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3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 High Grade and Low Grade Energy
First law of thermodynamics deals with quantity of energy and second law with qualiry of energy. Ist law does not distinguish between the
nature of heat and work whereas second law does. 2nd law states that all heat can be converted into heat and only a part of heat can be converted
into work. But all work can be converted into heat. Therefore, work is a energy of high grade and heat is energy of low grade. The examples of
high grade energy are mechanical work, electrical work, water power, wind power, tidal power etc. The examples of low grade energy are heat or
thermal energy, heat derived from nuclear energy, heat from combustion jof fuel etc.
2. Unavailable Energy
The part of low grade energy heat which has to be rejected to a sink to produce maximum useful work in a cycle is called unavailable energy.
3.3 Available and Unavailable Energy for Carnot Engine
Fig. 3.1 represents the available and unavailable parts of heat energy
T0
AE = (1 − ) Q = Wmax = Wrev
T
Available energy is equal to maximum work or reversible work for a given input Q.
The corresponding minimum energy unavailable is
UA = Q - AE
T
= Q − (1 − 0 )
T
T0
= Q
T
UE = ∫T0 ds = T0 ( s 2 −s1 )
AE represents the maximum output when state changes from 1 to 2. It also represents decrease in available energy of the reservoir. Corresponding
increase in unavailable energy is represented by UE.
If a system is reduced to temperature of surroundings t0, its capacity to work utilizing the temperature difference ceases and energy available
becomes zero. Similarly, the pressure of the system is reduced to atmospheric pressure p 0 , its pressure difference ceases and its available
energy becomes zero. It is also true for other properties.
The properties in dead state are denoted by subscript zero i.e. T0, p0, h0, u0 etc.
The property availability signifies the work potential at a given state. The work will be maximum when process is reversible and the system
finally attains the dead state. The diagram explains the concept of availability.
3.7 Expression for Availability of Closed System
Fig. 3.4 illustrates a closed system a closed system having heat flow Q from atmosphere to it and work produced the system is W. The boundary
of the system changes to this interaction and change in volume of the system is V0-V1. This change in volume of the system is resisted by the
atmosphere. Hence, the useful work that can be obtained from the system is equal to maximum work minus work done against pushing the
atmosphere.
Q = U0 –U1 + W (3.2)
Equality sign holds good for a reversible process which gives maximum work. So
Q = T0 ( S0 - S1) (3.3)
Wmax = ( U1 – U0 ) - T0 (S1 – S0 ) or
Ф = ( U1 + p0 V1 – T0 S1 ) - (U0 + p0 V0 – T0 S0 )
If a system undergoes change of state from 1 to 2, the change of availability Ф1 – Ф2 will be equal to maximum useful work between the states 1
to 2. It is also shown in Fig. 3.3.
3.8 Expression for Availability of a Steady Flow System
Fig. 3.5 represents a steady flow process of a fluid through a control volume. Let Q and W be heat and work interactions between the control
volume and the surroundings. m1 is the mass entering and m2 the leaving the control volume. For steady flow process mass entering and mass
leaving are equal. From Eq. (2.14), applying first law to the control volume, we get
Q = W + m { (h2 + ve22 / 2 + gz2 ) – (h1 + ve12 / 2 + gz1) } ……(3.4)
2 2
V1 V
or W = Q + m ( h1 + + g z1 ) − m ( h2 + 2 + g z 2 ) (3.5)
2 2
Applying second law of thermodynamics to the control volume for a reversible process, we obtain
Q
∆S uni = m ( s 2 − s1 ) − = 0 or
T0
Q = T0 m (s 2 − s1 ) (3.6)
Since no part of work is spent against the atmosphere, there is no difference between useful work and maximum work. The availability of
flowing stream in steady flow process is the maximum work produced when fluid state changes from given state to dead state reversibly while
exchanging the heat with the surroundings. To get expression for availability, in Eq.(3.6) we make state 1 as general state and state 2 as dead
state.
2
V2 V
= m (h+ + g z − T0 s ) − m ( h0 + 0 + g z 0 − T0 s 0 ) (3.7)
Ф = W 2 2
Irreversibility I is defined as the difference between the maximum useful work and the actual useful work.
I = Wmax - Wa
I = Wmax - Wa
2 2
V V
{ m ( h1 + 1 + g z1 ) − m ( h2 + 2 + g z 2 ) − m T0 ( s1 − s 2 ) }
= 2 2 -
2 2
V1 V
{ m ( h1 + + g z 1 ) − m ( h2 + 2 + g z 2 ) }+ Q
=
2 2
= T0 (S1 – S0 ) - Q
= T0 (∆S ) sy + T0 (∆S ) surr
= T0 ( (∆S ) sy + (∆S ) surr )
= T0 ( ∆S)uni ≥ 0
( COP ) HP = Q1
W
Also in heat pump, Q1 = W + Q2
W + Q2
( COP ) HP = , here Q2 is heat drawn from low temperature sink.
