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Abstract—Huge salt formations, trapping large untapped oil and gas reservoirs, lie in the deepwater region of the Gulf of Mexico.
Drilling in this region is high-risk, and drilling failures have led to well abandonments, with each costing tens of millions of dollars.
Salt tectonics plays a central role in these failures. To explore the geomechanical interactions between salt and the surrounding
sand and shale formations, scientists have simulated the stresses in and around salt diapirs in the Gulf of Mexico using non-linear
finite element geomechanical modeling. In this paper, we describe novel techniques developed to visualize the simulated
subsurface stress field. We present an adaptation of the Mohr diagram, a traditional paper-and-pencil graphical method long used
by the material mechanics community for estimating coordinate transformations for stress tensors, as a new tensor glyph for
dynamically exploring tensor variables within three-dimensional finite element models. This interactive glyph can be used as either
a probe or a filter through brushing and linking.
Index Terms— Geomechanical modeling, Mohr diagrams, multiple coordinated views, tensor field visualization, tensor glyph.
—————————— ——————————
1 INTRODUCTION
2
2= 1 C
3 1
B shear
3 A 3= 2 = 1 2 1
3
D
compression tension
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. (a) The selected element is outlined in white in the model win-
dow. (b) The model window has been updated to display the same
element along with all of the elements whose Mohr’s circles fall within
.2% of its Mohr's circle parameters.
Fig. 10. Salt pillar model elements filtered for highest stress rotation.
Fig. 11. Planar horizontal cut through columnar diapir model showing
the value of the eigenvector 1, equal to the minimum principal stress
(recall that compression is defined as negative). The widget for ma-
nipulating the cutting plane is visible in the center of the model view.
Because the cutting plane is at a shallow depth in the model, the col-
ored Mohr’s circles are all indicative of low mean stresses. The mini-
mum principal stress is elevated above the far-field values immediately Fig. 12. Filtering on the von Mises stress value, we have isolated this
below the salt tongue, as can be seen by the hotter colors. The over- shell of elements at the interface with the spherical salt diapir. In the
lay of the colored Mohr’s circles against the grey envelope from the Mohr diagram, the Mohr’s circle for the selected element (highlighted in
rest of the model provides a background context for how shear stress black) overlays a colored envelope for the selected elements, which, in
on this plane compares to the rest of the model. turn, overlays the gray envelope for the entire model. For the element
shown, the intermediate eigenvalue, 2, is almost midway between the
minimum and maximum eigenvalues, indicating a stress state highly
impacting fracture gradient, which is the stress at which the perturbed from the far-field (where two eigenvalues are equal).
formations surrounding the wellbore will fracture. Third,
regions where the vertical stresses are perturbed from the The current element is drawn in white in the model view,
far field must be identified to support calculations of the and its particular Mohr’s circle overlays the colored circle
drilling pressures required for wellbore stability. Finally, for the subset.
identification of optimal drilling paths is also impacted by This latter aspect is illustrated for the columnar diapir
regions where the principal stress directions (eigenvectors) with tongue model database in Fig. 10. In this example, we
have rotated relative to the vertical and horizontal direc- have filtered on those elements that display a high degree
tions that characterize the far-field. of rotation and then colored-coded a subset of these ele-
We illustrate the fourth interest above first because as ments, based on the degree of rotation and scaled by their
discussed in the previous section, visualization of stress magnitude within the selected range.
rotations is typically difficult for the geomechanics and me- For the same database, we visualize the local reductions
chanics user communities. Stress rotation is illustrated in in the maximum principal stress that can occur adjacent to
Fig. 9, where we show for the spherical geometry, a group salt diapirs (note that because compressive stresses are de-
of elements, where the principal stresses have rotated from fined as negative, this is the eigenvalue that is smallest in
vertical and horizontal, which affects wellbore stability magnitude). Fig. 11 shows the changing values of the
while drilling [13]. Filtering the model window to display maximum principal stress, which is proportional to the
just a single plane of elements, we superimpose their fracture gradient. One can readily evaluate the length scale
Mohr’s circles on the envelope (shown in gray) for the en- of the stress perturbations and locate “hot spots” with re-
tire model. As we interactively probe the cells, the black spect to the location of the columnar salt diapir and overly-
Mohr’s circle overlays the colored circles for the subset. ing salt tongue.
CROSSNO ET AL.: VISUALIZATION OF SALT-INDUCED STRESS PERTURBATIONS USING MOHR DIAGRAMS 9
Fig. 13. Visualization of the invariant shear stress in the material block Fig. 14. This is an alternative visualization of the data shown in Fig. 13.
lying immediately to the right, and above, an irregularly-shaped salt This shows the von Mises stress in a vertically-oriented plane of ele-
diapir (note that the salt material block is not shown). The Mohr’s cir- ments that are lying in the formation next to the salt diapir. The salt
cles shown in red indicate the elevated shear stresses adjacent to the material block that represents the diapir is not shown. The grey enve-
salt diapir. lope represents the element stress values excluded frin the planar cut
that is shown. Cutting through the complicated geometry allows closer
inspection of the stress perturbations as we interactively slide the cut-
In Fig. 12, we illustrate another useful application of the ting plane back and forth.
filtering capability where we identify elements outside of
the spherical salt diapir where the von Mises stress is ele- cally-oriented plane that transects the formation next to the
vated above a threshold value of 45 MPa. Because it is an salt diapir. Such information can suggest salt exit points
invariant, the von Mises stress, equal to the square root of that minimize shear stress on the wellbore.
one-half of the sums of the squares of the principle stress
differences, is a convenient measure of the shear (devia-
toric) stress, which as noted above affects wellbore stability.
