Complete Proceedings of Energy Efficient Deenbandhu

Proceedings of National Conference on Energy Efficient Design of Buildings held
6-7 February, 2012 at Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology,
Murthal, Haryana, India
Energy
efficient
design of
buildings
&
cities
DCRUST - Murthal, INDIA & HSOWL - Detmold, GERMANY

Edited by Chitrarekha Kabre - Uta Pottgiesser - Jyoti Pandey Sharma
Energy Efficient Design of Buildings & Cities
Proceedings of the National Conference on

Energy Efficient Design of Buildings: Seeking Cost Effective Solutions
6-7 February, 2012
Edited By
Chitrarekha Kabre
Uta Pottgiesser
Jyoti Pandey Sharma
Hosted By
Department of Architecture
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal
www.dcrustm.org
Published By
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, INDIA

Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HSOWL), Detmold, GERMANY
Department of Architecture
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology
50 km stone, NH 1, Murthal, Haryana, 131039, India
T: +91 130 2484010
F: +91 130 2484004
E: chairpersonarch@dcrustm.org
W:http://www.dcrustm.org
Building Construction and Materials

Detmold School of Architecture and Interior Design
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HSOWL), Detmold, Germany
45 Emilienstr, D-32756 Detmold
T: +49 5231 769653
F: +49 5231 769 753
E: uta.pottgiesser@hs-owl.de
W: http://www.hs-owl.de/fb1
©2012
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science &Technology
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HSOWL)
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval
system without prior permission in writing from the Publishers.
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Cover design by Kapil Grover, B.Arch. student, DCRUST
ISBN: 978-93-5067-137-5
ii
Editors
Chitrarekha Kabre (Ph.D. University of Queensland, Australia)

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology
Murthal, Haryana 131039 India
T: +91 130 2484010
F: +91 130 2484004
E: crekha888@yahoo.com
W: www.dcrustm.org
Uta Pottgiesser (Ph.D. Technische Universität Dresden, Germany)

Building Construction and Materials
Detmold School of Architecture and Interior Design
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HSOWL), Detmold, Germany
45 Emilienstr, D-32756 Detmold
T: +49 5231 769653
F: +49 5231 769 753
E: uta.pottgiesser@hs-owl.de
W: http://www.hs-owl.de/fb1
Jyoti Pandey Sharma (Ph.D. De Montfort University Leicester UK)

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology
Murthal, Haryana 131039 India
T: +91 9466844658
F: +91 130 2484004
E: jyotip.sharma@gmail.com
W: www.dcrustm.org
iii
National Advisory Committee
Chief Patron
Er Har Sarup Chahal Vice Chancellor, DCRUST, Murthal
Patron
Mr. R. K. Arora Registrar, DCRUST, Murthal
Dr. Ajay Mathur Director General, Bureau of Energy Efficiency,
Government of India, New Delhi
Dr. P.C. Jain Chairman and Managing Director, Spectral, an
AECOM Company, Greater Noida
Prof. S. K. Bhattacharyya Director, Central Building Research Institute,
Roorkee
Dr. Shailesh K. Agarwal Executive Director, Building Materials &
Technology Promotion Council, Government of
India, New Delhi
Mr. Arun Kumar IAS Director, Haryana Renewable Energy Development
Agency, Panchkula
Prof. Pradyumna Vyas Director, National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad
Prof. Vijay Shrikrishna Sohoni President, Council of Architecture, New Delhi
Mrs. Mili Majumdar Director, Sustainable Habitat Division, The Energy
Resource Institute, New Delhi
Ar. Sanjay Mohe Mind Space Architects, Bangalore
Ar. Karan Grover Karan Grover & Associates Pvt. Ltd., Vadodara
Ar. Shashank Bhargava Bhargava & Associates Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Ar. Sanjay Prakash Sanjay Prakash & Associates Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Dr. Pushpalata Head, Dept of Architecture & Planning, Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Dr. S. K. Singh Head, Centre of Excellence for Energy and
Environmental Studies, DCRUST, Murthal
Prof. Vijay Kumar Sharma Dean, Faculty of Architecture, Urban & Town
Planning, DCRUST, Murthal
Convener
Prof. Dr. Chitrarekha Kabre Chairperson, Dept of Architecture DCRUST,
Murthal
v
Programme Committee
Board of Conference
Conference Chair Prof. Dr. Uta Pottgiesser

Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Germany
Conference Co-Chair Prof. Ulrich Nether
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Germany
Conference Co-Chair Prof. Dr. Chitrarekha Kabre
DCRUST, Murthal, India
Conference Co-Chair Dr. Jignesh Khakhar
NID, Ahmedabad, India
Local Organising Committee
Conference Secretariat Ar. Ravi Vaish

Publication Managers Dr. Jyoti Pandey Sharma, Ar. Ravi Vaish & Ar.
Satpal
Publicity Dr. Pawan Dahiya & Ar. Manoj Panwar
Workshop Managers Ar. Ajay Monga & Ar. Neha Yadav
Exhibition Managers Dr. Geeta Dahiya & Ar. Lalit Kumar
Web Managers Mrs. Darshana Hooda
Logistics Dr. J. S. Rana & Dr. Manoj Duhan
vi
Review Panel
Aslihan Tavil Istanbul Technical University, Taksim, Turkey

Betina Tschiedel Martau Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Rua Sarmento
Leite, Porto Alegre, Brazil
B. S. Dahiya Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and
Technology, Murthal, India
Chitrarekha Kabre Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and
Flavio de Lemos Carsalade Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte,
Brazil
Josemi Martínez Rico Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Universidad del País
Vasco, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Jyoti Pandey Sharma Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and
Rakesh Ahuja AURA, Gurgaon, India
Reinhard Dolschel Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Lemgo,
Germany
Robert Ries University of Florida, USA
Sangeeta Bagga Chandigarh College of Architecture, Chandigarh, India
S. K. Singh Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and
Steve Lo University of Bath, UK
Ulrich Knaack Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Lemgo,
Germany/Technische Universiteit Delft, Netherland
vii
Contents
Preface xiii
Keynote Speakers 01
Towards More Energy Efficient Commercial Buildings 03
Dr. Ajay Mathur
The Wonder that will be India 05
Dr. Prem C. Jain
Master Speakers 07
“The Joy of Less” – Being Human is the Minimum 09
Ar. Karan Grover
Nature in Architecture 11
Ar. Sanjay Mohe
Innovation in Design 13
Innovations in Architecture into Innovation Architecture 15
Uta Pottgiesser
Cost effective, Energy Efficient, Economic, Eco and Elderly Friendly 25
Architecture
K. Jaisim
Redefining the Greys of the Green 33
Yatin Pandya
Masonary Dome in the Form of an Ellipsoid 41
Avinash Deshpande, K. S. Jagdish, S. Manjunath
Energy Savings and Cost Effectiveness of Residential Building Using 51
Green Building Approach
S. Moses Aranganathan, S. A. Paul Makesh, S. Seileysh Sivaraja,
L. Jayaraman & M. Sathish Kumar
ix
Community Sensitization 63
People and Places as Energy Solutions 65
Sathya Prakash Varanashi
The Role of Education in Design and Implementation of Energy Efficient 67
Buildings
Deepika Gandhi, Niyati Jigyasu
Integration of Energy Efficiency and Environmental Sciences in 77
Architectural Education
Ravi Vaish
Restructuring Architectural Education for Sustainability 89
Archana Chaudhary
Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation in User Behavioral Pattern in 103
Assessing Energy Conservation
Parveen Kumar
Energy Rating Systems 111

Building Energy Efficiency Standards in India 113
Chitrarekha Kabre
Role of Building Energy Codes in the Energy Efficient Design of Building 139
Envelope
Seema Devgun, Arvind Kumar Jain, Bishwajit Bhattacharjee
Benchmarking - As a Tool for Sustainable Buildings 157
Shaila Bantaur, Mahua Mukherjee, R. Shankar
Energy Efficient Design Principles 165

Sustainability, Architecture and Design 167
Ulrich Nether
Passive Solar Concepts for Energy Efficient Building Design 175
Karamjit Singh Chahal, Sandeep Dua
Energy Efficient Building Design Considerations for Tropical Regions of 193
India
Pankaj Chhabra
x
Green Building as an Approach Towards Energy Conservation: A Review 207
Pawan Kumar Rose, Rani Devi, Kiran Rose
Promoting Sustainable Architecture through Innovative Green Building 219
Solutions
Jit Kumar Gupta, Ajay Monga
Zero Energy Buildings: A Cost Effective Solution 237
N. K. Ojha, Sarika Vohara
Lighting as a Tool to Mitigate Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Carbon 251
Neutral Approach
Ranee Vedamuthu, Jayaram Jeyaradha
Energy Efficient Design Exemplars 261

Occupant Comfort and Climate Sensitive Architecture 263
Sangeet Sharma
Green Buildings Initiatives at Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of 277
Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Shashank Bhargava
Learning from the Past: Passive Solar Architecture in Hot Dry Regions 281
Kishor P. Rewatkar, Priyanka K. Rewatkar
Passive Approach for Achieving Energy Efficiency in a Commercial 301
Building
Shreyasi Ansingkar, Pradnya Nesarikar, Pratibha Chincholikar
Shading of Buildings: A Cost-Effective Solution for Saving Energy in Hot 315
Tropical Regions
Amitava Sarkar
Capitalizing on Energy Efficiency in Buildings through Bioclimatic Design 327
Rashmi Ashtt, Ajay Monga
Sustainable Cities 341

De-Ruralization and Urbanization in India 3.0: Drivers and Pitfalls in the 343
Change Process
Reinhard Doleschal
Sustainable City Strategies for Developing Countries 353
Anil Laul
xi
Pahari, Darya aur Shahar (Ridge-River-City): Sultanate Environmental 375
Urbanism in the Delhi Triangle and Lessons there are for the Taking
Jyoti Pandey Sharma
Sustainable Urban Design: Lessons from the Chandigarh Neighbourhood 391

Sangeeta Bagga
Sustainable Development: Crossroads at Urban Disaster Risk Management 403
and Climate Change
Neha Bansal, Mahua Mukherjee, Ajay Gairola
Sustainable Redevelopment of Single Industry Resource Based Mining 421
Towns to Counter Urban Decay
T. S. Sagar
Green Highways: A Step Towards Sustainable Development 433
Satpal
Invited Speakers: Short Biography 443
xii
Preface
The year from Autumn 2011 to Autumn 2012 is themed as “Germany and India: Infinite
Opportunities” to mark the 60th Anniversary of diplomatic relations between the Federal
Republic of Germany and the Republic of India. The year is governed by the vision to
develop “Germany and India” as working partners, on the basis of shared values and mutual
trust, to meet the future challenges. This endeavour focuses on “City Spaces” and a travelling
exhibition “Mobile Metro Space City Tour” to discuss the challenges of India’s rapid
urbanisation centered on seeking new energy and cost efficient solutions for the built
environment. In this context, the Project, Climate Related Energy Efficient Design – Product
Solutions (CREED-PS) is one of the thirteen binational projects between science and industry
in the field of architecture, design, interior architecture and urbanism. With respect to the
city, the building envelope and the user, all products and construction elements must meet
energy demands as well as contribute as design elements to urban image making and
influence the behaviour of a society. Germany has developed a lot of materials and products
that are often not applicable to other parts of the world that have different climatic and
economic conditions. The CREED-PS Project wants to address and identify these needs and
offer possible product solutions for the Indian market. The Project partners are Hochschule
Ostwestfalen-Lippe, (HS OWL), Detmold, Germany, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
Science and Technology, Murthal, India, National Institute of Design (NID), Ahmedabad,
India and industry partner, Bayer Material Science, India.
The National Conference on Energy Efficient Design of Buildings organized by
Department of Architecture, DCRUST, Murthal is part and the starting point of the Project.
The Conference addresses the quest for passive and low energy architecture through cost
effective solutions at the building and urban scales. In the current context of major
technological shifts in the fields of building science and practices, the aim of the conference
is to facilitate international research interactions among students, research scholars,
academicians, scientists, professionals including architects, planners, project managers and
stakeholders from the building industry and policy makers in the following areas:
• architectural science and building technology
• transformative effects in building practices
• building regulations and policy
• sustainable urban development
The outcome of the Conference will be used for the following workshops at DCRUST,
NID and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and for a cooperation talk with the industry.
xiii
The book of proceedings presents the most recent thoughts and researches in the rapidly
evolving world of energy efficient design of buildings and cities through keynote and master
speakers and 33 papers selected by the Programme Committee from amongst more than 50
extended abstract submissions. The range and breadth of the final paper submissions allowed
us to organize the proceedings into six sections closely adhering to the Conference Themes:
• Innovation in Design
• Community Sensitization
• Energy Rating Systems
• Energy Efficient Design Principles
• Energy Efficient Design Exemplars
• Sustainable Cities
Innovation in Design starts with a dialogue on innovation in architecture into innovation
architecture and the following four papers demonstrate application of design innovation in the
field.
Community Sensitization positions people and places as energy solutions. Three papers
make a proposition for sensitizing the budding students of the profession. The last paper talks
about the role of post occupancy evaluation in user behavioural pattern in assessing energy
conservation.
Energy Rating Systems presents a profile of activities and research issues related to
building energy efficiency standards in India. It includes a snapshot of the contents,
development, and use of building energy efficiency standards.
Energy Efficient Design Principles delineates the relationship between sustainability,
architecture and design. Five following papers deal with passive solar, green and zero energy
concepts as cost effective solutions for energy efficiency. The last paper specifically
addresses lighting as a tool for a carbon neutral approach.
Energy Efficient Design Exemplars are presented from the past as well as from the present
covering an extensive typology of buildings and climatic contexts.
Sustainable Cities starts with a discussion on the demand and relevance of ecological
innovations in the growing economy of India. Energy saving and energy efficiency is
identified as one of the key drivers in a country with a population of over 1.2 billion.
Learning from the past is emphasized as one of the driving forces behind sustainable urban
development. Other pressing issues like disaster management and climate change, urban
decay in mining towns are discussed in this context. The last article on green highways paves
the path for further discussion.
Although the Programme Committee and the Editors of these proceedings have made
every possible effort to ensure that the work presented here is correct and devoid of factual
errors, the contents and opinions expressed in the papers are the sole responsibility of the
authors. The Editors’ role was to collate appropriate contributions into a coherent document,
and structure it into a meaningful and informative sequence. We hope that you will appreciate
this structure devised for a more fluid and organized reading.
xiv
Acknowledgement
We would like to thankfully acknowledge the unconditional support of Er Har Sarup Chahal,
Vice Chancellor of Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal
and Chief Patron of the Conference. We thank the Federal Ministry of Education and
Research (BMBF), Germany represented by the International Bureau (IB) for supporting the
publication and the Conference financially. We also thank the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy Sources, Government of India for extending financial support for the
Conference.
Our sincere thanks also go out to Mr. R. K. Arora, Registrar, DCRUST and Patron of the
Conference. We are grateful to the reviewers for their valuable comments; the authors for
their contributions; the National Advisory Committee for its advice and the Local Organizing
Committee for its commitment. Our thanks are due to all the students, especially Aayush
Goel, Bharati Sikri, Kapil Grover, Prateek Gauba, Rahul Sehgal, Sneha Manga, Srikant
Sharma, Sumit Khatri and Uttara Dasgupta for their extensive editorial support. We also
thank all those who directly or indirectly contributed towards the successful organization of
the Conference.
Chitrarekha Kabre
Conference Co-Chair
Uta Pottgiesser
Conference Chair
HSOWL, Detmold, Germany
Jyoti Pandey Sharma

Publication Manager
February 2012
xv
KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
Towards More Energy Efficient Commercial Buildings

Dr. Ajay Mathur
The Wonder that will be India

Dr. Prem C. Jain
1
Towards More Energy Efficient Commercial Buildings
MATHUR Ajay
Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, Government of India
amathur@beenet.in
Short Biography. Dr. Ajay Mathur is Director General of the Bureau of

Energy Efficiency (BEE), and a member of the Prime Minister's Council
on Climate Change. As Director General of BEE, Dr. Mathur coordinates
the national energy efficiency programme, including the standards and
labeling programme for equipment and appliances; energy conservation
building code; industrial energy efficiency programme, and the demand-
side management (DSM) programmes in buildings, lighting, and municipal
sectors. Prior to joining BEE, Dr. Mathur has worked on energy research,
financing, and implementation. He has headed the World Bank's Climate
Change Team in Washington, DC; and the Energy Engineering Division of
TERI in New Delhi; and has also been President of Suzlon Energy Limited. Dr. Mathur
received his Bachelor's degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of Roorkee, and
PhD from the University of Illinois. He received the Outstanding Alumni Award of the
University of Illinois in 2002, and the Global Energy Efficiency Visionary Award from the
Alliance to Save Energy in 2010. Dr. Mathur is the coauthor of three books, and has been a
lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
3
The Wonder that will be India
JAIN Prem C.
Spectral, an AECOM company, India
cmd@spectralservices.net; prem.jain@aecom.com
Short Biography. Dr. Prem C. Jain, Chairman and Founder of Spectral

(now an AECOM company), has a brilliant academic background in
engineering, culminating into Doctor of Philosophy in mechanical
engineering from the University of Minnesota, USA with perfect score of
4.0. He is the first practicing engineer in India to have been nominated in
1995, fellow of the ASHRAE USA in its history of a hundred years. He is
the founder President of ASHRAE-India chapter. In 2005, he was
bestowed with ASHRAE’s highest honour “Distinguished Fellow” award.
He is also the Founder and President emeritus of ISHRAE. He was
honoured by ISHRAE & ASHRAE India with Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007. His
alma mater Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in India conferred IT-BHU Alumni Excellence
Award upon him in 2008, and University of Minnesota has conferred their highest award
“Distinguished Leadership for Internationals” in 2011. He is Fellow of a large number of
international societies. He has been listed in Marquis Who's Who in the World and in
Marquis Who's Who in Science & Engineering from 1997 onwards, and in Baron's "The Asia
500 Leaders for the New Century" published in the USA in 2000. He is the Convener for the
HVAC section for “National Building Code of India 2005”. He has been nominated by
Bureau of Indian Standard to chair the new panel for “Approach to Sustainability, CED P19”,
addendum to the National Building Code of India. He is Visiting Faculty at School of
Planning & Architecture, New Delhi (deemed University) for the last 38 years. He founded
“Spectral Services Consultants Pvt. Ltd” in 1980, now an AECOM company, India’s Leading
Consultancy Organization, pioneering in design of Green Buildings services systems.
Spectral has the distinct honour of having designed Services system for twenty four LEED
Platinum Rated Green Buildings. He is Chairman of Indian Green Building Council and
Chairman for CII-IGBC’s annual International Green Building Congress from 2007 onwards.
He is driving the Green Building Movement in India with great passion to restore the health
of our ailing Mother Earth.
5
Abstract. Jain scriptures tell us the story of Adi-Nath, their first Tirthankar (seer), who
attained nirvana more than five thousand years ago. Indian history is replete with successive
Messiahs, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Mahavira, Guru Nanak, Satya Sai Baba, Ram Krishn
Parmamhans, Vivekanda, Maharshi Raman, Sri Aurobindo and innumerable saints over these
fifty centuries, who showed the way.
What nature preserved over 5000 years, the advent of industrial revolution in India, and
our desire for instant gratification, has destroyed in less than fifty years. Our sacred rivers are
dying because of industrial toxic effluents being continuously discharged in them, pristine
landmasses are covered with plastics and non-degradable waste, and the air is polluted with
burning of fossil fuels in power plants and in automobiles. Global warming accompanied with
natural disasters, melting of glaciers and vanishing species of animals, birds & plants, is upon
us. Will it lead to Maha-Pralay (dooms day)?
There is still hope for man and for all other remaining life forms on our beautiful Mother
Earth. Sages have predicted that India, through her ancient wisdom of living in harmony with
Nature, while still adopting state-of-the-art technologies, will lead the Way. Green buildings
with 50-75 percent savings in energy consumption, 40-50 percent savings in domestic water
consumption and zero waste, present a low-hanging fruit. I have dedicated my life on the Path
of Green and I know in my heart, that our youth will write the story of “The Wonder That Is
India.”
MASTER SPEAKERS
“The Joy of Less” – Being Human in the Minimum

Ar. Karan Grover
Nature in Architecture
Ar. Sanjay Mohe
7
“The Joy of Less” – Being Human is the Minimum
GROVER Karan
Karan Grover & Associates, Vadodara, India
kga@kga.co.in
Short Biography. Karan Grover and Associates is 26 years old. After

being flooded out of their basement office, they have moved to the topmost
floor in a building in Baroda on the banks of a tiny brown nala – the
famous Vishwamitri River set amidst 1000 acres of green; with 23
crocodiles, which sun themselves near the office cars every morning.
Karan Grover has been passionately advocating the need to look at ones
culture and heritage for clues as to the direction for a contemporary
architecture and sustainable development relevant to the Indian context
today. He has enthused children in conservation and has been nominated a
‘social entrepreneur’ as a Fellow of the Ashoka Foundation, Washington. He almost single
handedly won for India, the nomination for UNESCO’s World Heritage Site status for
Champaner after a 22-year old campaign. In 2004, Grover became the first architect in the
world to win the United States Green Building council (USGBC) ‘Platinum’ Award for the
greenest building in the world. He also went on to win his second ‘Platinum’ Award for the
interior of ABN AMRO Bank at Ahmedabad. Four more ‘Platinum’ buildings are in the
pipeline. He was recently made the Permanent Honorary Fellow of the National Academy of
Environment at the hands of former Indian President, Dr. Abdul Kalam in Delhi. He won the
USGBC Gold Award for the Keendiam diamond factory at Navsari as the greenest factory in
the world in 2008. He spoke at the Clinton Global Initiative, New York at the personal invite
of President Clinton in 2006. Karan Grover has been selected as the winner of the Green
Globe Award for Architect, Infrastructure Category from the Green Globe Foundation. The
‘CII–Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre’ the first LEED US Platinum Building in India
has been selected as the 2009 winner of the ‘Aspen Institute Energy and Environment
Awards’, under the NGO Category recently.
In August 2009, he was given the Keys of the City of Birmingham by the Mayor of
Birmingham at the Inaugural Address of the International Green Congress of the Green
Building Focus. The World Economic Forum at Davos has named Karan Grover as their
9
member on the Panel for Sustainability for 2009. He has been differently labelled on several
occasions – as a ‘Man of Taste’ in the Economics Times for his interest in food; on the cover
of the Construction Journal magazine as one of the ‘Hot Architects’ in India; as a
‘Charismatic Crusader’ in the Verve magazine for his campaign for heritage, conservation
and sustainability and recently as one of the ‘500 Visionaries of the 21st Century’ along with
the Dalai Lama and Bill Clinton and complimented for his sense of fashion by being selected
as one of ‘India’s 50 Most Stylish Men’ along with Amitabh Bachchan, India’s leading film
icon. Today, he is working towards the need for practicing ‘Green Architecture’ and speaks at
many international public forums addressing over 20,000 professionals and students pro bono
annually - a personal commitment he made at the Clinton Summit. In 2009, Karan has been
honoured with three more awards - the ACE Award 2009 by Economic Times; Nirman
Navratna Award 2009; and CNBC AWAZ Award 2009 and was nominated as one of India’s
top ten architects consecutively for the last 5 years in the construction world as well as being
nominated the First Architect Fellow to the Indian Plumbing Association for his contribution
to the profession. Karan is a founding member of ADaRSH (GRIHA) and has recently been
nominated as Member of the Confederation of Indian Industry Western Region Sub-
Committee on Climate Change & Sustainability for the year 2010-11. He has become the
Chairman of IGBC Vadodara Chapter on 28th March, 2011.
Nature in Architecture
MOHE Sanjay
Mindspace Architects, Bangalore, India
mohe@mindspacearchitects.com
Short Biography. Sanjay Mohe graduated from the Sir J. J. School of

Architecture, Bombay in 1976, securing the Claude Bartley Gold Medal.
He worked in Saudi Arabia from 1977 to 1980. He has also worked for
Charles Correa and Architectural Design Associates, Bombay upto 1983
and in Chandavarkar & Thacker, Bangalore in various positions from June
1983 till September 2004. He started his own firm ‘Mindspace’ in October
2004. He has designed projects such as research laboratories, knowledge-
park, campus design, factories, beach resort, library, corporate offices,
hospices, and residences. He has presented lectures and seminars at various
universities and architectural forums. He has won many awards like A+D & Spectrum
Foundation Architecture Award-2004/2006/2007/2009; Golden Architect Award, India; JK
Cements Architect of the Year Award-1991/1999/2001/2004/2007/2008; JK Cement State
Architect of the Year Award-1999/2003; Award of the Journal of the Indian Institute of
Architects-2002; ar+d-1999 International Annual Award of Architectural Review, London
and d’line, for JRD Digital Library Bangalore; Gold Medal from ARCASIA 1998-(the Asian
Forum for Institutes of Architecture) for JRD Digital Library at Bangalore; Award of the
Journal of the Indian Institute of Architects-1997, for JRD Tata Digital Library at Bangalore.
11
INNOVATION IN DESIGN
Innovations in Architecture into Innovation Architecture

Uta Pottgiesser
Cost Effective, Energy Efficient, Economic, Eco and

Elderly Friendly Architecture
K. Jaisim
Redefining Greys of the Green

Yatin Pandya
Masonry Dome in the Form of an Ellipsoid

Avinash Deshpande, K. S. Jagdish, S. Manjunath
Energy Savings and Cost Effectiveness of Residential

Building using Green Building Approach
S. Moses Aranganathan, S. A. Paul Makesh,
S. Seileysh Sivaraja, L. Jayaraman,
M. Sathish Kumar
13
Innovations in Architecture into Innovation Architecture
POTTGIESSER Uta
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Detmold School of Architecture and Interior
Architecture, Germany
uta.pottgiesser@hs-owl.de
Abstract. Innovation has become a key factor of the European economy, research and
society. The upcoming 8.EU framework programme for research and innovation “Horizon
2020” starting in 2014 has been created to react “in the second decade of the 21st century,
against the backdrop of a changing world order, (in which) Europe faces a series of crucial
challenges: low growth, insufficient innovation, and a diverse set of environmental and social
challenges” [1]. This document gives a review of specific research and innovation policies in
Germany related to the building sector. It shows exemplary fields and forms of innovation
and specifically with their impact on the complexity and celerity of global economic and
social changes. Seeking cost effective solutions for the energy efficient design of buildings
and cities all over the world, transnational and transcontinental dissemination of knowledge is
important and needed. This paper offers options to transform innovations in architecture into
innovation architecture.
1. Introduction
“High Tech, Low Tech, Construction Tech?” - the title of the latest analysis of the value
chain of the German building sector describes a kind of positive dilemma regarding the
innovation potentials and strategies in a European comparison [2]. This quantitative SWOT-
evaluation including Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats, helps to understand
the mechanisms within the building sector (Table 1). It also clarifies the relevant topics and
fields for large enterprises, craft and small trade, politics, scholars and customers.
Innovation often seems to be reduced to the technical and economical optimization of
processes and products but innovation in architecture in most cases has another social
dimension that originates from the desire that the application of technology is to improve
peoples' lives, culture and environments. Globally the challenges for social and cultural
Energy Efficient Design of Buildings and Cities, DCRUSTM and HSOWL, 2012 15
©C. Kabre, U. Pottgiesser and J. P. Sharma (eds)
U. POTTGIESSER
development appear diverse even contradictory. While one part of the world is confronted
with rapidly aging societies, the other part has to contest with rapidly expanding populations
and megacities that threaten the basic conditions of life. If quality of life should be
guaranteed in all parts of the world, the design and engineering disciplines that find formal
and technical solutions have to be combined with human sciences within the planning
disciplines to develop the best answers in each part of the world. Research plays a critical role
by allowing those in the academy to partner with those in industry and practice. Only
together, we can ask questions and learn methodologies, to give answers addressing societies
and world’s challenges in building and living [3].
So the definition of innovation has to be understood with its social dimension referring to
design, urban planning, processes and systems rather than addressing only material and
building elements, production and assembly or energy and building technology. The question
to be discussed urgently concerns the design of education at all levels to implement the
individual’s understanding and responsibility as a part of the innovation system.
Table 1.Criteria of innovation based on the SWOT-evaluation on innovation strategies in the European
building sector according to [2].
Innovation criteria Germany Germany International
Strength Weakness Solutions
Patents x
High-tech based x
Technology-based x
Research landscape x
Industrial suppliers x
Energy-efficiency x
Value chain x
Further education x networks
Innovation systems x cluster
Dissemination x Innovation-cafes
2. Forms and fields of innovation
“Our belief is that technology actively exists within the present building technology.” [4].
2.1. Definitions
As already mentioned in the introduction, the level of technology in the German building
sector is not low tech but high tech due to its large amount of industrial suppliers with a high
16
INNOVATIONS IN ARCHITECTURE INTO INNOVATION ARCHITECTURE
level of pre-fabrication. Related to this industry-based character, the forms of innovation can
be adapted for architecture as well:
Product Innovation describes a company’s ability to create and develop new products or
services that are absolutely or relatively new in the market.
Market Innovation describes the capability of an organization to create and develop new
markets for its products or to make sure that a product is available in the market for the first
time. In this case the expression, “Absolute Innovation” is used.
Business Innovation is based on product and market innovation. It means that a specific
product can be new for the company but not for the entire market, a so-called “Relative
Innovation”.
Process Innovation is an operative element that describes the design of business processes
to develop marketable offers.
The fields of innovation can be divided into design and planning, processes and systems,
material and building elements, production and assembly or energy and building technology.
2.2. Examples of product innovation

Product innovations are still the large majority of innovations since they are generally related
to one specific sector with specific knowledge. The innovation is often done within a small
group of experts, partly in interdisciplinary teams.
The research project at HS OWL involved modifying the glass-fibre-reinforced surfaces to achieve a
structured, haptic texture to be applied in living.
2.3. Examples of process innovation

Process innovations related to fabrication and production of materials and products are quite
common. More complicated due to the fact that more people from different areas and
disciplines have to be involved and trained are innovations in planning and design processes.
These entail changing institutional and organizational structures and behavior.
17
U. POTTGIESSER
The production of furniture has been influenced by new processes that were transferred from other
industrial areas, e.g. chair Uncut, Ron Arad, 1997.
2.4. Examples of market innovation

Market innovations are supposed to increase due to the rapid changing conditions,
frameworks and requirements in the world and in the individual countries. This offers a good
option for international cooperation related to the evaluation and adaptation of relevant
product and process innovations from certain sector and regions. It means to investigate to
potentials of different markets and target groups.
Market innovation can arise from changing social, political or ethic requirements: e.g. radiator based
on a module for endless assembly (SatyendraPakhalé) and artwork of used material (El Anasui).
3. Pilot projects
3.1. Public initiatives

In Germany the public research and innovation in architecture is organized within Research
Initiative “Future Building” of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban
18
Development (BMVBS). The initiative wants to foster the competitiveness of the German
building sector in the European market. A specific focus is to remove existing deficits
particularly in the sector of technical, building cultural and organisational innovations. While
specific research results are presented in a magazine, the pilot projects of the Federal Ministry
annual Yearbook [5].
All federal buildings can be considered as pilot projects due to the fact that they all fulfill
increased energetic requirements of about 25 percent related to the existing German
regulations. In 2011, the first efficiency buildings are going to be evaluated under real
conditions to see how the calculated and realized efficiency are related to each other.
“Efficiency House Plaus with Electro Mobility” built in Berlin 2011 and Casa Alemana touring, the
concept based on the Solar Decathlon project from 2007 (BMVBS Werner Sobek; BBSR, Hans-Peter
Lawrenz).
The first “Zero Energy Building” is built for the Federal Environmental Agency (UBA) (Braun-Kerbl-
Löffler Architekten + Ingenieure; Christopher Kühn) in Berlin-Marienfelde; it fulfills the 2019 EU-
requirements.
3.2. Private initiatives

Besides the above mentioned public initiatives and competitions, companies and foundations
are taking responsibility to develop product related and system solutions for the market. Most
initiatives are based on company networks that profit from a knowledge dissemination and
marketing activities such as the Eco-Commercial Building Programme (ECB) from Bayer
Material Science (BMS). The network partners profit from an all-in-solution to achieve the
19
U. POTTGIESSER
following goals: save energy, cut emissions, increase comfort and reduce lifecycle costs. One
of the first examples of a zero-emissions building from this network was the Innovation
Center in India of BMS in Greater Noida near New Delhi. It has been tailored to the local
composite climate conditions and provides passive and active measures for saving and
supplying energy. Solar power covers all energy demands and the building consumes 70
percent less energy than other local office buildings constructed to Indian standards (total
energy requirement: 45 kWh/m²).
The Innovation Center of Bayer Material Science (BMS) in Greater Noida, India, is a zero-emissions
building covering all energy demands by solar power.
4. Innovations for India
Products and materials as well as design and planning methods cannot directly be transferred
to another culture or another country. The question arises as to how existing innovations and
experiences in the field of energy efficiency and resource optimization can be adapted and
modified for a country like India with its rapid growing megacities and population. The last
years and decades have already shown a diverse approach of how local and regional
potentials can be used to reach more acceptance in the population – means the consumer –
and finally to find the necessary cost-effective and low-budget solutions that are relevant for
a large part of the market.
The first investigation has already pointed out the complexity and diversity of European
innovation systems and strategies depending on the specifications of the building sector and
also on political structures. It seems that a federal system complicates the dissemination
process as we can see in Germany compared to smaller countries such as Austria, Belgium or
Switzerland. On the other hand, the intense industrial supply is a great advantage for
technological innovations. The challenge lies in being able to implement the innovation into
the majority of small and medium sized enterprises – a key factor in the building sector.
Specific experiences can be taken from other emerging countries that have tried to foster
innovation through the establishment of design programmes – e. g. Brazil that started this
initiative in around 2000. In India this role has already be designated to the National Institute
of Design (NID). Design related innovation offers a large potential to reach the final costumer
20
and consumer and to achieve acceptance for new product and processes - a key factor of
successful implementation of innovation. This approach is based on local, regional and
national cultural understanding and traditions that influences and determines aesthetical
values. These play an important role to have a new product introduced – especially when they
are referring to topics such as Recycling Design and Waste reduction [6].
5. Recommendations for innovation
“Innovation Management is indeed a concept still very much in the process of being defined”
postulates the American Institute for Innovation Excellence and presents the new concept of
“Innovation Architecture” as a continuous process to be followed [7].
The Innovation loop describes the continuous process of innovation (AIIE).

