL (EFF) %
Another figure of merit which is independent of cylinder displacement is the volumetric efficiency. There are many
different methods of calculating VE; charge delivered to the cylinder (including mass that has short circuited out during
overlap) is divided by the mass required to fill the swept volume of the cylinder at inlet density. This method of calculation
defines inlet density at or near the inlet valve (not atmospheric density) and measures the pumping efficiency of the
cylinder and valves. If atmospheric pressure were used then the VE would be the overall volumetric efficiency.

MIN INT PRESSURE

This value tells what the lowest intake pressure is during the intake stroke. It also locates at what crank angle ATDC
minimum pressure occurs.

Most of the simulations will be tested at 6000 rpm, which is peak power for this combination. This will give the reader a
better “feel” for proper pressure plots at peak performance. However, 3000 and 8000 rpm tests are also included so that
the reader can become more familiar with low speed untuned and over-revved conditions. The engine which is simulated

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here is by no means optimized. It does, however, qualify as an excellent combination which has very near to optimum
pressure plots at peak power. The following 11 examples obviously cannot cover all the different possibilities but should
help the reader integrate many of the already learned principles.

EXAMPLE 1

Baseline Engine Performance

This is the baseline engine’s plot, with which all others will be compared. Position [1] indicates the cylinder pressure as
it falls and runs parallel with the primary exhaust pulse. Note that at position [2], the cylinder pressure is actually below the
inlet pressure at the intake valve opening - IVO. Position [2] also indicates how the exhaust scavenging wave is properly
placed across the overlap period. This indicates that the tuned lengths of the exhaust system are proper, though not
necessarily optimized. Position [3] indicates the trough of the intake pulse, which is occurring very nearly at the point of
maximum piston velocity, and therefore is about optimum. This point (maximum piston velocity) is usually from 73 to 82
degrees after TDC. As can be seen by the three “humps” of the intake pulses before IVO, the intake runners are
moderately short. Position [4] indicates the pressure build-up that should occur just before IVC. This will help to retain
fresh charge as the cylinder pressure begins to rise during the start of the compression stroke. For this particular rpm, IVC
could be extended somewhat more, since the inlet pressure is still sufficiently above cylinder pressure even after IVC. Of
course, this will not be the case at lower rpm. Position [5] points to the exhaust velocity of 0.6 mach. This value is basically
ideal, therefore we can conclude that the header pipe diameter is sufficient. The reader may note the negative exhaust
velocity which is occurring after EVC. This occurs because of the compressibility of gas. Even though the exhaust valve is
closed, gas particles have reversed their direction and are now compressing against the closed valve. Position [6] indicates a
maximum port velocity of 0.65 mach for the intake. As stated in the text, this is near the upper range in intake velocity at
peak power, if a top-end (high rpm) power band is desired. Also note how there is not any reversion of the intake at IVC.
Position [7] indicates the proper downward angle of the blowdown portion of the P-V diagram; granted, this is a somewhat
subjective measurement.

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 EXAMPLE 2

HPL Too Long

Here is the same engine configuration except that the header pipe length is too long. Since the header pipe end is too
far from the cylinder, the expansion wave from the pipe end will not reach the cylinder in time to effectively remove
exhaust gases. This can be seen at [1] and [2] as the piston is physically forcing the spent exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
Note how much higher the cylinder pressure is than the inlet pressure at IVO. This is barely visible on the flow diagram at
[5]. The piston working on the exhaust gases can clearly be seen on the P-V diagram at position [4]. Notice how the P-V
loop is “bulged” when compared to the original baseline P-V plot. This increase in the loop causes an increase in pumping
work. Note how much higher the PMEP is when compared to the baseline test. Finally, note how late the scavenging
expansion wave has arrived [3]. This occurs way past the overlap period and is essentially useless, since the exhaust valve
has already closed, by the time the trough of the wave arrives.

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 EXAMPLE 3

Early EVO

In this example, the exhaust valve has opened too early. This effectively bleeds off pressure during the power stroke
which could have been used for work. Note that even though the scavenging wave [1] is properly placed, it is weak in
magnitude and effect. Position [2] illustrates that exhaust velocity is relatively insensitive to EVO. The position [3] shows
how closely the exhaust pressure is to atmospheric pressure. This also noticeable by the very low PMEP of only –6.7 psi.
Position [4] shows the downward blowdown pressure trace which is coming farther from the left than the baseline’s P-V
slope. This is also an indicator of an early EVO.