7 CONCLUSIONS
For the application of interest, this visualization is particu- The tensor visualization methods developed in this work
larly useful, because the analyst can immediately see are directly motivated by the data analysis needs of the me-
whether the von Mises stress is elevated because of a differ- chanics community. Deterministic finite-element analysis
ence between only two principal stress values, or whether it tools, and particularly those used in defense-related appli-
is elevated because all three three principal stresses are un- cations, have reached a highly developed state of maturity.
equal – the two scenarios have potentially different implica- The code used here, JAS3D [2], utilizes explicit quasi-static
tions for wellbore stability. In the particular example solvers developed specifically under U.S. Department of
shown, the visualization also illustrates small inaccuracies Energy (DOE) Defense Programs to handle very large de-
in the numerical analysis that result from the mesh resolu- formation problems with complex material constitutive
tion and approximation of a spherical shape with hexahe- models and contact surfaces. The code is based on mas-
dral elements. Depending upon the requirements of the sively parallel, distributed memory multiprocessor com-
analysis, this may encourage the analyst to re-mesh this puters, enabling analysis of models containing tens of mil-
region to gain higher accuracy. lions of finite elements. JAS3D is ideally suited for geome-
The final example we consider is a large, multi-million- chanics problems because it supports highly non-linear ma-
element model that was constructed to represent a real field terial behavior, large-deformations, and a high degree of
setting. In Fig. 13 and Fig. 14, in which the large salt diapir geometric complexity [14]. With the significant advance-
is not shown, we show two different visualizations of the ment in computational capabilities experienced over the
von Mises stress in the formations immediately next to the past decade and advances in constitutive modeling of geo-
salt diapir and tongue that abut hydrocarbon-rich forma- materials [11], it is now practical to perform analyses of
tions. The visualization in Fig. 13 shows shear stress in the complex field settings that may require tens of millions of
material face immediately next to the salt diapir, whereas finite elements to accurately represent the complex geologic
the visualization in Fig. 14 shows shear stress along a verti- structure and achieve adequate resolution in specific re-
gions of interest.
10 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS, MANUSCRIPT ID
[21] G. Kindlmann, “Superquadric Tensor Glyphs,” Proc. of VisSym she joined the Data Analysis and Visualization department at Sandia
National Laboratories. She has served as the Principal Investigator on
2004, pp. 147-154, 2004.
several research grants from DOE’s Office of
[22] G. Kindlmann and D. Weinstein, “Hue-Balls and Lit-Tensors for Mathematics, Information, and Computer Sci-
Direct Volume Rendering of Diffusion Tensor Fields,” Proc. of ence, including a current project in hardware-
IEEE Visualization ’99, pp. 183-189, 1999. accelerated visualization. She has authored
papers on a variety of visualization topics. Her
[23] G. Kindlmann, D. Weinstein and D. Hart, “Strategies for Direct current research interests are scientific and
Volume Rendering of Diffusion Tensor Fields,” IEEE Trans on information visualization, visual data mining,
Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 124-138, 2000. and multiple, coordinated-view user interfaces.
[24] R.M. Kirby, H. Marmanis and D.H. Laidlaw, “Visualizing Multi- She is active in reviewing research proposals
and technical papers, and she has served on a
valued Data from 2D Incompressible Flows Using Concepts from number of conference program committees,
Painting,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization ‘99, pp. 333-340, 1999. including IEEE Visualization. She is a member of IEEE and ACM.
[25] R.D. Kriz, E.H. Glaessgen, and J.D. MacRae, “Eigenvalue-
David H. Rogers received his BA degree in
Eigenvector Glyphs: Visualizing Zeroth, Second, Fourth and
architecture with honors from Princeton Univer-
Higher Order Tensors in a Continuum,” paper presented at NCSA sity in 1988, and the MS degree in computer
Workshop on Modeling the Development of Residual Stresses During science from the University of New Mexico in
Thermoset Composite Curing, University of Illinois, Urbana- 1996. He co-founded and served as President
of the startup company, dynaVu, Inc., which
Champaign, September 15-16, 1995. developed a patented graphical user interface
[26] D. Laidlaw, E.T. Ahrens, D. Kremers, M.J. Avalos, R.E. Jacobs and for viewing large datasets. He went on to work
C. Readhead, “Visualizing Diffusion Tensor Images of the Mouse at Dreamworks SKG Feature Anumation, where
his credits included Production Software Super-
Spinal Cord,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization ‘98, pp. 127-134, 1998.
visor for Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron. He is
[27] Y. Lavin, Y. Levy and L. Hesselink, “Singularities in Nonuniform currently working in the Data Analysis and Visualization department at
Tensor Fields,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization ’97, pp. 59-66, 1997. Sandia National Laboratories.