Nevertheless an investigation of “innovation biographies” has brought the following results
and recommendations concerning the support and fostering of innovation within architecture
[8]:
• Define and establish the building industry as a “leading sector” for the
development of a sustainable, high-qualitative and inspiring living environment.
21
U. POTTGIESSER
• Visibility and distinctiveness as competitive advantages for the companies besides

cost reduction.
• Development and application of a business strategy.
• Continuous preparation and post-processing of projects, including the evaluation
of customer complaints and documentation of new tools and proceedings.
• Creation of a competent and inspiring cultural environment inside and between
companies.
• Cooperation and communication between companies and disciplines involving
innovative environments, networks and cluster.
• Leading market and leading clients: organizing and managing public, procuring
pilot projects in a way that innovation is supported.
• Reducing regulations in a way that security is provided and at the same time
innovation is stimulated.
Some of these recommendations have already been implemented within the process of
planning, constructing and evaluating public buildings. For several years specific research has
been undertaken in the areas of architecture and urban landscape, design and planning,
material and building elements, production and assembly and also energy and building
technology. Pilot projects have become an important instrument for dissemination and
communication of state-of-the-art and of new research results. Nevertheless the dissemination
and education has been identified as a major deficit within the building sector.
6. Conclusion
This paper has shown how innovation in architecture is related to other innovation models
and in which points it may differ from what is known from the industry sector. More than in
other areas of the economy, the building sector touches the very basic human need namely
that of living and wellbeing. Thus innovation in architecture – with all related specifications
included such as urban planning, engineering specialists and interior design – has in general a
relevant social dimension that originates from the desire that the application of technology is
to improve peoples' lives, culture and environments. To do so the innovation needs – maybe
more than in other areas – an interdisciplinary approach. This is already present in a typical
project design and has been optimized through organizational structures in large projects. But
it has been also proved that actual state-of-the-art designs, constructions and technologies are
not distributed in an efficient way to reach the majority of planners, construction industry and
finally the clients. Design related innovation offers a large potential to reach the final
customer and consumer and to achieve acceptance for new product and processes – a key
factor of successful implementation of innovation [9]. These are options to transform
innovations in architecture into innovation architecture as a systematic approach.
22
7. Acknowledgement
Many thanks to Dr. Olaf Böttcher from the Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban
Affairs and Spatial Development (BBSR) within the Federal Office for Building and
Regional Planning (BBR) of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs
(BMVBS) for providing information about the German pilot projects.
References
1. EU (2011). Commission Staff Working Paper. Executive Summary of the Impact Assessment.
Brussels – Belgium, 8, European Commission.
2. Nordhause-Janz, J., Rehfeld, D. & Welschhoff, J (2011). High Tech, Low Tech, Construction
Tech? Innovations strategien am Bau Im InternationalenVergleich, hrsg. Vom
BundesinstitutfürBau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung, Bonn. Berlin: BundesministeriumfürVerkehr,
Bau und Stadtentwicklung, 12.
3. Pottgiesser, U. (2011). Interior design as an academic discipline in Germany. Journal of Interior
Design 36(4), Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken - USA.
4. Brookes, A. & Poole, D. (2004). Innovation in architecture: a path to the future. Routledge, Oxford
– UK, 160.
5. Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung. (2011). Jahrbuch Bau und Raum 2010/11. Yearbook
Building and Space 2010/11. Selbstverlag des BBR, Bonn- Germany, 212.
6. Parode, F. & Pottgiesser, U. (2011). Recycling design: Germany - Brazil. Proceedings
International Conference Recycling Design. ENTREmeios Editora, Porto Alegre - Brazil, 102.
7. American Institute for Innovation Excellence. (2011). Is Phase-Gate the Right Tool for the job?
Next Practices in Innovation Management. Spring 2011 Research Report, de Pere - USA. 31.
8. Butzin, A. & Rehfeld, D. (2008). Innovationsbiographien in der Bauwirtschaft - Endbericht.
InstitutArbeit und Technik. Gelsenkirchen – Germany. 113.
9. Pottgiesser, U. & Strauß, H. (2012). Architecture and Innovation. From idea to product.
Birkhäuser, Basel – Switzerland, 156, (in preparation).
23
Cost Effective, Energy Efficient, Economic, Eco and Elderly Friendly
Architecture
K. JAISIM
Jaisim Fountainhead Architects, Planners, Engineers, Ecologists, Bangalore, India
jaisimfountainhead@yahoo.com
Abstract. The inspiration to present a paper to this august assembly on a subject close to
many in the present times – the earth undergoing tremendous turmoil from both within and
without is a task that demands not just dexterity but a depth and width of information
processed as knowledge with that touch of wisdom which can make life on this planet worth
living for now and generations to come.
1. Philosophy
From the day I stepped into the corridors of architecture in 1961 till today, the journey has
been one of adventure, full of events that have made it memorable even in the most difficult
of times. I shall with this paper presentation attempt to share my experiences in evolving an
innovative and imaginative approach in realizing an architecture that has been close to my
heart and mind.
I stepped through the portals of architecture fifty years ago and into its mysteries like Alice
falling through the dream deep hole and discovering her adventures of the Wonderland.
Little did I realize when I started my practice, Jaisim Fountainhead, forty one years ago in
1970, the kaleidoscopic world that would unravel before me and the works that took life in
reality from the sketches and dreams fulfilling many visions and aspirations of clients of all
formats of the spectrum that cross the spaces of my practice.
The inspirations from many chance encounters with phenomenal giants of the profession
(Mies van der Rohe, Geoffrey Bawa, Buckminster Fuller, Otto Koenigsberger, etc); the
experiences with works of legendary, Frank Lloyd Wright and the mesmerizing works of
Antonio Gaudi and finally to top it all the inspiration of the writings of Ayn Rand and her
K. JAISIM
book – my Bible, my Koran, my Bhagavad Gita – the Fountainhead, changed and challenged
all that was taught in the schools and inspired to express in the built form what we are today.
EGO
I DO - the Jaisim residence and the Jaisim-Fountainhead office
26
COST EFFECTIVE, ENERGY EFFICIENT, ECONOMIC, ECO AND ELDERLY FRIENDLY…
Cool meeting space at I DO
2. Objective
Cost effective energy efficient economic eco friendly architecture has become the order of the
day. Today they are being styled as sustainable and green. But to me all architecture has to be
sustainable and green otherwise it is just an engineered building.
CR Simha’s Guhe Chaplin supports
27
K. JAISIM
The above is the abstract of my philosophy and one, which we have strained to follow over
smooth and rough times in space and the built environment. Having been inspired, the
objective became evident. Optimising, making every input count and adding value at every
step from concept to detail to design development and realization.
3. Context and content
One must have structure to realize a defined, designed space in the context of human
functions. Structure is that medium which is a composition of stresses. Tension, compression
and shear are the fundamentals that integrate to make a structure possible. Now, this in turn
depends on the materials that comprise this structure. Thus, understanding materials and their
behavior under various conditions becomes paramount.
The material in addition to having content satisfying the structural restraints must also be
in context to have values both in aesthetics and in other factors that determine the quality of
space that it defines. The designer, thus, must observe detail with care and attentive response.
A responsibility very often neglected, usually covered up by masking or by an irrelevant
façade. This adds to cost and inefficiency.
Office space Interplay of light through the vaulted roof
Here we must pause to examine what is cost. Very often, it is misunderstood. Saving or
using material locally available is not necessarily a solution, neither using certain materials
that have very high embedded cost. Selection through evaluation and choice becomes crucial.
This ought not to be limited by geographic or physical considerations. One must be bold to
explore beyond the known resources and then compare. Today information is available on the
key board. Processing this information into knowledge and wisely selecting with content and
context, is the order of the day. There are many myths that one needs to be aware of:
28
Mud architecture, if practiced in the context of urban space, is a luxury. However, if the
same mud is baked or burnt becomes brick, and again if it is extruded with application of
technology becomes a versatile light weight material, ideal for high rise, high density
projects. The original volume of mud when it undergoes this metamorphic transformation
gains more than nine times in volume and has hollow air thermal conductivity properties
becoming a material of insulation. Further, it gains aesthetic value both in texture and in
color. This is value addition.
Glass and air-conditioning in the tropics succeed only if used with discretion. Glass is a
phenomenal material but can make life miserable in both cost and comfort, if not understood.
Understanding orientation, sun movement and the geographic location of the project in
addition to context and content, makes this a diamond of the building industry.
This approach is relevant to all the elements of structure and material that fuses to create
architecture. (In this paper I am only glancing over the relevance of the application.)
4. Design and detail
Concept sketch to realised space
29
K. JAISIM
5. Expression and delivery
It would appear ridiculous if one built a blank solid wall when a view can be enjoyed. The
very reason one builds and occupies space is for comfort against the harsh elements and to
enjoy the pleasures that nature provides.
’Sankalp’- a residence for Kalpana and Sampath
Concept sketch
30
The senses and the elements have to be woven into a fabric through design and detail. The
five elements and the five senses as they weave with various combinations and complexities,
open up a magic world of myriad expressions. These require discipline of a rare order
possible only to an architect. No other profession has the ability or opportunity to abstract and
detail out of nothingness. And to make this nothingness into a habitat for living humans to
live, explore and respond in a spectrum of reverberations is Houdini in toto.
Architecture lies in its details and yet the abstraction of the concept very often smiles.
Concepts very often appear at first absurd, but as a child grows and evolves, the details fill in
and a design emerges. The hand of God (architect) leads it on.
As an example, I present to you the hollow clay block, which is made up of the same
quantity of clay as an ordinary stock brick, but has nine times its volume. This, itself is a
value added being lighter and making possible a faster easier method of construction. Now, if
one has to add a subtle texture to it, which it invariably has, and with its original color need
no plaster or paint, only a wash to make it stain proof. Again, the number of joints being less,
it reduces the consumption of mortar, a phenomenal saving of energy, material and time.
The hollow spaces in our practice, which innovatively turned vertical, allowed the air to
rise from bottom to top creating a natural Venturi effect by design. Now, where ever, one
needed to add additional strength in the structure, the imagination of inserting reinforcement
rods in the hollow, made these blocks into strong columns without resorting to expensive
shuttering and concreting, another winner all the way.
Green elements Guptas’ residence
Here again, go to the roots. The raw material comes from the silt in lakes, this takes care of
keeping lakes deep and clean. This is only one of those materials, which becomes an element
of many possibilities beyond which, it was originally manufactured for.
31
K. JAISIM
In Jaisim Fountainhead, we have gone about this imaginative innovation, with every
material product that comes our way. Let it be glass, steel, concrete or the ready-made panels,
which are manufactured in the industry.
Presto restaurant, Bangalore
I would need volumes of time to present our experiences, which have become built
environmental expressions. It has been worth every step but it has not been easy. The rough
and tough of unexplored paths of adventure have kept us full of spirit. The built and the
unbuilt spaces of the living environment is what make architecture and its practice worth its
time in space.
32
Redefining the Greys of the Green
PANDYA Yatin
FOOTPRINTS E.A.R.T.H. (Environment Architecture Research Technology Housing)
Ahmedabad, India
pandyatin@hotmail.com, pandyatin@gmail.com
1. Introduction
“Green” has been a fashionable word these days. Unfortunately, more often than not, it has
remained a word rather than a colour. As a result, it is interpreted in numerous shades. While
on one hand, a fully glazed building using photo sensitive glass product may be rendered as
green, on the other end building with adequate comfort conditions without use of air
conditioners would not find favours with the LEED rating system. There needs to be a
boundary defining the blacks and whites of the green. No doubt that with the current state of
affairs, which has rendered the environment a dismal grey, every possible shade of green may
be a welcome tone. The range is vast but we still need to define priorities.
While, turning off the television at night, rather than keeping it on a standby mode can save
billions of rupees worth of Energy (50 million pound estimated for entire UK in a year), we
still need to identify our own spectrum of green and chart strategies around the same. It has to
be a contextual resolution rather than a global statement. Universal norms have been one of
the major factors in aggravating the problems. For example, even for the basic essential tasks
there are such diverse norms existing in the world that universalising them with the higher
denominator as the benchmark will only remain unduly wasteful. For example, the average
consumption of water in USA is 600 litres per person per day, in Europe it is 250 litres, 135
litres is the Indian average while in Africa they manage with as little as 30 litres per day.
India has 8 vehicles per thousand as compared to nearly 800 of America. Ninety percent of
the word’s cars are owned by sixteen richest nations accounting for only one fifth of world
population. No wonder, Christopher Alexander, in his studies found nearly sixty percent of
downtown Los angles land devoted to the car [1]. Need India follow the suit? India ironically
ranks fifth in the energy requirement, of which buildings account for nearly 40 percent.
Residences account for 23.4 percent and commercial buildings 6.6 percent, industries follow
next with 36.5 percent and agriculture 30.7 percent. As a development agent dealing with the
building industry, it makes us quite responsible for our decision-making.
Y. PANDYA
In daytime use building, nearly 92 percent of energy is spent in cooling (60 percent) and
day lighting (32 percent). The same figures for residential buildings are 64 percent. This
makes it quite logical for us to prioritize cooling and day lighting to be the preoccupation of
sustainable designs. How does our decision matter in these aspects? For example, a building
type can be a critical decision for its energy demands. A multi owner high-rise residential
building has energy demands of (59.8 kWh/sq. m.) one and half times that of the single owner
low rise building (40 kWh/sq. m), owing largely to the elevators and the energy intensive
services. Entertainment centres guzzle three and a half times (135 kWh/ sq. m.) while hotels
and data centres are ten times intensive. But topping all the list are the recently upcoming
shopping malls pegging energy needs at 565 kWh/sq. m. Needless is the debate whether after
all these, if they even measure up to the plurality and vitality of the traditional street bazaars.
Air conditioners take up nearly half of the energy demands, consuming 1000 watt unit rate
versus a fan which is only 80 watts. Need we chart an agenda for 20 percent reduction of air
conditioning load or to resolve to find comfort without one? It is also a fallacy to think that
modern times imply more comfort. Electricity has been invented and applied since over two
centuries but the energy consumption of the entire year of 1950, even after 150 years of its
invention, is equivalent to today’s consumption of only six weeks. Yet, it remains
inaccessible to over 40 percent of the world’s population. Where has it got consumed and
what are its alternatives? Entire estimated stock of fossil fuel of the world is equivalent of
eleven days of solar energy. Moreover, one kilowatt of solar panel saves one ton of carbon
dioxide. In the last fifty years, the world’s population has doubled and that along with the
enhanced consumerism has put strain on the resources. Not to mention the severities of
alarming pollution levels. In this reality of world and times of inundated construction can we
pull ourselves back to question the taken for granted conclusions?
The debate is not about shying away from technological advancements but rather to let it
play second fiddle, and not to hide architectural fallacies behind the facades of energy
intensive technologies. Through history, we have known of full wall openings or undeterred
views but we resolved them either as perforated Jaali (lattice screen) walls in Rajput or
Islamic phase or as stained glass openings in colonial phase. Both discouraged ingress of heat
and yet provided extended views from inside out while protected the outsider’s peek within.
Smaller apertures of Jaali created microclimate features to induce velocity of air and cooling
of air particle through Ventury and Bernoulli’s principle respectively. There is no logic for
omission of overhangs for curtain glazed western or southern facades in present day
buildings, in our extreme hot climate condition. We seem to have left our bearings
somewhere.
Here is a quick overview of the range of architectural resolutions and approaches as
explored in the city of Ahmedabad.
34
REDEFINING THE GREYS OF THE GREEN
2. Pol houses
Pol houses of the traditional quarters, lived in comfortably even today, remain the classic
model in passive cooling strategies. Deep narrow courtyard houses attached in narrow along
longer edges and activities split on three floors not only provide reduced exposure to external
condition but also make effective use of the land resources. It achieves up to 2.7 floor space
index (FSI) within three floors. With compact built form, more units are connected within
short travel distances and service lengths. The internal courtyard modulates sun while
combating glare and filtering light. It also provides for ventilation to all internal spaces of the
house. Courtyard has underground water cistern to harvest rainwater from the rooftops. This
provides adequately for the entire year’s drinking water needs. Even windows resolved as
three part combination provide for light, view and ventilation. Top hung part over lintel
remains ventilator for evacuating hot air, middle openable shutter provides for view and
communication link, while the floor level openings remain inlet for cool air. The upper floors
project outwardly to provide for overhangs and shelter wall surfaces from solar radiation.
Even closely packed units create mutual shading conditions. Activities split over floors give
sheltered environment in lower floors for daytime use while escape night radiation in upper
sleeping areas at night. Even furniture like the swing not only remains a multiple use element
but provides evaporative cooling of body perspiration. The sum total of these has been that
the typology remains in use since over five centuries
and needs no air conditioner for environmental
management even today.
35
Y. PANDYA
3. Environmental sanitation institute, Sughad
Environmental sanitation institute is a combination of solar passive as well as solar active

strategies. Soil management through cut and fill approach, land as reproductive resource
through cultivation, breaking the mass into chequered board pattern of the built and unbuilt to
optimise outdoors as active extension of indoors, north-eastern orientation for daytime use
spaces while south-western orientation for the night time use spaces, mutual shading through
taller masses in south and west, projecting profiles of upper floors and roofs for sun shading,
ventilated cavity wall construction for active insulation, ferrocement shell roofs for
optimisation of structural stresses and reduced material consumption, vaulted roof forms for
volume optimisation within, over two million litres of rain water harvesting in cistern,
percolating well as well as an open pond, recycling of waste through natural plant based root
zone system, generation of methane gas through bio-gas digesters attached to the toilet waste,
use of low water sanitary pans, fertilising of the compost, saving of finishing material and
maintenance through exposed brick external surfaces, frameless fenestrations, louvered-
glazed and perforated window combinations for light-view and ventilation, interactive
courtyard and terraces for outdoor use, solar active applications as water heater, solar cooking
(100 persons), solar photovoltaic panels producing electricity are some of the nuances applied
at the institute that provides training in the areas of alternative low cost solutions for rural
sanitation.
36
4. Manavsadhna activity centre, Ahmedabad
Manavsadhna activity centre is a very different interpretation of sustainability. A community

centre in a squatter settlement, it uses the building components recycled from domestic and
municipal waste. The entire building is a demonstrative application of waste recycled
products indigenously developed. Recycling waste answers the call of environment through
reduced pollution, empowers and employs the poor through value addition processes, and
helps towards affordable and durable housing as these products are cheaper and more
performing than the present options. The building uses fly ash bricks, dump fill site waste
residue bricks, stabilized soil blocks, wood crate panels, glass bottles and waste filled plastic
bottles etc. for walling options. It uses cement bonded sheets with clay tiles, stone slabs,
glass-plastic bottle filled filler slabs etc. for the roofing, wrapping waste reinforced, fiber
reinforced plastic (F.R.P.), oil tin container paneling, wood crate paneling etc. for the doors
and windows and in parts waste-fly ash-china mosaic tiles and blocks for flooring. These
become live demonstrations for the urban poor to emulate in their homes.
Thus, Green comes in various shades. It is a phenomenon and not a formula. It is a concept
more than a configuration. As architects, we alter the landscape forever and as responsible
professionals, we need to understand and own its consequence. Green has to be our resolve
rather than mere rendering.
37
Y. PANDYA
38
39
Y. PANDYA
References
1. Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S. & Silverstein, M. (1977). Pattern language: towns, buildings,
construction. Oxford University Press.
2. DSCL Energy Services, http://www.dscl.com/
3. Arthus-Bertrand, Y. (2010). The Earth from the Air. Thames and Hudson, London.
40
Masonry Dome in the Form of an Ellipsoid
DESHPANDE Avinash, JAGADISH K. S., MANJUNATH, S.

Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering, Bangalore, India
avin.deshpande@gmail.com, ksjagadish@gmail.com, manjuamalkar@yahoo.com
Abstract. It is a well known fact that spherical domes of masonry can be constructed without
the use of formwork. The technique involves using a rod or a thread from the centre of the
sphere to describe the spherical surface where the length of the rod is equal to the radius of
the sphere. This concept is mainly useful to cover rooms, which are either circular or square
in plan. However, if a room is rectangular in plan, this concept cannot be used. When a room
is rectangular, the ideal shape of a dome in plan will be an ellipse with major and minor axis
being equal to sides of a rectangle. It is also well known that any ellipse can be drawn using a
thread of constant length but fixed from two points known as pins and string method. The
locus of points describing the ellipse will be obtained when a point on the thread is moved
along the ellipse. A masonry dome with major axis of 4m and minor axis of 3 m length and a
height of 1.5 m was constructed using table moulded bricks with 1:4 proportion cement
mortar. The ellipsoidal dome constructed proved to be economical as compared to reinforced
concrete slab of same dimension.
1. Introduction
The structures built by our ancestors in masonry have been standing in good condition for
centuries, where as structures built recently using modern material like steel and reinforced or
pre-stressed concrete are failing to serve beyond a period of fifty to hundred years. The
durability of masonry is unrivalled. Masonry when constructed in shell form is a unique
combination of durability and spanning capacity. It is a well-known fact that nature has
maximized the capacity in shell structure to span over larger area with minimum thickness.
The shell of egg is an impressive example of shell structure [1]. The conventional roofing
consists of reinforced concrete slab, the cost of which is around 2 percent of the total cost of
the building. The brick masonry shell, in particular the dome has proved to be more
A. DESHPANDE, K. S. JAGADISH, S. MANJUNATH
economical than the conventional reinforced concrete slabs for spans up to 5 m. This is
mainly due to ease of construction, reduction in cost of formwork and the use of locally
available materials and labour. The use of dome can be mainly attributed to their unique
structural behaviour and for aesthetics. Dome structure provides strength, stiffness and
stability. They are capable of supporting the self weight and applied loads without excessive
deflection and unstable displacements. Masonry domes are more durable than reinforced
concrete slabs [2].
It is well known that spherical domes of masonry can be constructed without use of
formwork. Many spherical domes of brick have been constructed in recent times for spans
going up to 10 m using this technique [3]. Many biogas plants are also constructed by the
same technique. The technique involves using a rod or a thread from the centre of the sphere
to describe the spherical surface. If a room is rectangular this concept cannot be used. When a
room is rectangular the ideal shape of a dome in plan will be an ellipse with major and minor
axis being equal to sides of rectangle. It is also well known that any ellipse can be drawn
using a thread of constant length but from two fixed points known as foci. The locus of points
describing the ellipse will be obtained when a point on the thread is moved along the ellipse.
This is similar to the description of a sphere by a rod & it is proposed to use this concept to
demonstrate the construction of an ellipsoidal dome.
2. General equation of prolate spheroid
The ellipsoidal masonry dome constructed in this study is a prolate spheroid. The plan of the
prolate spheroid and any vertical section parallel to major axis is elliptical while any vertical
section parallel to the minor axis is semicircular (Figure 1).
Fig.1.Sectional views and coordinate axes in a prolate spheroid

The general equation of ellipsoid is given by [4]
42
MASONRY DOME IN THE FORM OF AN ELLIPSOID
x2 y2 z2
+ 2 + 2 =1 (1)
a2 b c
For a prolate spheroid (where b=c) the equation can be written as,
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 (2)
a2 b2 b2
Where a, b and c are the dimensions of spheroid in x, y and z directions respectively (refer
Figure 1).
3. Experimental program
The experimental program consists of firstly laying the Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) for the
bed concrete (bed concrete of proportion 1:4:8 and of depth 10 cm with plan area 45 cm x 45
cm was laid) onto which the brick masonry pillars (each of size 0.23 m width x 0.23 m length
x 0.75 m height) were constructed [5]. The beams were precast (reinforced concrete) in the
laboratory. The precast beams were then placed onto the pillars in the form of an ellipse in
plan. The concrete was filled in between the space left between the two adjacent beams so as
to form the required ellipse shaped base ring beam for the construction of actual ellipsoidal
dome. Two foci points were located in the ellipse at distances shown in Figure 2a. Tie rods
were then tied to precast beams parallel to the minor axis of ellipse to avoid the maximum
horizontal thrust that will be developed in the ellipsoidal dome. At the two points of foci
similar brick pillars were erected (refer Figure 2a). Ring or hook shaped arrangement was
made onto the two foci pillars. A thread of length equal to the length of the major axis was
taken. The two ends of the thread were tied to the two hooks of foci pillars. Tie rods were
then tied to precast beams parallel to the minor axis of ellipse. Brick masonry dome with
cement mortar of proportion 1:4 was constructed with the help of thread tied to two foci
points which describes the full surface of ellipsoidal dome (Figure 2b).
Fig.2a.Details of an ellipse Fig.2b.Placing of brick by the help

of thread tied to two foci points
43
Fig.2c.Steel hook with counter weight for the support of brick.
Fig.2d.Side view of ellipsoidal dome along major axis (elliptical section).
Fig.2e.Side view of ellipsoidal dome along minor axis (semi-circular section).
44
The following points were of importance during construction:

• In this method each course or ring of brick was laid in cement mortar of proportion
1:4.
• The bricks had to be temporarily supported (Figure 2c) until the entire ring was
completed [6].
• To facilitate this, the bricks before completion of the ring were supported by S-
shaped G.I. wire hooks. One end of the hook was fixed to the brick while the other
end was loaded by suspending a counter weight (Figure 2c).
• The hooks were removed after every course and further reused for laying the next
course.
• The level of each course was checked with the help of level tube and a level pipe.
This procedure was continued till the completion of the dome. Each day not more
than 3 courses were constructed.
• Ellipsoidal masonry dome (unreinforced) was constructed as a prolate spheroid.
The plan of the prolate spheroid and any vertical section parallel to the major axis
is elliptical (Figure 2d) while any vertical section parallel to the minor axis is
semicircular (Figure 2e). The dome was constructed without any formwork. The
dome has major axis length as 4 m, minor axis length as 3 m and a height of 1.5 m.
Cement mortar with proportion of 1:4 (cement: sand) was used in the construction
of the dome.
4. Calculations
Some important calculations like finding the distance of foci of an ellipse, curved length
between two pillars and design of tie rods are discussed below.
4.1. Foci of an ellipse

Foci of an ellipse can be simply calculated by using Pythagoras theorem, provided knowing
the length of major axis and length of minor axis of ellipse (i.e room dimensions are known).
The length of major axis will be equal to the length of the line joining the foci points to any
point on the ellipse (Figure 3).
Now from Figure 3, X2 = 22 – 1.52
»X = 1.3228 m
WKT, X+Y =2m
»Y = 2 − 1.3228 = 0.6772 m
45
Fig.3.Pythagoras theorem to find the distance of foci
4.2. Curved length between two pillars

a2 +b2
Perimeter (P) =2.π.�
2
22 +1.52
= 2.𝜋𝜋.�
2
= 11.1072 m.
11.1072
»curved length between two pillars = = 0.9256 m.
12
4.3. Design of tie rods

Tie rods are designed for the maximum horizontal thrust 2.568 kN acting on the precast
beams [7] as given below, i.e, at minor axis of ellipsoidal dome. Therefore tie rods are
connected to precast beams in the direction parallel to minor axis of ellipsoid. 6 mm dia G.I.
wires at 1000 mm c/c are used.
4.W.R
» Horizontal thrust = = 2.568 kN.
3.π
5. Cost comparative analysis
The cost of construction of ellipsoidal masonry dome was compared with normally used R.C
rectangular slab, keeping the dimensions of rectangular slab same as the dimensions of major
and minor axis of ellipsoidal dome i.e., the length of the major axis as longer span of slab (4
m) and length of the minor axis as shorter span of slab (3 m).
5.1. Estimation of the cost for reinforced concrete slab

The reinforced concrete slab was designed as two-way slab and the following quantities were
estimated for the slab:
46
Total quantity of Concrete in cu.m = 1.8 cu.m.

Total quantity of steel bars used ≈ 80 Kg.
The abstract of estimated cost of reinforced slab of 3 m width and 4 m length (Table 1).
Table 1. Abstract of estimated cost of reinforced concrete slab of 3m×4m(b×l) .
Particulars of items of Rate Per Amount

Item
work/ labour/ Quantity
No. INR INR
contingencies
Reinforced cement
concrete work 1:2:4
excluding steel and its 1.80
1 3000.00 cu.m 5400.00
bending but including cu.m.
centering, shuttering and
binding of steel
Steel bars including
0.80
2 bending in Reinforced 4000.00 Quintal 3200.00
quintal
cement concrete work
5 % of total of above
items for contingencies
3 - - - 430.00
and for work charged
establishments
Person/
4 Labour cost 3 400.00 1200.00
day
Grand Total 10230.00
5.2. Estimated cost of ellipsoidal dome constructed

The estimated cost here for labour is more than that as compared to reinforced concrete slab.
The cost of ellipsoidal dome constructed here requires skilled labour for its construction. The
abstract of estimated cost of ellipsoidal dome constructed is given in Table. 2.
Reduction in cost of ellipsoidal masonry dome as compared to reinforced concrete slab =
10230.00 − 6273.20= 3956.80 INR
6273.2
Reduction in cost percentage = 100 − ( 𝑥𝑥100) = 39.66%≈ 40% The cost
10230
comparative analysis shows that the cost of ellipsoidal masonry dome constructed comes to
around 6270 Rs, which is less than as required for a reinforced concrete slab for the same
dimension of a room. About 40 percent of the cost is reduced.
47
Table 2.Abstract of estimated cost of ellipsoidal dome constructed.
Item Particulars of items of work/ Rate Amount

Quantity Per
No. labour/contingencies INR INR
Single brick thick masonry 1st
1 17.368 sq.m 200.00 sq. m. 3473.60
class in 1:4 cement mortar
Steel hooks for support for
2 2 kg 60.00 Kg 120.00
masonry work
5 % of above items for
3 contingencies and for work - - - 182.60
charged establishments
4 Labour cost 5 500.00 Person/day 2500.00
Grand Total 6273.20
6. Advantages of construction
The structure has many advantages as compared to other types of roofs which are given
below [8]:
• These are economical compared to reinforced cement concrete sections.
• There is no need of formwork as compared to reinforced concrete slab.
• The amount of steel required is also very negligible.
• The construction is simpler as there is no reinforcement.
• Locally available materials are used for the construction.
• There is better thermal insulation.
• There is an improved aesthetic appearance.
7. Conclusion
These types of constructions can be effectively used for both single storied as well as multi
storied houses besides offices or for any other works such as biogas plants, storage units in
industries etc. If a structure has predominantly compressive stresses, masonry is indeed
advantageous. This type of construction can be effectively used in areas of heavy rainfall and
intense summer. The structure proved to be economical and also acts as an environmental
friendly structure since the consumption of cement quantity is less as compared to RC slabs.
48
8. Acknowledgements
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my respected guides Dr. K. S. Jagadish, Professor,

Department of Civil Engineering R.V.C.E and Mr. Manjunath S. Asst. Professor, Department
of Civil Engineering R.V.C.E for their invaluable advice. I also thank Karnataka State
Council for Science & Technology (KSCST) for providing the funds for the project work.
Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all my friends especially Sankh
Akshay C. & all staff members of Department of Civil Engineering R.V.C.E for their help
during the course of the work.
References
1. Varma, M. N., Jangid, R. S. & Achwal, V. G. (2006). Tension Ring in masonry domes.
International conference on Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions, December, New
Delhi, vol. 2, 1187-1193.
2. S., Raghunath & P. Prasanna Kumar (1994). Experimental investigations on brick masonry domes,
Dept of Civil Engineering. B. M. S. C. E. Bangalore.
3. Jagadish, K. S. & Modi, P. (2010). Domes and Vaults of South India, Indian National Academy of
Engineering.
4. Heyman, J. (1967). On shell solutions for masonry domes. International Journal of Solids and
Structures 3:227-241.
5. Balaji, N. C. (2008). Behaviour of brick masonry domes. Unpublished thesis of Master of Science
in Engineering by research, N.I.E Mysore.
6. Yogananda, M. R. (1991). The analysis of unreinforced brick masonry vaults. Unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, dept of civil Engineering, IISC Bangalore.
7. Jagadish, K. S., Venkataramareddy, B. V. & Nanjunda Rao, K. S. (2007). Alternative building
materials and technologies. New Age International Publishers, 1st edition.
8. Maini, S. (2003). Building with Arches, Vaults and Domes. Technical manual for architects and
engineers, Auroville Earth Institute.
49
Energy Savings and Cost Effectiveness of Residential Building using
Green Building Approach
S. Moses Aranganathan, S. A. Paul Makesh, S. Seileysh Sivaraja, L. Jayaraman,

M. Sathish Kumar
Dr. M. G. R. Educational and Research Institute University, Chennai, India
ermoses1954@yahoo.co.in, paulmakesh295@yahoo.co.in, sivaraja05@gmail.com,
ljayaraman2001@yahoo.co.in, sathish.murugasan72@gmail.com
Abstract. The present study deals with developing a technique to replace the conventional
solid concrete slab with hollow terracotta block slab. The objectives include development of
an eco-friendly concrete slab with partial replacement of cement with fly ash and natural sand
with quarry dust. The first task identified in this study deals with placing of terracotta hollow
blocks below the neutral axis of the solid slab concrete portion towards reducing the volume
of concrete (about 50 percent), since the volume of concrete below the neutral axis is
ineffective, contributing nothing to the bending strength of the slab. The second task deals
with the partial replacement of cement with fly ash, quarry dust and stone chips less than
12mm above the neutral axis of the concrete slab. This paper presents the feasibility of the
usage of by product materials like fly ash, quarry dust and stone chips and to study the
economic viability of the material and found that the cost has been lowered. From the above
methodology it is possible to reduce the CO2 emission in atmosphere towards eco friendly
construction technique. The use of fly ash in concrete contributes the reduction of greenhouse
emissions with negative impacts on the economy. Tests were conducted on cubes and beams
to study the strength of concrete for various combinations of fly ash and quarry dust.
1. Introduction
The consumption of cement workability, compressive strength and cost of concrete made
with fly ash and quarry rock dust were studied by researchers, Pattanaik and Sabat [1] and
control mix was designed as per IS code 10262-1982 [2] to achieve a target compressive
strength of 36 MPa for M30 Mix Design and 48 MPa Mix Design. Fly ash was used to
S. MOSES ARANGANATHAN, S. A. PAUL MAKESH, S. SEILEYSH SIVARAJA, L. JAYARAMAN…
replace ordinary Portland cement at various level of 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 percent by mass of
binder content. Moderate increase in compressive strength, modulus of rupture and split
tensile strength when 30 percent of cement is replaced by fly in concrete. Ravina and Mehta
[3] reported increase in compressive strength by using 30 percent fly ash in concrete.
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Natural Resources Canada and
Confederation of Indian Industry initiated High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC)
technology project with the objective to promote sustainable development in India [4].
In most parts of our country, river sand has been widely used as the fine aggregate for
mortar [5], due to reasons of availability. But, presently, due to large scale depletion of this
source and enforcement of regulations on dredging of river sand creating scarcity of the same,
the use of many locally available alternative materials has been increasing.
Babu et al. [6] conducted studies on the properties of alternative materials for masonry
mortar. The mix design proposed by Nagaraj et al [7] shows the possibilities of ensuring the
workability by wise combination of rock dust and sand, use of super plasticizer and optimum
water content to be used. Narasimahan et al [8] and Sahu et al [9] reported significant
increase in compressive strength, modulus of rupture and split tensile strength when 40
percent of sand is replaced by quarry rock dust in concrete. Ilangovan and Nagamani [10]
reported that natural sand with quarry dust as full replacement in concrete as possible with
proper treatment of quarry dust before utilization. The utilization of quarry rock dust which
can be called as manufactured sand has been accepted as a building material in the
industrially advanced countries of the west for the past three decades [11]. Pozzolanic and
cementations byproducts have been recommended as admixtures for concrete [12, 13].
Fig.1.Terracotta Hollow (TCH) block
This paper presents feasibility of the usage of the materials such as fly ash, quarry dust and
6 mm stone chips. It deals with the partial replacement of cement with 30 percent fly ash,
natural sand with 50 percent quarry dust and coarse aggregates with 20 percent 6 mm chips
obtained from quarry dust. In this project interlocking hollow blocks were introduced as
Terracotta hollow (TCH) roof block, Figure 1 and Terracotta hollow (TCH) joist block
(beam), Figure 2; which makes excellent interlocking and rigid bonding between the blocks.
These interlocking terracotta roof block having grooves helps to convert to hold rigidly.
52
ENERGY SAVINGS & COST EFFECTIVENESS TO RESIDENTIAL BUILDING…
These Terracotta roof blocks are placed in the tension zone of the solid concrete slab.
Feasibility study was carried out that the usage of terracotta blocks, fly ash, quarry dust and 6
mm stone chips because CO2 emission less and eco friendly construction techniques.
8 mm holding rod (no design)
Designed reinforcement
Fig.2. Terracotta Hollow (TC) roofing joist
2. Material used
2.1. Fly ash

They are generally finer than cement and consist mainly of glassy spherical particles as well
as residues of hematite and magnetite, char, and some crystalline phase formed during
cooling. Fly ash is a finally divided residue resulting from the combustion of bituminous coal
or lignite in a thermal power plant. Indian coals have on an average 45 percent ash content.
Every year 87 to 100 million tone of flyash is generated from coal based thermal power
station in India [14]. In addition to economics and ecological and economic benefits, the use
of ash in concrete improves its workability [15], reduces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution
and permeability, inhibits alkali-aggregate reaction, and enhances sulfate resistance. In term
of public good, the greater use of fly ash in concrete contributes to reduced Green House Gas
(GHGs) emission without negative impacts on the economy [16]. The overall quantity of CO2
emission will be reduced in one important sector of the economy without affecting it.
2.2. Quarry dust

Common river sand is expensive due to excessive cost of transportation from natural sources.
Also large-scale depletion of these sources creates environmental problems. As
environmental transportation and other constraints make the availability and use of river sand
less attractive, a substitute or replacement product for concrete industry needs to be found. In
such a situation the quarry rock dust can be an economic alternative to the river sand. Quarry
rock dust can be defined as residue, tailing or other non-voluble waste material after the
53
extraction and progressing of rocks to form fine particles less than 4.75 mm. Use of quarry
rock dust as a fine aggregate in concrete draws serious attention of researchers and
investigators.
2.3. Fine aggregate

Natural river sand having density of 1460 kg/m3 and Fineness Modulus (FM) of 2.51 was
used. The specific gravity was found to be 2.6.
2.4. Coarse aggregate

Natural granite aggregate having density of 2700 kg/m3 and Fineness Modulus (FM) of 6.80
was used. The specific gravity was found to be 2.60 and water absorption as 0.45 percent.
2.5. TerraCotta (TC)

Hollow blocks that are made using terracotta or burnt clay are called TerraCotta hollow
bricks (TC). Extracted from the mother earth clay products are essentially eco-friendly and
made use of in the production of these tiles and make a healthy and reliable environment. The
weight of this particular TC blocks is 60 percent lesser than the cement block of the same
size. Of that excellent thermal insulation and sound insulation, water absorption less than 20
percent, reduction in dead load, and it is faster in construction, good fire resistant. Heel cracks
will not be formed by the usage of terracotta floor. Medically proved material for health, etc
they are light in weight, rigid, and economical in construction. TC blocks are provided with
grooves on the top and bottom and sides of the blocks, which provides rigid joints and serves
as a key to bonding the concrete. The specification of TC blocks are:
Density 700 – 750 kg/m³,
U-Value ~ 1.1 W/m²K, (U-value is a measure of flow of heat through an
insulating or building materials, and the lower U-value refers
the better the insulting ability)
Efflorescence nil
Compressive Strength > 3.5 N/mm².
Cavities in hollow bricks should not exceed 25 percent of the total mass.
3. Methodology
It is seen that in solid slab a portion of concrete below the neutral axis, remains ineffective
and contributing to no strength. It is, therefore, possible to eliminate concrete from such
tensile zones thereby reducing the dead weight of the slab without affecting its structural
stability. Such a slab (with concrete removed) has an appearance of ‘T’ beam and slab
construction. A series of small TC joist or beams (137.5 mm x 250 mm x 100 mm) are
54
closely placed at 500 mm c/c. To obtain a plain ceiling effect, the space between terracotta
channels ribs are filled with TC roof blocks of size (362.5 mm x 250 mm x 100 mm).
4. Design calculation - problem
Consider a one way ribbed floor of effective span 3.3 m (11’) and 1 m wide, and TC joist
beams are spaced at 500 mm c/c. Live load of 2.0 kN/m2, floor finish 0.75 kN/m2. Use M20
and Fe415. Design constant: fck= 20 N/m2; fy= 415 N/mm2. Analyze the floor slab by using
limit state design for solid slab concrete and THB slab concrete, Estimate the quantity
requirement such as steel and cement and compare their results.
4.1. Design of ribbed slab

Load acting per square meter area on ribbed area
Self weight of the slab 0.05 x 20 =1.0 kN/m2; Total load = (1.0 + 0.75 + 2.0 = 3.75 kN/m2)
Max limit. Moment (3.75 x 0.52 ÷ 10)1.5 = 0.175 kN-m cover to slab = 20mm.
Mu/bd2 = (0.175 x 106 ÷ 1000 x 302) = 0.194;
Provide minimum reinforcements 0.12 % breath x depth = 0.12 x 1000 x 50 = 180 mm2 [17]
Provide D6 100 mm c/c. (main); provide distribution steel as D4 at 150 mm c/c.
4.2. Design of terracotta beam or channels

Load per meter length of channel; load from slab = 3.75 kN/m2 x 0.5 = 1.875 kN/m;
Self weight of TCH beam + TCH = [(80 N+ 316 N) ÷ (1000 ÷250)] = 1.584kN/m.
Total Load=1.875 + 1.584 = 3.46 kN/m;
Effective span = 3.30 m;
Max BM required for flexure = (3.46 x 3.32 ÷ 8) x 1.5 = 7.06 kN-m.
Moment available by the ‘T’ beam (assume Xu = Df) =0.36 fckbfDf (d-0 .416 Df) [17]
Moment available = 0.36 x (20) x (500) x (50) x [105 – 0.416 50] = 15.16 kN-m
Area of reinforcement = 7.06 x 106 ÷ 0.87 x (415) x (0.8) x (110) = 222 mm2
Steel consumption per sq. meter area = (2.2 + 0.65 + 4.34) = 7.19 kg/m2
4.3. Design of solid slab & steel utilization calculation

Load per square meter area; self weight. 0.15 x 24 = 3.6 kN/m2;
Floor Load (F.L.) + Live Load (L.L.) = 2.75 kN/m2;Total load = 6.35 kN/m2.
Max limit BM = (6.35 x 3.32/8) x 1.5= 12.97kNm.
Use D10 at 150 mm c/c as main bar D8 mm at 150 mm c/c as distributor.
Steel consumption per sq. meter = (4.11+2.6 = 6.71) + 25% top reinforcement = 8.39 kg/m2
Steel saving for both slab = (8.39-7.19) - 7.19) x 100 = 16.7%.
55
5. Mix design & test procedure
No standard method of designing concrete mixes incorporating fly ash, quarry dust and 6mm
chips. The procedure of mix proportioning is to produce the required properties in both
plastic and hardened concrete by working out a combination of available material with
various economic and practical standards.
As per Indian Standard for M20 grade mix design will be taken as 1:1.48:2.72. The 150 mm
size concrete cubes, concrete beams of size 100 x 100 x 500 mm and cylinder of size 150 mm
diameter and 300 mm height were used to determine (i) compressive strength (ii) splitting
tensile strength (iii) flexural strength. The specimens were cost for M20 grade with different
combinations, Table 1.
• Sample A: ordinary Portland cement with fine aggregate (natural sand) and coarse
aggregates of 20mm
• Sample B: ordinary Portland cement 75% + fly ash 25% + 50% with fine aggregate
(natural sand) + 50% quarry dust + 20% stone jelly chips less than 12mm + 80%
coarse aggregate (20mm)
• Sample C: ordinary Portland cement 70% + fly ash 30% + 50% with fine aggregate
(natural sand) + 50% quarry dust 30% stone jelly chips less than 12mm + 70% coarse
aggregate (20mm)
• Sample D: Ordinary Portland Cement 60% + fly ash 40% + 50% with fine aggregate
(natural sand) + 50% quarry dust 40% stone jelly chips less than 12mm + 60% coarse
aggregate (20mm)
Table 1.M20 (Mix ratio 1:1.48:2.72) by weight