W
So, first law efficiency is also greater than 100% which not desirable.
5. First law efficiency is ratio of work done and heat supplied or
W
η1 =
Q1
It is the ratio of first grade energy W to second grade energy Q1. It is not desirable to compare two uneven type of energies.
Therefore, we conclude that first law efficiency concept has limited utility to act as index of performance for engines and other applications.
3.10.2 Second Law Efficiency, ηII
1. It is the ratio of minimum amount of work required to perform a task to the amount of work actually used.
Minimum work required
ηII =
Actually work used
Wmin
=
W act
2.First Law Second Law Efficiency, ηII , for a Work Producing
Device, Turbine
Turbine is a work producing device. The figure shows the adiabatic flow of fluid from state 1 at pressure p1 to state 2 at pressure p2. 1-2’ shows the
isentropic expansion of the fluid from pressure p1 to pressure p2.
First law efficiency for the process is
Actual work produces
η1 =
Re versible or max imum work for the same end states
W12
=
W12′
h1 − h2
=
h1 − h2′
Second law efficiency for a work producing machine is given by
Actual work produced
ηII =
Re versible or max imum work for the same end states
Wact
=
Wrev
h1 − h2
=
Ψ1 − ψ 2
ψ = ( h − h0 ) − T0 ( s − s 0 ), therefore
ψ1 = ( h1 − h0 ) − T0 ( s1 − s 0 ),
ψ2 = ( h 2 − h0 ) − T0 ( s 2 − s 0 ), and
ψ1 − ψ 2 = ( h1 − h2 ) − T0 ( s1 − s 2 )
Compressor is a work absorbing device which compresses a gas from a low pressure to a high pressure. Most of the compressors are designed for a
adiabatic flow and some are designed for a isothermal flow. In Fig. 3.7, 1-2 represents the isentropic process and 1-2/ the adiabatic process. The first
law efficiency for a work absorbing devic is given by
W W
η I ,adia = adia , η I ,adia = iso
Wact Wact
h1 − h2
ηI =
/
h1 − h2
The second law efficiency ηII for a work absorbing device like compressor is given by
Wrev
ηII =
Wact
Increase in availabili ty from state 1 to state 2
=
Actual work input
ψ 2 − ψ1
=
h2 − h1
ψ2 − ψ1 = ( h2 − h1 ) −T0 ( S 2 − S ) 1
p2 T
ψ2 − ψ1 = C p ( T2 − T1 ) − T0 ( R ln − C p ln 2 )
p1 T1
4. Second Law Efficiency of a Heat Exchanger
If Q is supplied by a constant temperature source, reversible work produced is calculated by using Carnot engine. If two fluids are exchanging heat
with each other and temperatures of both fluids are changing continuously, then reversible work is calculated by using the expression of availability.
1. When Temperatures of Cold and Hot Fluids are Changing
Fig. 3.8 shows a parallel flow heat exchanger in which cold fluid is entering at state 1 and leaving at state 2 hot fluid is entering at state 3 and leaving
at state 4. In case of heat exchanger, second law efficiency is defined as the ratio of increase in availability of cold fluid to decrease in availability of
hot fluid or
ψ − ψ1
ηII = 2
ψ3 − ψ4
2. When Temperatures of Cold and Hot Fluids are Constant
Fig. 3.9 shows heat transfer Q1 from hot fluid at a constant temperature T1. In turn cold fluid at constant temperature T2 receives heat Q2. The
difference (Q1 - Q2) is lost to the surroundings. In the heat exchanger, heating of cold fluid is the desired process and cooling of hot fluid is the input
process. Therefore, second law efficiency is defined as the ratio of increase in availability of cold fluid to decrease in availability of hot fluid or
ψ − ψ1
ηII = 2
ψ3 − ψ4
T0
Increase in availability of cold fluid = Q2
1 −
T2
T0
Decrease in availability of hot fluid = Q1 1 − T
1
T0
Q2 1 −
T2
ηII =
T0
Q1 1 −
T1
T0
(1 − )
T2
ηII = ηI If η I = 0
T
(1 − 0 )
T1
T0
(1− )
T2
ηII =
T
(1 − 0 )
T1
3.11Maximum Work Associated with Heat
Fig. 3.10 represents heat flow Q frpm surroundings to a system whose surface is at a constant temperature of Ts. A Carnot engine is introduced
between the reservoir at Ts and the surroundings at T0. The maximum or reversible work produces will be Q multiplied by the efficiency of the Carnot
engine or
T
W rev = Q ( 1 − 0 )
Ts