[28] M.A. Livingston, “Visualization of Rotation Fields,” Proc. of IEEE
Rebecca M. Brannon earned her PhD in 1993
Visualization ‘97, pp. 491-494, 1997. from the University of Wisconsin. She special-
[29] K. Martin and B. Hoffman, Mastering CMake, USA: Kitware, Inc., izes in computational tensor analysis applied to
2003. inelasticity of geological materials, ceramics,
[30] A. McGarr and N.C. Gay, “State of Stress in the Earth’s Crust,” ferroelectrics, and metals. She has been em-
ployed since 1993 at Sandia National Laborato-
Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., vol. 6, pp. 405-436, 1978. ries (and has had appointments with Los Ala-
[31] F.J. Post, T. van Walsum, F.H. Post and D. Silver, “Iconic Tech- mos National Laboratory, the Air Force Re-
niques for Feature Visualization,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization ’95, search Laboratory, and the University of New
Mexico). By invitation from TU Delft’s research
pp. 288-295, 1995.
school, she recently conducted an international
[32] W. Schroeder, K. Martin, and W. Lorensen, The Visualization Tool- short course based on her Internet book, “Functional and structured
kit: An Object-Oriented Approach to 3D Graphics, Third Edition. tensor analysis for materials modeling.” She is an adjunct professor
USA: Kitware, Inc., 2002. and university accreditor for the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers. Having served as an organizer for the American Physical Soci-
[33] K. Seymour, G. Rae, J. Peden, and K. Ormston, “Drilling Close to ety (APS) Shock Compression of Condensed Matter conference, she
Salt Diapirs in the North Sea,” paper SPE 26693 presented at the contributed an invited book chapter on plasticity for an upcoming APS-
Offshore European Conference, Aberdeen, September 7-10, 1993. sponsored shock physics handbook. She gave a keynote presentation
at the Plasticity 2005 conference.
[34] A. Sigfridsson, T. Ebbers, E. Heiberg and L. Wigström, “Tensor
Field Visualisation Using Adaptive Filtering of Noise Fields David Coblentz is a solid earth geophysicist
Combined with Glyph Rendering,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization ‘02, with a joint appointment at Los Alamos National
pp. 371-378, 2002. Laboratory and the University of New Mexico
who through speculative geodynamics research
[35] R. Sweatman, R. Faul, and C. Ballew, “New Solutions for Subsalt- seeks the common ground between plate tec-
Well Lost Circulation and Optimized Primary Cementing,” paper tonics and geoecology. Professional interests
SPE 56499 presented at the 1999 SPE Ann. Tech. Conf. and Exhibi- include: Solid-Earth Geophysics, Geodynamics,
tion, Houston, October 3-6, 1999. Geoecology, Biogeography. Degrees: Ph.D.,
1994 University of Arizona, Geophysics, Ger-
[36] D. Weinstein, G. Kindlmann and E. Lundberg, “Tensorlines: Ad- man Literature Minor; M.S., 1988 Boston Col-
vection-Diffusion Based Propagation through Diffusion Tensor lege, Geophysics; B.A., 1985 UC San Diego,
Fields,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization ’99, pp. 249-253, 1999. Physics/Earth Science, German Literature Minor.
[37] B.-F. Westin, S.E. Maier, H. Mamata, A. Nabavi, F.A. Jolesz and R.
Joanne T. Fredrich is a Distinguished Member
Kikinis, “Processing and Visualization for Diffusion Tensor MRI,” of Technical Staff in the Geophysics Depart-
Medical Image Analysis, vol. 6, pp. 93-108, 2002. ment at Sandia National Laboratories in Albu-
[38] B. Wünsche and A. Young, “The Visualization and Measurement querque, New Mexico. Her interests include
geomechanics, rock physics, and three-
of Left Ventricular Deformation Using Finite Element Models,” J. dimensional imaging and fluid flow in porous
Visual Languages & Computing, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 299-326, 2003. media. She holds a PhD degree in geophysics
[39] X. Zheng and A. Pang, “Volume Deformation for Tensor Visuali- from the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, and BS (Honors) degree in geology from
zation,” Proc. of IEEE Visualization 2002, pp. 379–386, 2002.
the State University of New York at Stony
[40] X. Zheng and A. Pang, “Interaction of Light and Tensor Fields,” Brook. Fredrich is a current member of the
Proc. of VisSym 2003, pp. 157-166, 295, 2003. National Research Council's Committee on Geological and Geotechni-
cal Engineering, and of the Editorial Review Committee of the Society
Patricia Crossno received her PhD degree in computer science from of Petroluem Engineering, and she is a past Associate Editor for the
the University of New Mexico in 1998. After finishing her doctorate, Journal of Geophysical Research.