Ref Grade Combination W/C Comp Flexural
of OPC Fly Nature Quarry C.A. Stone Slump ratio strength strength
concrete % ash sand dust % % chips mm @28 MPa
% % % days
MPa
A M20 100 - 100 - 100 - 55 0.4 24.60 4.8
B M20 75 25 50 50 80 20 56 0.45 23.87 5.9
C M20 70 30 580 50 70 30 57 0.43 22.54 6.2
D M20 60 40 50 50 60 40 53 0.48 21.30 6.3
6. Construction technique
Fourteen Terracotta hollow beams are stocked in series one after the other for a given span
3.3 m. Terracotta hollow beams have three semi circular cavity portion for placing the
reinforcement as two were located at bottom and one at the top as shown in Figures 3, 4, and
56
5. Further the designed reinforcement was placed in the bottom with 2 numbers (12 mm φ).
Also one number of 8 mm φ in top for better bonding with concrete and it doesn’t require any
design calculation. The cavity portions were filled by the mix proportion of 1 cement and 2
quarry dust. It was allowed for three day wet curing. Centering was prepared for the floor
slab to hold Terracotta hollow beam & blocks. The Terracotta hollow beams were spaced @
500 mm c/c. Terracotta hollow blocks were filled the gaps between Terracotta hollow beams.
Reinforcements were placed over the Terracotta hollow beam slab. The designed fly ash
concrete was poured.
Fig.3.Terracotta hollow roofing channel casting and layout
Fig.4.Laying of Terracotta hollow roofing joists and Terracotta hollow blocks
57
Fig.5.Laying of electric conduits
7. Result and discussions
Mix proportions were designed by trial casting techniques towards achieving the better
strength. The mix proportion ratios were arrived with 70 % cement + 30 % fly ash + 50 %
natural sand + 50 % quarry dust & 80 % coarse aggregate + 20 % of stone chips less than
obtained. The above combinations revealed an equal/better or acceptable value in terms of
compressive strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength. The results were compared
with conventional concrete using cement, natural sand and course aggregate.
7.1. Fly ash

In this project 30 % of fly ash is used as a replacement for cement in the proposed mix. The
greatest challenge before the concrete technologists is to serve the need of the human society,
namely the protection of the environment. The use of fly ash will lead us to reduce the air
pollution in turn reflecting lesser emission of green house gases like CO2. Recent amendment
by Bureau of Indian Standards [17] permits the usage of fly ash from 15 % to 35 % instead
earlier value 25%. Hence utilization of fly ash can be achieved only by making strict
enforcements by the Government.
7.2. Quarry dust

The study reveals that the 50% use of quarry dusts lead to the reduction of natural sand usage.
And it will minimize the acute shortage of river sand and lower down the cost. Large-scale
natural resource depletion through mining of natural river sand can be minimized towards
conserving the resources.
58
7.3. Terracotta Hollow (TCH) Block

Partials replacements of concrete portions with TCH block slab were proved in reducing the
dead load. Further TCH block acts as an excellent thermal and sound insulator. Medically
proved materials for health were used in floor slab.
7.4. Cost compar ison

The cost of the solid slab concrete and TCH block slab were compared with Chennai
schedule of rates and found 18 % lower for the proposed slab construction, Table 2.
7.5. Quantity comparison

It has been proved in the construction of floor slab that the following material savings could
be possible (i) cement with 70 % (ii) coarse aggregate with 75 % (iii) natural sand with 80 %
and (iv) steel with 14%, Table 3.
Table 2.Cost comparision per 10 square metre floor area,

( rate adopted in Chennai city, Tamil Nadu state, India on 24 – 09 -2011)
Material Solid slab concrete TCH slab concrete
Quantity Rate per Amount Quantity Rate per Amount
INR INR INR INR
Concrete M20 1.5 m3 3250/m3 5625 - - -
Fly ash concrete - - - 0.5m3 2850/m3 1425
Ceiling plaster 1:3, 10 m2 2500/10m2 2500 - - -
12mm thick
Centering 10m2 2000/10m2 2000 10m2 1000/10m2 1000
Steel 84 kg 35/kg 2940 72 kg half rate 2520
35 /kg
Steel fabrication 10 m2 60/m2 600 10 m2 50/m2 500
charges
Cost of TCH block set - - - 75 TCH 61 4575
block set
Fabrication charge for - - - 6 nos beam 65 each 390
TCH beam
Laying charge - TCH - - - 75 TCH 6 Each 600
set block set
Total 13665 11210
Percentage of variation ( 13665 – 11210 ) / 13665 = 18%
59
Table 3.Quantity comparision per 10 square metre floor area

Material used Solid slab THB slab Variation
concrete concrete
Cement 736.60 kg 193.60 kg 73%
Coarse aggregate 2040 kg 476.40 kg 77%
Fine aggregate 1112.30 kg 185.40 kg 83%
Steel 84 kg 72 kg 14 %
8. Conclusion
It is seen that the replacement of concrete portion below the neutral axis by terracotta blocks
helps to reduce the dead load of the structure. Further it leads to minimize the project cost. It
is concluded that the usage of terracotta blocks in buildings are the favorable choice of
environmentalist and eco friendly. This study reveals the relative performance of concrete, by
cement with 30% fly ash, natural sand with 50 percent quarry dust and coarse aggregates with
20% stone chips less than 12mm. It is concluded that the partial replacement of main
constituents of concrete is possible with fly ash, quarry dust and stone chips less than and
attained better strength. This study project also concluded that the usage of by product
materials such as fly ash, quarry dust and stone chips less than 12mm is economic viability
and cost reduction factor to the project, the usage of fly ash in concrete contributes the
reduction of green house emission. It also concluded the usage of fly ash, usage of by product
material like quarry dust and stone chips will store the energy. All waste material becomes
useful to the building materials. It brings energy savings and natural resources savings to the
construction sector.
References
1. Pattanaik, S. C. & Sabat, A. K. (2010). A study NALCO fly ash on compressive strength for
effective use in high volume mass concrete for a sustainable development. Indian chapter of
American Concrete Institute 3rd& 4thsept.
2. BIS (1982). Indian standard recommended Guidelines for concrete mix design. BIS 10262. Bureau
of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
3. Ravina, D. & Mehta, P. K. (1986). Properties of fresh concrete containing large amounts of fly
ash. Cement and Concrete Research, 16(2) 227-238.
4. CII (2005). High volume fly ash concrete technology, summary report of the HVFAC project,
supported by Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), partners the International
Centre for Sustainable Development of Cement and Concrete (ICON), Canada Centre for Mineral
60
and Energy Technology, Natural Resources Canada, and Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
http://www.hvfacprojectindia.com/Summary_Report.pdf.
5. BIS (1970). Specification for coarse and fine aggregate for concrete, BIS 383. Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
6. Babu K. K., Radhakrishnan R., & Nambiat E. K. K. (1997). Compressive strength of brick
masonry with alternative – aggregate mortar. Civil Engineering & Construction Review 10 25-29.
7. Nagaraj T. S. & Banu, Z. (1996). Efficient utilization of rock dust and pebbles as aggregates in
Portland cement concrete. The Indian Concrete Journal 53-56.
8. Narasimman, C., Patil, B. T. & Sannai, S. H. (1999). Performance of concrete with quarry dust as
fine aggregate – an experimental study. Civil Engineering and Construction Review 19-24.
9. Sahu A. K., Sunil Kumar & Sachan A. K. (2003). Quarry stone waste as fine aggregate for
concrete. The Indian Concrete Journal 845-848.
10. Illangovan, R. S. and Nagamani, K. (2006). Application of quarry rock dust as fine aggregate in
concrete construction. National Journal on Construction Management: NICMR Pune, Dec 5-13.
11. Nisnevich, M. Sirotin, G. & Eshel, Y. (2003). Light weight concrete containing thermal power
station and stone quarry waste. Magazine of Concrete Research 313-320.
12. Meha, P. K. (1983). Pozzolanic and cementations byproducts as mineral admixtures for concrete.
A critical review, ACI Special Publication SP-79.
13. BIS (1981). Specification for fly ash for use of pozzolana and admixture, IS 3812, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
14. Bhanumathidas, N. & Kalidas, N. (2002). Fly ash for Sustainable Development. Ark
Communications, Chennai.
15. Mehta, P. K. (1998). Role of pozzolanic and cementations materials in sustainable development of
concrete industry, ACI Special publication SP-178.
16. All India seminar on fly ash utilization & disposal on 11th& 12thoct, 2003 – The Institution of
Engineers ( India)
17. BIS (2000). Plain and reinforced concrete, BIS 456, annex G, clause 38.1.
61
COMMUNITY SENSITIZATION
People and Places as Energy Solutions

The Role of Education in Design and Implementation of

Energy Efficient Buildings
Deepika Gandhi, Niyati Jigyasu
Integration of Energy Efficiency and Environmental

Sciences in Architectural Education
Ravi Vaish
Restructuring Architectural Education for Sustainability

Archana Chaudhary
Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation in User Behavioral

Pattern in Assessing Energy Conservation
Parveen Kumar
63
People and Places as Energy Solutions
VARANASHI Sathya P.
Sathya Consultants, Bangalore, India
varanashi@gmail.com
Abstract. A century down the line, future historians may write how the decades around the
turn of the millennium have been epochal–realizing the impact of our lifestyles; introspecting
our patterns of consumption; researching about climate change; talking about carbon foot
prints and writing the ongoing history of societal shift into sustainable futures. The fact that
we all are part of this moment of time is a matter of both pride and concern. It is a matter of
pride because it is our generation that is mapping the critical future and it is a matter of
concern because our much thought out solutions are increasingly failing to stop the tide.
This paper attempts to go deeper and tries to emphasize that at the end, it is not the
building that consumes energy but people, hence a mere technical count about energy saved
towards green rating may not be a deep enough solution, despite being a welcome step. A
building however eco-friendly it is will fall flat, if the users of the building consume more
energy than what the design has saved. This could be simply illustrated by the minimal
impact of a household gadget claiming lower electricity rating, if it is overpriced and the
house owner lives a high carbon footprint lifestyle. If people do not care about reducing
wastage, companies will not care about reducing production or consumption. The energy
discussion needs to start from the end consumers, namely people.
Much has already been said about how the local wisdom is always more eco-friendly and
how place based solutions are better than global practices from abroad. Yet, the global is
prevailing over the local, thanks to increased comforts, attractive aesthetics, innovative
production, ease of operation, proven durability and such others considerations. The flip side
of this argument could be seen in one example-the corporate game of production at cheap
prices at one place followed by marketing at high prices elsewhere has led to enormous
embodied energy in every item we are buying. While discussing the emerging new ideas,
supposedly more energy efficient, we may not realize the cost at which the global ideas are
made to reach every corner of the world and how it would exclude many people in the
process.
S. P. VARANASHI
However, being a part of our times, none of us can negate the trends around us. Instead,
what we can do is to observe the trends, realize their negative impacts and attempt corrective
measures. Accordingly, this paper looks at few architectural design ideas, material options
and construction techniques that could reduce the harm we are causing to nature due to
construction activities. Though some of the design ideas may appear appropriate, the paper
intends to state that the key solutions to energy crisis lie with people and places.
66
The Role of Education in Design and Implementation of Energy
Efficient Buildings
GANDHI Deepika, JIGYASU Niyati

Chandigarh College of Architecture, India
deepikagandhi@hotmail.com, niyatijigyasu28@gmail.com
Abstract. The need for immediate and large-scale use of renewable and non-conventional
energy resources cannot be emphasized enough. Usually awareness about these concepts is
restricted to the academia and a few enthused and aware practicing architects. The layman
who finances the construction of a residential, commercial or other building usually assumes
that the use of these resources will be wasteful and in some way detrimental to his project. At
times this is a myth even endorsed by the people in the profession. In such a scenario
education in architectural schools is the only tool that can help in creating awareness and
bolster the process of working towards an energy efficient architecture. On a bigger platform,
efforts of diverse agencies like academic institutions, sanctioning authorities and other
administrative departments must also be synchronized to increase acceptance of these
resources and create awareness about their importance.
1. Introduction
Reducing energy demand at source is not only more sustainable in the long term but in many
instances may also incur very little cost [1].
Climate change, talks about exhaustion of natural resources and increase in energy prices,
are diverting people’s minds to the role of energy in our lives. Buildings are some of the
biggest energy consumers in the world, accounting for one-quarter to one-third of all energy
use and generating a similar amount of green house gas emission. This makes building energy
efficiency a high priority in many countries. In India also, the construction industry is
booming, and is one of the largest energy consuming sectors. With a high degree of energy
consumption, the built environment also offers vast opportunities and options to lower energy
consumption.
D. GANDHI and N. JIGYASU
2. Energy use in existing buildings
Since we replace old buildings with new ones only at a very slow rate, it is important to
consider how we use energy in the buildings already in existence. According to the “Energy
Efficient Fact Sheet” produced by the Washington State University, existing buildings
account for 40 percent of total energy consumption [2]. Of this, 12 percent and 18 percent is
consumed by commercial buildings and the rest residential. Today there is a lot of
deliberation about energy efficient designing and much of the building design is being
approached with this vision. But what about the existing built forms? Of the total built form
that we see around us only a minor percentage is part of the under construction scenario. A
major mass of the built environment is already constructed and in use, consuming energy
every day.
The first step in an energy efficiency approach is to find out where in the building most
energy is used. An energy audit will pinpoint those areas and enable the most effective
measures for cutting the energy costs to be identified. It is estimated that buildings could save
10-15 percent on their energy bills by implementing energy efficiency improvements, which
not only make the environment more comfortable but can also yield long-term financial
rewards. The proposed solutions for saving energy may apply throughout the buildings from
the roof, walls, and insulation that enclose it to the appliances and lights inside.
2.1. Then why is it not a norm?

It is an incomprehensible but true fact that human beings usually have to be goaded into
doing things that are critical to our existence and wellbeing. Even though the fact that
implementation of methods for energy efficiency is very critical for our future, it has not
gained the significance it commands for various reasons.
• The cost involved: The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, conducted extensive
studies titled “Life cycle cost of energy efficient buildings” indicating that, energy-
efficient buildings require a higher investment of 29,500 INR per square metre, as
compared with 19,000 INR per square metre for a non-energy efficient building. The lack
of knowledge regarding the long term benefits is a major deterrent to the widespread use
of such techniques [3].
• Though implementation of energy efficient principles can be as simple as using Compact
Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs), it is considered very technical and complex.
• There is a very crucial misconception that implementing solutions for energy efficient
buildings are only for the new construction.
• Lack of progress and significant barriers to increased energy efficiency persist in current
design, construction, and/or operation practices. These phases are typically too
fragmented to allow the timely and effective implementation and integration of these
energy efficiency methods and technologies on every new building and renovation
project.
68
THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENERGY…
• Ineffective Operation: End users often do not know how to operate the building to
minimize energy use, which, in some cases, has led to buildings consuming twice the
amount of energy originally calculated by the design team.
• Lack of Feedback Learning: Feedback loops from the use phase to the design phase are
rare, making learning about effective methods and technologies slow and haphazard.
3. Role of architects
The potential for energy savings in the building sector is hence large. Even a 10 percent
reduction in energy use in building would have a significant impact on national energy
requirements, and this could be achieved with little or no investment, simply by being more
diligent in our use of energy in homes and offices. Building energy design challenges,
equipping designers to think about climate, orientation, day lighting, and the qualities of
environment as part of the initial design conception are some measures in this direction. Now
the important issue is that the architect cannot work in solitude. For implementation of the
effective methods and technologies, they need to interact with the house/building owner,
carpenter, builder, manufacturers, etc. For the existing world to become energy efficient, well
aware concerned people are necessary. This is where education can play a major role. It is
very important to educate the stakeholders-the masses at various level, institutions, corporate
houses, and builders etc. to be aware and have the correct information about energy
conservation. It is very essential to make them understand the issues of today’s building
industry and the merits of making them more energy efficient.
Architectural education needs to take these concerns into account. This can be done at
various levels as discussed in the following sections.
4. Curriculum
Architecture is all about self discovery, self learning and development. Though there are
technical details that need to be taught, it is very important that one needs to be taught how to
teach oneself. Architectural education at the basic level needs to be closely studied to
thoroughly sensitize and educate students–the future generation of designers and planners.
The present cursory knowledge that the students get over a span of a few odd courses leaves
much to be desired. How can an architect convince a client about a concept he/she
himself/herself is not convinced about. Even a cursory glance at the recommended syllabi
reveals that presently very few schools of architecture feature energy efficient techniques and
buildings as a core subject. At best it is offered as an elective subject in the later semesters.
The curriculum in the allied subjects of building construction and building materials has not
yet been upgraded in most schools to include detailed studies of the actual application of the
69
means and methods needed to make a green building. Mere theoretical knowledge of some
concepts is futile till it is supported by the technical knowhow and details involved in
implementing the same. Ideally the syllabus should include a theory subject dealing with the
meaning and intent of energy efficient buildings, its need in today’s time and an outline of the
various methods appropriate to different climates and building types. This subject shall serve
mainly as an exercise in sensitizing students about the global energy crisis and the unique and
far reaching role that they can play as architects in ameliorating the situation. It shall serve
the dual purpose of informing the students and also raising their curiosity about latest
developments in green architecture. This should be supported by parallel coaching on the
technical aspects involved in this process. Students are taught about the various types of
masonry joints and technicalities of a typical reinforced concrete structure from the very first
semester. This knowledge becomes the bedrock of all that they attempt in their design
projects and work related to building construction later on. The basics become deeply
embedded in the students mind and simple construction of this type does not seem out of
bounds for him/her. On the other hand energy efficient buildings are treated as a specialized
kind of construction in the league of advanced structures or traffic and transportation. Making
a subject an elective indirectly hints at the content not being a mainstream consideration and
something that can be indulged in as a matter of personal preference. However as we are
realizing with each new crisis, building the energy efficient way is not a choice or privilege
but a necessity. It is not something that a student can take up in one semester as a discipline
isolated from the rest of the curriculum. Therefore rather than being a peripheral subject,
energy efficient design should be a core subject supported by other lectures on its various
aspects. Only then will students imbibe green architecture into their day to day attempts at
design and construction. The students need to be so thorough with the technical aspects and
detailing required for such buildings that energy efficiency becomes as basic an issue as the
right anthropometrics in the building. A failure to consider all possibilities of shrinking the
carbon footprint of a building will then be considered as basic a mistake as not taking the
right tread and riser of a staircase. What about experimental labs that can show the various
aspects of energy consumption and choices we have to reduce the same. Ideally the design
projects attempted by students should be a distilling of all the theoretical knowledge they
have gained over the course of the study. However, due to lack of time, most of the projects
undertaken as part of the design studio every semester are not detailed out to the extent of
incorporating energy efficient techniques in the proposal. The solution would be a holistic
approach towards teaching about energy efficient buildings. First, a theory subject to lay the
foundation and create the basic concepts, then a construction based and technically oriented
subject that outlines the means and methods of attaining sustainability and energy efficiency.
This subject shall familiarize the students with the onsite challenges of implementing all the
theoretical knowledge they have gained so far and lastly, incorporating these techniques into
the design project that is currently being undertaken in the design studio. The complexity and
nature of the project should ideally not be altered to justify the thrust on energy efficient
design. The message should be clear to the students that any building type of any scale can
70
and should be as eco friendly as possible. But to implement this approach some changes in
the curriculum are obviously needed. A multi pronged approach will need readjustment in
more than one subject and its teaching ideology but will have far reaching positive
consequences.
To add to the above, it is also very important to educate the students about our traditional
knowledge and techniques that are both energy efficient and successful over the years. There
are just a few elective courses where one can study for instance about the Dhajji Wall, a time
tested technique evolved in the hilly terrain of the country. Likewise it is just as important to
sensitize a student with the aspects of courtyard planning and why it is the best example of
energy efficient architecture.
5. Training the faculty
However merely changing the syllabus will not serve the purpose. The faculty has a major
role in deciding the attitude of students towards specific design challenges. For example a
professor well versed with the needs of the physically disabled may urge his students to
incorporate barrier free design in all projects whether it is a house or a hotel. A lot of times it
has been seen that a negative or even less than enthusiastic attitude of the educator can
dampen the interest of students in any field however pertinent or stimulating it might be. The
lack of authority of the educator on a certain aspect of architecture such as energy efficient
buildings will obviously reduce his/her chances of promoting the same to students. Personal
inadequacy can thus lead to circumventing the issue altogether or even worse making it seem
trivial and unimportant. On the other hand an informed teacher can create that small spark
that prods the students to investigate further, self learn and generally get well versed with an
aspect of architecture. It is a fact that most of the present faculty in our architecture schools
was educated at a time when concepts such as green buildings and energy efficiency were just
starting to emerge. Most of the faculty may not have attempted any projects on these lines or
undertaken extensive studies in these areas as students and later as academicians. The extent
of awareness in most cases is limited to a few short term courses done over the years. These
courses may neither be exhaustive nor guarantee that the content has been absorbed well
enough to be used for further teaching and research. The knowledge thus garnered through
various sources may not be in-depth and remains confined to an awareness of the basic
concepts. Without practical experience and involvement in live projects the fundamentals
may remain just that-an outline of what all can be done with no further inputs on how it can
be done. Very few of the faculty members may embark on a journey of self learning or get
opportunities to gain a thorough practical knowledge of this way of designing. All this
reflects in half hearted attempts by the students in the studio and lack of appropriate
evaluation and feedback. It is therefore necessary to first educate the faculty in sufficient
detail and depth to enable them to pass this knowledge to the students and guide them
towards energy efficient design. The simplest strategy to ensure that the faculty has the
71
requisite knowledge and training is to make it mandatory for faculty to clear certain
evaluations held by a state based agency at regular intervals. The faculty could also be rated
on their level of knowledge, technical knowhow and actual experience in the field of energy
efficiency. In this process the vital role of institutional consultancy works cannot be
emphasized enough. With the vast amount of knowledge available to a faculty member and
an environment conducive to research, an academician may be fully equipped to provide
important inputs as a consultant on behalf of the institution. This practice will not only
enhance the knowledge base and confidence of the faculty but also benefit students who are
involved in the consultancy project. Exposure to live problems and the actual implementation
of energy efficient techniques can to a large extent fill in the voids in the curriculum and the
teaching methodologies.
6. Building construction and techniques
As emphasized above a holistic understanding of the entire process from concepts to the
details of their implementation is vital in ensuring that a student will not hesitate to use and
promote energy efficient building techniques once in the field. This section aims to discuss
the possibility of weaving such techniques into the syllabus of building materials and
construction without altering it or having to keep aside one semester especially for this
purpose. To make eco friendly design the norm rather than the exception it should seem to be
the only natural way to build. Hence when the student is being taught masonry a section
could be dedicated to insulated blocks, stabilized mud blocks etc. Their construction details
and design considerations could be seamlessly woven into the tutorial on normal brick walls
– not as a new technique but as one of the more desirable alternatives. This additional content
would obviously vary as per region and materials available. So while a student in Himachal
Pradesh will learn about Dhajji wall construction in detail, another one in south India may
learn about insulating hollow blocks and how to use them instead of bricks. Similarly the
topic of roofs can have additional information on the importance of and techniques for
ensuring insulation to maintain thermal comfort. The pros and cons of traditional techniques
could also be discussed here. The point that is being made is that it is possible to ensure that
every aspect of constructing an energy efficient building is incorporated in the existing
syllabus of the school just by adding relevant sections at the right time. Such an integrated
approach may work better than dedicating an entire semester to such a study. Energy efficient
materials and techniques will become an extension of the ongoing process of learning about
how buildings are made and register better as a viable option for construction.
72
7. Learning through live examples and market surveys
Fortunately for us there are numerous dedicated architects, builders and corporate houses
whose buildings are designed and used to cause the minimum damage to the earth today and
tomorrow. These virtual laboratories of energy efficient techniques are vital in bridging the
gap between theory and practice for students and faculty alike. The first revelation to a
student is that such buildings are indeed being made and also function well. The second is a
chance to see the technology in action, understand how it is being implemented and the
various agencies involved in the process from the specialized suppliers to the contractors.
Visits to such functioning buildings should thus be an integral part of the learning process.
Here again the emphasis should be on combining the building type being studied with energy
efficient design. For example if the students are attempting a hotel building in one semester
the site visit could be to a hotel with a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) or Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) rating. The faculty may
have to work harder to identify an energy efficient building of the typology that is under
discussion but in the long run it precludes the need to conduct a site visit to a building that is
energy efficient. Articles in books and magazines detailing new advances in energy efficient
design are abundantly available. The World Wide Web is another good source for students to
study projects implemented on these lines. To further strengthen the concepts of the students’
market surveys of items like solar panels, insulated blocks, reflective glass etc. should be
made mandatory. Many schools send the students of first year to conduct extensive surveys of
everyday construction materials such as timber, glass; stones etc. in continuation to this they
could also be asked to undertake detailed surveys of energy efficient tools to know their
availability, cost, process of implementation etc. These surveys combined with live case
studies will lay to rest any apprehension a student has about the ways and means of making
future creations eco friendly.
8. Expert lectures and conferences
At the level of the institute, a major initiative could be to invite experts in the field of energy
efficiency not just for delivering lectures but more importantly to engage in a meaningful
dialogue with the students and the faculty. Many of the students’ doubts and misconceptions
can be cleared through such exchange of ideas. The students gain more than just knowledge
of tools and techniques which is in any case available in books and other literature. They
actually get inspired by the work, philosophy and conviction of someone passionately
involved in creating a better future. Such experts may very well become role models for some
students while inspiring others to take the road less travelled. Incidentally expert lectures may
also fill in the void created by lack of trained faculty and provide priceless guidance. Experts
from the field should also be invited to design juries so that the proposal is discussed in
73
greater detail regarding its energy efficiency and students are inspired to go beyond
superficial measures in their future attempts.
9. Creating resource centers
Energy efficiency is such a topic, where all of us do have a half baked knowledge which is
added on by some myths and twisted facts. The large-scale use of renewable energy sources
can be achieved only after increased awareness among the end users complimented by
regulations from the administration. The huge amount of capital and human labour that goes
into research in the field of energy efficient design and use of non conventional resources is
of no use unless and until it is widely understood and implemented. Several renewable energy
systems like wind, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, small hydel, biogas and improved
biomass stoves need to be commercially available and yet economically viable in comparison
to fossil fuels, particularly when the environmental costs of fossil fuels are taken into
account. As stated earlier, the faculty of a school of architecture has access to a vast range of
resources on any given subject. If they are provided with appropriate infrastructural and
institutional support they can conduct meaningful research that adds considerably to the data
base of knowledge already available on energy efficient designs. There are still many
possibilities to explore and effects to be analyzed. The institution can thus become a sort of
resource centre benefitting not just the students but practicing architects as well. All over the
world we have encouraging examples of schools of architecture involved in research on live
problems ranging from urban revitalization to non-tangible aspects of architecture. This
knowledge builds up over time and becomes an important asset to the study and practice of
the profession at large. Similarly, every architecture school has the potential to become the
resource centre that catalogues present day techniques and fosters future development. The
funds needed to establish such centers of learning and knowledge dispersal can be generated
through the consultancy works undertaken by the institution. Further, research and
development with close involvement of the industrial sector will hopefully increase the
interaction and close co-operation between the research and teaching institutions of the
country - which are reservoirs of knowledge and experience, and the industry, which has the
requisite entrepreneurship and market-orientation.
10. Presentations by students to the local populace
Till now we had been discussing ways and means of educating students and training faculty
to ensure their understanding and acceptance of energy efficient techniques. However the
institution has certain social responsibilities as well. Merely educating the future architects is
not enough. What about their future clients and the generations that will inherit the earth in
74
future? Here again the role of the educational institutions becomes very relevant. Students
can hold awareness camps targeted at various levels and strata of society to spread the word
about the need and manner of resource conservation. This could be in the form of a
presentation in a school or a campaign that educates the layman. Many architecture schools
are actively involved in local developments and have become important tools of change in
such diverse fields as conservation to urban interventions. They have successfully educated,
inspired and led the local populace to save a historic building in one city or rehabilitate a
slum in another. Students with their natural zeal and enthusiasm can help make energy
efficiency a household phenomenon by ensuring public participation. No movement can be
successful till it is not understood and supported by the general public. In this architecture
schools can play a significant and positive role.
11. Conclusion
Living in a world of energy efficiency is basically an attitude. It is the way we chose to live.
Hence it is not something one becomes aware of one fine day, but a regular process from the
early years. From teaching a 5 year old the importance of switching off the lights when not in
use to learning the technical aspects of designing energy efficient buildings, it is essential
learning at every stage.
Energy efficiency is the need of the hour but without proper guidance and awareness our
next generation of architects will be ill equipped to handle the challenge of building while
conserving the resources of the earth. For this the role of education becomes very important.
Energy efficiency needs to be an integral part of every aspect of the architectural curriculum.
Instead of isolating it as a specialized subject it should be integrated into every core subject as
one of the basic requirements. But to realistically implement this faculty needs to be
conversant with these techniques to help the development of the students. Motivating and
training the faculty thus is the main requisite for educating the students. The faculty and
students together can then make the architecture school into a resource centre that benefits
not just academicians but practicing architects as well. Most importantly our educational
institutes have an important role in sensitizing and thus ensuring public participation in this
venture of preserving the earth’s dwindling resources by intelligently handling the needs of
the built environment.
References
1. Harris, D. J. & Madomercandy, R. (2006). The Importance of Energy Efficiency in Buildings. The
Bulletin on Energy Efficiency (BEE) India.6 (4-6) February-June, 9-10.
2. Washington State University (n.d.). Energy Efficient Fact Sheet.
75
3. TERI (n.d.). The Energy Resource Institute, India. www.teriin.org.
76
77
Integration of Energy Efficiency and Environmental Sciences in
Architectural Education
VAISH Ravi
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
rv_an@yahoo.co.in
Abstract. Architectural education has to change according to time and demands, to make it
more relevant. The terms such as environmental responsive design, energy conscious design
and bioclimatic architecture has become common and becomes the integral part of the
objectives of various architectural courses. Sustainable architecture is a general term that
describes environmentally conscious design techniques in the field of architecture. After a
positive response of sustainability issues in school education, it is the turn of Universities and
Architectural colleges across the country to go green. Since architects play a vital role in
creation of the built environment, it is the responsibility of our future architects, be aware of
how their attitudes, behaviours and actions will impact our future natural environment and the
health of the people. US Green Building Council has developed a syllabus in some
architectural schools and the graduates are designated as Leadership in Energy and
Environmental (LEED) certified architects. There is a strong need of establishing
environmental laboratories, so those students learn to explore various design alternatives
through scaled models and can evaluate the energy performance using simulation techniques.
Teaching learning process should go under the title of environmental control systems – which
relates the sustainability issues directly or indirectly to architectural education. The core of
sustainability can be achieved through deeply conquering the course content of subjects like
architectural design, building construction, structural design, building services and interior
design.
1. Introduction
Architectural education has been recognized as one of the leading academic endeavor. With
the changes brought about by various forces such as social and environmental context in the
R. VAISH
last few decades, this may not be the case in the near future. Architectural education has to
change according to time and demands to make it relevant. In response to the spirit of
sustainability, many schools have begun to introduce and revise their syllabi content to
include technical issues and sustainable design approaches. Hence, the terms such as
environmental responsive design, energy conscious design and bioclimatic architecture has
become common and becomes the integral part of the courses objectives [1].
The architectural design process is complex, as it does not arise from a linear thought
process. It comes about from a rigorous process of synthesis and analysis guided by the
power of reasoning. An architecture curriculum consists of four major fields of study –
history, technology, design and professional practice. Architectural design is regarded as the
core subject, where the knowledge learned from the other subjects is applied in studio
projects. The overall aim for schools of architecture is to ensure the students receive a
balanced education of varied fields, so that it will finally be reflected in their architectural
design output [2].
2. Sustainable architecture
An Architecture that meets the needs of the present without comprising the ability of the
future generations to meet their own needs is defined as sustainable architecture [3].
Sustainable architecture is a general term that describes environmentally conscious design
techniques in the field of architecture. In the broad context, sustainable architecture seeks to
minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings by enhancing efficiency and
moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space. Another way of looking
at sustainability is not to give up technological advancement, but to use best of them along
with traditional methods using Green principles. Sustainability lasts for longer period and
works well with the use of new technology along with traditional methods. Architects have a
significant responsibility for health, safety, welfare and cultural interests of the public and for
the sustainability of the built environment [4].
Teaching the skills of ecological footprint analysis, life cycle cost assessment, and
environmental management systems. Universities and architectural schools must rise to
challenge to develop an understanding of sustainable behaviour throughout the educational
system and shall adopt these issues in their curriculum. After a positive response of
sustainability issues in school education, it is the turn of universities and architectural
colleges across the country to go green. With the UGC (University Grants Commission)
finally coming out with implementation of a compulsory course on Environmental Studies (as
per Supreme Court ruling) in colleges and universities across the country [5].
The United States Green Building Council (LEED Rating system) has helped to raise the
profile of sustainable design as a part of current architecture practice. The rating system has
made it possible for many clients, architects and allied professionals to engage in Sustainable
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INTEGRATION OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES…
Design.NAAB (National Architectural Accreditation Board of US) accredits the Architectural

Education in US, making Sustainability Education mandatory.
US Green Building Council’s LEED has developed a syllabus in some architectural
schools and the graduates are designated as LEED certified Architects [6]. The Energy
Resource Institute has been developed as a rating tool for measuring and rating a building’s
environmental performance in the context of India’s varied climate and building practices.
This tool is known Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA). This tool, by
its qualitative and quantitative assessment criteria, has been designed to rate a building on the
degree of its Greenness. The rating is applicable to new and existing building based on varied
functions- commercial, institutional and residential. The rating is nationally enforced by the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India [7].
3. Need to integrate energy efficiency and environmental issues in

architectural education
There is a need to introduce sustainability in architectural education, as the year 2005 marks
the commencement of United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
(DESD) [8], which is an opportunity, as well as a challenge for the educators to reorient their
teaching, research, and community outreach. Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) has
initiated “Criteria for Validation” which specifies to develop basic sustainability / skills in
very basic / initial part of the curriculum and some schools of UK started thinking in this field
[9].
The challenges and constraints in architectural education in India are:
• A very little research has been done in the area of architectural education. Thus, there
is an absence of single source of research data, to work on new research and
information sharing.
• Most of the architectural schools address sustainability by just offering targeted
electives in senior classes or adding additional information on already overburdened
conventional studio and theory classes.
• Architects do not think themselves as scientists or engineers so they fail in guiding
the students in the issues like energy auditing, heat gain, solar passive techniques and
think that it is a mechanical process under the domain of some specialist or a
consultant.
• The education system has failed to absorb the modern technological advances in the
relevant field.
• There has been no change in the curriculum or in the teaching methodology since
years.
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R. VAISH
• No attempts has been made to see that the technology can be best used in imparting
architectural education so that the potential of the student in creativity, visualization,
integrated approach towards the design education can be fully tapped.
• There is a need to inculcate sustainability awareness at foundation level of
architectural education as well as in senior classes; the students can apply these skills/
principles in their studio exercises/ thesis / dissertations etc.
4. Objectives for embedding sustainability issues in architectural education
Modern Architecture is evolving to meet the new demands of energy requirements and the
architecture students should know the new strategies and skills to meet the challenges of the
21st century. The objectives for embedding sustainability in architectural educations are:
• To identify the guiding principles for a transformed curriculum.
• To develop strategies for the institutions in transforming the methodology.
• Ability to act with knowledge of natural systems and built environment.
• To understand the conservation and waste management issues.
• To understand the life cycle of materials, issues of ecological sustainability,
environmental impact, design for reduced use of energy, as well as passive systems
and their management.
• To create increased awareness of the environment, by reducing Green House Gas
(GHG) emissions, improving energy efficiency and reducing the stress on natural
resources.
• To create awareness of the natural balances for sustainable development and the
saving of energy and developing and understanding of the effects on humans of
aspects of built and natural environment.
• To incorporate sustainable requirements into teaching methods, teaching approaches,
teaching methodology, teaching aids etc.
• To incorporate sustainability issues like bench marking, indicators and other tools as
a measuring process during the design process.
• To device ways and means of formative and summative evaluation systems keeping
sustainability issues in various design and theory assignments.
• To derive an educational approach to make architects familiar about the social
problems focusing on healthy environment.
• To formulate the use of highlights of data bases, analytical tools, successful projects
based on Green Architecture, as resource material in the class.
• To make the campuses of the educational institute sustainable, providing the
opportunities for the students to learn and demonstrate more responsible management
of resources.
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4.1. Campus life as a teaching model

The campus life itself can be made as a teaching model.
• Use of bio-degradable material.
• Change in university procurement policies.
• Use of bio- diesel / electric / solar vehicles in the campus.
• Students can be taken to educational tours, can be given assignments to create own
shelter using available materials, to find their own food and follow the sustainable
principles.
• Colleges and universities can express their commitment to Sustainability through
curriculum and non-curriculum policies and action [10]. Examples:
i. Maine’s college of Atlantic has become carbon neutral (first in the country)
ii. University of California generates 100 percent of its energy from hydroelectric
/ wind power.
iii. Harvard’s Green campus initiative supports by financing 25 professionals.
iv. US Universities give NCARB prize for academic research in Sustainability.
• To make the students analyze the energy efficiency of the buildings including the
factors like building orientation, space planning, HVAC systems, lighting, water
supply, waste management etc.
4.2. Curricular innovation for environmental sustainability
4.2.1. Laboratories
Environmental laboratories offers the chance to test ideas, are a very effective tool for
architecture education. Day lighting labs, integrated systems labs, and materials labs have the
potential to significantly advance sustainable design. These labs enable the students and
professionals to test innovative technologies like - enclosure, mechanical, lighting, wind
tunnels, interior systems etc. [11].
Students learn to explore design alternatives in scale models, evaluate the comparative
impacts, with linked simulation tools and graphic evaluation techniques. The lessons learned
become intuitive for the students, central to their design process, returning to the labs to
address climate and building type variations on the best way to daylight, passively solar heat,
and naturally ventilate buildings. The schools of architecture should ensure that future
architects should be accountable for the measurable performance of the buildings they design.
This accountability demands that architecture education must provide hands-on knowledge
about thermal, air quality, visual, acoustic, and spatial performance.
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4.2.2. Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE): learning in existing buildings
Post occupancy evaluation (POE) is critical to ensure that field performance is highly
advanced, especially in the face of increasing complexity in buildings and rapidly emerging
materials and technologies. POE is important key to performance-based programming and to
improve systems integration and design detailing for sustainability. Sustainability is based on
the life cycles of materials and integrated systems and their adaptation to support the
changing needs of occupants. Architectural schools have provision in their curriculum for
engaging students in the exploration of the performance of occupied buildings [12].
4.2.3. Teaching passive design
The U.S. Department of Energy funded faculty members at 12 schools of architecture to

develop innovative course modules; these course volumes became passive design teaching
aids in architecture [13].
4.2.4. Professional practice
Course materials on issues of environmental ethics, environmental Impacts, law and liability
pertaining to environmental quality, shall be integrated in the final stages of architectural
curriculum.
4.2.5. Support to faculty members
• Develop funding to provide grants for research and course development.