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 EXAMPLE 4

Late EVO

Here is an example of the exhaust valve opening – EVO, occurring too late. The loss of horsepower in this particular
situation is from the scavenging wave arriving too late to help during the overlap period [1]. In many cases where EVO is
too late, the cylinder pressure is not sufficiently lowered at IVO; however, in this example the cylinder pressure is nearly
equal to the inlet pressure at IVO. Position [2] illustrates again the insensitivity of exhaust velocity relative to EVO timing.
Position [4] shows the leftward sloping blowdown curve of an exhaust valve that is opening too late. As can be seen at [3],
the P-V curve is higher than the baseline example and again the PMEP is higher.

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 EXAMPLE 5

Late IVC

This example illustrates an intake valve that is closing too late. [1] Shows the peak of the inlet pressure wave occurring
way before IVC. Naturally one would expect a severe reversion and this can be seen at position [2]. Sometimes a small
amount of reversion can be tolerated with little power loss, because the sum of the fresh charge minus the reversion is
greater than the delivered fresh charge from an earlier IVC. Also, ports with higher velocity can in some circumstances
utilize later IVC because of gas flow momentum.

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 EXAMPLE 6

Early IVC

Here is an intake valve that is closing too soon. [1] The “ramming” pressure wave is arriving after the IVC point.
Notice how the port velocity at [2] is being hurriedly forced to zero at IVC. Position [3] illustrates how pressure build-up in
the cylinder during the compression stroke does not rise as quickly since there is not as much mass in the cylinder. The
reader should also note how much influence the IVC time has on horsepower by comparing the horsepower drop with the
previous examples.

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 EXAMPLE 7

Untuned at Low RPM

Here is an example of a low-speed untuned condition being tested at 3000 rpm. The arrival of the scavenging wave can
be seen at position [1]. This far too early arrival occurs because at slower engine speeds, the primary exhaust pulse has
more time to reflect and return from the pipe end. As stated in the text, the scavenging expansion wave is always followed
by a compression wave [7]. The result of this compression wave is a reversion of the exhaust gas into the cylinder [3]. The
intake pressure ramming wave [6] has also arrived prematurely and is creating a reversion [5]. Also note the increase in the
number of pulses on the intake trace during the intake valve closed period. This occurs due to the increased time available
for the pressure wave to travel back and forth before the intake valve opens. Finally, position [2] and [4] illustrate the
slower port velocities that occur at lower engine speeds.

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 EXAMPLE 8

Intake Valve Restriction

Here is a restricted intake valve flow. The two points of interests are [1], the mach-limited intake velocity and [2], the
late ramming compression wave. Note how the P-V diagram [3] indicates a reduction of charge ingested, in that the
pressure on the compression stroke rises slower than normal.

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 EXAMPLE 9

Exhaust Valve Restriction

This example is of a restricted exhaust valve. Note the large separation between the exhaust and cylinder pressure
during the exhaust stroke [1] and [2]. Since the cylinder pressure is greater at IVO, a small reversion will occur. Position [3]
shows the “bulging” higher cylinder pressure during the exhaust stroke of the P-V diagram. As expected, this increases the
PMEP.

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 EXAMPLE 10

HPL Too Short

In this example, the header pipe length is shortened. Notice how the scavenging wave is somewhat early as a result,
and insufficiently wide to cover the overlap period adequately [1]. Thus, there is a reversion of the exhaust gas [2] because
the compression portion of the scavenging wave is starting its arrival at the end of the overlap period. It is true that this
pipe length makes only slightly less power; however, at any lower rpm the scavenging wave will arrive earlier yet, and the
following compression portion will cause severe reversion.

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 EXAMPLE 11

Over-revved

This is an example of an over-revved engine. [1] Notice how the profile of the primary exhaust pulse is rounded and
the cylinder and exhaust pressure are beginning to separate [2]. This occurs for the same reason as a header pipe which is
too long. The negative expansion wave does not reach the cylinder in time to help remove the exhaust gases. Notice how
far the scavenging wave [3] is from being centered around the overlap period. Position [4] shows the intake ramming wave
as it arrives too late. Also, notice how there are only three pulses on the intake trace as compared to the four at 6000 rpm.
Position [5] illustrates the rise in cylinder pressure during the exhaust stroke and a corresponding increase in the PMEP can
be seen. In comparing the performance at 8000 rpm, the reader should be aware that Dynomation does not model the
effects of valve float.

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