• Organize seminars for faculty on latest building designs based on sustainability.
• Organize workshops for faculty to share information and develop teaching materials
together, on topics based on sustainability.
• Develop and fund a pool of visiting lecturers.
• Connect faculty to industry organizations looking to support research.
• Encourage hiring visiting faculty with knowledge and experience in green design.
4.2.6. Student leadership
Workshops should be offered on strategies for students to help them to lead in the process of
teaching and learning. These could be regular features of annual festivals and they can be
conducted at individual schools or groups of schools. Student should be supported in
competitions and prizes for sustainable design.
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4.2.7. Sustainability at basic course level
Most universities offer sustainability courses as electives, only taken by interested students
after third year. This is too late and too scattered, instead sustainability issues should be
integrated as a part of all the environmental design programs (i.e., planning, construction
management, interior design, engineering, as well as architecture and landscape architecture)
at a very basic level so that sustainability becomes the inbuilt part of student’s mindset.
5. Teaching sustainable design with technology
Courses in building technology are often seen as separate from the design process. Teachers
who teach technical subjects at many schools do not teach design studios, which can reinforce
the notion that design and technology do not mix. Instructors for design studios may be less
familiar with sustainable issues and less comfortable asking students to address those issues
in their projects.
Students feel uncomfortable by the depth or complexity of building technology and they
hesitate from trying to incorporate it in their studio projects. For energy efficiency to be
effective, it needs to be considered early in the design process.
5.1. Lessons from other fields

Architecture is interdisciplinary; it comprises of both art and science disciplines, yet has a
social responsibility and is subject to economic realities. Sustainable design is also
interdisciplinary; some lessons on how to learn it better may come from examining other
disciplines that also combine technical knowledge with artistic or analytical thinking [14].
Assigning more quantitative problems might help students become more comfortable with
techniques such as calculating heat gains and losses, sizing thermal mass, glazing areas,
determining ventilation needs. Problem sets could help answer some of the questions of “why
do we need to know this?” by showing real world applications of the concepts being taught.
Problem sets could also help break down complex topics such as passive heating or natural
ventilation into smaller, more manageable steps and make them more accessible.
6. Architectural education through Environmental Control Systems (ECS)
A subject like ECS should be introduced which deals exclusively with the issues like energy
efficiency shall be made mandatory in architectural curriculum. The teaching shall include
case studies that emphasize the relation between the architect’s concept and the building
performance. These can provide hands-on experience where students develop methods for
evaluating buildings. The students shall get the feedback from the occupants of a building to
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understand the relation between design and the user’s experience. Other features of this
subject shall include designing an external shading device, a luminaire, or a redesign of an
existing space to improve its thermal, lighting, or acoustic properties. Student shall actually
design and test construction techniques like cavity wall, Trombe wall etc. and shall analyze
their strengths and weaknesses. Psychometric chart can be taught keeping in view the
application aspect under various climatic conditions, it is much more meaningful.
To make the assignments more relevant and interesting it shall include small design
problems that apply only a few concepts at a time. A series of such small design assignments
shall lead up to the larger ones thus allow students to apply technical skills incrementally,
instead of all at once. It can be very useful to revisit past studio projects, consider redesigning
one element such as a window or wall section in accordance with a relevant topic. The goal is
to provide a progressive level of complexity and to reinforce the application of technical
concepts to solve design problems [15].
7. Incorporating sustainability in the course contents
7.1 Architectural design
7.1.1 In designing an architectural project professionals should adopt principles like
• Improving the way people live

• Impact of the project on surroundings.
• The social and ecological implications of the buildings.
• Study the business and legal environment of the contemporary society.
7.1.2. Architectural design studies should focus on
• Designing the built environment while recognizing relationship between people and
their environment.
• Design studios should offer means by which students can synthesize and apply this
knowledge.
• Faculty should organize studio education method that employs project based learning
to model professional behaviour and motivate students through meaningful
applications of knowledge that they acquire.
7.2. Building materials

Attention has to be focused on the issue of eco-friendly material or green building materials.
In a well-thought-out building design, substituting green products for conventional projects
can make the building materials use to have different impacts. In building construction and
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material study we can provide database in which the life cycle environmental impacts of
different materials are given, so that the designer could easily see which material is better
keeping in view the environmental impacts. A product may be considered green for many
reasons, as it is made from recycled waste, its durable, it can reduce the need of pesticide
treatment, it is made with salvaged, recycled or agricultural waste content.
In some of the green projects there may be products which themselves are not green but are
used in a manner that helps reduce the overall environmental impact of the building. A
particular window may not be green, but the way it is used maximizes collection of low
winter sunlight and blocks the summer sun.
7.3. Salvaged materials

Whenever we can reuse a product instead of producing a new one from raw materials, even if
those raw materials are recycled, we save on resource use and energy. Many salvaged
materials used in a building are bricks, millwork, framing lumber, plumbing fixtures, and
hardware. Products with post-consumer recycled contents are important features of many
green products from environmental point of view. Post-consumer is preferable to pre-
consumer recycled content because post-consumer recycled materials are more likely to be
diverted from landfills. Pre-consumer recycled contents are derived from agricultural waste
products, straw, harvest and fruit juice extraction.
7.4. Building construction

• Products that conserve natural resources: these include products that serve a function
using less material than the standard solution.
• Products that reduce material use: pier foundation systems minimize concrete use and
concrete pigment can turn concrete slabs into attractive finished floors, eliminating
the need for conventional flooring.
• Products that require low maintenance and exceptional durability: the products like
fibre glass windows, slate shingles and vitrified clay waste pipe. They require less
maintenance, need to be replaced less frequently.
• Products that require impacts from construction or demolition activities: these
includes the various soil erosion control methods, foundations that eliminate the need
for excavation, and exterior stains that result in lower Volatile Organic Compound
(VOC) emission into the atmosphere.
7.5. Building services

• Products that avoid toxic or other emissions: some buildings products are considered
green because they have low manufacturing impacts, or they are alternatives to
conventional products made from chemicals facilitates a reduction in polluting
emission from building maintenance.
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R. VAISH
• Building components that reduce heating and cooling loads: examples include
structural insulated panels, insulated concrete forms, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
(AAC) blocks, and high performance windows glazing.
• Renewable energy: equipment that enables us to use renewable energy instead of
fossil fuels and conventional electricity are highly beneficial form. Examples include
solar water heaters photovoltaic cells systems and wind turbines.
• Products that improve light quality: products that enables us to bring daylight into
building, including tubular skylights, specialized commercial skylights, and fiber-
optic daylighting systems , full spectrum lighting systems, highly reflective ceiling
panels etc.
• Products that help control noise: noise both from indoor and outdoor sources adds to
stress and discomfort. A wide range of products are available to help absorb noise.
7.6. Indoor built environment or interior design

Buildings should have healthy environment and product selection is a significant determinant
of indoor environment quality.
• Products that block spread of indoor contaminants: products that prevent the
generation of pollutants specially the biological contaminants into occupied space.
Track off system for entrances help to remove pollutants from shoes of people while
entering. Linoleum helps to control microbial growth because of the process of
linoleum acid oxidation.
• Products that remove indoor pollutants: ventilation products like filters, radon
mitigation equipment and other equipment and devices that help to remove pollutants
or to introduce fresh air.
• Warning occupants of health hazards in the buildings: carbon monoxide detectors,
lead paint test kits.
• Using natural and minimally processed products: can be green because of low energy
use and low risk of chemical release during manufacture. These includes wood,
agricultural and non-agricultural, natural stones and slate shingles.
• Include alternatives to ozone depleting substance: equipment having foam insulation
and compression cycle HVAC equipments should not be used.
• Products that control indoor noise: noise adds to stress and discomfort. A wide range
of products are available to help absorb noise which prevent it from spreading,
masking it and even reducing it with sound isolation technology.
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8. Conclusions
• As the academic programme tends to focus on the design of new buildings as sustainable
the students should also be made aware of the retrofitting of the old buildings and to
reduce their carbon footprints.
• The students should be made aware of the impact of various types of green building
rating systems and to explore the scope for enhancement of credits for energy efficiency
& conservation and to incorporate in their design problems.
• A Team teaching method can be adopted in studio teaching inviting faculty from various
fields like: ecologists, biologists, scientists, physicists etc.
• Softwares can be incorporated in design for calculation of solar heat gain, cooling
potential, ventilation and other strategies to reduce Energy consumption.
• There is a need of Post-occupancy Evaluation of building, based on Life cycle costs, pay
back periods etc.
• Setting of environmental laboratories can offer the chance to test ideas is a very effective
tool for architecture education.
• The students should be made aware about Intelligent Workplace (IW) to demonstrate
innovations in each building subsystem - from structure, enclosure, heating, ventilation
and air conditioning, and lighting to interior systems and telecommunications innovations
that support the changing nature of work.
• The architectural design exercises should foster ecological balance and engages in
interdisciplinary collaborations with a common vision of healthful environments,
economic prosperity, and social equity.
• Architectural design problem, the main thrust should work on real life problems at
different scales either on the campus itself or in the community at large.
• Students should be made to work on rural Studio, which illustrates the importance of
sustainability.
• The student should be motivated to participate in green campus activities to expand, past
recycling efforts, storm water issues, energy and emissions targets to include indoor air
quality targets and retrofits of existing buildings
• Schools of architecture should produce publications and journals which are an essential
ingredient of academic functioning and their progress in academic environment.
• The school should organize workshops for faculty to share information and develop
teaching materials together, facilitate the exchange and updating of information among
faculty.
• School should give stress that there is a strong need for new post -graduate and doctoral
programs that incorporates sustainability.
• Industry should support the schools of architecture so that schools can transform
fundamental to applied research, and from traditional individual lecture-based classrooms
to project-based education.
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R. VAISH
• Architectural history courses could incorporate more perspectives on ecological design

and more courses to address diverse cultures, climates and regions.
• Technology courses should introduce the basic sciences of ecology, air and water
movement, energy use and material composition in the fundamental way that physics and
statics are taught.
References
1. Brown, T. (2001). Teaching Green Architecture. Chesapeake Bay foundation.

http://www.architectureweek.com/2001/0425/environment_1-1.html.
2. Edward, B. (2002). The Culture of Sustainability within a School of Architecture. Symposium on
Sustainability in Architectural Education, London.
3. WCED (1987). Our Common Future. World Commission on Environment and Development.
Oxford University Press, New York.
4. (2009). Green Architecture: Green Curriculum. In proceedings of Bioquest Summer Workshop
June 15-21, Beloit, Wisconsin. http://bioquest.org/blog/2009/02/bioquest-summer-workshop-
2009/.
5. UGC (2008). Vision. University Grants Commission, India. www.ugc.ac.in/policy/env/env.pdf
6. USGBC (2011). Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. US Green Building Council.
www.usgbc.org.
7. MNRE (2010). Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy, Government of India, New Delhi. http://www.grihaindia.org/index.php.
8. UN (2002). Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014, 57th meeting
December, United Nations General Assembly. www.desd.org.
9. RIBA (2002). Criteria for Validation. Royal Institute of British Architects.
10. Fowles, B., Corcoran, M. et al. (2003). Report of the Sustainability Special Interest Group
(Architectural Education). London, Centre for Education in the Built Environment.
11. Ryan, M. (2009). Teaching by example: Architectural programs get boost from new facilities.
Architectural Record Nov.
http://archrecord.construction.com/news/daily/archives/091106design_schools.asp.
12. EcoLabs (2009). Ecological Literacy – A foundation for sustainability.
13. Bainbridge, D. V. (2000). Ecology and Education for Sustainable Design. Efficiency and
Miniaturization Forum, Solar, American Solar Energy Society.
14. UIA Architectural Education Commission (2002). Reflections and recommendations, International
Union of Architects, XXIIth UIA General assembly, Berlin. http://www.uia-
architectes.org/image/PDF/Reflex_eng.pdf.
15. Shari Z. & Jaafar, M. F. Z. (2010). Towards a more Sustainable Architectural Education in
Malaysia. International.
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Restructuring Architectural Education for Sustainability
CHAUDHARY Archana
Housing Board Haryana, Panchkula, India
dhingraarchana@yahoo.com
Abstract. The challenges to architects and educators with respect to architectural education
and practice are many. Globally, over the last many years, there seems to be a missing link
between architectural education and professional practice. Looking at the development in
architecture and built environment which is an outcome of the professional practice, the
education preparing for this practice needs to be examined closely. In a fast changing world,
we, the architects are responsible for the improvement of the education of future architects to
enable them to work for a sustainable development of the built environment. Architecture, the
quality of buildings and the way they relate to their surroundings, the respect for the natural
and built environment are matters of great importance in today’s world of energy crisis. The
architect’s responsibility is, thus of a moral one. The coordination between academic and
practical knowhow is very essential to incorporate sustainability concepts within the
educational process.The coordination process shall be two fold, one shall be to incorporate
the concept of sustainability in the content and methodology of the education process, the
second shall be the responsibility on the part of Council of Architecture that governs the
process of practice and the registration process under Continuing Professional Development
Programme. This shall supplement the capability of the future architects for creating a
sustainable architectural and urban built environment.
1. Introduction
The way buildings are designed and used today contributes to serious global environmental
problems due to excessive use of energy and other non-renewable natural resources. The
connection between energy use in buildings and environmental damage arises because energy
intensive solutions to construct a building and meet its demands for heating, cooling,
ventilation and lighting, cause severe depletion of invaluable environmental resources.
A. CHAUDHARY
The built environment has a tremendous impact on the natural environment and our
buildings may interact more positively with environment, if we pay attention to the
preservation of the site’s character properly, select materials having lower embodied energy,
use building components and systems which are less energy consuming and design and
construct climate responsive buildings so as to provide a comfortable environment to
occupants. The buildings can be designed to meet the occupant’s need for thermal and visual
comfort at reduced levels of energy and resources consumption. Energy resource efficiency in
new buildings can be affected by adopting an integrated approach to building design.
In recent years, we have realized that our penchant for over indulgence is going to exhaust
our resources and we have started looking for eco friendly solutions and related technologies
such as green architecture, green buildings, sustainable buildings and sustainable
development etc.
Green buildings are the one which use less water, optimize energy efficiency, conserve
natural resources, generate less waste and provide healthier spaces for occupants, as
compared to a conventional building [1]. Sustainable architecture recognizes that the
buildings interact with the environment and also aims to optimize the performance of a
building to conserve resources like water, energy and land [2].
A society that is neglectful of its built environment in any of its aspects is writing its own
doom’s day. In the modern times, education of architectural profession is one of the aspects
that are crucially responsible for the socio-cultural health of a place and a people. The validity
and purposefulness of the existing understanding, definitions, norms, rules and updated state
of affairs bind the architectural education and the society together while allowing it to pay a
close attention to its built environment.
If the intention is to have a good combination of practice and teaching, then it can be said
with a fair degree of certainty that there is an urgent need to reform architectural education.
However, there is lack of awareness of the problem among all stakeholders namely policy-
makers, teachers, architects and students. There are periodic talks at various forums and
seminars about improving the quality of teachers, course content or infrastructure, but no one
is willing to confront the crux of the problem - the structure of the educational system itself.
2. Architectural scenario in India
Over fifty years after Independence, we find that the influence of a Colonial past continues to
hold most institutions in the tight embrace of mediocrity. This is achieved through insisting
on conformity with inherited educational content and pedagogic methods. It is this that
impedes meaningful reform, and unless this causality is recognised as an overriding issue,
architectural colleges will continue to produce – all talk of ‘reform’ notwithstanding –
architects who are primarily metropolitan in their orientation, and may not be capable of
solving the critical problems of the built environment that confront our country. ‘Improving’
some parts of this system cannot overcome its intrinsic shortcomings and, in fact, may even
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RESTRUCTURING ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABILITY
result in reinforcing them. It is only by examining the structure and content of architectural
education holistically that the web of historically rooted circumstances which have led to the
present predicament can be unraveled.
A culture of criticism is indispensable to a school in order that our young generation
remain conscious of the values that govern our life, and have an opportunity and the
intellectual capacity to be critical of those values. In Western countries where schools of
architecture are often supported by the profession - through donation by alumni for example -
it might be natural for the profession to expect from the schools a kind of servicing role. In
India, where schools are supported by the community at large, through state grants, etc., the
perspective must include objectives that go beyond the operational needs of the profession. If
the ageless task of architecture is to produce an appropriate environmental response to a
people's aspiration; to a better life, then in India, that response will have to take into account
aspirations of the Indian people as a whole, though a pluralistic community. This will have to
be done by recasting the whole pedagogy and replacing the present functional/rational
preoccupation with 'making' (resolution) with 'concerned making'. To be able to bridge the
gap between the technological considerations and their ethical dimensions schools must seek
to equip students with necessary understanding of their own society, and the world around
them.
Any attempt to survey the brief history and the present status of architectural education in
India must begin with recognition that while the activity of architecture has been practised in
India for centuries, its education was the responsibility of master craftsmen and passed along
from one generation to another. The evolution of architecture as a profession is a relatively
new phenomenon demanding a different educational approach and pedagogy. Most schools
have not come to grips with this problem and the pedagogical structure that arrived here from
the West at the advent of the modern college level education has more or less remained
(Figure 1).
Fig.1.Present architectural education scenario in India

Source: http://www.newsdata.com/enernet/conweb/conweb43.htm#cw43-4.
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A. CHAUDHARY
3. Sustainability issues
The world today is in the throes of a great transition - in many of the developing countries the
transition is from under development to affluence. But the most important change the
countries are facing is that of the issues of energy crises and sustainability. Young architects
must understand that they have the capabilities to control and contribute to the quality of life.
Architectural education should therefore aim at:
• Developing an acuteness of sensitivity in a student so that he/she can rise to meet
the challenges of the professional in such a way that his/her hidden creative
capacities blossom forth.
• He/she must be intensively exposed to all the factors which go to make a
community life so that he/she can understand its implications deeply and exert
his/her creative sensitivity in such a way that can give maximum benefit to both -
education and community.
It is obvious that the kind of education necessary and needed for a particular nation will
depend upon the specific needs of the nation. The developing countries are in the process of
channelizing all resources for building up the nation. These countries are trying to plan a
rapid transition to modern levels of achievement. In this period of fast development, the
appropriate attitude towards total designing of the environment of man must be established. It
is important to create, design and build not only for the present but also for the foreseeable
future. The needs of developing and building a nation, in view of the acute paucity of
resources, creates various demands on the resources and we have to fix priorities in a planned
development for the maximum utilization of resources.
The problems faced by our generation are different from those which confronted earlier
generations, and we have to rethink the fundamentals of our educational structure and
obligations if we are to cope with problems which now face us.
4. Architectural bodies in India
It is useful to know that the schools or colleges of architecture in India are situated within a
certain statutory, regulatory and supervisory framework. The Indian Institute of Architects
(IIA) is a professional association at national level and serves as a forum for debate without
any direct say in the matters of education. The Indian Architects Act was passed in 1972 and
the Council of Architecture (COA) was formed as the regulatory body of the profession as
well as of architectural education. All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) is the
larger body that has a limited role to play by way of policy level decisions. The Directorate of
Technical Education (DTE) is the funding and controlling body at the state level. The
AICTE, COA and the DTE are the bodies concerned with the recognition of schools of
architecture and supervision of quality of education. The Ministry of Human Resource
92
Development (MHRD) and the Department of Education are the umbrellas at the level of
Central Government but their function is at the broad policy level. National Association of
Students of Architecture (NASA) is an independent body with an agenda of students’
activities; however, it does not have any direct say in the matters of education.
The curricular matters are subject to approval by the COA which modifies its broad
framework after circulating proposals and conducting debates and seminars on the proposed
modifications. As compared with the Indian scenario, the curriculum, syllabus, course
outline/content, teaching methods, teaching tools, pedagogy, evaluation system, etc. are well
defined in the western system of architectural education and constant reviews are a part of the
in-built system. In the United States, ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of
Architecture) is one of the most organized bodies of architectural education in the Western
world. In Europe the architect is considered to be the ‘first professional’ because the
worldview and the information base that is expected of him are much larger than those
expected out of other professionals, and because of the fact that he carries the responsibility
of shaping living environments [3].
It is proposed that we should try to abandon old policies and practices and should change
with the changing times. We should work towards making an independent identity of our
profession and should not let architectural education to become embedded into the
engineering disciplines.
5. Architectural curriculum
Architectural education in pre independent India was concentrated in the Sir JJ School of
Architecture, Mumbai. Since the department was headed by Englishmen, the courses were by
and large European in conception, and for quite some time the only Indian architects were the
product of this school.
The Sir J. J. School of Architecture (originally called the Government College of Art) in
Mumbai was the first modern school to introduce a structured course in architecture. In its
initial years the one architectural event to capture the imagination of the profession was the
building of the Capital city of New Delhi by Lutyens. Many of the faculty, such as Claude
Batley, while intellectually sympathetic to the need for an Indian identity, were, at the same
time like Lutyens, grounded in the nineteenth century European Beaux Arts tradition and
were fired by the grandeur of New Delhi [4].
While it is true that schools of architecture in India have had their courses structured on the
European model rather blindly at first, it is no longer the case. In fact, many schools of
architecture have become aware of the acute insufficiency of the courses which they have
been offering, because methodology of design taught after the European model does not help
the professional architect to solve the existing problems of this country most optimally.
Therefore, many other schools of architecture radically changed their courses.
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A. CHAUDHARY
The basic change is one of attitude stemming from an acute awareness of the diversity of
the problems in the country which warrant earnest professional concern. This awareness
encompasses several dimensions of the same problem in terms of: people, places, things,
events as well as materials and methods. Thus, design problems are being set, as far as
possible, in situations which are realistic, students are encouraged to participate in fact-
finding, data-collection and the programming of design problems through site-visits, on-the-
spot studies, etc. It should, however, be mentioned that, in spite of this major shift of
emphasis from the romantic to the realistic approach to contemporary architecture, the actual
changes in courses of architecture still remain confined to good intentions only.
Fig.2.Holistic planning of sustainability

Source: http://www.newsdata.com/enernet/conweb/conweb43.htm#cw43-4.
6. Coordination process
The first step of the coordination process shall be to incorporate the concept of sustainability
in the content and methodology of the education process. This shall include refresher courses
for teachers and students, on-site visits in every subject, especially building construction and
architectural design, study of traditional architecture and methods of construction etc.
There are many suggestions to reform architectural education (Figure 2). But for the
present, broadly the following directions have been identified by the author so that reform in
architectural education should take place:
First, architectural education must be delinked from technical education. The discipline of
architecture derives its content from both the humanities and the sciences – it was colonial
exigencies which suppressed the role of the humanities in Indian architectural education.
Delinking architectural education from technical education will open it up to the influence of
the humanities, as in the rest of the world, and that will make a world of difference to the
development of the profession in India. It should be noted that technical subjects will
continue to be taught, but opening up to the humanities will enrich the disciplinary potential
94
of architectural education by radically changing its perspective, both inward and outward by
widening the horizon of the thinking process.
Second, architectural education and the certification or licensing of architects must also be
delinked. Linking education with licensing has resulted in the vocationalising of educational
objectives. One of the disastrous consequences of vocationalisation has been the separation of
‘thinking’ and ‘doing’. Both are necessary, but vocationalisation distrusts ‘thinking’ and
consequently architects pride themselves for being ‘doers’. The issue of licensing of the
architect is critical to the process of assuring the quality of the architect to practice and must,
therefore, be dealt with separately from the education of the architect. Licence to practice the
profession requires specific practical knowledge and field experience, which should be
acquired and assessed after graduation so as to assess that the lessons learnt at graduate
school are put to practice also.
To certify this, knowledge and experience should be the primary task of the COA. The
separation of education and licensing of architects is the norm in all developed countries, and
obviously there is good reason for them adopting that system. It enables individual
educational institutions to pursue different disciplinary objectives – the ‘thinking’ component
– to meet the evolving expectations of a diverse society, and simultaneously, the licensing
procedure assures the technical competence of the architect to practice.
Third, the link between a ‘degree’ and ‘education’ must be broken. This has resulted, at
least in India, in the derogation of ‘education’. Sometimes a less qualified person is more
practical in his approach towards the profession and can achieve the desired results better
than an educated professional. This argument is further substantiated by the fact that some of
the world’s best known architects and artists were not even professionally qualified.
7. Proposed changes for architectural education in India
• Schools located in various regions of the country should set their own priorities
and development courses depending on their geographical, cultural and socio-
economic constraints.
• Most schools of architecture are located in big cities, and thus, usually have an
urban bias and outlook. Ironically, 80 percent of Indians dwell in the villages and
these do not have any schools of architecture located there. Essentially, some
schools should be started in the rural areas of the country.
• Students of architecture should be required to spend compulsorily a certain period
of their education living and working in villages and backward settlements.
• Courses in architecture should be short and intense with emphasis on indigenous
technology.
• Research in architecture, which is almost non-existent now, should be encouraged.
Indigenous design data and standards should be developed.
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A. CHAUDHARY
• Incentive should be given to architects working on architectural projects for

slum/rural areas by way of awards/aid, etc. The schools of architecture themselves
should be assigned such projects in which most of the top-ranking private
architects would be interested.
• Strict legislation and urban controls should be adopted to discourage high
technology, wasteful and expensive buildings.
• Students graduating from schools of architecture with curricula stressing
environmental, social and low-cost building factors should be given preference in
jobs by the government.
8. Role of practice
The priorities of architectural education and practice are sometimes opposed and the gap
between the two is a big problem. This has been the case for years, but education and practice
appear to be no more aligned than they were a decade ago. Students need education
programmes that equip them with the skills needed to get the jobs they need. Many students
know there is more to being an architect than producing iconic schemes and interesting
visuals that create a good-looking portfolio, but little else. Education needs to prepare
students right from the beginning of their training. Practice needs to stop complaining about
the standard of students they interview and start engaging with the issues affecting education.
The current situation and the legacy being created will generate future problems that will
ultimately undermine the architectural profession further.
The second coordination process shall be the responsibility on the part of Council of
Architecture that governs the process of practice and the registration process under
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Programme. This shall supplement the
capability of the future architects for creating a sustainable architectural and urban built
environment.
9. Role of CPD in architectural excellence
Looking at today’s scenario of architecture in India as well as the world, we architects are the
harbingers of change. So we should be held responsible and accountable for all the
architectural activities and their styles in the respective country. There has been a
considerable change in the way the buildings are being planned and constructed today with
respect to new technologies, new building materials, new concepts and ideas.
Many of the buildings being constructed today are largely of glass facades which consume
a lot of energy and are thus not sustainable (Figure 3). There is no check on the construction
of such buildings, or on designing. The architects succumb to the choices of clients who want
96
to follow latest trends without realizing their impact on the environment. It is the duty of the
architects to make them aware. But for doing so, they themselves should be sensitive enough
and be aware of such sustainable issues. The impact of such issues shall have bearing for the
times to come.
Many countries have adopted CPD programmes i.e. Continuing Professional Development
Programmes for the general upliftment of architectural profession in their countries. CPD is
generally the systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and skills
and the development of personal qualities necessary for the execution of professional and
technical duties throughout your working life. Continuous Professional Development is a
self-driven professional improvement strategy [5].
CPD is mandatory for architects in many countries. Countries like UK, USA, Canada,
Turkey, Spain, South Africa etc. have made it mandatory to have CPD credits in order to first
become a member of the Council of Architects of that respective country and then for the
renewal of the registration [5]. If an architect falls short of the prescribed credits, the
registration of the architects is cancelled.
Fig.3.The glass clad façade of office building in Gurgaon (Haryana), India

Source: Author
Internationally accepted practice also demands that professional architects update their
expertise continuously over their working career. The nature and extent of the required
participation in continuing professional development, and the manner in which compliance is
audited, will remain at the discretion of the monitoring committee concerned, but should
reflect emerging norms for such participation by professional architects. Professional
architects are expected to furnish details of continuing professional development (CPD)
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A. CHAUDHARY
undertaken by them every year. Continuity of registration depends on, among other things,
adequate participation in CPD. The rationale for such a stipulation is that in the field of
science and technology, changes are taking place at a fast pace. As a result, knowledge and
skills of architects also have to change fast. Learning through normal day-to-day work is no
longer adequate for the purpose. Additional inputs of various kinds through different avenues
of development are required to push up the pace of learning to requisite levels. CPD is, thus,
a new feature being introduced in the acceptance of expertise of architects.
10. Why does a professional need to undertake CPD?
Continuing Professional Development obligations exist to help ensure that qualified

professionals maintain their competence. At its very basic level, CPD is for consumer
protection. It is also a way of ensuring that architects keep up-to-date within a rapidly
changing profession. CPD should also enhance an architect's current and future development
(professionally, personally and for staff within a business). As a summary, CPD is important
for the following:
• maintain competence
• learn new skills and gain knowledge
• understand the current legislative and statutory requirements and retain public
confidence.
• CPD refers to the following activities which should take place throughout a
professional's architectural career:
• continuing education and training;
• systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and skills;
• development of personal qualities necessary for the execution of professional and
technical duties.
10.1. The objectives of CPD are

The various objectives of CPD are to increase the knowledge base of and contribute to
advances in science and technology; to enhance consciousness of social and environmental
considerations; to raise the sensitization level towards ethical issues; and to sharpen
judgmental capabilities in taking professional decisions. Another important factor is the fixed
time validity of registration that is required to be renewed periodically. When there is one-
time registration that does not require renewal, there can be no post-registration requirement
of further development of expertise. For registration that requires periodic renewal, it is
possible to impose conditions for further development. However, periodic renewal should be
made mandatory for the profession of architecture.
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10.2. Types of development activities

There are numerous types of activities for the development of expertise. However, only those
types are indicted here which can possibly be considered for incorporation in the registration
system.
• Lectures: It includes attending lectures, technical meetings, etc. organized by
universities, research institutions, professional societies and others. It also includes
delivering lectures in the universities, training programmes, professional societies
and other organisations.
• Papers: It includes oral presentation of papers at seminars, conferences, etc. and also
contribution of papers to academic/technical journals.
• Training: It includes participating in training courses including designed on-the-job
training and in-house training. It also involves providing technical guidance and
supervision to trainee architects.
• Education: It involves acquisition of an educational qualification recognized or
approved by the relevant agency. It also includes participation in Continuing
Education Programmes organized by Universities and other recognized institutions.
10.2.1 Other Contributions
• Work producing outstanding technical results, or recognition by an architectural

professional society or the government or other reputed body, or filing for a patent.
• Preparation of a report for or as a member of a committee.
• Participation in R&D work or technical development work at a university, research
institute or other academic organization.
• Participation in international technical transfer project of an international agency.
• Writing of technical books, monographs, etc.
10.3. Role of International Union of Architects (UIA) in CPD

Internationally accepted practice demands that professional architects update their expertise
continuously over their working career. UIA represents more than 1,30,000 Architects
worldwide. Out of 124 member countries of UIA, only about 40 countries have CPD
programmes as mandatory. UIA organises certain programmes which have CPD credits.
Every participant attending the seminar will receive a “Certificate of Participation” at the end
of the event that may be used for obtaining “Credits” for “Continuing Professional
Development” purposes, depending on national rules.
In relation to the various, existing CPD contexts, the UIA programme hopes to give
countries that already have established systems the possibility to deliver their courses to an
international audience, and the possibility to offer courses given in other countries to their
members; to provide countries that would like to set up their own CPD system with working
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models and indications as to content and quality guidelines, in order to help them in their
task; and to ensure that architects in countries that do not have their own system of CPD have
access to quality continuing education courses, especially where such is required for
international mobility.
A joint oversight committee made up of representatives from the programme operator and
the 5 UIA regions has been set up.
Out of 37 member counties of Commonwealth Association of Architects (CAA), only
about 10 countries have CPD Programmes as mandatory. Continuing Professional
Development Practitioners are required to attend refresher courses. This is regulated with a
system of credits. This means that a credit corresponds to a defined number of hours of
courses to be attended. CPD is strictly controlled by the professional association. CAA also
helps countries to develop CPD programmes.
11. Conclusion
It is proposed that the concept of sustainability should be incorporated in the content and
methodology of the education process by changing the curriculum and by having hands on
experience of the same. This can be achieved by on-site case studies and introduction of
various courses where sustainability is enhanced.
It is believed that endeavors like CPD should be made compulsory in India and other
developing countries also. The sad state of the story is that once an architect gets registered
with Council of Architecture or Indian Institute of Architects, he/she remains its member
throughout his/her life in spite of the fact whether they practice architecture or not.
Further, CPD should be made compulsory all over the world in order to upgrade the
profession of architecture and continuing efforts towards a sustainable architecture.
One hopes that the Council of Architecture also adopts this programme for the benefit of
the architectural profession in India as well as abroad. Otherwise professionals shall lag
behind in designing sustainable habitats.
12. Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. SS Bhatti, a renowned academician and Former Principal, Chandigarh

College of Architecture, for giving a personal interview in September, 2011.
References
1. www.igbc.in
100
2. www.wsu.edu/~susdev/WCED87.html
3. www.teachingexpertise.cpd-usa.com
4. Interview with Dr. S. S. Bhatti, Former Principal, Chandigarh College of Architecture, Chandigarh
on 1st October, 2011.
5. www.architecture.com.au
101
Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation in User Behavioral Pattern in
Assessing Energy Conservation
KUMAR Parveen
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India.
gargarch28@gmail.com
Abstract. This paper aims to project the role of contextual parameters and user behaviour in
evaluating the performance of buildings for energy efficiency in a real world situation. The
role of Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) in determining user satisfaction level is identified.
Experiences of users during POE can be explored in framing energy conservation strategies
and retrofitting existing buildings, thereby increasing productivity and energy efficiency. The
paper takes stock of examples in everyday situations which are very close to us, further
strengthening the argument that POE acts as feedback system for new as well as existing
projects – offering a chance to improve.
1. Introduction
The need to reduce energy use as part of a strategy for saving environment is widely
established. Buildings are big end-users of energy; they account for 20-40 percent of the
energy demands in developed nations, and the rate of new building construction in
developing nations is accelerating. To reduce the impact that buildings have on the
environment, the need for them to use as little energy as possible while still providing a
satisfactory indoor environment is critical. The green building movement may be an effective
catalyst for this, and various green building rating schemes are now in the place worldwide.
Certified green buildings exhibit higher real-estate values, presumably reflecting expectations
for reduced operating costs, and improved organizational productivity through better indoor
environments for occupants. However, the higher market value cannot be maintained in the
long run if these buildings do not deliver their expected benefits. The early generation of
green certified commercial buildings have now been occupied for several years, and it is time
to explore whether these buildings are living up to expectations in objective terms. This paper
P. KUMAR
reviews several post occupancy evaluations (POEs) that have been performed. A limited
number of POEs are available in the public domain, making it difficult to draw solid
conclusions. However, earlier trends suggest that green buildings, on an average, seem to be
delivering reduced energy use, however a large spread in performance is often observed
meaning that individual buildings do not always perform as expected. Occupant satisfaction
with some aspects of the indoor environment appears to have improved as compared to
conventional buildings, but there are areas where expected improvement trends are not
realized. This paper provides some possible explanations for the observed performance, and
further strengthens the argument of importance of Post Occupancy Evaluation in delineating
the actual performance of building and as a potential design tool to bring about
transformation in energy conservation.
The construction sector has seen the development of a number of methods for evaluating
the green-ness of buildings in the 1990s - both for new designs and existing buildings. These
range from very detailed life cycle assessment methods, which account for all the embodied
and operational environmental impacts of building materials, to higher level environmental
impact assessment methods, which evaluate the broader implications of the building's impact
on the environment.
2. What is Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE)?
Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) of productive buildings is, in the broadest sense, the extent
to which the buildings, being evaluated, meet the intended goals of its designers. Preiser
identified three benefits of post occupancy evaluation as [1]:
• Benefits to the user organization through improved design decisions and resultant
better quality buildings.
• Human benefits through the avoidance of problems that act as obstacles to
effectiveness and enjoyment of workplaces.
• Professional benefits through design professionals making better informed design
decisions.
Formal post occupation evaluation has its origins in the UK where the British Ministry of
Education in conjunction with local governments first undertook evaluations of buildings in
the post World War II period. The buildings evaluated were school buildings and the exercise
resulted in a series of building bulletins for schools. The US followed in the early 60’s with
the Schools Construction System Development in California in 1961 [1]. In the 1980’s there
were significant advances in theory, method, strategy and application of post occupation
evaluation. This was a result of the growing interest in this field and higher levels of
accountability for both managers and designers. An important model of how the physical
environment and organizational setting of the workplace influences the perceptions and
behavior of workers was developed by Marans and Spreckelmeyer [2]. Their conceptual
model relates objective environmental attributes to subjective user perceptions and
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ROLE OF POST OCCUPANCY EVALUATION IN USER BEHAVIORAL PATTERN…
assessments of the effect of the work environment on occupant behavior and overall
satisfaction.
The rationale behind POE is to consider the extent to which a building or facility satisfies
the needs of its end users and to identify ways in which design, performance and fitness for
purpose can be improved [3]. Although technical building evaluations are conducted
routinely, including structural testing, mechanical systems performance checks etc., POE
differs in that it addresses issues such as occupant performance, worker satisfaction and
productivity [4].
Zimmerman and Martin view POE as the logical concluding stage of the design process,
with the feedback loop providing a valuable platform for lessons to be learnt from occupiers
[5]. This identifies both how the existing space could be used more effectively, and provides
information that could feed the future design of similar buildings.
3. Role of post occupancy evaluations in energy efficiency
It is often seen that in buildings where energy efficient concepts have been used, the users of
the buildings are not aware of the concept or concepts, which have been used. Energy
consumption tends to be more if the users are unaware of the measures to reduce energy
consumption. For example, rain water harvesting schemes have been mandatory made by
Haryana Urban Development Authority and other departments of urban local bodies in the
state of Haryana for all plots of 100 sq.m. and above, however, in practical terms, rain water
harvesting schemes are non functional, either deliberately by end users or due to lack of
awareness of the concepts. Buildings have a double system of combining plumbing and sewer
lines with that of rain water underground lines thus discharging the rain water into the main
sewer utility line or overflow of rain water harvesting tank (RWH) to main sewer line. Thus
in both cases, the purpose of providing RWH tank is defeated. Furthermore, the cost of
energy saving devices, energy embodied in material itself and inherent cost of fixing separate
rain water line, overflow and rain water tank accounts for extra energy consumption as
compared to earlier buildings without rain water harvesting tank. In such scenario, the role of
post occupancy evaluation becomes vital as it allows one make a realistic assessment of
whether the scheme of rain water harvesting is working or not as designed. Further, to
ascertain what the problems are, namely physical or psychological, financial in implementing
the same and the outcomes and strategies needed to realize the concept in meaningful and
realistic terms so as to bring its benefits to society. Success of the rain water harvesting
scheme cannot be achieved without the interest and active role of the occupants/ users.
Extensive training and demonstration programs are needed for making the mission of rain
water harvesting useful. Also economically, the initial capital investment in rain water
harvesting system is high and beyond the reach of most of segments of the society notably the
lower income groups and rural populations. Some kind of public funding or micro finance
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P. KUMAR
credit scheme is required to reap the potential of rain water harvesting project across the
nation.
In educational buildings/institutes, there are examples of people using energy resources
carelessly with complete lack of personal accountability. It is not uncommon to find users
leaving lights and air conditioners turned on during the weekend when leaving office on
Friday and returning on Monday showing lack of sensitivity towards these issues. Moreover,
people also tend to leave air conditioners, monitors, televisions and other gadgets in standby
mode on while not using them at all keeping the entire panel of switches on. Often people
tend to board up windows on the northern façade in their offices to not allow light ingress
while resorting to use of energy efficient luminaries that remain switched on all the time.
Further, it has also been observed that people may not have their homes air conditioned and
may also not own an automobile, yet they tend to overuse energy at their work place.
Similarly, use of alternative technology materials like fly-ash bricks, compressed earth
blocks, funicular shells, hydra form blocks, geodesic shells, rat-trap bond to name some
among the variants developed by Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) and other
institutes in the 1960’s and 70’s, have not gained popularity and are not being used by
designers on a major scale. Likewise, use of technology like prefab waffle slabs has not
gained popularity but has met strong opposition from the government, bureaucrats, engineers
and the public alike owing to the fear of experimenting with newer technologies. Energy
saving masonry units such as hydra form blocks that offer flexibility in construction and reuse
besides being eco friendly are not well known in the professional community. Post occupancy
evaluation of buildings that use alternative technology showing the impact of the use of such
materials for each individual project should be made available as a reference to be used by
designers for forthcoming projects so that one can bridge the gap between application of such
highly efficient products in terms of energy consumption as well as energy conservation and
acceptability factors by studying the psychological sustainability of such practices.
Recycling concepts of kitchen waste, avoiding hard copies/paper work, writing emails and
not keeping record of everything on paper, using both side of paper and not taking rough
printouts, using disposable paper plates are among the many measures that employees at the
work place can adopt to save energy. Often due to unawareness the effectiveness of devices
installed in buildings is compromised such as permanently turning off fire alarms or earth
leakage circuit breakers. POE can thus play a vital role in building an understanding of
facilities provided in the building and the way they are used after being occupied by different
user groups.
User behavior is governed by a host of factors namely cultural, demographic, life style,
gender, age and psychological aspirations. This makes users perceive, process, and behave
differently and regardless of the way the space or object has been perceived/designed by
designers. Through the assessment of contextual cultural factors, behavioral pattern analysis
and cultural orientation, one can develop strategies for counseling and further research, which
are instrumental in studying behavior of users with respect to energy consumption in work
places. There is a dire need to study user satisfaction level with respect to thermal comfort
106
perceived by designers of the building. Net energy saving is definitely affected due to users’
lack of awareness and inability to appreciate concepts and this in turn reduces the
performance factor of a building in terms of energy saving in reality. A methodical in-depth
study and analysis of users during post occupancy evaluation of occupied buildings will
reveal the difficulties and problems faced by users and bridge the gap between design
conditions and actual comfort level and by extension, energy consumption.
Ever increasing spiraling cost of energy (electricity, gas, fuel for transport) has made it
necessary for different organizations to look forward to conserve energy and utilize it in an
efficient manner. Some of the greatest factors that impact energy use are user behavior,
climate, and age of the building. An energy audit may therefore include an interview of the
occupants to understand their patterns of use over time. The energy billing history from the
local utility company can be calibrated using cooling degree day data obtained from recent,
local weather data in combination with the thermal energy model of the building. Advances
in computer-based thermal modeling can take into account many variables affecting energy
use. Energy audit is often used to identify cost effective ways to improve the comfort and
efficiency of the buildings. In addition, building projects may qualify for energy efficiency
grants from Central/State government. Comprehensive Energy audit has become the need of
the hour, thus leading to implementation of strategies and project monitoring (operation and
maintenance). Exhaustive energy audit is carried out by a certified energy auditor, who
evaluates the current consumption of energy in the project against the set benchmarks after
undertaking a complete survey of the facility. Various options like setting up of alternate
energy resources, redesigning/retrofitting certain parts of the project are evaluated taking into
account costs, benefits and payback period and most importantly involving users of the
project to ascertain its full feasibility.
Diamond et al. investigated 21 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
certified (LEED-NC Version 2.0/2.1) buildings [6]. Actual energy use was determined from
utility billing data. The modelled energy data for the as-designed and baseline building was
obtained from the LEED certification documentation submitted to the USGBC. On average,
for the 18 buildings that had both simulated whole building design and actual energy use data,
energy use was 1 percent lower than modelling predictions (which were 27 percent below
baseline). However, there was a large variability, and some of them performed better than
predicted while others performed worse. Further, the number of LEED energy credits
obtained in the certification did not correlate with the actual energy use per floor area. The
authors recommended that a comprehensive collection and publication of modelled vs. actual
energy use data was needed, allowing for a closing of the gap between design simulation and
as-built performance.
Baylon & Storm examined the characteristics of LEED commercial buildings in the US
Pacific Northwest, and compared them to regional non-LEED buildings [7]. The mean energy
use per floor area for the 12 LEED buildings was 10 percent lower than the 39 similar non-
LEED buildings in the same region. This relatively small improvement was attributed to the
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P. KUMAR
relatively high prevailing energy standards for all buildings in the region. Again, the authors
noted the uncertainty of conclusions based on such a small and varied dataset.
With the advent of softwares, computer programs, simulations and recording facilities and
other tools it, has become much easier to facilitate and accelerate the collection, analysis, and
presentation of behavioral data. With technology, behavioral studies have become more
efficient and cost-effective. The solutions offer more accurate measurement of behavior and
therefore a higher quality of collected data. Due to the use of non-invasive sensors and
observational methods, behavior can be studied in naturalistic settings. Automated systems
have replaced manual work and generate results faster and with increased productivity. The
feedback from occupants or users can lead to improvement in design and its implementation.
4. Conclusions
All of the mentioned studies on energy use of green buildings draw similar conclusions on
why variations exist between the predicted and measured energy use. Some key common
factors are as follows:
• The actual occupancy hours can differ from those used in the initial design
assumptions.
• The final as-built building can differ markedly from the initial design on which
majority of modeling is based.
• The often experimental technologies proposed to save energy may not perform as
predicted.
• Plug loads of electrical, air conditioning and lighting are often very different than
assumed.
• The buildings may not be commissioned properly or its actual usage may be
different from its designed use, and a knowledge transfer gap exists between the
design team and end users.
There are a number of green building programs available worldwide to choose from to help
design more sustainable buildings. The rate at which owners are getting their buildings
certified green has increased over the last few years. The first and even second generation of
these buildings are now being occupied. The question was asked whether these green
buildings deliver on their original design intent? Answering this question is difficult at this
point in time with only very limited number of publicly-available post occupancy evaluations
to draw upon. It seems that, on average, buildings designed with an emphasis on their
environmental impact do use less energy when compared to conventional buildings.
However, this reduction in energy use is not apparent for every green building. Satisfaction
levels of the majority of the indoor environment variables show, on average, improvements in
green buildings compared to conventional buildings. Nevertheless, studies to date often only
108
involve a limited number of buildings, making it difficult to draw strong conclusions. Thus
post occupancy evaluation studies can be used as an effective tool for bridging the gap
between reality or energy consumption pattern of buildings and the designed intentions of the
designer and can be instrumental towards energy conservation in the real sense.
References
1. Preiser, W. F. E., Rabinowits, H. Z. & White, E. T. (1988). Post Occupancy Evaluation, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
2. Marans, R. W. & Spreckelmeyer, K. F. (1981). Measuring Overall Architectural Quality: A
component of Building Evaluation, Environment and Behaviour.
3. Turpin-Brooks, S. & Viccars, G. (2006). The development of robust methods of post occupancy
evaluation , Facilities 24.
4. Preiser, W. & Vischer, J. (2005) Assessing building performance, Elsevier.
5. Zimmerman, A. & Martin, M. (2001). Post-occupancy evaluation: benefits and barriers, Building
Research and Information, Vol. 29 No. 2.
6. Diamond, R., Opitz, M., Hicks, T., Von Neida, B. & Herrara, S. (2006). Evaluating the energy
performance of the first generation of LEED-certified commercial buildings. ACEEE Summer
Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
7. Baylon, D. & Storm, P. (2008). Comparison of commercial LEED buildings and non-LEED
buildings within the 2002-2204 Pacific Northwest commercial building stock. ACEEE Summer
Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
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ENERGY RATING SYSTEMS
Building Energy Efficiency Standards in India

Chitrarekha Kabre
Role of Building Energy Codes in the Energy Efficient

Design of Building Envelope
Seema Devgun, Arvind Kumar Jain,
Bishwajit Bhattacharjee
Benchmarking - As a Tool for Sustainable Buildings

Shaila Bantaur, Mahua Mukherjee, R. Shankar
111
Building Energy Efficiency Standards in India
KABRE Chitrarekha
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India.
crekha888@yahoo.com
Abstract. The paper presents a profile of activities and research issues related to building
energy efficiency standards in India. It includes a snapshot of the contents, development, and
use of building energy efficiency standards. This paper describes evolution of climatic zoning
in India and discusses the development of building energy efficiency standards in India keyed
to the legal status (i.e. mandatory, voluntary) and building sector coverage (i.e. residential,
commercial, or both) of such standards. The paper further describes in detail the building
energy efficiency standards introduced by two national bodies, the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) and the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE). The paper also discusses two
prominent green rating systems that co-exist in India. The first system is named, Green
Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA), the national rating system for the
country endorsed by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of
India. The second system is, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
launched by the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC). Finally, the paper suggests fostering
cooperation among the regulating bodies and developing a national directory of building
energy efficiency standards for ready reference.
1. Introduction and background
Buildings account for about one-third of all the energy consumption in the world and much of
this consumption footprint is locked in through the design and construction of the building.
During the past three decades, governments in both industrialized countries and the global
south have initiated policies to reduce energy consumption in buildings. Most of these
policies can be grouped into one of the following three categories: economic incentives (e.g.
taxes, energy pricing), informational programs (e.g. energy awareness campaigns, energy
audits), or regulatory requirements (e.g., codes or standards). Building energy efficiency
standards are an important tool to improve energy efficiency in new and existing buildings.
C. KABRE
Building energy efficiency standards set requirements for how energy-efficient a building
will be. Standards vary between countries in several respects including the extent of their
coverage, the specific requirements, means of attaining compliance and enforcement.
1.1. A glance at the economy and energy

India has seen strong economic growth in recent years. In 2011, its gross domestic product
was US $1.8 trillion on a nominal basis, though on purchasing power parity (PPP) basis, it is
the third largest economy in the world at US $ 4.4 trillion [1]. In 2009, India was the fourth
largest energy consumer in the world, after the United States, China, and Russia [2]. In 2009,
India, with 17 percent of world population, contributed more than 5 percent of the CO2
emissions [3].
1.2. Building sector

According to the International Energy Agency [4], the building sector accounted for the
largest share of India’s final energy use between 1995 and 2005. Air conditioning and
lighting are the top two energy end users within the building sector. There is a vast scope for
energy efficiency improvement in buildings. Energy Audit studies conducted in several office
buildings, hotels, and hospitals indicate energy saving potential of 23 percent to 46 percent in
end uses such as lighting, cooling, ventilation, refrigeration etc. [5].
1.3. Building standards

Standard is a legal instrument intended to ensure that a building, when constructed in
accordance with the standard, consumes less energy and meets the biological, physiological
and psychological requirements for health and comfort of the occupants. The word “standard”
in this paper is used interchangeably to what also might be called codes, criteria, guidelines,
norms, laws, protocols, provisions, recommendations, requirements, regulations, rules, or
standards. Depending on the country, the “standard” may be contained in one document, be
part of another larger document (such as a general building code), or comprise several
documents.
1.4. Regulating bodies in India

In India, primarily three national bodies have developed building standards to regulate energy
and environmental issues of building:
• Indian Standard Institution (ISI) was set up in 1947 as a registered society, under a
Government of India resolution. The ISI gave the nation the standards it needed. In
1986, the Bureau of Indian Standards Act was enacted by the Government of India
and on 1st April 1987, the newly formed statutory body Bureau of Indian Standards
took over erstwhile ISI. The Bureau of Indian Standards is thus a national standards
body of India, covers product quality certification, consumer affairs and development
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BUILDING ENERGY EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN INDIA
of technical standards. It introduced the National Building Code of India, the

Handbooks of Functional requirements of buildings and a number of codes for
regulating the building construction activities across the country. The codes are
predominantly based on the research conducted by two national research institutes
namely, the Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) at Roorkee and the Structural
Engineering Research Centre (SERC) at Chennai.
• In January 2000, the Energy Conservation and Commercialization (ECO) program
was signed between the Government of India and United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) with the objective to enhance commercial
viability and performance of Indian energy sector and to promote utilization of clean
and energy-efficient technologies in the sector. In 2001, the Energy Conservation Act
was enacted by the Government of India with the objective to promote energy
efficiency and conservation domestically. In March 2002, the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) was established under the Ministry of Power, Government of India
in compliance of the Energy Conservation Act 2001 and with the support of ECO-I
Project. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency introduced Energy Conservation Building
Code in 2007, which is the national building energy code.
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India enforced a
national green building rating system called Green Rating for Integrated Habitat
Assessment (GRIHA).
In addition, Ministry of Environment and Forest [6] issued the Environmental Impact
Assessment Notification, 2006, which makes environmental clearance mandatory for the
development activities listed in its schedule. Builders and developers, therefore, need to
obtain an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) clearance before construction.
Recognizing that energy use and air pollution are important issues in India’s buildings,
Government of India issued the National Housing and Habitat Policy in 1998. The Policy
acknowledged the importance of construction techniques and materials in energy
conservation. It also emphasized that the government should specify energy efficiency levels
for different categories of buildings [7].
Under the direction of the Prime Minister, the government’s Planning Commission issued
the Integrated Energy Policy in 2006 [8]. This document identifies major areas with large
potential for energy savings. Five of the thirteen areas are related to the building sector,
including building design, construction, Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC),
lighting and household appliances.
Internationally, voluntary building rating systems have been instrumental in raising
awareness and popularizing green design. The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) is a
non-government, not-for-profit, industry led and industry managed organization, playing a
proactive role in India’s development process. Indian Green Building Council (IGBC), a part
of CII-Godrej Green Business Centre, is actively promoting since 2001, the Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED-India) certification - the internationally accepted
benchmark for the design, construction and operation of high performance green buildings.
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C. KABRE
India has taken a purposeful step towards improved building energy efficiency as early as
1970 and has come a long way in developing the building energy efficiency standards to meet
the present needs [9]. However, most of the study focuses on the present status of energy
standards for buildings [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The aim of this paper is to present an overview of
building energy efficiency standards in India and to review relevant details.
The next section will discuss the evolution of climatic zoning in India. The rest of the
paper will review relevant details of the National Building Code of India (NBC) and the
Handbook of Functional Requirements of Buildings introduced by the Bureau of Indian
Standards, the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) introduced by the Bureau of
Energy Efficiency and Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) devised by
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) and enforced by the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy, Government of India. Finally LEED-India rating system is discussed.
2. Evolution of climatic zoning in India
The Indian subcontinent is a big geographical unit, which has almost thirty degrees of
latitudinal extent (between 6°N and 36°N) and the same amount of longitudinal extent
(between 68°E and 98°E). The total area is about 3.2 million square kilometres. With its vast
size and marked variations in terrain, India has sharp contrasts in its climatic conditions. On
an extremely hot day in the arid region of Rajasthan and in the south-west Punjab the
mercury occasionally exceeds to 50°C. On the other hand, on a severe winter night at Dras
near Kargil, the minimum temperature ever recorded has been as low as - 45oC. Between
these two known extremes are found a large number of temperature and climatic variations.
Cherrapunji, with its annual precipitation of 25000 mm is the world's rainiest spot. As against
this, the average rainfall in the west Rajasthan is less than 130 mm.
The Himalayan mountain range in the north acts as a meteorological barrier and lends the
entire country a tropical touch. The temperature is almost uniformly high throughout India
during most of the year, especially during the summer. The seasonal rhythm of monsoons is
apparent throughout India. The most characteristic feature of the monsoons is the complete
reversal of winds. On the basis of the monsoon variations, the year is divided into four
seasons: cold weather season - December to February, hot weather season - March to May,
south-west monsoon season - June to September, and the retreating south-west monsoon
season - October and November, [15].
2.1. Preliminary climate zoning in India

Sheshadri, Sharma & Ali [16] first made a detailed study about prevailing climates in India
and delineated climatic zones for four months, January, May, August and November roughly
representing winter, summer, south-west monsoon and autumn periods at most places in
India. The average of daily mean temperatures for the month and the average of relative
116
humidity for the month are taken as indicative of the climatic zone surrounding the given
station, Table 1.
Table 1.Basis of first classification of climate in India, [16]

Average daily mean Average Relative
temperatures Humidity
Very hot > 35°C Very dry 0-25%
Hot 30°-35°C Dry 25-50%
Temperate 20°-30°C Humid 50-75%
Cool 15°-20°C Very Humid 75-100%
Cold < 15°C
Table 2.Classification of Indian climate, [17 & 18]

Climate Mean monthly Relative Altitude Note
maximum dry humidity
bulb temperature
Hot-arid ≥ 38°C ≤ 40% < 500 m Hottest month
Hot humid > 32°C > 40% < 500 m Hottest month
Warm humid 26°-32°C ≥ 70% < 100 m Hottest month
Cold ≤ 6°C > 1200 m Coldest month
Table 3.Incidence of dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures and vapour pressure in India, [17]
Elements Dry bulb Wet bulb Vapour Relative

temperature temperature pressure humidity
Hot dry season 20°-45°C 15°-25°C 5-20 16-57%
Warm humid season 25°-35°C 24°-30°C 20-30 70-78%
Cold season 0°-25°C 10°-20°C 5-15 32-64%
The Bureau of Indian Standards defined four climatic zones: a) hot and arid, b) hot and
humid, c) warm and humid, and d) cold ([17] referring to [18]) as shown in Table 2. The code
further specifies that the predominant types of climate occurring in different parts of India are
hot-dry, warm humid and cold. This is because most of the cities classified under hot humid
zone remain warm and humid for most of the time in a year. One or more types occur at some
places in a year. The degree of heat or cold and level of moisture content of air also show
wide variation from place to place. However, overall ranges of temperatures (dry bulb and
wet bulb) and vapour pressure in the country lies within the limits shown in the Table 3. The
117
C. KABRE
Bureau of Indian Standards [17] and the Central Building Research Institute [19, 20]
published broad design recommendations for each climatic zone.
Ali, Sharma & Maitreya [21] redefined this zoning as: a) hot-dry, b) warm-humid, c)
temperate, and d) cold and a sub-group called “composite”. This classification is based on
two atmospheric factors which dominantly influence human comfort, air temperature and
humidity. The main criterion is what extremes of these two factors are likely to cause
discomfort. A station falls in a particular zone if the climate conforms to that zone for six or
more months as given in the Table 4. According to this study based on climate analysis of
225 stations the greater part of country falls under composite followed by warm-humid zone.
Table 4.Modified basis of Indian climate classification, [21]

Climatic zone Mean monthly maximum Mean monthly
air temperature relative humidity
1. Hot dry > 30°C < 55%
2. Warm humid > 30°C or > 25°C > 55% or > 75%
3. Temperate 25°-30°C < 75%
4. Cold < 25°C all values
Table 5.Climate classification and major characteristics of each zone, [22]

Climatic Hot dry Warm Humid Moderate Cold & Cold & Composite
Features cloudy sunny
Summer 40°-45°C 30°-35°C 30°-34°C 20°-30°C 17°-24°C 32°-43°C
midday
Summer 20°-30°C 25°-30°C 17°-24°C 17°-21°C 4°-11°C 27°-32°C
night
Winter 5°-25°C 25°-30°C 27°-33°C 4°-8°C -7°-8°C 10°-25°C
midday
Winter night 0°-10°C 20°-25°C 16°-18°C -3°-4°C -14°-0°C 4°-10°C
Diurnal 15-20 K 5-8 K 8- 13 K 5- 15 K 20-25 K 3-22 K
variations
Relative 25-40% 70-90% 30-80% 70-80% 10-50% 20-55%
humidity (very low) (high) (variable) (variable) (low) (dry season)
55-95%
(wet season)
Precipitation < 500 mm 1200 mm 1000 mm 1000 mm < 200 mm 500-1300
(annual) (low) (high) dry winter very low mm
250 mm
wet month
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Bansal & Minke [22] proposed six climatic zones for India, Table 5. According to the
National Building Code of India [23], for the purpose of design of buildings the country may
be divided into the major climatic zones, as shown in Figure 1, and the basis of this
classification given in Table 6. This zoning is adopted by the Energy Conservation Building
Code [24 Appendix F, p. 67].
Table 6.Current Climate zoning in India. [23]

Sl. No. Climatic Zone Mean Monthly Maximum Mean Monthly
Temperature (ºC) Relative Humidity (%)
1. Hot-Dry Above 30 Below 55
2. Warm-Humid Above 30 Above 55
3. Above 25 Above 75
4. Temperate Between 25-30 Below 75
5. Cold Below 25 All values
6. Composite Each climatic zone does not have same climate for
the whole year; it has a particular season for more
than six months and may experience other seasons
for the remaining period. A climatic zone that does
not have any season for more than six months may
be called as composite zone.
3. National Building Code of India 2005 (NBC)
The Bureau of Indian Standards developed the most comprehensive piece of legislation the
National Building Code of India [23] which has a bearing, either direct or indirect, on
building construction and energy conservation in India. This code has had a legal force since
1970, and contains a range of basic conditions, structural, safety and other design issues and
requirements for regulating building construction activities across the country. It serves as a
model for adoption by all agencies involved in building. The NBC of India is a single
document in which, like a network, the information contained in various Indian standards is
woven into a pattern of continuity and cogency with the interdependent requirements of
sections carefully analyzed and fitted in to make the whole document a cogent continuous
volume, Table 7. In view of major technological advancements in the construction industry,
the NBC of India was first revised in 1983 and second revision came in 2005. The NBC
promotes the use of new and innovative technologies and methods and also contains some
provisions that are relevant to energy efficiency; however, it does not specifically address
energy efficiency issues [25].
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C. KABRE
Fig.1.Climatic zones of India, [23]
4. Handbooks of functional requirements of building
The Bureau of Indian Standards has brought out a range of codes addressing thermal
performance and energy efficiency issues and published two cogent documents, the
Handbook on Functional Requirements of Industrial Buildings (lighting and ventilation) [26],
Table 8 and the Handbook on Functional Requirements of Building (other than industrial
building) [17] Table 9.
Thermal performance of a building is the result of the process whereby the design, layout,
orientation and construction materials of the building modify the prevailing outdoor climate
to create the indoor climate. In a building this is generally perceived by the occupants in
terms of the extent to which the building seems cool in the heat of summer and warm in cold
winter, taking into account the amount of heating or cooling required to create comfortable
thermal conditions. Thermal performance can be expressed in numerical or quantitative terms
120
in various ways. Building component properties may be interpreted as “low-level”

performance indicators, whereas room performance descriptions may be interpreted as “high-
level” behavioural properties [27]. Thermo-physical properties (for example U-value, shading
coefficient) may be defined as attributes of discrete components whereas energy performance
(e.g. environmental temperature, heat gain or loss) may refer to room properties. The Bureau
of Indian Standards adopted the Building Index, a high level thermal behavioural property for
the building and Thermal Performance Index, a low level thermal behavioural property for
the building envelope element.
Table 7.National Building Code: SP 7 [23]

Part no. Title Description
0 Integrated approach It proposes an integrated approach for utilizing appropriate knowledge and
– prerequisite for experience of qualified professionals right from the conceptualization
applying provisions through construction and completion stages of a building project and
of the code indeed during the entire life cycle.
1 Definitions The terms appearing in all the parts/sections of the code are listed.
2 Administration The applicability of the code, organization of building department for
enforcement of the code, procedure for obtaining development and
building permits, and responsibility of the owner.
3 Development control The development control rules and general building requirements to ensure
rules & general health and safety of the public.
building
requirements
4 Fire & Life Safety The requirements for fire prevention, life safety in relation to fire and fire
protection of buildings.
5 Building Materials The requirements of building materials and components, and criteria for
accepting new or alternative building materials and components.
6 Structural Design Section 1 Loads, Forces and Effects
Section 2 Soils and Foundations
Section 3 Timber and Bamboo
Section 4 Masonry
Section 5 Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Section 6 Steel
Section 7 Prefabrication, Systems Building and Mixed/Composite
Construction
7 Constructional This Part of the Code emphasizes the importance of carrying out all
Practices & Safety constructional operations in a safe and efficient manner.
8 Building Services Section 1: Lighting and ventilation
Section 2: Electrical and allied installations
Section 3: Air conditioning, heating and mechanical ventilation
Section 4: Installation of lifts and escalators
9 Plumbing Services Section 1 Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation (Including Solid Waste
Management)
Section 2 Gas Supply
10 Landscaping, Signs Section 1 Landscape Planning and Design
& Outdoor Display Section 2 Signs and Outdoor Display Structures
Structures
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C. KABRE
Table 8.Hand book on Functional Requirements of Industrial buildings (lighting & ventilation), [26]
Section no. Title Description
1 Lighting Illumination levels, characteristics of good lighting, day lighting,
principles of day lighting design, artificial lighting, maintenance in
factory buildings.
2 Ventilation Physiological considerations, standards for temperature, control of
heat, amount of ventilation required, natural and mechanical
ventilation, evaporative cooling, air conditioning, measurement of
ventilation, ventilation for contaminant control, installation and
operation of equipment in factories.
Table 9.Hand book on Functional Requirements of buildings (other than industrial buildings), [17]
Part no. Title Description
Part 1 Climatology Basic climatic elements, namely, air temperature, solar radiation,
humidity, rainfall and wind. Tropical Summer Index, a thermal
comfort index is also defined. The zoning of several regions of the
country from climatic considerations.
Part 2 Heat insulation Heat insulation of buildings, such as dwellings, hospitals, schools
and office buildings both for non-air-conditioned and air-
conditioned buildings
Part 3 Ventilation Detailed information on the requirements of ventilation and design
guidelines for achieving desired ventilation rates in buildings.
Part 4 Lighting Design methods for provisions of daylighting, artificial lighting
and supplementary artificial lighting which would depend upon the
type of buildings and the visual task being performed by the
occupants.
4.1. Building index (BI)

A Building Index (BI) is defined as the percentage ratio of total maximum heat gain,
averaged over the entire surface area of the building envelope to the acceptable limit of heat
gain for achieving comfortable conditions indoors. It was developed at the Central Building
Research Institute [28] and later adopted by Bureau of Indian Standard [17]. Acceptable limit
of heat gain has been taken as 46.52 W/m2 (40 kcal/m2/hr) and corresponds to a building
index value of 100. Unlike prevalent star rating, this scale uses a descending scale, i.e. lower
score means better performance because it corresponds to low heat gain. The Central
Building Research Institute obtained data for a typical summer day in a hot dry region of the
country, where some 50 cases were studied with variations in design features e.g. orientation,
exposure of wall and roof, insulation, white wash, glass area, water spray on roof etc. The
Central Building Research Institute has an in-house simulation program (Chandra, P. 1998,
pers. comm., 6 Apr.). Maximum limits of building index for different thermal comfort
conditions and the corresponding indoor air temperature with fan are given in Table 10(a).
122
General features of typical single storey building and effects of different treatments are
highlighted in Table 10(b).
Table 10. Limits of Building Index and influence of design parameters. [28]
a) Limits of Building Index corresponding to air temperature and comfort conditions
Building Index Indoor air temperature Comfort conditions with fan

0-50 32°C Comfortable
51-100 32°-36°C Slightly warm
101-150 36°-40°C Hot
b) Influence of design parameters on typical single storey construction
Variations in treatment Building Index Comfort conditions with
fan
Light insulation on roof 100 Hot
Light insulation on roof, white washed 85 Slightly warm
Medium insulation on roof 78 Slightly warm
Medium insulation on roof, white washed 62 Slightly warm
Heavy insulation on roof 69 Slightly warm
100 RC bare roof with water spray 62 Slightly warm
100 RC bare roof with water spray with gunny 40 Cold
bags
115 brick wall, one wall exposed 79 Slightly warm
230 brick wall, two walls exposed 78 Slightly warm
230 brick wall, three walls exposed 87 Slightly warm
General Features of a typical construction
Walls 230 brick with plaster on Glass area 15% of floor area, shaded
both sides
Roof 100 RC roof with 75 lime Orientation longer axis along east-west
concrete
Window 3 mm glass Ventilation 3 air changes per hour
Door 25 teak wood Aspect Ratio 1: 1.5
Exposure Only one wall
It could be presumed that the performance limits are defined keeping in view the tropical
climate of India. Although the conditions and type of construction is not specified, the
concept of average heat flow could be useful in different climatic zones of the country.
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C. KABRE
However, the corresponding limit on indoor air temperature as 32°C would not be generally
applicable considering the present comfort standards. If the limits are to be considered with
ventilation (1.5 m/s, fan etc.) then the cooling effect would be of the order of 6 K (Szokolay,
S. V. 1999, pers. comm., 4 Feb.), and in that case indoor air temperature of 32°C would be
equivalent to 26°C. Therefore, the temperature limits should be based on comfort
requirements in a particular climate. On the whole the index could be useful to assess the
desired reduction in heat gain on an average to improve thermal performance. Since no
insulation values are given, specific conclusions cannot be drawn.
4.2. Thermal performance index (TPI)

Although many performance indices have been developed so far, the air-to-air thermal
transmittance (U value) is the most widely used property for building components such as
wall and roof. However, in tropical climates the commonly used steady-state property (U-
value) alone cannot provide a satisfactory basis for assessing thermal performance. The
Bureau of Indian Standards [17, 18] prescribes air-to-air thermal transmittance (U value),
Thermal Performance Index (TPI), Thermal time constant (T) and thermal Damping (D) for
roof and exposed walls in different climatic zones, Table 11; and also for non-industrial
buildings, such as dwellings, hospitals, schools and office buildings wherein no mechanical
cooling or heating aids, such as air-conditioning plants are used.
Table 11.Thermal performance standard, [17 & 18]

Building Hot dry & hot humid zone Warm humid zone
Components
U TPI T D U TPI T D
max. max. minim minim max. max. minim minim.
W/ m2 h % W/ m2 H %
K K
Roof 2.33 100 20 75 2.33 125 20 75
Exposed wall 2.56 125 16 60 2.91 175 16 60
U= air-to-air thermal transmittance, TPI= Thermal Performance Index, T= Thermal Time Constant,
D=Thermal Damping
The Thermal performance index (TPI) is a rating scheme for wall and roof sections. It was
developed at the Central Building Research Institute [29] and later adopted by the Bureau of
Indian Standard [18]. A rating of 100 TPI of wall or roof corresponds to 38°C peak inside
surface temperature in an unconditioned environment (Figure 2) and 46.52 W/m2 (40 kcal/m2
h) peak heat gain in conditioned buildings maintained at 25°C. The TPI for an unconditioned
environment is derived from the peak inside surface temperature ( Tsi ) of a building element
using equation 1. TPI values are ranked on scale of A (good) to E (extremely poor), Table 12;
124
class A and B are recommended for conditioned and for unconditioned environments
respectively.
(Tsi − 30) × 100
TPI = (1)
8
Table 12: Basis for thermal performance rating and classification of building component, [17]
Class Performance TPI Value Peak Inside surface
Temperature
A Good <= 75 <= 36°C
B Fair >= 75 & <= 125 >= 36°C & <= 40°C
C Poor >= 125 & <= 175 >= 40°C & <= 54°C
D Very Poor >= 175 & <= 225 >= 54°C & <= 58°C
E Extremely Poor >= 225 >= 58°C
Tsi - Inside Surface Temperature

38°C 8 K Peak
hour swing
30°C Base Temperature
Hour 0 24
Fig.2.Inside surface temperature of a building element
The TPI values of commonly used wall and roof types are published by the Central
Building Research Institute and the Bureau of Indian Standards. There are very few sloping
roof types investigated so far. The TPI values are calculated for a typical summer design day
in a hot dry climate (Roorkee, India) with a fixed surface absorption coefficient (0.7). The
TPI values for unconditioned environment consist of two parts (TPI = R1 + R2) corresponding
to external sol-air temperature and indoor air temperature variations respectively. For a given
indoor temperature profile the values of R2 mostly depend on the type of interior layer. As an
approximation the value of R2 for uninsulated and insulated interior layers is given as 50 and
75 respectively for all practical purposes. If the indoor air temperature varies from the
assumed conditions R2 will need to be suitably modified. However, the Central Building
Research Institute gives a method to find equivalent TPI values (equation 2) using correction
factors for eight orientations and for five surface finishes in fourteen major cities in India.
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C. KABRE
Corrected TPI = R1 * correction factor + R2 (2)

The theory underlying the TPI concept is explicated by Chandra [30]. He argued that the
radiant heat gain due to high temperature of surrounding surfaces causes discomfort in hot
climates. He discussed that the radiant heat reduces considerably if inside surface temperature
of roof and wall are kept at 30°C, but did not specify under what conditions. Making a
reference to Chrenko [31], he argued that human tolerance of radiant heat is considerably
reduced in hot climates. Therefore, an upper limit of acceptable surface temperature was
assumed to be 38°C and 40°C for roofs and walls respectively for Indian climatic conditions.
Equation 1 is simply the percentage ratio of actual excess peak surface temperature, above the
reference temperature of 30°C, and the acceptable excess of 8 K. However, good
performance (A grade, 75 TPI) corresponds to an excess of 6 K. Suman & Saxena [32] give
the equation 3 (using the notation adopted here) to calculate the inside surface temperature of
a building element. The Central Building Research Institute has developed an in-house
computer program for the same.
nmax
U
Tsi = Tai +
hi
( Tsa − Tai ) + ∑ decrn An cos(nωt − Yn − φn ) o C (3)
n =1
n = 1, 2, 3
where
n = Number of harmonics
Tsi = Inside surface temperature oC
o
Ts a = Sol-air temperature C
Tai = Air temperature of the room oC
U = Air to air transmittance
hi = Inside film heat transfer coefficient
An = (an2 + bn2 )1/2
an = 1/π [ ∫0 2π f(t) Cos nωt dt ]
bn = 1/π [ ∫0 2π f(t) Sin nωt dt]
f(t) = Function of temperature
bn
Yn = arctan( )
an
ω = Angular frequency (2π/T is time period)
decrn = Decrement in wave amplitude for the nth harmonic
φn = Phase lag of the wave for the nth harmonic
L = Thickness of the material
k = Thermal conductivity of the material
ρ = Density of material
126
 nπ 
decrn = exp −  ( ) A 2 B 
 24 
1 nπ 2
φn = ( )A B
2 24
where
A = thermal resistance for the most external layer until the most internal layer (or from
surface to surface)
L
A= ∑ ( k )l l = i, m1, m2...o
B = Equivalent admittivity
11
.  L L L 
B=
A∑ ( ) o ( kρc) o + ( ) m1 ( kρc) m1 + ( ) m2 ( kρc) m2 +... +
k k k 
( kρc) o  L L L L 
( ) o − 01
. ( ) i − 01
. ( ) m1 − 01. ( ) m2 −...
A  k k k k 
Where, o is the outer most layer, i is inner most layer, m1, m2 are medium layers.
When second term is negative, it is taken as zero.
The TPI indicates only the peak thermal performance in terms of inside surface
temperature or heat gain but do not show when the peak occurs which is important [33]. For
example, if peak temperature happens to be at night time in a house, it would not be
desirable. Further, the acceptable limit of performance needs to be established on the basis of
current comfort standards. It can be inferred that the classification (A-E) will have to be
modified for different climatic zones. A good performance for hot dry climate would be
different from the one for warm humid. For places with seasonal variations (such as
composite climates), it is important to assess the year round performance not only summer.
5. Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)
In 2006, the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was developed by the International
Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC) as a part of the ECO-II project providing support to
the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) Action Plan. In May 2007, the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency formally launched the ECBC for its voluntary adoption in the country [24]. The
ECBC is intended to become mandatory, but at present it is voluntary, to allow the necessary
implementation capacity to be developed. The purpose of this code is to provide minimum
requirements for the energy-efficient design and construction of buildings.
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C. KABRE
Table 13.Essential Features of the ECBC (May 2008 revised version) [24]
Section Title Description
1&2 Purpose and Minimum requirements for energy-efficient design
scope and construction of buildings and building
complexes with a connected load of 500kW or
greater, or a contract demand of 600 kVA or greater
and a conditioned area of > 1000 m2
3 Administration Mandatory compliance for all applicable new
and enforcement buildings, additions and major renovations to
existing buildings
4 Envelope Mandatory provisions and either the prescriptive
criteria or trade-off options
5 HVAC Mandatory provisions and prescriptive criteria
6 Service hot water Mandatory provisions, including solar water heating

pumping for at least 1/5 of design capacity, unless systems
use heat recovery
7 Lighting Mandatory provisions and prescriptive criteria for
interior and exterior lighting
8 Electrical power Mandatory requirements for transformers, motors,
and power distribution systems
Appendix A Definitions, Definitions of terms, abbreviations and acronyms in
abbreviations and the context of this code
acronyms
Appendix B Whole building An alternative to the prescriptive requirements of
performance the code
method
Appendix C Default values Procedure for determining window efficiency (U-
for typical factor), and the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
constructions (SHGC), thermal properties of common building
and insulating materials
Appendix D building Procedure for calculating envelope performance
envelope tradeoff factor (EPF) and tables for EPF coefficients for the
method five climatic zones and the two building occupancy
schedules.
Appendix E Climate zone From the National Building Code 2005, Part 8,
map of India Figure 2
Appendix F Air-side Construction inspection and procedure for
economizer equipment testing
acceptance
procedures
Appendix G Compliance Envelope summary, building permit plans checklist,
forms mechanical summary, mechanical checklist, lighting
summary and lighting permit checklist
128
The code is mandatory for commercial buildings or building complexes that have a
connected load of 500 kW or greater or a contract demand of 600 kVA or greater. The code is
also applicable to all buildings with a conditioned floor area of 1,000 m2 (10,000 ft2) or
greater. The code is recommended for all other buildings.
The ECBC establishes minimum energy efficiency requirements for building envelopes,
mechanical systems and equipment, including heating, ventilating, and air conditioning,
service hot water heating, interior and exterior and electrical power and motors, Table 13.
The ECBC defines norms and standards for the energy performance of buildings and their
components based on the climate zone in which they are located. The structure of ECBC is
patterned against that of the ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004.
There would be three ways of being compliant with the ECBC. First, through a
prescriptive approach, i.e. all minimum standards for separate components must be met.
Second, the envelope and lighting system would be assessed through a system of
performance criteria, while other components would have to meet the minimum
requirements. And third, setting the whole building target energy use and trading off between
systems (Energy cost budget method). The whole building performance provisions of the
code provides to compensate high performance in one area of compliance, such as the
envelope, with somewhat lower performance in another (for example, lighting).
State and municipal governments must implement the code, while state governments are
allowed to modify the code if necessary to account for local climatic conditions. In February
2008, an ECBC tip sheet and Technology atlas were distributed to developers, architects,
engineers and other building energy efficiency professionals.
Estimates based on computer simulation models indicate that ECBC compliant buildings
can use 40 to 60 percent less energy than conventional buildings. It is estimated that the
nationwide mandatory enforcement of the ECBC will yield annual savings of approximately
1.7 billion kWh [10]. The building envelope section of the ECBC is discussed in detail here.
5.1. Building envelope

The building envelope refers to the exterior façade, and is comprised of opaque components
and fenestration systems. Opaque components include walls, roofs, slabs on grade (in touch
with ground), basement walls, and opaque doors. Fenestration systems include windows,
skylights, ventilators, and doors that are more than one-half glazed. The envelope protects the
building’s interior and occupants from the weather conditions and shields them from other
external factors e.g. noise, air pollution, etc. In ECBC, the building envelope should comply
with the mandatory provisions and either the prescriptive criteria or the trade-off options.
5.2. Mandatory requirements

The mandatory requirements cover provisions for fenestration (air-to-air thermal
transmittance-U factors, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient-SHGC, and air leakage for fenestration
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C. KABRE
and doors), opaque construction (U-factors) and building envelope sealing (to minimize air
leakage).
The ECBC makes it mandatory that U-factors and SHGC shall be determined for the
overall fenestration product (including the sash and frame) in accordance with ISO-15099, by
an accredited independent laboratory, and labeled and certified by the manufacturer or other
responsible party. U-factors for sloped glazing and skylights shall be determined at a slope of
20 degrees above the horizontal.
Air leakage for glazed swinging entrance doors and revolving doors shall not exceed 5.0
l/s-m2. Air leakage for other fenestration and doors shall not exceed 2.0 l/s-m2. U-factors for
opaque construction shall be determined from the default tables given in Appendix 12 of
ECBC or determined from data or procedures contained in the ASHRAE Handbook [35].
The following areas of the enclosed building envelope shall be sealed, caulked, gasketed,
or weather-stripped to minimize air leakage:
a) Joints around fenestration and door frames,
b) Openings between walls and foundations and between walls and roof and wall
panels,
c) Openings at penetrations of utility services through, roofs, walls, and floors
d) Site-built fenestration and doors,
e) Building assemblies used as ducts or plenums, and
f) All other openings in the building envelope.
5.3. Prescriptive requirements

The prescriptive requirements (which are open to trade-offs with alternate paths of
compliance) cover requirements for roofs, opaque walls, vertical fenestration and skylights.
The code provides the requirements for roofs (Table 14) and opaque walls (Table 15) in terms
of maximum U-factors of the overall assembly and minimum R-values of insulation alone for
the five climate zones and two different building occupancy schedules (24-hour use and
daytime use only). There is also a requirement for a “cool roof” (initial solar reflectance of no
less than 0.70 and an initial emittance of no less than 0.75) for roofs with slopes of less than
20 degrees.
The ECBC provides the requirements for vertical fenestration (such as windows and glass
doors) in terms of maximum area weighted U-factors and maximum area weighted SHGC in
two categories: (1) window-to-wall ratios (WWR) of less than 40% and (2) WWR of between
40% and 60% (Table 16). There are certain minimum requirements for Visible Transmittance
(VT) of vertical fenestration as a function of the WWR (Table 17). Skylight requirements are
also provided in terms of maximum U-factors and SHGC for the five climate zones (Table
18). In addition, skylights cannot take up more than 5 percent of the gross roof area.
130
Table 14.Roof assembly U-factor and insulation R-value requirements, [24]

Climate Zone 24-Hour use buildings Daytime use buildings
hospitals, hotels, call centers other building types
Maximum U- Minimum R- Maximum U- Minimum R-
factor of the value of factor of the value of
overall insulation overall insulation
assembly alone assembly alone
(W/m2-°C) (m2-°C/W) (W/m2-°C) (m2-°C/W)
Composite U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Hot & dry U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Warm & humid U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Moderate U-0.409 R-2.1 U-0.409 R-2.1
Cold U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Table 15.Opaque wall assembly U-factor and insulation R-value requirements, [24]
Climate zone 24-Hour use buildings Daytime use buildings
hospitals, hotels, call centers other building types
Maximum U- Minimum R- Maximum U- Minimum R-
factor of the value of factor of the value of
overall insulation overall insulation
assembly alone assembly alone
(W/m2-°C) (m2-°C/W) (W/m2-°C) (m2-°C/W)
Composite U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Hot and Dry U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Warm & Humid U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Moderate U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Cold U-0.369 R-2.20 U-0.352 R-2.35
Table 16.Vertical fenestration U-factor (W/m2 K)and SHGC requirements, [24]

WWR ≤ 40% 40% < WWR ≤ 60%
Climate Zone Maximum U- Maximum SHGC
factor
Composite 3.30 0.25 0.20
Hot and Dry 3.30 0.25 0.20
Warm & Humid 3.30 0.25 0.20
Moderate 6.90 0.40 0.30
Cold 3.30 0.51 0.51
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Table 17.Minimum VT requirements, [24]

WWR Minimum VT
0-0.3 0.27
0.31-0.4 0.20
0.41-0.5 0.16
0.51-0.6 0.13
0.61-0.7 0.11
Table 18.Skylight U-factor and SHGC requirements (U-factor in W/m2 ºC), [24]
Maximum U-factor Maximum SHGC
Climate With Curb w/o curb 0-2% SRR 2.1-5% SRR
Composite 11.24 7.717 0.40 0.25
Hot & dry 11.24 7.717 0.40 0.25
Warm & Humid 11.24 7.717 0.40 0.25
Moderate 11.24 7.717 0.61 0.4
Cold 11.24 7.717 0.61 0.4
SRR= Skylight roof ratio which is the ratio of the total skylight area of the roof, measured to the
outside of the frame to the gross exterior roof.
5.4. Building envelope trade-off option

This is a system-based approach, where the thermal performance of individual envelope
components can be reduced if compensated by higher efficiency in other building
components (i.e. using higher wall insulation) could allow for a less stringent U-factor
requirement for windows or vice versa. The trade-off typically occurs within major building
systems – roofs, walls, fenestrations, overhangs etc. The building envelope complies with the
code if the building envelope performance factor (EPF) of the proposed design is less than
the standard design (which exactly complies with the prescriptive requirements). This method
offers the designers more flexibility than strictly following the prescribed values for
individual elements. The thermal performance of one envelope component such as the roof
can fail to meet the prescriptive requirements as long as other components perform better
than what is required. Trade-offs is permitted only between building envelope components. It
is not possible, for instance, to make trade-offs against improvements in the lighting or
HVAC systems. However, this makes using the envelope trade-off option more complicated
than the prescriptive method. It is necessary to calculate the surface area of each exterior and
semi-exterior surface; all areas must also be calculated separately for each orientation. The
equation used for calculating, whether a design using the trade-off options has a lower EPF
132
than the standard design, is documented in ECBC Appendix D. BEE is reviewing the
possibility of setting EPF coefficients based on climate zone.
6. Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) is the National Rating System of
India. It has been conceived by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) and developed
jointly with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India. It is a green
building 'design evaluation system', – a tool to design, operate, evaluate and maintain
resource efficient ‘healthy’ and ‘intelligent’ building and is suitable for all kinds of buildings
in different climatic zones of the country. It takes into account the provisions of the NBC, the
ECBC and other BIS codes, local bye-laws, other local standards and laws. The system, by its
qualitative and quantitative assessment criteria, would be able to ‘rate’ a building on the
degree of its ‘greenness’. The rating would be applied to new and existing building stock of
varied functions – commercial, institutional, and residential.
The rating criteria are categorized according to following four categories:
i. Site Selection and Site Planning, including conservation and efficient use of resources,
ii. Building planning and construction, including designing for efficient use of energy and
water, embodied energy use in the building materials and construction activities, use of
renewable or recycled materials, the reuse of water, waste management, health, well-
being, and
iii. Building operation and maintenance, including energy audits and validation, building
operations and maintenance, and
iv. Innovation covers up to four bonus points.
Table 19.Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) star certification
50 to 60 points
61 to 70 points
71 to 80 points
81 to 90 points
91 to 100 points
This rating system consists of 34 criteria, eight criteria are mandatory, four are partly mandatory, while
the rest are optional. Each criterion has a number of points assigned to it and all criteria total to 100 points
and 4 bonus points for innovation. The points are grouped into a five-star system. A project intending to
meet the criterion would qualify for the points and the points earned are grouped into a five star system of
certification, Tables 19 and 20.
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Table 19.Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA, [36])

Criteria Points
Criteria 1 Site Selection 1 Partly mandatory
Criteria 2 Preserve & protect landscape during 5 Partly mandatory
construction/compensatory forestation
Criteria 3 Soil conservation (post construction) 4
Criteria 4 Design to include existing site features 2 Mandatory
Criteria 5 Reduce hard paving on site 2 Partly
Criteria 6 Enhance outdoor lighting system efficiency 3
and use Renewable Energy system.
Criteria 7 Plan utilities efficiently and optimise on site 3
circulation efficiency
Criteria 8 Provide minimum level of sanitation/safety 2 Mandatory
facilities for construction workers
Criteria 9 Reduce air pollution during construction 2 Mandatory
Criteria 10 Reduce landscape water requirement 3
Criteria 11 Reduce building water use 2
Criteria 12 Efficient water use during construction 1
Criteria 13 Optimise building design to reduce 6 Mandatory
conventional energy demand
Criteria 14 Optimise energy performance of building 12
within specified comfort
Criteria 15 Utilisation of fly ash in building structure 6
Criteria 16 Reduce volume, weight and time of 4
construction by adopting efficient technology
Criteria 17 Use low-energy material in interiors 4
Criteria 18 Renewable energy utilization 5 Partly mandatory
Criteria 19 Renewable energy based hot water system 3
Criteria 20 Waste water treatment 2
Criteria 21 Water re-cycle & re-use (including rainwater) 5
Criteria 22 Reduction in waste during construction 2
Criteria 23 Efficient waste segregation 2
Criteria 24 Storage and disposal of waste 2
Criteria 25 Resource recovery from waste 2
Criteria 26 Use of low VOC paints/ adhesives/ sealants. 4
Criteria 27 Minimize ozone depleting substances 3 Mandatory
Criteria 28 Ensure water quality 2 Mandatory
Criteria 29 Acceptable outdoor and indoor noise levels 2
Criteria 30 Tobacco and smoke control 1
Criteria 31 Universal accessibility 1
Criteria 32 Energy audit and validation Mandatory
Criteria 33 Operations and maintenance protocol for 2 Mandatory
electrical and mechanical equipment
Total score 100
Criteria 34 Innovation (beyond 100) 4
104
134
8. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) India NC
The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) set up the LEED India Core Committee to focus
on indigenizing the LEED rating to suit the Indian context. The composition of the committee
included architects, realtors, building owners and industry representatives. The first LEED
India rating programme, referred to as LEED India version 1.0 was launched during the
Green Building Congress Conference in October 2006. This rating system is now called the
LEED India Green Building Rating System for New Construction and major renovations or
LEED India NC.
The LEED India is the indigenized version of the LEED rating system devised in the
United States and is administered by the IGBC under license agreement with the United
States Green Building Council. The LEED India is a voluntary, consensus –based, market-
driven environmental performance from a whole building perspective over a building’s life
cycle, providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a “green building.” The LEED
India rating system refers to local and national codes wherever available and to international
benchmarks in absence an Indian equivalent. It is a performance-oriented system where
credits are earned for satisfying criterion designed to address specific environmental impacts
inherent in the design and construction. The rating system is organised into five
environmental categories and an additional category addresses sustainable building expertise
as well as design measures not covered under the five environmental categories [37].
• Sustainable sites (maximum 13 points)
• Water efficiency (maximum 6 points)
• Energy & atmosphere (maximum 17 points)
• Material & resources (maximum 13 points)
• Indoor environment quality (maximum 15 points)
• Innovation in design (maximum 5 points)
Different levels of green building certification are awarded based on the total credits
earned. Certified equates to 26 to 32 points, silver rating equates to 33 to 38 points, Gold rating equates
to 39 to 51 points and Platinum rating equates to 52 to 69 points. The intent of LEED India NC is to
assist in the creation of high performance, healthful, durable, affordable and environmentally
sound commercial and institutional buildings.
9. Conclusions
Building energy efficiency standards are becoming significant all over the world. These
standards will improve the reliability of buildings and guarantee to reduce their
135
C. KABRE
environmental impact. The stakeholders will benefit from building energy efficiency
standards. The success of building energy efficiency standard lies in identifying and defining
performance criteria for the given climate, building type and technology. The Government of
India, research institutes, universities and building industries have been working towards
development of building energy efficiency standards since 1970. The National Building Code
(NBC) of India, the Handbooks of Functional Requirements of Buildings for industrial and
other than industrial buildings and other codes are primary standards of Bureau of Indian
Standards. The Energy Conservation Building Code heralded a new era of energy efficiency
standards in India. The national government or the states must adopt it as a mandatory
regulation. The industry led voluntary certification of the Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) India NC is in line with international standards. With
concerted domestic efforts and broad collaboration with international communities, India has
a great opportunity to help improve its building energy efficiency in the near future. The
information presented here further insinuates that fostering cooperation among the regulating
bodies and developing a national directory of building energy efficiency standards for ready
reference would entail better implementation or enforcement of the standards. All signs point
to the conclusion that building energy efficiency standards, particularly for non-residential
buildings, will play an increasingly significant role in the future of national and possibly
international energy-efficiency policies.
10. Acknowledgements
This paper is based on the author’s Ph.D. in the University of Queensland, Australia under
the supervision of Dr. Richard Hyde (presently Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Design
and Planning, University of Sydney) and Dr. S. V. Szokolay (Honorary reader, Department of
Architecture, University of Queensland). The Author thankfully acknowledges the
Government of India for nominating her for the Australian Development Cooperation
Scholarship (ADCOS) and the AusAID (Australian Agency for International Development)
for providing the scholarship for her Ph.D.
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138
Role of Building Energy Codes in the Energy Efficient Design of
Building Envelope
DEVGAN Seema1, JAIN Arvind Kumar2, BHATTACHARJEE Bishwajit2

1
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi, India
2
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
seema_84@hotmail.com, akjain@civil.iitd.ac.in, bishwa@civil.iitd.ac.in
Abstract. Building Energy Codes (BECs) have an important role in promoting energy
efficient design of buildings. Building envelope is a major contributor of the cooling and
heating load and hence building envelope criteria in BECs are aimed at reducing heat
gains/losses through the envelope and thereby reducing the energy used for space cooling and
heating. For tropical climates such as composite, hot-dry and warm-humid it has been
demonstrated that limiting the Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) of the building
envelope results in good correlation with reduced energy for space cooling and heating. In
contrast to this, the prescriptive criteria for the building envelope in Energy Conservation
Building Code (ECBC) of India, that limits the U-value of the wall and window constructions
does not always bring about energy efficient design of the building envelope.
1. Introduction
Buildings are dominant energy consumers in modern cities but their consumption can be
largely cut back by improving efficiency [1]. In more than seventy countries of the world,
government initiated control measures have been developed (or in process) to result in the
formulation of Building Energy Code(s) (BEC(s)) [2]. The basic functions of BEC(s) are to
raise concern and awareness of building energy conservation, promote energy-efficient
designs and their operation in buildings and define a baseline of energy performance.
According to Hui there is a lack of detailed technical knowledge about how BECs can
achieve their objectives and what measures are needed to improve them [3]. More research
studies are needed to provide systematic methods and data for evaluating building energy
S. DEVGAN, A. K. JAIN, B. BHATTACHARJEE
performance in order to strengthen the technical basis of BEC(s) and to help designers
achieve the efficiency goal.
Fig.1.Status of BEC(s) in 81 countries [2]
140
ROLE OF BUILDING ENERGY CODES IN THE ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN OF BUILDING…
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS), UK gives recommendations on the basic

structure of BECs, specific calculation structures and procedures, implementation and
enforcement, required performance levels, etc. [4]. RICS recommends that BECs should be
performance based and should take the form of an integrated energy calculation that includes
the demands generated by the building fabric and its occupants upon all the fixed building
services, and the performance of the systems that satisfy those demands. It should include all
energy supplies to the building. Many of these recommendations are not conclusive, are open
to debate and further development.
Although energy standard activities are frequently mentioned in the literature, the
standards themselves are rarely described in any detail. It is necessary to investigate what is
not so frequently questioned: Is the BEC suitable for the country’s climate for which it is
adopted and does the compliance with the BEC actually result in energy- efficient design of
buildings? Janda gives an update on the worldwide status of BEC(s) and points at an
international information gap surrounding the development, use and effectiveness of energy
standards, (Figure 1) [2]. The limited coverage of the literature on BEC(s) reflects
complexities inherent in analyzing both building energy use and building energy standards.
This poses serious barriers to building energy research and complicates the comparative
assessments of BEC(s). If there is greater access to the methodology, tools and information
used to formulate existing BEC(s), it would give countries without standards a basis to
choose between revising research and re-inventing it. Countries which have yet to adopt any
kind of BEC can learn from the experience of other countries with similar climates.
2. World scenario & types of building energy codes
Building energy codes are typically divided into sections dealing with building envelope,
HVAC systems, lighting, and hot water systems. Figure 2 gives the general framework of
BEC(s) [3]. A comprehensive energy code should include all these sections, though,
historically (and currently) many building energy regulations only address some of them. For
each of these there may be prescriptive and performance based requirements.
The prescriptive and the performance criteria combine in the BEC(s) in many variations,
relying on as many different approaches as there are countries. Largely, the prescriptive
criteria for building envelope are insulation based, specifying basic characteristics of the
envelope components such as maximum U-values of opaque walls or minimum R-value of
insulation alone, maximum U-values of window glass and maximum shading coefficient of
window glass. These criteria are simple to follow but may be too rigid and limiting for the
building designer. On the other hand, the performance criteria in BEC(s) provide that the
building demonstrates energy performance of the ‘whole’ building (even while the
prescriptive criteria are not being met). Generally, this requires the use of a building energy
simulation program. The major challenge in the performance based BEC is to balance
141
flexibility against complexity in the code. This requires careful consideration of the
compliance process and the proficiency of the local building industry. Verification is an
important component of the performance based approach because it will be necessary to
demonstrate that a particular building solution will meet a given performance criteria.
Fig.2.General framework of BEC(s) [3]

USA and Canada have been actively promoting an energy cost budget method to evaluate
the whole building’s energy performance. This is basically a method that compares annual
energy costs of the proposed building to a similar prototype or reference building, using
computer-based building energy simulation techniques. Some developing countries are also
trying to establish or revise their building energy codes using the performance approach. For
example, Singapore is developing a building energy performance standard using energy
analysis method. In general, the trend in the world for modern building energy codes is to
move towards a greater use of building energy simulation and modeling techniques to express
building energy performance. BEC(s) need to be flexible to adapt to dynamic conditions such
as technological advances. Largely, the performance approach is favored in literature.
In many countries with predominantly cooling based climates, OTTV or overall thermal
transfer value is used as part of the building ‘envelope’ energy code regulation. The use of
OTTV as a thermal performance index for the envelope of air-conditioned buildings
originated in 1975 by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning
142
Engineers (ASHRAE) [5]. Thereafter, many countries included assessment of OTTV in their
building energy codes. OTTV was considered a better performance index than thermal
transmittance (U-value) because it takes into account the impact of external climatic
conditions on the envelope of mechanically cooled buildings. With all other things being
equal, lowering the OTTV of a building should lead to less envelope heat gain and thus less
cooling energy use.
Despite this understanding of the OTTV concept for energy conservation on buildings,
ASHRAE ceased using OTTV in its Standard 90 since 1989 [6, 7]. However, the use of
OTTV in building energy codes continues outside the United States, including the BEC(s)
launched in the 1990s. Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Pakistan, etc. have
evolved OTTV based building energy codes for their climates and building types. Much
effort has also been made to enhance the method for OTTV calculation in Asia, more
significantly in Singapore, Hong Kong and Thailand. The concept and definition of OTTV
have been evolving with efforts to improve its application in building energy codes. The key
objective is to make OTTV an indicator of the impact of the envelope on the cooling energy
used in air-conditioned buildings. The details of OTTV formulation and proposed use of
OTTV for the BEC of India is described in a later section in this paper.
3. Energy performance of buildings
The study of the energy performance of buildings involves a series of intricately related
problems such as climatic conditions, heat transfer mechanism, human response, load
calculation, system design and energy estimation. There is no simple and definitive answer to
these problems and in order to develop a consistent and effective means for the analysis, these
should be studied carefully and understood in context of the country or region [3].
The building envelope is a critical component of any building, since it both protects the
building occupants and plays a major role in regulating the indoor environment. The building
envelope consists of the walls, windows, doors, roof, and floors. Large exposed or un-shaded
building envelope surfaces are a major contributor to the heating and cooling load of the
building. Despite the regulation on building ‘envelope’ in BEC(s) that limit solar gains, new
buildings are often conceived with large glazing areas, often as “all-glass” buildings, even in
very hot climates. The trend is similar in many countries with tropical climates where office
buildings with large glazing surfaces are becoming increasingly popular [8].
Predominantly, heat transfer takes place through each of the envelope components, into a
building in summer (when the outside temperature is higher) and out of it in winter (when the
outside temperature is lower). In an air-conditioned building, the three main heat flow paths
in the envelope are conduction through opaque wall and roof, conduction through window
glass and solar radiation gain through the window glass. The higher is the temperature
difference the greater is the flow of heat. In tropical climates, solar radiation is the
predominant source of heat gain. Passive solar design of the building envelope may provide
143
significant reductions in heating and cooling loads, which in turn can allow downsizing of
mechanical equipment. When insulation, thermal mass and shading characteristics of wall
and window surfaces are integrated through energy conscious design, the extra cost (if any)
for a high-performance envelope may be paid for through savings achieved by installing
smaller Heating Ventilation and Air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment. Building configuration
also has significant impacts upon the efficiency and requirements of the building envelope.
Careful study is required to arrive at a building footprint and orientation that work with the
building envelope to maximize energy benefit [9].
One of the most important factors affecting envelope design is climate. Hot-dry, warm-
humid, moderate, composite and cold climates would imply different design strategies.
Specific designs and materials can take advantage of or provide solutions for the given
climate. Another important factor in envelope design is what occurs inside the building. If the
activity and equipment inside the building generate a significant amount of heat, the thermal
loads may be primarily internal (from people and equipment) rather than external (from the
sun). This affects the rate at which a building gains or loses heat.
4. OTTV in building energy codes
OTTV is defined as a measure of heat transfer through the external envelope of a building
and can be expressed as Q/A per unit time. Figure 3 illustrates the three components of heat
transfer that are considered through the building envelope in the OTTV formulation. These
are:
• conduction through opaque walls,
• conduction through window glass and
• solar radiation through window glass.
• as walls at different orientation receive different amounts of solar radiation, the
general procedure is to calculate first the OTTV of “ith” individual walls with the
same orientation and construction [Eq. (1)], and then the OTTV of the whole exterior
wall is given by the weighted average of these values [Eq. (2)]:
OTTVi =
[(A
w ]
× U w × α × TDeq ) + (A f × U f × DT ) + (A f × SC × SF )
(1)
Ai
And,
OTTVwall =
∑ (OTTVi × Ai ) (2)
∑ Ai
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Alternatively, the above equation can be written in a compact form using the terms of
window to wall area ratio [WWR] [Eq. (3)]:
[ ] [ ] [
OTTVi = (1 − WWR ) × U w × α × TDeq + WWR × U f × DT + WWR × SC f × SF ( 3 ) ]
Fig.3.Heat transfer through the building envelope as Per OTTV formulation

Chou and Lee [10] defined OTTV as ‘the annual heat gain of the air-conditioned spaces in
a building from the envelope during both air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned periods,
averaged over the total air-conditioned hours throughout the year and normalised by the
envelope area enclosing such spaces,’ Eq. (4). This was based on the consideration that the
heat gain would ultimately contribute to the cooling load on air-conditioning systems.
Q
OTTVi = (
= [I × (1 − WWR )] + (I gci × WWR ) + I soli × WWR
(H × A) wci
)
( 4 ) There
have been various efforts to revise the OTTV equation so that good correlation with the
annual energy consumption of the buildings can be obtained (Turiel et. al. [11], Chow and
Lee [10], Chow and Chan [12], Chow and Chan [13], Chan and Chow [14], Lam [15], Chow
and Yu [16], Yu and Chow [17] and Chirarattananon and Taveekun [18]). These studies have
resulted in the country or climate specific OTTV formulation for different building types.
However, many of these efforts have the limitation of using a small data set of parametric
145
results to obtain different correlations with OTTV. OTTV is an index that takes into account
cumulative effect of many of the energy performance characteristics of the building envelope.
Many energy performance characteristics of the building envelope such as insulation, thermal
mass, solar shading of envelope surfaces, building configuration and orientation and other
factors affecting envelope performance such as climatic conditions and building type, its
occupancy and operation schedule are all accounted in the OTTV formulation.
Some of the countries which have evolved OTTV based building energy codes for their
climate and building types include Singapore (first adopted in 1979) [19a, 19b], Hong Kong
[20], Thailand [21], Sri Lanka [22] and Pakistan [23]. In these countries, high solar radiation
during the summer months is the main source of solar gains and also the reason for rising
daytime air temperatures. Predominantly, the winter season is either brief or mild and in some
cases totally absent. The OTTV based building energy codes of these countries differ from
each other based on their climatic and geographical location and also in the manner in which
the coefficients TDeq, DT and SF are derived.
In using OTTV as an indicator of the thermal performance of building envelopes, it is most
important to determine the coefficients, temperature difference equivalent for opaque wall
conduction (TDeq), temperature difference for window glass conduction (DT) and solar factor
for glass radiation (SF) of the OTTV equation. These coefficients address the interaction of
the building envelope properties with climate conditions and building operation schedule
[12]. The precise characteristics and implications of the OTTV depend on how these
coefficients are derived. For many of the OTTV based BEC(s) of countries like Singapore,
Hong Kong, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Pakistan etc. the precise methodology of obtaining the
OTTV coefficients is not widely reported in literature. A detailed comparison of these OTTV
codes is beyond the scope of this paper. However, based on available literature [19a, 19b, 20,
21, 22 and 23], Table 1 gives a brief comparison of OTTV requirements and coefficients for
the five countries and those derived for India [24]. The OTTV based standards of Singapore,
Hong Kong and Thailand (also Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines-not listed in Table 1)
have many similar features (such as OTTV limits, form of equation and parameters) as
development of the younger standards has been often influenced by the preceding ones and
all of them have used the ‘American technology’ or building energy simulation tools to set up
the basic OTTV equations [7]. It is interesting to note that some very recent BEC(s) e.g. of
Jamaica [25] and Egypt [26] have also adopted OTTV based approach for envelope
performance criteria. In these cases, more rigorous methods have been used for obtaining
OTTV coefficients as the tools available for parametric studies and simulation results have
also become more advanced in these years.
The greatest advantage of the OTTV index is that it can measure performance of a building
as a single numerical index, without the use of a simulation program. The predetermined
coefficients make the computation of OTTV index for any building in any of the climates
very easy as any architect or building designer can use it with a simple computer spreadsheet
program. OTTV is also a performance based index as it allows the building designer to make
trade-offs between different envelope parameters such as U-value of opaque wall (Uw), solar
146
absorptance of opaque wall surface (α), U-value of window glass (Uf), window to wall area
ratio (WWR) and shading coefficient of window glass (SC).
5. Indian scenario & OTTV for India
India has formulated a BEC in 2007, which is based on the lines of ASHRAE Standard 90.1
series, and California Title-24. The Indian BEC known as Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC) [27] has been launched by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of
Power, Government of India. The impact of ECBC and its potential for lowering energy
consumption in buildings is not known yet.
ECBC [27] specifies prescriptive requirements for the individual components of the
building envelope such as roofs, opaque walls, vertical fenestrations and skylights. For roofs
and opaque walls, the prescriptive requirements limit the maximum U- value or minimum R-
value for 24-hour use buildings and day-time use buildings for five climate zones of India-
composite, hot-dry, warm-humid, moderate and cold. Table 2 depicts the opaque wall
assembly U-value and R-value requirements for the 5 climate zones and 2 types of building
usage. It may be noted that the U-value and R-value criteria in ECBC [27] do not vary for the
three characteristically different climates-composite, hot-dry and warm-humid. Table 3
depicts the vertical fenestration (window glass) U-value and SHGC requirements (for two
ranges of WWR) for the five climate zones. It is interesting to note here again that the U-
value and SHGC requirements for window glass do not change in the three climates. In this
case, there is also no differentiation for the building type.
Unlike the OTTV approach, the prescriptive criteria in the ECBC approach does not
require any calculations and the architect or building designer simply needs to comply with
the individual limits set for the envelope components such as roofs, walls, windows and
skylights. The OTTV approach [24] differs significantly from the ECBC [27] which uses the
‘component approach’ in its building envelope prescriptive criteria. OTTV approach is an
envelope performance based criteria which correlates net heat flow through the building
envelope per unit area and unit air-conditioning hours. ECBC also includes an envelope
performance based criteria referred as the ‘Envelope trade-off option’. Compliance with the
Envelope trade-off option in ECBC is demonstrated if the ‘Envelope Performance Factor’
(EPF) of the proposed design is less than the standard design, where the standard design
exactly complies with the envelope prescriptive criteria in ECBC. EPF coefficients have been
listed for five climate zones of India-composite, hot-dry, warm-humid, moderate and cold and
different values of U-factor and Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) have been suggested for
mass walls, curtain walls, roofs, north windows, non-north windows and skylights. Since the
methodology for obtaining these EPF coefficients could not be found, it is beyond the scope
of this study to comment on the basis and validation of the ‘Envelope trade-off option’ in
ECBC [27].
147
Table 1.Comparison of predetermined OTTV coefficients of different countries

Climate Singapore Hong Thailand Sri Lanka Pakistan India
Kong
Source [19a, 19b] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]
Solar No Yes No Yes No Yes
absorptance
included in wall
conduction
component
Glass Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
conduction
component
included
TDeq for walls (12) Single (Range 1.7 (13.46) (19.3) Single (30.5 to 52.5)
(oC) value for to 7.5) Different Single value for Table of values
all types of Table of value value for all for three
walls & values for 5 depending all types of orientations climates &
orientations different on building walls & given as a specified for 16
densities & type orientations function of orientations & a
specified the weight small negative
for 16 of the wall coefficient as a f
orientations (U *α)2 (-4.5to–
5.75)
independent of
orientation
DT for windows (3.4) N/A (4.47) (3.6) Difference (10.5, 14.5 &
(oC) of interior 15.5) Different
& exterior values for each
design of 3 climates &
conditions a small negative
specified coefficient as a f
for 12 cities (Uf)2(–0.69to–
1.04)
independent of
orientation
SF for windows (211) (Range 104 (172.9) (186) (Range 104 (92 to 263)
(W/m2) Single to 202) to 561) Table of values
value. Table of Table of for 16
Correction values for values for 8 orientations for
factor(CF) 16 orientations each of 3 climate
specified orientations for each of zones
for 8 5 climate
orientations zones
for 11 pitch
angle of
walls
148
ECBC [27] provides an option of ‘Whole Building Performance Method’ in case a

building is unable to comply with the prescriptive criteria. However, in this case the
compliance of the proposed building design can only be demonstrated with the use of energy
simulation program. Based on the simulation guidelines provided in ECBC, the energy
consumption of the proposed building design is simulated and compared with the energy
consumption of a ‘Standard design’ and compliance is shown if the energy consumption of
the proposed building design is lower than the energy consumption of the ‘standard design’
building. This approach is not comparable with the OTTV approach for two reasons. Firstly,
the ‘Whole building performance method’ involves the performance of the building envelope,
lighting, HVAC system, service hot water and miscellaneous loads, thus allowing trade-off
between the individual performances of different components of the building, though; OTTV
is the performance of the building envelope alone and hence suited for maximum
enhancement of the energy efficiency of building envelope. Secondly, compliance with the
OTTV approach can be demonstrated with a use of a simple computer spreadsheet program,
unlike the ‘Whole building performance method’, where it is necessary to use an energy
simulation tool. Hence, OTTV approach should be compared with the ‘Envelope prescriptive
criteria’ of ECBC (2007) [27] alone and not with the ‘Envelope trade-off option’ and ‘Whole
building performance method’.
Although energy simulation is identified as a high priority activity by those who promote
ECBC in India, greater efforts are needed and in fact directed towards raising awareness
about ECBC itself or the need for energy conservation in buildings. Human resource capacity
constraint has been identified as one of the main barriers to design and construct ECBC
compliant buildings in India. USAID ECO-III Building Energy Simulation Capacity
Development Project, initiated in India, envisions capacity building of working professionals
to perform comprehensive energy simulation to achieve energy efficiency in buildings. Given
the fact that India is way behind its immediate neighboring countries like Pakistan and Sri
Lanka as far as building energy code initiative is concerned, it would be worthwhile to use
simplified tools till the time proficiency in simulation methods is achieved at a large scale.
This also justifies the need for developing an OTTV based approach for Indian climates [24].
The insulation based prescriptive criteria in ECBC can be looked at critically. In the
context of warm tropical and sub-tropical climates, the study by Lam et al. [28] and Radhi
[29] are some pointers to the limitations of the role of thermal insulation in conserving energy
consumption for cooling in air-conditioned buildings. A recent study by Masoso and Grobler
[30] has challenged the well-established knowledge that the lower the U-value of a wall, the
lower the annual energy consumption of the heating and cooling systems. However, this is
not always the case. From the findings of a case study with building simulation using
EnergyPlus dynamic thermal simulation software Masoso and Grobler [30] have
demonstrated that there is a point where due to a combination of the cooling set-point
temperature and internal gains, the building switches from “the lower the U-value the better”
to “the higher the U-value the better”. This point is named by them as “point of thermal
inflexion”. Exact characterization of this point is a matter of ongoing research.
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Table 2.Opaque wall assembly U- value and insulation R- value requirements in ECBC [27]
Hospitals, Hotels, Call Centers (24- Other Building Types
Hour usage) (Day-time usage)
Climate Zone Maximum U- Minimum R-value Maximum U- Minimum R-value
value of the of insulation alone value of the of insulation
overall assembly (m2K/W) overall alone
(W/m2K) assembly
(m2K/W)
(W/m2K)
Composite 0.440 2.10 0.440 2.10
Hot- Dry 0.440 2.10 0.440 2.10
Warm- Humid 0.440 2.10 0.440 2.10
Moderate 0.431 1.80 0.397 2.00
Cold 0.369 2.20 0.352 2.35
Table 3.Vertical fenestration U-value and SHGC requirements in ECBC [27]

WWR= 40% 40%<WWR≤60%
Climate Zone Maximum U- Maximum SHGC Maximum SHGC
value (W/m2-
K)
Composite 3.30 0.25 0.20
Hot- Dry 3.30 0.25 0.20
Warm- Humid 3.30 0.25 0.20
Moderate 6.90 0.40 0.30
Cold 3.30 0.51 0.51
While the OTTV coefficients were obtained for three climates [24], the ECBC criteria have
been outlined for five climate zones of India (Composite, Hot- Dry, Warm- Humid, Moderate
and Cold). The Moderate and Cold climates were not considered because the building
envelope in these climates does not contribute to any significant air-conditioning cost.
Broadly, the OTTV approach and ECBC approach can be compared by correlating the
ECBC compliance in case study buildings with the simulated annual space cooling and
heating energy use [31]. This would suggest whether ECBC [27] building envelope criteria
have positive correlation with annual space cooling and heating energy use or whether
compliance with the ECBC approach results in lowering of the annual space cooling and
heating energy use. The space cooling and space heating energy consumption is dependent on
150
the cooling load due to heat transfer from the building envelope, heating load due to heat
losses from the building envelope, internal loads from lighting, equipment, processes and
occupants. For the parametric studies, since the envelope properties have been varied in each
consecutive run, the annual space cooling and heating energy in each 764 parametric cases
must correlate well with OTTV obtained from predetermined coefficients (as shown in Figure
4) for each parametric case for all four case study buildings in the composite climate [24].
100
Energy/Building Floor Area (kWh /m2)
80
Annual Space Cooling & Heating
60
40 y = 0.23x + 25.41
R = 0.92
20 OTTV from Predetermined Coefficients-Composite Climate

- 4 Case Study Buildings- 764 Parametric Runs (W/m2)
0
0 50 100 150 200
Fig.4.Correlation of OTTV from predetermined coefficients and annual space cooling and heating
energy use - composite climate [24]
Similar correlation between OTTV and annual space cooling and heating energy was also
obtained for hot- dry and warm- humid climates also. The linear relationship between OTTV
and annual space cooling and heating energy use per unit floor area of the buildings (in
Figure 4) indicates that OTTV can be used as an index to regulate space cooling and heating
energy. The building volume to surface area and envelope area characteristics of the four case
study buildings differs from one another [24]. While the OTTV from predetermined
coefficients is computed per unit envelope area; the annual space cooling and heating energy
is computed per unit building floor area. The reason for computing the annual space cooling
and heating energy per unit floor area are:
• The internal loads component in the space cooling and heating energy is a function
of per unit floor area of the building and is unaffected by the envelope area and,
151
• Air-conditioned buildings would differ in volume to surface area and envelope

area but because the floor-to-floor height is mostly similar, unit floor area basis
represents the actual air- conditioned space in the building.
Using the same energy simulation results of the parametric runs of one of the four case
study buildings [31], ECBC compliant wall constructions were examined with the
corresponding annual space cooling and heating energy. For different values of wall solar
absorptance, the correlation between annual space cooling and heating energy and Uw is very
poor (R= 0.14) for the composite climate as depicted in Figure 5. Also, Figure 6 depicts that
the annual space cooling and heating energy was found to have very poor correlation (R=
0.73) with the U- value of window glass (Uf) with different values of shading coefficients
(SC) for Composite climate. Similar findings were also obtained for hot- dry and warm-
humid climates also. However, annual space cooling and heating energy was found to have
very good correlation (R= 0.99) with SC of glass with different values of Uf in all three
climates [31].
34.5
Energy/ Building Floor Area (kWh/m2)
34.0
Annual Space Cooling & Heating
33.5
33.0
32.5
32.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
U- Value of Opaque Walls (Uw)
(W/m2-oC)
Fig.5.Correlation of annual space cooling and heating energy vs. ECBC compliant opaque wall
constructions (uw ≤ 0.44 w/m2-°c) - building 'a'- composite climate [31]
152
34
Annual Space Cooling and Heating Energy
33.5
y = 0.95x + 30.24
R = 0.73
33
/Building Floor Area
(kWh/m2)
32.5
32
31.5
31
30.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
U- value of Glass-Uf
(W/m2-oC)
Fig.6.Correlation of annual space cooling and heating energy vs. ECBC compliant window glass u-
value (uf ≤ 3.3 w/m2-°c and shgc ≤0.25) - building 'b'- composite climate [31]
6. Conclusion
The OTTV approach is more sensitive to climate variations and the building type and
operation schedule. The OTTV approach gives greater flexibility to the architect or building
designer in deciding the opaque wall constructions and the specifications of the window
glass. The ECBC approach limits the choice of these constructions by limiting the maximum
U- values for opaque walls and windows and the SHGC for windows. While it has been
validated that limiting the OTTV results in energy efficient design of the building envelope,
similar validation is yet to be obtained for ECBC prescriptive criteria.
Appropriate OTTV limit may be fixed in the BECs depending on the OTTV characteristics
of the climate type. The percentage of envelope contribution in the annual space cooling and
heating energy use and target value of annual energy consumption would affect the choice of
the OTTV limit in the three climates.
153
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155
Benchmarking - As a Tool for Sustainable Buildings
BANTANUR Shaila, MUKHERJEE Mahua, SHANKAR R.

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
architectshaila@yahoo.com, mahua1965@gmail.com, shardfap@iitr.ernet.in
Abstract. Sustainable development refers to the use of appropriate technology by using the
available resources that meets the present needs without compromising the ability of the
future generations. There are many concepts evolved to achieve sustainable built
environment, like-zero energy buildings, energy efficient buildings, green architecture and
passive architecture. To achieve the goals of sustainable buildings we need to develop tools
which will help us to measure sustainability. Benchmarking of building is one such tool for
monitoring its performance as well as assessing its relative performance by comparing it to
that of other known buildings. Benchmarking is one such process of creating a whole
building energy consumption profile of a group of buildings characterized by their primary
use, construction, physical, geographic and operating characteristics. The paper highlights the
concept of benchmarking, its types, and methodology along with some studies. The paper
also discusses the international and national approach to the bench marking system.
1. Introduction
As the building construction move towards sustainability and environment friendly design, it
is becoming increasingly important that professionals engaged in the building industry have
to have managerial tools and methodologies to improve their performance. The performance
concept in building and construction had been practiced in some measure, and in very
specific situations, even before it came to be formally known as “the performance approach”.
The earliest, and most often repeated, example is the requirement that a house should not
collapse and kill anybody in the Hammurabi Code (circa 1950 to 1910 BC). The concept is
also reflected in the early architectural philosophy of the Romans, as described in Vitruvius’s
landmark “The Ten Books of Architecture”. Performance based building spans the whole life
of the building. It is applicable to cover different levels of the physical elements of a building
(from performance of individual products or elements to performance of the whole building)
S. BANTANUR, M. MUKHERJEE, R. SHANKAR
and can accommodate a large set of attributes. Performance measurement and benchmarking
are two such important tools, which can assist companies to realize the benefits of green
construction. Energy Benchmarking and performance based rating establish the targets for the
buildings. It helps to constantly improve the standards through healthy competition by
shifting markets that better performing levels [1].
2. Green and sustainable development
The term “Green” and “Sustainable” designs are often used interchangeably. Sustainable
construction not only refers to the buildings and spaces themselves but also the processes or
activities used to construct them. It also includes the infrastructure elements such as waste
management transportation, water management, energy management and utility transmission
system put in place to serve the building space. This interaction of man-made surroundings
and human activities that take place in them and the environment in which they reside is
known as the “built environment”. There are also certain themes such as – design for
minimum waste, less construction, preservation, and enhancement of bio-diversity, and
respect for the people and their local environment which also leads to green building
construction [2]. “Our common future”, released in 1987 by the UN world commission on
environment and development coined the term “Sustainable development” [3] (Brundtland
Report, 1987). This made the people aware of the term sustainability and its importance for
future life. Green movement started further in many industries. The construction industry is
one of the major energy consuming sectors which need to give serious thought. Many
companies nowadays are trying hard to get their structures certified. There are many rating
systems available the world over namely Leadership in Energy and Environment Design
(LEED), LEED India, Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA India),
Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment Method (BREEM UK),
Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (CASBEE
Australia), and LEED Canada etc. These certifications show that they have addressed the
environment impact of a building.
Over all, sustainable construction also seeks to decrease or prevent pollution such as waste
materials, emission from vehicles, noise, and release of contaminants to the atmosphere
ground and water. Sustainable construction not only meets local goals but also has a global
dimension.
2.1. What is Benchmarking of buildings?

Benchmarking started in the early 1980s when Xerox developed a program to establish the
performance goals for all of their performed tasks in order to have better quality products
they called this the “benchmarking” of their company [4]. Today, there is a need for all
companies (including the building industry) to benchmark their performance in order to know
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BENCHMARKING - AS A TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS
how well they are performing compared to other companies. It is a method of improving the
performance in a systematic and logical way by measuring and comparing your performance
against others, and then using lessons learned from the best to make targeted improvement
[5]. These days this is a widely used tool to improve the building performance. Basically it
answers the questions like “who does it best”, “how do we compare” and “what do they do
that we could also do?”
Benchmarking as a tool of performance is used by many sectors such as in business,
industries like chemical, food, automobile, etc. Recently, even in building industry people
have started using this tool to achieve sustainable development. Hasan proposed three steps
towards using this system that are based on sustainability principles, define and rank the
values of a building, establish partnerships with outside building research sources that
endorse sustainability principles and lastly adopt a procedure that ensures a comprehensive
comparison [6].
2.2. Why benchmarking?

Benchmarking can help us to understand and to reduce the energy use of a building. It serves
as a powerful trigger for energy use improvement by providing objective, reliable information
on energy use and the benefits of improvements; it regularly prompts building owners and
designers to take action. It also provides to the nation building energy data which helps in
policy level planning.
2.2.1. Requirements for benchmarking
Benchmarking system requires a more transparent and higher quality data collection which
provides a baseline for comparison and to elaborate the monitoring and evaluation procedures
for policy impacts. To establish the system two tasks are essential; firstly developing a survey
tool and a reference database and secondly, developing the web based interface portfolio
manager tool and a program database that stores the individual building data.
2.2.2. Essential features of benchmarking system

Benchmarking system basically comprises four main features as mentioned below [7]:
• A reference data base; that provides benchmark ranges for actual energy by a
particular building type (eg. office, school, bank).
• The data would be updated for a five year cycle.
• A Portfolio manager and series of algorithms that uses building data submitted
through the tool to compare an individual building with a statistically significant
set of similar buildings.
• A program database that stores the individual building data submitted to the
benchmarking system.
• An automated data submission system.
159
2.2.3. Advantages of benchmarking system
Successful implementation of the system will not only lead to environmental but also
economic benefits. The environmental benefits are;
• Creation of owner /designer awareness of energy use.
• Provision of critical base knowledge for governments to measure energy savings
and CHG emissions from the buildings.
• Provision of a mechanism for evaluating continuous improvement.
• Provision of a common platform for multiple market transformation tools (codes,
programs, policies).
Economically, the system could enable verifiable assertions about the increased market
value of energy-efficient green building.
3. Overview of International and Indian initiatives
The United Kingdom (UK) has detailed a set of benchmarks developed in various
government programmes since the 1970’s (carbon trust). A closer examination of UK
benchmark reveals that they practice it in three levels such as - simple Benchmarks (level 1),
corrected Benchmarks (level-2), and customized Benchmarks (level-3). For the simpler and
more standard buildings generally Level 1 and Level 2 benchmarks are used, and for more
complex buildings Level 3 benchmarks are used. Level 3 benchmarks may be difficult to
integrate into statutory repeatable procedure. Depending on the complexity of the projects
these benchmarks are used.
The above charts (Figure 1 and 2) show a building’s actual carbon dioxide emissions in
comparison with fixed typical and good practice benchmarks appropriate to the building with
level 2 approach. The emissions from a special energy use are identified by measurement and
deducted from the total emissions before making the benchmark comparisons. Figure 3
includes benchmarks built up from each of the energy end uses occurring separately assuming
typical and good practice of energy efficiency.
Fig.1.Simple benchmarks Fig.2.Corrected benchmarks
160
Fig.3.Customized, benchmarks
Source: EP Label Benchmark Report
In the United States, the Secretary of the United States Department of Energy (DOE) is
responsible for selecting or developing a building energy use benchmarking system and for
issuing guidance for use of the system. DOE has selected the Energy Star Portfolio Manager
Tool for the benchmarking system. DOE has selected Portfolio manager as a tool to assess the
performance of a building. The Energy Star approach to the functions of Benchmarking is
straightforward; they have developed a limited set data for each building which is entered into
an online interface tool called Portfolio Manager. The tool itself establishes a benchmark for
the building.
India’s building and construction sector has seen unprecedented growth post liberalization
circa 1991. Print and motion media explosions around the same time exposed the entire
population to western lifestyles and trends including those of architecture and design. A
resulting spurt in commercial and residential building types constructed in a distinct western
style with an absolute disregard to context and climatic conditions led to a steady increase in
building energy consumptions. The building trends ever since, have involved the use of high
embodied energy materials such as aluminum and steel, extensive external glazing systems,
leading to increased heat gains and consequently use of extensive refrigeration based space-
conditioning systems, electrical appliances etc. To cater to the increased demand for such
equipments in the increasing urban settlements, more industries were set up to manufacture
and provide such appliances etc. Increasing travel time due to increased fringe development
and satellite towns led to a sudden explosion in the transport sector as well, with unparalleled
growth in the automobile sector and increased demand for petroleum and diesel. The current
state of an overburdened energy infrastructure may be traced using the same route (Figure 4).
The Benchmarking System along with the energy rating has started with the formation of a
technical committee in 2008 (ECO project was signed in 2000 between USAID and
Government of India), which has been followed by several efforts such as data collection and
launching the energy star rating system. In 2010, system level data collection and
benchmarking system was introduced.
161
Fig.4.Electricity Scenario in India (2007-2008)

Source: Central Electricity Authority's 'Year End Review 2007-08'
In India basically Benchmarks are done at two levels such as (USAID ECO-III)
- At building level benchmarks are less costly
• Energy consumption/employee in an office
• Energy consumption/bed in hospital
• Energy consumption/room in hotel.
-At system level benchmarks are more costly and data intensive
• Lighting system: 5 W/m2
• Equipment power: 10 W/m2
• HVAC system: 50 m2/ton of refrigeration: 25 W/m2
Fig.5.Performance rating (Building Performance Index)

Source: USAID-Eco-III report
162
So far in India, concerned Benchmarks were used for Hotels, hospitals and commercial
buildings (Figure 5).
The study reveals that there is still need to undertake more work on the methodology of the
benchmarking system; also a lot of research is needed on the working methodology and detail
data input. Different countries are adopting different methods; depending on the context there
is a need to adopt a suitable methodology.
4. Observations and recommendations
• India still needs to define the relevant tools which will further help in energy
saving and cost effectiveness.
• There is a need do conduct several surveys on structures of different uses and
prepare the data set which will give the details of energy uses and help to
benchmark them.
• Building awareness among people about different effective tools to measure
sustainability is necessary especially for the developers and stakeholders.
• Benchmarking is an effective tool to measure the performance of a building which
needs to be integrated with the energy rating.
• There is a need to carry the research and technological solution for the different
working methodologies and solutions.
5. Conclusions
The range of problems prevalent in India in the building sector clearly establishes the need
for Benchmarking. Benchmarking can be a useful mechanism to help each level to reduce
energy consumption. Governments will need to develop suitable sustainability-based
benchmarking framework for assessing the relative performance of utilities, which in turn
would facilitate efficient practices towards sustainable development.
References
1. Abbott Strategies. (2002). Sustainability Initiatives Benchmarking Report. Office of Sustainability

and Environment, City of Seattle.
2. http://www.eugris.info/displayresource.asp?ResourceID=4660&
163
4. Camp, R. C. (1989). Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practice. ASQC Press, New
York.
5. www.secbe.org.uk/market_information/sector_reports
6. Hasan, M. N. & Hezri, A. (2006). Natural Resources Forum 30(1), February, 37–50.
7. http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/cem-cme/1810.
164
ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Sustainability, Architecture and Design

Ulrich Nether
Passive Solar Concepts for Energy Efficient

Building Design
Karamjit Singh Chahal, Sandeep Dua
Energy Efficient Building Design Considerations for

Tropical Regions of India
Pankaj Chhabra
Green Building as an Approach towards Energy

Conservation: A Review
Pawan Kumar Rose, Rani Devi, Kiran Rose
Promoting Sustainable Architecture through Innovative

Green Building Solutions
Jit Kumar Gupta, Ajay Monga
Zero Energy Buildings: A Cost Effective Solution

N. K. Ojha, Sarika Vohara
Lighting as a Tool to Mitigate Carbon Dioxide

Emissions: A Carbon Neutral Approach
Ranee Vedamuthu, Jayaram Jeyaradha
165
Sustainability, Architecture and Design
NETHER Ulrich
Hochschule Ostwestfalen- Lippe, Detmold, Germany
ulrich.nether@hs-owl.de
1. Introduction
Sustainability is defined as “the capacity to endure” that is based on the following factors:
ecological, economical, social and cultural impact. All these aspects are necessary to take into
consideration, if anything, a building, design or context is to be evaluated in relation to its
level of sustainability. Another aspect of definition and evaluation is that one has to consider
sustainability at different levels such as local, regional, national and global. It doesn’t matter
if it is about designing an object’s packaging or worldwide logistics system; sustainability
and lasting evaluation always are a comprehensive whole. Architecture has always been
holistic in self-conception. Vitruvius, the father of architectural criticism, postulated: “Deus
architectus mundi, architectus secundus deus est”– God is the architect of the world, so the
architect is another God [1]. While, in historical terms, architecture as the Mother of Arts had
included all disciplines of sculptural compositions and constructional engineering, the
division in different disciplines is contemporary. The differentiation is owing to today’s
complexity of knowledge and processes. Architecture creates buildings which are located at a
certain place and are related to it, tending to be local and mostly unique. On the other hand,
products are everywhere. They are global and tend to be standardized and mass produced.
This forms the basic distinguishing factor between the two disciplines, architecture, on the
one hand, perceived as mostly fixed prototype construction by its nature, and design, on the
other, as an eternal producer of mobile, prefabricated objects. Similarities and parallels are to
be found in the process of development. The essential connection between architecture and
design is their correlated influence and their many dependencies. A number of architectural
components are also design products. Architecture is determined by prefabricated elements -
from brick and tile to lamp or armchair. Together with architecture, design serves humans
and their environment. It is the designer’s task to open up possible uses for the world
surrounding us and to develop universal statements thereof. In so far the disciplines may and
should benefit from each other: design may learn from the requirements, which are claimed
U. NETHER
by architecture, whilst architecture can profit from the knowledge about generality and
functionality from design. An approach that combines architecture with design will be more
sustainable because it will be more methodical, more effective and more global, likewise,
when design gets linked to architecture, the former will tend to be more humane (based on
use) and more local. Therefore, it would not be incorrect to assert that the connection between
these two disciplines will lead to sustainable design.
2. Design strategies in commission of sustainability
“In an age of mass production when everything must be planned and design, design has
become the most powerful tool with which man shapes his tools and environment (and, by
extension, society and himself)” [2]. Nature is all we have: light, water, wind, earth, fire,
plants, animals - our resources, our material. All that we produce consists of transformed
nature since everything we do in construction, visual arts, design and architecture is to
transform what nature gives us. The objects and areas we create can be understood as
instruments - they serve us to fulfill a purpose. In the course of history of our civilization,
these tools became more and more complex, from the hatchet as the prototype of all tools to
the notebook or the smart phone, instruments of contemporary times. The complexity of the
objects and the necessary specialization in their production does not permit us to nowadays to
appreciate the origin of these things as well as the effort that goes into the essential
preparation and accordingly we dissociate ourselves from the nature of things. To be able to
give a professional opinion on design we have to fully comprehend the following aspects:
what is the origin of the materials? In which way they have been transformed? How much
effort does it require? What are consequences likely to be?
While the ways and the processes from the tree to the chair are still recognizable and
associatively related in most cases, the chipboard indicates its origin and the effort of its
production only to those associated closely with its manufacture. Scarcely anybody is able to
comprehend at the mere sight of the body of a sports car the way the material from the ore
mine is involved in its manufacture. Indeed, it is almost impossible to imagine when
surrounded by the shining and flashing interiors of the same sports car or the marvelously
flexible office chair that these are formed out of a black and sticky liquid, which is of natural
origin, but through deformation by nature has become a material hostile to life. Thus, we no
longer conceptually associate the materials raised from mineral oil with nature which
generated them (and which preventively stores them in the depths of the earth). These
materials known as “synthetics” are perhaps the best representatives of cultural progress - the
overcoming of nature, not tied up by humans to be shape-able in all conceivable forms,
colours and features.
At the same time, we seem to have forgotten that manufacturing processes inherently
involve pollutants, of which oil pollution forms a major component that remains a constant
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SUSTAINABILITY, ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
despite transformative changes. The consequence of this missing consciousness is that the
pollution/rubbish does not disappear in the course of time, like natural remains or processes
of nature, but requires further action. The inevitable consequence is large volumes of rubbish
in the form of plastic waste that occupies an area in the Pacific that is twice that of Germany
causing effects that are unpredictable. These are the result of our way of life, our moral
values, and our culture. The pertinent question is how we want to live in the future? We are
aware of the waste problem, Carbon-dioxide emission and global warming on one hand and
the scarcity of resources on the other hand. Then there are global human-caused
environmental crises like the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 and the nuclear crisis in
Fukushima. To talk about the future of design, we need to ask: what paradigms do we have in
our culture?
It is a matter of sustainability, about holistic thinking and acting. As long as we just take a
simple look at the situation, it will not more than fractionally influence culture - at best,
effects are being reflected: architectural visions illustrate green cities, cinematic portrayal
shows the world in the image of an “unbraked ride” into the inevitable catastrophe or into a
high-tech consumer society, that disregards the conceivable consequences of the current
scenario. In any case, the future will also be a question of design or even essentially a
question of design.
Meanwhile, large sections of society know about the necessity of acting. There are already
concepts and proposals that exist for society to act upon:
• “Classical” Recycling accepts our way of living and producing completely and just
tries to heal wounds.
• “Aesthetic” Motivated upcycling (reuse design) creates pictures and provokes and
stimulates thinking.
• “Holistic” Reuse design gives a second life to the objects but also accepts and tries to
optimise with a minimal effort, our scrap until we might change producing and
consumption processes.
Considering nature and history, another step suggests itself, comprehending production in
a way that no more waste accrues. “Waste is a mistake of Design” has become an appropriate
dictum in this context. “Cradle-to-Cradle” (C2C) is modeled on nature and its closed circuit;
it attempts to harmonize the economic paradigm of progressive growth and increasing
consumption with sustainability. The founders of this certification system, chemist Michael
Braungart and architect William Mc Donough compared production and consumption with
natural cycles and suggested two different cycles for all products, the biological cycle for
products of consumption and the technical cycle for products of service [3]. All parts,
elements and materials brought into the cycles are nutrients that should never get lost -
defining eco-effectiveness like nature effectiveness. So, the certification is working in the
direction of production as a “perpetuum mobile”. Cradle-to Cradle is a conceptual and
technical way of looking for future production. The answer to the question, if it is a holistic-
sustainable solution, remains open. Reviewers have criticised the relevance of assessing
169
U. NETHER
whether the fabric used to upholster airline seats fulfil the claim of C2C, even as the other 98
percent of the aircraft components do not fulfil it.
All these listed efforts refer to the consumer society of western civilization that is
increasingly finding a place in non western societies also. Therefore, in the affluent classes of
most societies, the purpose of life is consumption and property, motivated by economic
interests. Nevertheless, such an idealized lifestyle remains inaccessible for the majority of
people who have very different needs in the daily struggle, in finding their way between their
indigenous culture and the one mentioned above. This leads to another form of recycling and
reuse, which reclaims everything, that offers the opportunity to survive. The slums in many
parts of the world are exclusively built of reused elements, often relying solely on scrap,
ad hoc in nature, mostly improvised, at the same time they are also increasingly serving as
business models for the exploitation of already used products. Lamps and daylight directing
elements are made of plastic bottles, bowls and vessels of old sheet metal can be cited as an
example.
The products arise from needs in a vital bricolage of the first findings that come along,
neither are they the result of a long phase of planning nor of shaping with another intended
use. The non-international and spontaneous development that results from current
requirement inspires design to forge into new directions: In the foreground stands the
process. Ultimately, design is not allowed to create products, but rather it has to incorporate
the systems behind the products. The theoretical foundations of a sustainable design approach
were evolved in 1977 based on the “Normative Criteria for a New Design” by the Swiss
sociologist Lucius Burckhardt:
“Ask for each product:
a) Is it made out of raw materials which are won without suppression?
b) Is it produced in sensible, undivided operations?
c) Is it usable often?
d) Is it long-lasting?
e) In which state we throw it away, and what becomes out of it then?
f) Does it make the user dependent of central care or services, or can it be used
decentralised?
g) Does it privilege the user, or does it stimulate to commonness?
h) Is it freely eligible, or does it force to other purchases?”[4]
In his eminent essay, “Design is Invisible”, Burckhardt verbalized the fundamental
problem of design that it only attended to the item:
“While I complain that my electric onion-slice-machine which saves me one minute to
chop an onion, but needs another 10 minutes to be cleaned, I have not in sight the return to
the ordinary kitchen knife, but the design of an onion machine-cleaning device.” And further,
“This kind of problem solution has its cause in the designers’ position within the decision
groups: As an idea supplier who is relieved from responsibility.” [5]
170
Canadian designer, Bruce Mau elaborates this concept with his “Institute without
Boundaries” and works at an ethical design education. He formulates the following:
“We aim to create:
• New design models that are collaborative and consider the ecology, social equity,
cultural values and economic properties of the world;
• A vision that affirms the possibility of developing healthy and creatively
interactive relationships between the natural environment and human settlements,
and;
• An affirmative design agenda that encourages us to fashion beautiful, holistic
environments for all constituents.” [6]
The postulated changes in the way of proceeding, in which design plays an important role,
can result in a global society, that does not handle sustainability as a necessary repair
achievement, but as a principle to be put into practice by architects and designers in several
different levels - within searching for the lost qualities of life, within asking for our real
needs, why objects always have to get superior and newer. The principles of nature are
transformed for design development, nature is integrated into low-tech as well as into high-
tech solutions or even provides the basis, in architecture and design. The technical
possibilities are utilized to use less material but at the same time a greater effectiveness, smart
materials and electronic communication equipment are systematically and consciously
developed, aiming for sustainability. Designers are changing society and its values, by
forming campaigns, for example, where people are being encouraged locally in a positively
humorous way, to plant trees and care for them, to improve their living space or to initiate
processes, whereby preferably every child gets his own laptop in view of the fact that
education and knowledge are finally changing the world and the scenario that entails avoiding
designing new objects whenever unnecessary begins to become a largely accepted reality. A
holistic design stands for: design that is not about designing objects, but rather is concerned
with people acting and also the system which shapes these acts, causes and processes. The
design concepts of recycling, reuse or eco-effectiveness are necessary and adequate steps
towards the direction of sustainability, however, if we want to succeed on our mission of
sustainability we have to change our thinking and acting in design and in our way of life.
Designers and architects play a vital role since design is a political act (Figure 1).
171
U. NETHER
Fig.1.Design processes and product cycles: Human Centered Design, Design Thinking and sustainable
design applying the definition by IDEO and Lunar.
172
Note
This article is based on the Author’s essay “grün und gut” (2012) that was published in Catalytic
Design, München, Germany.
References
1. cf. Hanno- Walter Kreft (1984). Geschichte der Architekturtheorie, München, Germany, 24.
2. Papanek, V. (1979). Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change, Academy
Chicago Publishers 102.
3. McDonough, W. & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things.
North Point Press.
4. Burckhardt Lucius and Hoger Hans (1995). Design ist unsichtbar, Ostfildern, German Design
Council, Hatje Cantz Verlag, Germany, 61.
5. Ibid., 20-21.
6. www.institutewithoutboudaries.com
173
Passive Solar Concepts for Energy Efficient Building Design
CHAHAL Karamjit Singh, DUA Sandeep

Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
kschahal@rediffmail.com, duasandeep@rediffmail.com
Abstract. Energy efficiency and sustainable design features have become extremely
important in buildings because of the growing demand for energy and a wide gap between
demand and supply. Therefore, it has been given priority in recent years by building owners,
designers and contractors. Passive cooling techniques can help in reducing the energy
consumption of buildings and at the same time, it can improve the buildings’ thermal
environment and meet the ventilation requirement through natural ventilation in accordance
with the prevailing healthy, comfortable and ecology human habitat environment
development. An integrated design process involves studies of the energy-related impacts and
interactions of all building components, including the building location, envelope (walls,
windows, doors, and roof), heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system,
lighting, controls, and equipment. This paper is an attempt to summarise various passive
cooling techniques for the practicing architects and students of architecture to promote the
awareness of the subject and present methods for incorporating these measures into their
designs.
1. Introduction
In traditional building construction methods, energy conservation measures were often

ingenious and simplistic; these were also healthy and effective, as they required minimal
human intervention, involving zero energy use, e.g. ventilation, stacks. Architects are today
faced with a greater challenge. Energy demand is ever on the increase. Energy conservation is
however not merely about reducing energy demands from the national infrastructure or
energy bills, but it is more about preserving the environment for our coming generations.
Energy conservation and the environment protection are key issues facing the building
construction industry worldwide. There has been a steady increase in the use of energy in
India and energy conservation is of crucial both economically and environmentally.
K. S. CHAHAL, S. DUA
Presently, construction industry is developing at a rapid pace. With the increase in

population, improved living standard, the energy consumption in buildings is increasing day
by day [1]. During the last decade, in the residential and commercial sector, there has been a
rapid increase in the consumption of electricity at a rate of about 13.2 percent [2]. Buildings
are one of the biggest energy consumers in the world, accounting for one-third of all energy
use and a similar amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Passive design methods optimize solar
orientation, heat insulation, shape, structure, shading and natural ventilating of buildings, etc.
and minimize use of conventional energy to create comfortable living environment. Passive
cooling strategies can take on the heat and humidity load of the building partly.
Fig.1.Final energy consumption by buildings (1980-2030)

Source: Building Energy Efficiency
MTOE is ‘Million Tons of Oil Equivalent
2. A growing demand for energy
With India being one of the fastest growing economies in the world, the energy requirements
are also growing at a rapid pace. India currently ranks sixth in the world in terms of primary
energy demand. As per the Planning Commission’s integrated energy policy report [3], if
India maintains economic growth rate of 8 percent of GDP per annum through 2031-32, its
primary energy supply will grow by 3 to 4 times, and electricity generation capacity by 5 to 6
times compared to 2003-04. It is estimated that by 2031-32, the country’s power generation
capacity would be 800,000 MW from a current level of 160,000 MW (Figure 1). In 2009,
Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has estimated that the country is facing electricity
shortage of 9.9 percent and peak demand shortage of 16.6 percent. While it is essential to add
new power generation capacity to meet the nation’s growing energy requirements, it is
equally important to look out for options, which would help in reducing energy demand for
176
PASSIVE SOLAR CONCEPTS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
various end-use sectors. The energy efficient building design is the need of the hour as there
are serious economic and social costs for letting the energy shortage go unaddressed. Since
buildings account for approximately 33 percent of electricity consumption (Figure 2) and is
the fastest growing sector, it is critical that policy interventions are put in place to improve
energy efficiency in both new construction as well as existing buildings [4].
Fig.2.Sector-wise electricity consumption in India

Source: Central Electricity Authority 2009
3. What makes buildings energy efficient?
The basic principle of building energy efficiency is to use less energy for heating, cooling,
and lighting, without affecting the comfort of the occupants. High-performance buildings not
only save energy costs and natural resources, but also provide a better indoor environment.
The benefits of building energy efficiency include:
• Reduced resource consumption
Improving building energy efficiency and significantly reduces demand for electricity.
• Minimized life-cycle costs:
Improving building energy efficiency reduces the amount of energy required to operate
a building and reduces costs for building occupants.
• Reduced environmental impact:
Improving building energy efficiency reduces the need for fossil fuels and reduces
greenhouse gas emissions [5]. Passive systems provide thermal and visual comfort by using
natural energy sources and sinks e.g. solar radiation, outside air, sky, wet surfaces,
vegetation, internal gains etc. Energy flows in these systems are by natural means such as by
radiation, conduction, convection with minimal or no use of mechanical means. The passive
solar systems thus, vary from one climate to the other, e.g. in a hot climate the primary aim
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would be to reduce solar gains, maximise natural ventilation, but in a cold climate an
architects’ aim would be design a building in such a way that solar gains are maximised, and
so on. The two broad categories of Passive concepts are as following:
• Passive cooling concepts (evaporative cooling, ventilation, wind tower, earth-air
tunnel, etc., Figure 3).
• Passive heating concepts (direct gain system, indirect gain system, sunspaces, etc.)
[6]
Fig.3.A reduction of the summer cooling load may be obtained, in the planning stage,
by having recourse to bioclimatic strategies.
4. Fundamental planning decisions
The comfortable living conditions in a building can be provided by active systems and/or
passive systems. The active systems generally consist of electricity powered equipments
which consumes significant energy. It is not always necessary to install active system to
provide acceptable thermal condition indoors. Good thermal insulation, low proportion of
glazing, outdoor solar shading, the use of thermal mass, night ventilation and alternate
cooling/heating technologies can sometimes jointly minimise the need for active system.
These forms of passive climate controls need less energy, for cooling as well as heating, and
make the indoor environment more stable. Even in combination with an active climate
control system, good passive design can make the environmental conditions more
comfortable. Passive cooling works on two basic concepts [7]:
• Minimizing heat gain and
• Rejecting unwanted heat
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Heat gain control is simple and an effective strategy. It involves intervening the external
setting by means of reducing the impact of solar radiation and internal heat gains. The
simplest and most effective passive cooling techniques include:
• Protection from the sun for windows, walls and surface covers, by using artificial
or natural screening devices;
• Provision of adequate ventilation.
Reduction of outside temperature by intervening on the external setting in close proximity
to the building by means of:
• Increase of relative air humidity by means of ponds, fountains and vegetation;
• Shading through planting schemes (trees, pergolas, etc.);
• reduction of external sun-glare (creation of green areas);
• Choice of light-coloured scheme for exterior walls [8].
5. Passive cooling features
Architects can achieve energy efficiency in the buildings by studying the macro and micro
climate of the site, applying bioclimatic architectural principles to combat the adverse
conditions, and taking advantage of the desirable conditions. Passive cooling systems rely on
natural heat-sinks to remove heat from the building. They derive cooling directly from
evaporation, convection and radiation without using any intermediate electrical devices. All
passive cooling strategies rely on daily changes in temperature and relative humidity. The
applicability of each system depends on the climatic conditions; some of these have been
shown in Figure 4.
Fig.4.Passive cooling techniques

Design elements that directly or indirectly affect thermal comfort conditions and thereby
the energy consumption in buildings are as following:
• Site selection
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• Landscaping
• Shading
• Orientation
• Building Form
• Evaporative cooling
• Building finishes
• Ventilation
• Fenestration
• Materials
5.1. Site selection

A large amount of energy is spent on transportation of people from work place to home, by
locating residential areas near to workplaces, schools, public transport routes, etc. transport
energy consumption can be reduced. The selection of a site which is north south facing is
better for passive solar cooling. In rural areas there may be potential for renewable energy
sources other than solar, for example the use of biomass [9].
5.2. Landscaping
Landscaping is an important element in changing the microclimate. Landscaping design can
reduce direct and indirect heating up of building surfaces. Landscaping also creates different
airflow patterns and can be used to direct or divert the wind advantageously by causing a
pressure difference. Additionally, the shade created by trees and the effect of grass and shrubs
reduce air temperatures adjoining the building and provide evaporative cooling. Terrace
gardens can help to reduce heat loads in a building. The ambient air under a tree adjacent to
the wall is about 2°C to 2.5°C lower than that for unshaded areas, which reduces heat gain by
conduction [6].
5.3. Shading
When landscaping is impractical on a given site, combinations of overhangs, awnings,
exterior shades, venetian blinds, curtains and drapers can be used effectively for shading,
Figures 5 and 6. The effectiveness of sun shades is not uniform on all directions and therefore
glazed areas should be provided only in those positions where effective protection against the
sun can be ensured.
To reduce heat gain through glazed areas following measures should be considered to
optimize day light:
• Shading against direct radiation is easiest to provide on the south wall. A horizontal
projection of at least half the window height will exclude the summer sun while still
permitting sun light in the building in winter.
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• Mitigation of heat through roof and the east/west walls requires a different approach.
Since the sun is low in the horizon during sunrise and sunset, overhangs are not
effective and vertical louvers, or a movable screen is a better option. Vegetation is
perhaps the most effective way of keeping the intense morning and afternoon sun off
the east and west walls and windows, but care must be taken to avoid blockage of
night time summer breezes that can be part of the diurnal cooling strategy.
• The north wall can be protected by vertical louvers.
• The roof can be shaded only by a horizontal cover extending over the whole roof and
projecting beyond it on the east, west and south sides [7].
Fig.5.Shading of wall
Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Fig.6.Natural protection from the sun ensured by means of suitable external landscaping
5.4. Orientation
Building orientation is a significant design consideration, mainly with regard to solar
radiation and wind. In predominantly hot regions, buildings should be oriented to minimize
solar gain and to keep out the sun's heat from entering the building; the reverse is advisable
for cold regions. The fact that the sun is lower in the sky in winter than in summer allows
architects to design and construct buildings that capture heat in winter and reject it in
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summer. The orientation of the building plays an important part; the ideal orientation for hot
and dry climates should be to keep long axis of the building north-south. This will reduce the
heat gain. Conversely, buildings with their long axis running east-west will have higher heat
gain and will require obviously high energy costs for cooling [7]. In regions where seasonal
changes are very pronounced, both the situations may arise periodically. Similarly, wind can
be desirable or undesirable. Quite often, a compromise is required between sun and wind
orientations. With careful design, shading and deflecting devices can be incorporated to
exclude the sun or redirect it into the building.
5.5. Building form

A compact building form with minimum surface to volume ratio is best for reducing heat
gain/loss and affects the thermal performance of the building. Surface-to-volume ratio is
determined by the building form. For any given building volume the more compact the form,
the less wasteful it is in gaining/losing heat. Hence, buildings compact in form with a low
S/V ratio reduce heat gain and losses respectively. However, a rectangular building with one
of the longer facades facing north allows enhanced passive solar cooling, day-lighting and
natural ventilation. The building form determines the airflow pattern around the building,
directly affecting its ventilation. The depth of a building also determines the requirements for
artificial lighting, greater the depth, higher the need for artificial lighting.
5.6. Evaporative cooling

Water is a very good changer of microclimate. It takes up a large amount of heat in
evaporation and causes significant cooling especially in a hot and dry climate. Evaporative
cooling lowers indoor air temperature by evaporating water. It is effective in hot-dry climate
where the atmospheric humidity is low. In evaporative cooling, the sensible heat of air is used
to evaporate water, thereby cooling the air, which in turn cools the building interiors. Increase
in contact between water and air increases rate of evaporation. The presence of a water body
such as a pond, lake, sea etc. near the building or a fountain in a courtyard can provide a
cooling effect [9]. Water has been used very effectively as a modifier of microclimate in
many buildings in India e.g. Lake palace Udaipur.
5.7. Building finishes

Light-colour paints and finishes on the roof and the walls have low absorption coefficient.
This has an important advantage of reflecting more heat than darker materials do. A white
roof may absorb only 25 percent of solar radiation, far less than the 90 percent absorbed by a
black one, Figure 7. This greatly reduces the amount of heat getting into the building.
Whitewash with lower reflectivity will stay cooler when exposed to solar radiation because of
its very high emissivity. Roof surfaces, which are exposed to solar radiation for long hours in
summer, should be painted white [7].
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Fig.7.Solar radiation absorbed by light and dark coloured surfaces
5.8. Ventilation
Adequate ventilation is essential to provide fresh air and to remove moisture, odours and
pollutants. A constant supply of fresh outdoor air can provide a good indoor air quality and
improved comfort. Outdoor breezes create air movement through the house interior by the
‘push-pull’ effect of positive air pressure on the windward side and negative pressure
(suction) on the leeward side.
Fig.8.Natural ventilation
Source: http://gees7.files.wordpress.com/2009/05
Good natural ventilation requires locating openings in opposite pressure zones. Stack effect
can be used to enhance natural ventilation. With openings near the top of stacks, warm air can
escape whereas cooler air enters the building from openings near the ground, Figure 8 [6].
5.9. Fenestration
Fenestration design is primarily governed by requirements of heat gain and loss, ventilation
and day lighting. The important components of a window that govern these are the glazing
systems and shading devices. Windows and other glazed areas are most vulnerable to heat
183
gain or losses. Proper location, sizing, and detailing of windows and shading form an
important part of design as they help to keep the sun and wind out of a building or allow them
when needed. The location of openings for ventilation is determined by prevalent wind
direction. Openings at higher levels naturally aid in venting out hot air. Size, shape and
orientation of openings moderate air velocity and flow in the room; a small inlet and large
outlet increase velocity and distribution of airflow through the room. When possible, the
house should be so positioned on the site that takes it advantage of prevailing winds. There
should be sufficient air motion in hot humid and warm humid climate. In such areas, fans are
essential to provide comfortable air motion indoors. Fenestrations having 15 to 20 percent of
floor area are found adequate for both ventilation and daylighting in hot and dry, and hot and
humid regions [6].
5.10. Materials
Choice of building materials is very important in reducing the energy contents of buildings.
Reducing the strain on conventional energy can be achieved by low-energy buildings with
low-energy materials. The embodied energy of a product is the energy used to produce it, and
includes energy used in extracting raw materials, processing and transport, e.g. Indian timber
will incur lower transport energy use than timber imported from overseas. Building
components should be designed for long life and durability, and ideally should be recyclable
at the end of their operating lives [9]. Use of materials with low embodied energy also form a
major component in energy-efficient building design.
6. Construction techniques
An energy efficient building balances all aspects of energy use in a building: lighting, space
conditioning and ventilation, by providing an optimised mix of passive solar design
strategies, energy efficient equipments, and renewable sources of energy and construction
techniques. Reduction of heat transmission in the building can be achieved by following
construction techniques:
• Thermal insulation
• Wind tower
• Courtyard effects
• Roof sprinkling
• Earth air tunnels
• Passive downdraught cooling
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6.1. Thermal insulation

Insulation is of great value when a building requires mechanical heating or cooling and helps
reducing the space-conditioning loads. Location of insulation and its optimum thickness are
very important. In hot climates, insulation is placed on the exterior face of the wall so that
thermal mass of the wall is weakly coupled with the external source. Air cavities within walls
or in the roof ceiling combination reduce heat transmission, thereby reducing space-
conditioning loads. The performance improves if the void is ventilated. Heat is transmitted
through the air cavity by convection and radiation.
6.1.1. Roof
The roof receives significant solar radiation and plays an important role in heat gain/losses.
Depending on the climatic needs proper roof treatment is very essential (Figure 9). In a hot
region, the roof should have enough insulating properties to minimize heat gains.
Fig.9.Thermal insulation of terrace

Some roof protection methods are as following:
• A cover of deciduous plants or creepers can be provided. Evaporation from leaf
surfaces will keep the rooms cool.
• The entire roof surface can be covered with inverted earthen pots. It is also an
insulating cover of still air over the roof.
• Roof can be painted white to minimize the radiation absorbed by the roof and
consequent conductive heat gain through it.
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6.1.2. Walls
Walls are a major part of the building envelope and receive large amounts of solar radiation.
The heat storage capacity and heat conduction property of walls is the key to meeting desired
thermal comfort conditions. The wall thickness, material, and finishes can be chosen based on
the heating and cooling needs of the building. Appropriate thermal insulation and air cavities
in walls reduce heat transmission into the building, which is the primary aim in a hot region.
6.2. Wind tower

In a wind tower, the hot ambient air enters the tower through the openings in the tower, gets
cooled, and thus becomes heavier and sinks down (Figure 10). The inlet and outlet of rooms
induce cool air movement. The tower walls absorb heat during the daytime and release it at
night, warming the cool night air in the tower. Warm air moves up, creating an upward draft,
and draws cool night air through the doors and windows into the building. The system works
effectively in hot and dry climates where diurnal variations are high.
Fig.10.The wind tower covered with a fibre-glass top and wire mesh to stop birds.
Source: http://ncict.net/Examples/Examples8.aspx
6.3. Courtyard effects

Due to incident solar radiation in a courtyard, the air gets warmer and rises. Cool air from the
ground level flows through the openings of rooms surrounding a courtyard, thus producing
air flow (Figure 11). At night, the warm roof surfaces get cooled by convection and radiation.
However, care should be taken that the courtyard does not receive intense solar radiation,
which would lead to conduction and radiation heat gains into the building.
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Fig.11.Courtyard as a moderator of internal climate

6.5. Roof sprinkling

In many buildings particularly with flat roofs; a main part of the external heat gains comes
from the roof. Roof sprinkling is based on evaporation of a water mist layer created by
misting spray heads on roof of the building; when the water evaporates, it absorbs large
amounts of heat [7].
6.6. Underground earth air tunnels

Ground cooling system involves the concept of routing air through underground metal or
plastic tubes or chambers (Figure 12). The idea is that as the air travels through the pipes, it
gives up some of its heat to the surrounding soil, and thus entering the space as cooler air.
The surrounding earth insulates them, which helps in maintaining a more or less constant
temperature. Temperatures at roughly 4 metres below the surface are stable and reflect the
average annual temperature of a place. However the tunnels cannot remove the excess
humidity from the air during the monsoon and hence its efficiency drops in the humid
summer and monsoon period [10].
Tubes made of aluminium, plastic, and other materials are being used. The choice of
material has little influence on thermal performance. Optimum tube diameter varies widely
with tube length, tube costs, flow velocity, and flow volumes. The various installations use
tubes anywhere from 100 to 450 mm (4 to 18 inches). There is no simple formula for
determining the proper tube length in relation to the amount of cooling desired. Local soil
conditions, soil moisture, tube depth, and other site-specific factors should be considered to
determine the proper length. The longer you make the earth tube, the closer the air flowing
through the tube and finally gets to the earth temperature, length of around 22.86 m to
30.48m (75 to 100 ft) is considered to be optimum. The temperature change in the tube air
after 45.72 m (150 ft) length appears to be small. Pipes must be laid at a depth of at least
1.83m (6 ft) for best possible heat transfer; pipe should be laid in solid ground (not laid in
sand). Make sure the ground is well compressed around the pipes and the pipes are to be laid
at least 0.9m (3 ft) from the building and from each other with approx 2 percent gradient.
187
Fig.12.Passive space conditioning using earth air tunnel system

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/earth_cooling_tubes
6.7. Passive downdraught cooling

It is an evaporative cooling technique that has been used for centuries in many parts of the
world, e.g. Iran, India and Turkey. In this system, wind catchers guide outside air over water-
filled pots, inducing evaporation and causing a significant drop in temperature before the air
enters the interior. Such wind catchers become primary elements of the architectural form
also. Passive downdraught evaporative cooling is particularly effective in hot dry climates.
Ahmedabad based architects Parul Zaveri and Nimish Patel (Abhikram Architects) known for
green and sustainability; designed the Torrent Research Centre in Ahmedabad in 2000, a
project hailed as one of the successful experiments of passive cooling in India (Figure 13).
Fig.13.Torrent research centre, Ahmedabad schematic section

A successful case study for green projects, it is estimated that the additional expenditure for
sustainable design elements has been recovered in less than one year, the successful returns
can be proven from the fact that from the savings of the electrical costs, the cost of all the
buildings will be recovered in 13 years and the entire investment in the research activities will
get recovered in 39 years [11].
188
Table 1.Performance parameters of conventional and energy efficient buildings [12]

S.No. Parameter Conventional buildings Energy efficient buildings
Long facades east-west Long facades north south
No Shading Shading of east west facade
1. Design feature
Single glazed windows Mix of single and double glazed
windows
No daylight integration Daylight and artificial lighting
integration
No lighting control Occupancy sensors and
2. Lighting system
dimming controls
Lighting power density is in the Lighting power density is less
range of 15-20 W/m3 than 15-20 W/m3
No use of passive cooling Circulation areas are naturally
techniques ventilated
Chiller coefficient of Chiller coefficient of
3. Air conditioning performance on the lower side performance on the higher side
Sqmt/TR (tonne of Sqmt/TR lies in the rage 32-42
refrigeration) lies in the rage 9-
15
Lighting performance index lies Lighting performance index lies
in the range 37-60 kWh2/yr in the range 21-28 kWh2/yr
Air conditioning performance Air conditioning performance
index for different climate zones index for different climate zones
are: are:
Warm & humid: 263 kWh/m2 Warm &humid: 195 kWh/m2
Energy per year (10 hours operation) per year (24 hours operation)
4.
Performance
Moderate: 259 kWh/m2 per year Moderate: 105 kWh/m2 per year
(10 hours operation) (10 hours operation)
Composite: 183 kWh/m2 per Composite: 144 kWh/m2 per
year (10 hours operation) year (10 hours operation)
Cold: 251 kWh/m2 per year (24 Cold: 41 kWh/m2 per year (10
hours operation) hours operation)
189
7. Energy efficient lighting and HVAC system
When the passive architectural concepts are applied in a building, the load on conventional
systems (HVAC and lighting) is reduced. Further, energy conservation is possible by
judicious design of the artificial lighting and HVAC system using energy efficient
equipments, controls and operation strategies. Energy-efficient lamps and fittings should be
used in areas where lights are likely to be switched on for long periods. All electronic and
electrical appliances are now required by law to display energy labels indicating their energy
efficiency. These labels can assist the purchaser in selecting an energy efficient model.
8. Performance parameters of conventional and energy efficient buildings
The Energy Performance Index (kWh/m2) of energy efficient buildings is very low as
compared to the conventional buildings. The features that contribute to low energy
consumption are as follows:
• North–south orientation
• Shading of the west façade
• Shading of roof
• Large window openings on north–south façade
• Least exposure and windows on east–west façade
• Natural ventilation for circulation areas
Comparison of the design features, lighting system, air conditioning and energy
performance of conventional and energy efficient buildings are given in Table 1.
9. Conclusion
Every project today has energy efficiency as a major consideration. Efficient use of energy in
building design is not an afterthought; it is a major design consideration that impacts design
decisions at every stage from conception to completion. The incorporation of simple energy
efficient measures in buildings can reduce a significant amount of energy consumption. We
can improve effectively the indoor thermal environment, meet the ventilation requirement and
create comfort conditions through passive cooling strategies. The regional climate analysis is
very important to determine the passive cooling strategies. Both the effective application of
passive cooling methods and the reasonable application methods of cooling equipment are
helpful for the improvement of the indoor thermal environment and reduce the energy
consumption. Thermal mass is used in buildings as a means of conserving energy; it was
practised by our ancestors. Energy efficiency is one of the simplest, quickest, cheapest,
cleanest ways to address energy and environmental challenges. It is economical to save
190
electricity used in buildings by adopting energy efficient techniques rather than increasing
generation capacity. Building bye-laws need to be changed in accordance with guidelines for
energy efficiency in buildings. There is a need to incorporate these concepts in the syllabii of
the architecture schools in India.
References
1. Zhou, J., Wu, J., Zhang G. & Xu, Y. (2006). Development of the Passive Cooling Technique in
China. In the Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference for Enhanced Building
Operations, Shenzhen, China, November: 6 – 9.
2. Singh, I. & Michaelowa, A. (2004). Indian Urban Building Sector: CDM Potential through
Engergy Efficiency in Electricity Consumption, Hamburg Institute of International Economics,
Neuer Jungfernstieg 21–20347 Hamburg, Germany.
http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/26323/1/dp040289.pdf on 30/12/11
3. GOI (2006). Integrated Energy Policy. Expert Committee Report, Planning Commission,
Government of India. http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdf.
4. Kumar, S., Kapoor, R., Rawal, R., Seth, S. & Walia, A. (2010). Mission Developing an Energy
Conservation Building Code Implementation Strategy in India.
5. Hong, W., Chiang, M. S. Shapiro, R. A. & Clifford, M. L. (2007). Building Energy Efficiency,
Why Green Buildings Are Key to Asia’s Future. In M. P. Laurenzi (ed.) An Asia Business Council
book, Hong Kong.
6. TERI (n.d.). Energy efficiency in architecture: an overview. http://bookstore.teriin.org/docs/
books/Introduction-%20energy%20eff%20biuldings.pdf
7. Bhatia, A. (1980). Alternatives to Active HVAC Systems, Continuing Education and
Development, Inc. 9 Grey ridge Farm Court Stony Point, NY.
8. Altener (2002). Promoting Solar Air Conditioning, Technical overview of passive techniques,
Altener Project Number 4.1030/Z/02-121/2002,
www.raee.org/.../doc/technical_overview_of_active _techniques.pdf
9. SEI (n.d.). Your Guide to Building An Energy Efficient Home. Sustainable Energy Ireland,
Dublin, Ireland. www.seai.ie/Publications/Your_Home.../RE_guide_in_the_home.pdf.
10. http://www.nbmcw.com/articles/green-construction/25585-the-cost-of-going-green.html
11. BEE (n.d.). High Performance Commercial Buildings in India Initial Project Findings. Bureau of
Energy Efficiency, Government of India and United States Department of State. http://high-
performancebuildings.org/pdf/HighPerformanceCommercial%20Buildings.pdf
12. http://www.teriin.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32.
191
Energy Efficient Building Design Considerations for Tropical
Regions of India
CHHABRA Pankaj
Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
ar.pankajchhabra@gmail.com
Abstract. In the wake of the oil crisis of the seventies, a great deal of interest was generated
worldwide for energy conservation in buildings. It was calculated that a country like USA
spent nearly one-third of its total energy for heating and cooling of buildings, and with due
care in design, a substantial part of this energy could be saved. Gradually, the idea came to
India also, even though we spent only a small part of our energy budget in heating and
cooling. Nevertheless, Indian buildings remain highly energy intensive with specific energy
consumption ranging from 280 kWh/m2 to 400 kWh/m2 depending upon the climatic
conditions and/or type of buildings. The rules for designing energy conserving buildings are
now well established and the checklist includes; reduction of energy consumption in
construction by using low energy and natural material such as earth, stone and wood, and
avoid use of manufactured energy consuming materials like brick, cement and steel. Avoid
mechanical cooling and heating, or at least reduce the cooling and heating load by using
passive solar techniques such as proper orientation of buildings, sun-shading of windows,
earth shelter, etc., use of alternative sources of energy like solar cookers and water heaters,
windmills, biogas plants, etc. and avoiding wastage of energy while building is in use.
Provide daylighting and energy efficient equipment for all uses in the building and switching
off gadgets when they are not needed. The paper focuses on the concept of reducing the
cooling and heating load of buildings thereby making them energy efficient in their
operational energy consumption as it is the latter that far overweighs their embodied energy.
1. Introduction
Architecture is man's primary instrument to modify energy. The most humble shelter
provides a degree of modification to the energy that surrounds us, acting as a filter or
P. CHHABRA
amplifier to the sun, wind, light and rain. In the pre-industrial era, it was taken for granted
that architecture would act as an environmental filter in ways that were in harmony with
context. In the age of industry, naturally made architecture evolved into being relatively free
of its environmental control function, which was then given over to mechanical devices and
systems. The energy crisis through the last two decades has led to a revolution in existing
architectural trends that had been established in the industrial age, and were largely
represented by the Modern” and International” styles of architecture. While one reaction to
the industrial tradition was a stylistic one, another reaction was procedural. The technical
response has been the development of sustainable and energy conscious architecture [1].
In general, there are two valid streams:
• Refining and optimizing industrial environmental control practices to make less and do
more.
• Integration of the use of renewable energy resources and innovative alteration to
energy modification properties of the building fabric.
In the latter stream, many solutions derive from vernacular wisdom in a given location,
while others are offshoots of new engineering. The efforts of building professionals and
scientists entail the following:
• Reducing consumption of energy in materials and construction processes in case of
countries like India, where industrial energy-use patterns are not set and therefore
energy consumption in running buildings is low.
• Installation of devices in a building that act as a substitute for conventional devices
using fuels or electricity and include among others solar water heaters, cookers, and
photovoltic panels.
• Ensuring that lighting, specifically daylight is available to reduce lighting (and
therefore, cooling) loads, adding to improvement for day use building such as offices.
• Limiting energy consumption in space conditioning, namely heating, ventilation and
air-conditioning, particularly in those countries where high industrial development has
brought about a situation of high energy use for space conditioning, but serves to
improve thermal comfort in developing nations at little or no energy expenditure for
the building where that does not have any mechanical systems installed. Post 2020, it
is the developing countries that will be the prime contributors to green house emissions
leading to global warming (Figure 1) [2].
A large part of India lies in the tropical belt, and a relatively small area lies in the
temperate zone. Taking the year as a whole, over 3200 hours of bright sunshine are received
every year over Rajasthan, Gujarat, West Madhya Pradesh, and north Maharashtra. Global
solar radiation increases progressively during February and March over the whole country.
By April, the region receiving maximum radiation shifts northwards to Gujarat and south
Rajasthan where radiation exceeds 220 kWh/m2 [3]. Tropical climates, as prevailing in
northern India, are characterized by significant hourly and large diurnal variations in
temperatures and sunshine. They also vary considerably over the year.
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ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR TROPICAL REGIONS OF INDIA
Fig.1.Post 2020, developing countries would be

the prime contributors of carbon dioxide [2]
Natural agencies like the wind and the sun are utilized to the best advantage in a properly
oriented building. Cooling techniques, such as introduction of cavities in walls, attic in roofs,
use of insulating and reflecting materials, thermal storage, shading devices, roof ponds, and
orientation can easily be integrated within the building to reduce external energy load.
2. Considerations for energy efficient buildings
Man's preference for an appropriate thermal environment is the main reason for constructing
buildings. Various indices have been developed based on air temperature, relative wind
velocity, and wind humidity to define comfort conditions. The Thermal Performance Index
(TPI) and Building Index (BI) developed by Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) has
been found to give satisfactory results [4].
2.1. Thermal design of buildings – influence of design parameters

Thermal behavior of a building can be judged by the total peak heat flow resulting from
individual heat flows. An index known as ‘Building Index’ has thus been defined as the ratio
of total heat gain, averaged over entire surface area of the building envelope, to the
acceptable limit of heat gain for achieving comfortable condition indoors. Acceptable limit of
heat gain has been taken as 46.5 W/m2 [4]. Maximum limits of building index for different
thermal comfort conditions and the corresponding indoor air temperature with fan are given
in Table 1. It is clear from the Table that a building index upto 50 gives comfortable
condition.
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P. CHHABRA
Table 1.Limits of Building Index Corresponding to Air Temperature and Comfort Conditions [4]
S. No. Building Index Indoor air Comfort conditions with fan
temperature ºC
1. 0-50 32 Comfortable
2. 51-100 32-36 Slightly warm
3. 101-150 36-40 Hot
Table 2.Relative thermal performance of buildings [6]

S. No. Type of treatment Building Comfort conditions
Multistoreyed Construction index with fan
1. Top floor, unshaded, glass area, 15% of floor area, 85 SW
north orientation
2. Same as (1) south orientation 87 SW
3. Same as (1) east orientation 112 H
4. Same as (1) west orientation 125 H
5. Same as (2) but glass area shaded 73 SW
6. Same as (5) but glass area 30% of floor area 85 SW
7. Same as (5) but ground floor 56 C-SW
Single storey construction
8. Light insulation on roof, glass area shaded 100 H
9. Same as (8) medium insulation on roof 78 SW
10. Same as (8) heavy insulation on roof 69 SW
11. Same as (8) roof white washed 85 SW
12. Same as (9) roof white washed 62 SW
13. Water spray on bare roof (RCC) 62 SW
14. Water spray with gunny bags on bare roof (RCC) 40 C
15. One wall exposed 73 SW
16. Two walls exposed 78 SW
17. Three walls exposed 87 SW
18. 11.5 cm brick wall one wall exposed 79 SW
19. 34.5 cm brick wall one wall exposed 70 SW
H = Hot, SW = Slightly warm, C = Comfortable
196
2.2. Thermal performance of buildings

Thermal performance of buildings depends on three factors viz., climate of the place, thermal
design, and usage of the building.
The variations in Building Index values due to change in orientation can be seen from first
four cases (Table 2). They vary from 85 to 125 and the comfort condition deteriorates as
expected. The results indicate that for any building, the wall with maximum glass area should
face north/south direction. However, slight change in orientation is possible depending on the
wind direction and site conditions. In cases 5 and 7 (Table 2), given the effect of multistory
construction, the Building Index reduces considerably in case of ground floor. Sharing of
walls between adjoining buildings not only reduces consumption of construction material but
also cuts down the surface exposure, making the building less susceptible to external forces
of climate. Splitting the total built-up area in several floors also does the same. Varying levels
and volumes in a space bring down the energy consumption by nearly 10 per cent. The
addition of a floor above cuts it down to the order of 20 per cent while further sharing the two
sidewalls, reduces it to nearly half (Figure 2) [5].
Fig.2.Energy saving through design [5]
HEAT GAIN THROUGH WALL AND ROOF (kW) HEAT GAIN THROUGH GLASS (kW)
7 30
6
25
5
20
4
15
3
2 10
1 5
0
N E S W N-E N-W S-E S-W Roof Roof 0
exp. ins. N E S W N-E N-W S-E S-W
Fig.3.Heat gain through various building envelope components [6]
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P. CHHABRA
The effect of glass area under similar conditions is evident from cases 2, 5 and 6 (Table 2).
Increase in glass area enhances the heat intake and thereby indoor air temperatures.
Therefore, minimum glass area should be provided, if other design conditions such as
daylight and ventilation permit (Figure 3) [6].
Glass area can be increased to accommodate daylight and ventilation but in that case
adequate shading should be provided over the glass area. A shade factor of 0.5 for
unconditioned buildings, where shade factor is defined as the ratio of heat transmitted
through glass including the shaded part to that through the same area of 3 mm glass when
exposed to sun [7].
Insulation against heat and evaporative surfaces helps in reduction of heat input to the
buildings. Light, medium and heavy insulation, white wash and water spray on roof have
been considered. As reflected from the Building Index values as seen in cases 8 to 14 (Table
2), these treatments improve indoor conditions. Building Index improves from 100 to 62 [4].
Exposure of walls to prevailing solar heat and reduction in thickness of the wall increases
the Building Index from 73 to 87 whereas increase in thickness of wall and reduced exposure
to solar heat helps in overall improvement in thermal environment indoors.
2.3. Reduction in peak cooling load

Heating or cooling of buildings is required to make them thermally comfortable for human
living. It is important to assess the reduction in energy requirements using the suggested
treatments. The extent of reduction in energy requirement can be assessed with the help of
data given in Table 2.
INTERNAL HEAT GAIN (kW)
1200
996.54
1000
800 732.75
600
400
200
58.62
0
0
People Light Power Appliances
Fig.4.Internal heat gain contributors in buildings [6]
198
A building having a Building Index value of 80 can be brought to a comfortable range

(Building Index = 50) by using insulation and other treatments. There is considerable saving
in air conditioning energy if building has a surface area of 1000m2. Peak heat load is reduced
by 14 kW/m2.
Apart from external environmental factors, appliances and power used within a building is
a major contributor to the heat load (Figure 4) [7].
2.4. Orientation of building

From the point of view of orientation, a south facade has the advantage of receiving much
larger solar radiation during winter than that during summer. Even for an opening on the
south facade, a small overhang can cut off direct solar penetration during summer and allow
it during winter (Figure 5a). For most parts of the country, the sun does not shine directly on
the north façade. Unshaded glass area, may be used on the eastern facade since the building
is comparatively cool after a cool night. On the western façade, due to the higher air
temperature in the afternoon, the indoor heat is further augmented by the incidence of solar
radiation. This heat can be minimized by providing thermal insulation on the exterior or by
shading this facade by verandahs, creepers, plants etc.
The best orientation from a solar-load point of view requires that the building as a whole
should receive maximum radiation in winter and the minimum in summer. For practical
evaluation, it is necessary to know the hourly solar intensity data of the seasons. The total
heat intake is calculated for all possible building orientations to arrive at the proper
orientation.
3. Passive cooling techniques
Passive cooling techniques can reduce the peak cooling power demand of a building and help
in achieving thermal comfort with minimum use of energy thus making building energy
efficient. They include a number of natural heat rejection mechanisms such as ventilation,
evaporation, radiation to the sky, and earth contact cooling.
3.1. Thermal performance of wall and roof sections

The thermal performance of building sections were evaluated in terms of the parameter
‘Thermal Performance Index’ (T.P.I.). In case of unconditioned buildings excess of peak
inside surface temperature over 30ºC has been taken as the criterion and 8ºC temperature rise
over this base temperature is taken as equivalent to 100 of T.P.I. [8].
The rating and broad classification for unconditioned situations are A, B, C, D and E.
Sections falling under class A are best and are suitable for air-conditioned buildings with
(T.P.I.<75), whereas class B satisfy minimum thermal requirements in unconditioned
buildings (T.P.I. 75 to 125) (Table 3).
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P. CHHABRA
Table 3.Broad classification for unconditioned situations [10]

S. No. Peak degree hrs. deg T.P.I. Class Quality
ºC above 30ºC performance
1. <6ºC < 75 A Good
2. >6 ºC <10 ºC >75 < 125 B Fair
3. >10 ºC <14 ºC >125 < 175 C Poor
4. >14ºC < 18 ºC >175 < 225 D Very poor
5. > 18 ºC >225 E Extremely
poor
Fig.5a-f. Various ways of Passive Cooling [9]
The conduction of heat into a building through roof/wall is directly proportional to the
difference in temperatures of its outside and inside surfaces. In order to minimize the
conducted heat, one has, therefore, to minimize the outside surface temperature. Highly
200
textured walls have a portion of their surfaces in shade (Figure 5b) [9]. The increased surface
area will permit the building to cool down faster at night. A cover of solid concrete or
galvanized iron sheet over the roof provides protection from direct radiation but it will
obstruct radiation to the night sky (Figure 5c). An alternate method is to provide a cover of
deciduous plants or creepers (Figure 5d). An effective roof shading device is a removable
canvas cover, painted white on top for better reflectivity (Figure 5e). This can be mounted
close to the roof in the day time. At night it can be rolled up to permit radiative cooling.
Another shading device, used in some traditional buildings, is the covering of the entire roof
surface area with small closely packed inverted earthen pots (Figure 5f) which provides an
increased surface area for radiation emission and insulation cover of still air over the roof.
Although the system is thermally efficient, the roof is rendered unusable and its maintenance
is difficult.
If the external surfaces of the building are painted with such colours, which have minimum
absorption of solar radiation and the emission in the long wave region is high, then the heat
flux transmitted into the building is reduced considerably. Whitewash on the roof and walls
reflect most of the incident solar radiation and provide cool atmosphere inside the house.
3.2. Control of conducted heat by insulation and cavity walls

The amount of heat coming into the room can also be decreased by insulating roofs and
walls. When heat travels through such structures, inside temperatures are lower and the
interior gets heated up later. It has been found that both thermal damping (reduces the energy
required to maintain a constant internal temperature and delays the load requirements to a
later time), D, and the time-lag (the time it takes the temperature on one side of a wall to be
detected on the other side) φ, are dependent on the ratio of heat stored, Q, and heat
transmitted, U, termed as thermal time constant.
The various specifications of composite structure were tested at Central Building Research
Institute (CBRI), Roorkee in closed and unconditioned full size test rooms. The observations
were made in June, when the outdoor average maximum temperature in the shade was 41°C
and the range of temperature variation was 21°C. The computed results are given in Figure 6.
The results show that if the thermal time constant, Q/U is increased beyond 20, the thermal
damping improves insignificantly. A 114.5 mm (4.5 inches) un-insulated solid brick wall
plastered on both sides (Figure 6(2)) has thermal damping of 35 percent with 25.4 mm (1
inch) expanded poly-styrene (thermocol) from inside (Figure 6(6)), thermal damping
improved to 70 percent ; while with the thermocole provided on outside (Figure 6(5)) gave an
average damping of 86 percent. It may be noted that the damping with 228.5 mm (9 in) un-
insulated brick wall (Figure 6(1)) was 75 percent. Similar results were obtained with
composite roof having 114.5 mm (4.5 inches) reinforced concrete slab with insulation on its
exposed side (Figure 6(8)) attained 8°C lesser ceiling temperature than that in the case of 165
mm (6.5 in) uninsulated reinforced concrete slab (Figure 6(7)). Time lag between 4 and 6.5
hours was recorded for insulated walls and roofs as against 2 hours for uninsulated one [10].
201
P. CHHABRA
Fig.6.Thermal performances of various walls and roof panels tested at CBRI, Roorkee [10]
3.3. Energy efficient windows

The function of window is to transmit a controlled amount of luminous radiation (for vision),
solar radiation (for space heating) and ample ventilation for comfort. In India, where sunlight
is available for most part of the year, day-lighting of the building interior should be adequate.
The daylight factor is calculated as the sum of sky and external and internal reflected
components expressed as percentage of external design illumination, which is 8000 lux for
India. In addition, while deciding the size and location of the window for proper ventilation, a
detailed study of wind directions and solar positions should be carried out.
An energy efficient window is one which provides illumination and thermal comfort both.
In warm climates, the solar energy, which enters through the window frequently, causes
overheating. For an energy efficient window it should block the solar spectrum (0.7 < λ <
3µm), without lowering the luminous transmittance (0.4 < λ <0.7µm). Glass having large
202
Fe2O3 content reduces solar transmissivity (Tlum = 72% and TADI=47%). One can use noble
metal (Ag, TiO2) based coatings for blocking the solar transmissivity thereby cutting down
the heating.
The thermal conductivity (k) is one of the parameters which govern energy efficiency.
With a single glazed window one has a k-value of ∼6 W/m.K, double glazing leads to ∼3
W/m.K, adding low emittance coating gives ∼1.8 W/m.K, and adding a suitable gas in the
space between the panes yields ∼1.5 W/m.K, with a moderate vacuum and silica aerogel
between panes, one may reach an ultimate k-value of ∼5.5 W/m.K. [11].
3.4. Evaporative cooling

Evaporation of water takes place by the conversion of sensible heat into latent heat removing
a large amount of heat. Evaporative cooling methods have long been used in hot dry climates
where water is not scarce. Courtyard fountains provide cool spaces near buildings. The most
commonly employed evaporative cooling system is a window unit air cooler with evaporative
pads, a fan and a pump. Evaporation from the surface of the roof from a thin film of water
over the roof, lowers the temperature of the roof which in turn, cools the living space below
it. For this method to be effective, the roof slab should be water-proof and made as thin as
possible. However, it has low operating efficiency during the humid part of the summer. At
many places air is drawn into the building through mats suspended in front of the window
and sprayed with water. The mats are made up of the roots of a sweet-scented grass called
khas. This adds a pleasant fragrance to cool air.
3.5. Radiative cooling

Radiative cooling of the building takes place by the discharge of heat from a radiative heat
dissipater to the cool sky. A horizontal surface is the most effective radiative cooling
configuration. If the roof surfaces are sloped towards an internal courtyard (Figure 5g), the
cooled air sinks into the court and enters the living spaces through the low level opening.
However, this method will not work in windy conditions. The effect of wind movement can
be reduced by covering the roof with a sheet of polyethylene (PE) which is transparent to
long wave radiation (Figure 5h). Inlet and outlet openings are provided in the roof itself. The
major drawback of this method is, however, the short life span of the PE sheet.
In recent years, efforts have been made to develop surfaces which enhance the radiative
cooling effect. The surfaces have poor absorptivity in the visible region and high emissivity
in the near infrared region. The data on these developments is however, too limited for their
large-scale use.
3.6. Exploitation of wind, water and earth contact

Different methods on exploitation of wind, water and earth contact for passive cooling of
buildings are used in Iranian architecture. Wind towers and domed roofs are used for wind
203
P. CHHABRA
circulation. Such structures are also seen in Islamic mosques in India. Large and deep cisterns
were used in Iran for storing cold water for summer.
3.7. Passive heating and cooling concept (space conditioning)

Space Heating: Professor Trombe designed passive space heating. The south facing wall of
the building should be double-glazed. Behind it, a thick black concrete wall absorbing the
solar radiation serves as thermal storage. Vents A and B which can be kept open or closed are
provided near the top and bottom of storage wall (Figure 7).
Fig.7.Section of trombe wall [9]
During the day, both vents A and B are kept open. The air between the inner glazing and
the wall gets heated and flows into the living space through the top vent. Simultaneously,
cool air from the room is pulled out of the living space through the bottom vent. Thus, a
normal circulation path is set up. Some energy transfer to the living space also takes place
from the inner surface of the storage wall. During the night, both the vents are closed and
energy transfer takes place, only by radiation.
For summer ventilation - vent C and D are provided near the top of the glazing and on the
north facing wall, respectively. On a hot day, vents B, C and D are kept open while A is
closed. The heated air between the glazing and wall would then flow out through vent C,
drawing air from the living space to replace it. This in turn, would cause air to be pulled in
from the air outside through the vent D. The vent D should be located such that the air comes
in from a shaded and cooled area. It should be noted that the overhang on the roof prevents
direct radiation from falling on the glazing during summer.
204
4. Conclusion
With the growing energy crisis, it has become necessary to use the available energy with
utmost care. We need to think about energy use and conservation in existing buildings. For
new buildings, we need to come to terms with real buildings programmes on real sites with
all their limitations. We need to broaden the scope of energy conserving buildings from
special projects for motivated clients to everyday buildings. Institutional complexes as energy
saving places have their value in generating new ideas, but we need to focus our attention on
the common commercial building and the ordinary house that is being built and used
everyday. We need to define simple standards by which owners will be able to judge for
themselves whether their existing buildings and the proposed new ones are energy efficient or
not. The construction industry faces both challenges and opportunities in giving a newer
dimension and a newer language to the identification of architectural expression. It can help
in bringing about a low carbon society with innovative design vocabulary, appropriate
building codes, use of energy saving technologies and behavioural changes, since building
sector accounts for about 40 per cent of global energy use [2].
References
1. Sanjay, P. (1992). Energy conscious architecture: an endless quest. Architecture + Design 9(3) 14-
16.
2. Anurag, R. (2007). Green is not just a colour: architecture towards a sustainable development.
Architecture + Design 24(10) 92-100.
3. Arvind, K., Baker, N., Yannas, S. & Szokolay, S. V. (eds) (2001). Climatic Responsive
Architecture. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
4. Agarwal, K. N. & Parkash, C. (2004). Thermal Design of Buildings. Influence of Design
Parameters, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee.
5. Pandya, Y. (2007). Towards symbiosis of nature and architecture. Architecture + Design 24(10)
88-89.
6. Mahajan, M. (2011). Five star luxury hotel. Unpublished thesis, Department of Architecture, Guru
Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
7. BIS (1978). Guide for heat insulation of non industrial buildings, code no. 3792, Bureau of Indian
8. Verma, V. V., Prakash, C. & Agarwal, K. N. (2004). Thermal performance of wall and roof
sections, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee.
9. Rai, G. D. (1989). Solar Energy Utilization. Khanna Publishers, Delhi.
10. Agarwal, K. N. & Parkash, C. (1987). Thermal Performance of Building Sections in different
Thermal Climatic Zones of the Country. Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee.
11. Kohn, E. & Katz, P. (2002). Building Type Basics for Office Buildings. Wiley, New York.
205
Green Building as an Approach towards Energy Conservation: A
Review
ROSE Pawan Kumar1, DEVI Rani1, ROSE Kiran2

1
Chaudhary Devi Lal University, Sirsa, India
2
CMK National PG Girls College, Sirsa, India
pawankumarrose@gmail.com, kiranrose7@gmail.com, rani_sahu@yahoo.com
Abstract. This paper highlights the situations that enable a better understanding of the
concept of green building for significant environmental, economic and social benefits
regarding energy conservation. Commercial buildings or non-green buildings are responsible
for usage of considerable number of natural resources and energy and cause several adverse
impacts on the environment and human health. Green buildings mitigate these effects and
improve building construction and living in the process. In this paper, energy conservation
through factors like natural daylight utilization, natural water heating, insulation and natural
ventilation provisions are taken into account as sustainable, energy saving building measures.
1. Introduction
Modern comfort living conditions are achieved at the cost of consumption of large amounts
of energy resources. Global warming, ozone depletion and the escalating cost of fossil fuels
over the last few years, have forced governments and engineers to re-examine the whole
approach to the design and control of building energy systems [1]. Ever since thefirst oil
crisis in 1973, it has been realized that a large percentage of the energy consumed in
buildings for their heating, cooling, and lighting is directly related to the way in which the
buildings are designed, particularly to their architectural features, properties of the buildings’
elements, and the use of space [2, 3]. At the same time, it was also realized that the densely
built urban environment creates a microclimate on its own, affecting the buildings’ energy
balance. The theory of bioclimatic design of buildings, as re-defined by architects in the field
of building physics, appears therefore as a logical development and an effective solution to
the problem of energy waste in the building sector [4]. It reduces energy consumption at the
P. K. ROSE, R. DEVI, K. ROSE
building level and at the same time it helps to reduce the urban heat island effect, contributing
therefore to sustainability in more ways than one [5].
One of the sustainable, renewable energy used in building is solar energy and it has an
important role in the building energy system. It has both beneficial and non-beneficial
aspects. The former includes use of solar energy for water heating which is utilized in
domestic application (hot water in kitchen/bathroom and/or space heating) and natural
lighting which reduces the load on artificial lighting. The non-beneficial aspect of solar
energy is that it warms the building during summer therefore a lot of energy is utilized for
space cooling and ventilation. This drawback can be reduced by using different techniques
like building design, green envelop, green material used in building construction, green roof
etc. with a combination of several solar-related technologies which increase its benefits and
reduces cost. This paper focuses on energy conservation in a building by different strategies
using solar energy.
2. Green building
A green approach to building is known variously as green construction, sustainable building,

high performance building, sustainable design, and green architecture. According to the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a green approach to building is defined as the
practice of maximizing the efficiency with which buildings and their sites use resources like
energy, water, and materials, while minimizing building impacts on human health and the
environment, throughout the complete building life cycle, from siting, design, and
construction to operation, renovation and reuse [6].
A Green Building is defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
International as “a building that provides the specified building performance requirements
while minimizing disturbance to and improving the functioning of local, regional, and global
ecosystems both during and after its construction and specified service life”. Furthermore, “a
green building optimizes efficiencies in resource management and operational performance;
and minimizes risks to human health and the environment” [7]. Therefore, green building is
the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible
and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction,
operation, maintenance, renovation and also destruction. This practice expands and
complements the conventional building design concerns of economy, utility, durability and
comfort.
Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current
practices in creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings are
designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the
natural environment by:
• Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
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GREEN BUILDING AS AN APPROACH TOWARDS ENERGY CONSERVATION: A REVIEW
• Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity

• Reducing waste, pollution and environment degradation
Green buildings may also incorporate sustainable materials in their construction (e.g.,
reused, recycled-content, or products made from renewable resources); create healthy indoor
environments with minimal pollutants (e.g., reduced product emissions); and/or feature
landscaping that reduces water usage (e.g., by using indigenous plant material that survives
without extra watering) [8].
The aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design is the philosophy of
designing a building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding
the site. There are several key steps in designing sustainable buildings namely specifying
green building materials from local sources, reducing loads, optimizing systems, and
generating on-site renewable energy. Green building brings together a vast array of practices
and techniques to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of new buildings on the
environment and human health. It often emphasizes taking advantage of renewable resources,
such as using sunlight through passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic techniques and
using plants and trees through green roofs, rain gardens, and reduction of rainwater run-off.
Many other techniques, such as using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of
conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of ground water, are used as well
[8].
By adopting green building strategies, we can maximize both economic and environmental
performance. The earlier the strategies are integrated in a building project, the more benefits
can be obtained. Potential benefits of green building include the following [9]:
Environmental benefits:
• Enhanced and protected biodiversity and ecosystems
• Improved air and water quality
• Reduced waste
• Conserved and restored natural resources
Economic benefits:
• Reduced operating costs
• Improved occupant productivity
• Optimized life-cycle economic performance
Social benefits:
• Enhanced occupant comfort and health
• Enhanced aesthetic qualities
• Improved overall quality of life
209
3. Energy conservation
Green buildings reduce energy usage by different strategies. To increase the efficiency of the
building envelope, (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space), high-
efficiency windows and insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors can be used. Another
strategy, namely passive solar building design is often implemented in low-energy buildings.
Designers should orient windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees to shade
windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter [10]. In
addition, effective window placement (daylighting) can provide more natural light and lessen
the need for artificial lighting during the day. Solar water heating further reduces energy
loads. Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power,
or biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power
generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building [8].
3.1. Energy utilization: natural daylight

Daylighting provides the opportunity for both energy saving and improved visual comfort.
Proper integration of a well-designed artificial lighting system with daylighting can offer
significant energy savings by reducing a portion of the electric lighting load. Extra benefit
that results is the lowering of cooling load due to the reduction in heat gain from electric
lamps. In addition to energy saving, daylighting helps create a visually pleasing and
productive environment for building occupants. Daylight may be introduced into a building
using a variety of design concepts or strategies, two of them being side lighting and top
lighting. The selection of an appropriate daylighting system will depend on the layout, the
orientation and the surroundings of the building [11].
a) Side lighting: It is a technique that provides daylight through apertures located in the
perimeter walls of a building. The apertures include curtain wall or other continuous
fenestration systems. In order to maximize the daylight penetration and reduce window glare,
it is a good practice to separate the view aperture from the daylight aperture. For this reason,
the daylight glazing is placed as close to the ceiling as possible for bouncing daylight deep
into the room from the ceiling. In this way, higher visible transmittance glazing can be used
in the daylight aperture [11]. Figure 1 illustrates a standard side lighting concept.
210
Fig.1a.A typical side lighting concept [11] Fig.1b.Building showing side lighting, Stanley Complex,
Stanley[12]
The accessibility of daylight in side lighting is highly dependent on the building's facade
orientation. Well-oriented apertures can maximize the daylight harvesting potential as well as
minimize glare and solar heat gain. Orienting the long axis of the building in the east/west
direction will maximize the area of northern and southern facades. The area of east and west
openings can be minimized to reduce direct sunlight (glare) entering the building.
b) Top lighting: It provides daylight through rooftop apertures with uniform distribution to
the entire top floor area if the entire top floor uses rooftop apertures distributed across the
roof area. Large single level floor areas and the top floor of multi-story buildings can benefit
from top lighting. The general types of top lighting include roof monitors, saw-tooth roofs,
and skylights. Figure 2a-c provides illustrations of these three basic toplighting types.
a) Roof monitors: A roof monitor consists of a flat roof section raised above the adjacent
roof, with vertical glazing on all sides of the raised bay. This arrangement can provide
daylight in all directions, but may result in higher heat gain.
b) Saw-tooth roofs: Saw-tooth roofs employ a series of either vertical or inclined glass
panes that are separated by inclined roof elements. Such roofs can be used to uniformly
illuminate a large floor area while minimizing the impact on the building's overall height. The
orientation of the glazing can be selected so as to maximize daylight level while reducing
direct solar radiation and heat gain.
c) Skylights: Skylights can have many forms including dome, pitched and flat panels that
are placed in the building's roof. Horizontal skylights can be an energy problem because they
receive solar heat directly at midday. Integration of louvre systems can control solar heat gain
as well as glare in skylights [11].
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(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2.Different types of daylighting strategies: a. Roof monitors, b. Saw-tooth roof, c. Skylights [11]
In addition, the design of windows influences the effectiveness of daylight utilization

significantly. Daylight design can also be integrated with the artificial lighting system to
achieve better energy efficiency. If all these factors are well-coordinated, the benefits of using
daylight will be maximized.
Figure 3a-c shows a green building integrated with solar collectors facing the Equator for
maximum performance. Energy collected from this panel is used in many applications like
heating of water, heating of floor and walls in cold areas, providing power for air
conditioning in an integrated system, electricity generation etc.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.3a.The external appearance of the green building integrated with solar collectors, b.U-type pipe
evacuated tubular solar collector arrays , c.Floor heating coil pipe [13]
Electro-chromic and thermal-chromic windows have been investigated for years [14]. The
former have now become commercially available and are called smart windows. They can be
adjusted by varying the glazing temperature or the electric voltage applied to the glazing.
Compared to motorized shades, louvres, or screens, smart windows have the advantages of
quiet operation and more compact and aesthetic appearance. When equipped with light or
temperature sensors, a smart window can automatically adjust its opacity to allow the right
amount of light to go through. Some researchers are now trying to integrate the self-cleaning
feature (using special coatings to repel water and ultrasound to shake off dust, for example)
with variable opacity to make smart windows maintenance-free. Window coatings and
retrofitted window films are low-cost alternatives to solar-control windows (Figure 4) [14].
212
Fig.4.Movable sun deflectors with solar energy collectors and sun lighting system developed for
efficient solar utilization in buildings [13]
Solar illumination systems have gained increased popularity in recent years. Indirect and
direct, concentrated and non-concentrated solar lights have all been used as a supplementary
light source for commercial buildings and residential houses. Figure 5 shows a commercial
solar tube that utilizes indirect sun rays. The mini-dish optical-fiber solar system is shown in
Figure 6.
Fig.5.Solar Tube for indoor illumination [13]
Fig.6.Mini-dish optical-fiber solar system [13]
213
Fig.7.Use of the mini-dish optical-fiber system for localized heating and illumination [13]
A combined solar illumination-heating system extends the application of the mini-dish

optical-fiber system for spot (localized) heating and illumination. Because of the low
absorptions of air, radiation heat transfer has been used to effectively transfer heat from a
high, to a low temperature region, separated by a volume of gas without much attenuation.
Solar energy collected by a mini-dish is transmitted using an opticalfiber to a central energy
storage/distribution unit. In areas such as lounges or hallways where illumination is needed,
part of the reflective cladding of the optical fiber is re moved to allow leakage of the light
transmitted in the fiber. In the energy storage/distribution unit, mirrors, prisms, or lenses are
used to focus and selectively send the sun rays emerging from the optical fiber to the desired
location(s) for illumination (Figure 7) [13].
3.2. Space cooling: Insulation and natural ventilation

In the present energy and environmental scenario there is no need to justify the need to
minimize the energy consumed by building space cooling systems. Energy consumption for
space cooling in a building can be reduced by various methods. Building cooling can be
achieved by two methods [15]:
3.2.1. Reduction of the heat entry into the building by envelope design (Insulation)
The indoor temperature of a building is dependent on many climatic conditions like outdoor
temperature, wind velocity, solar radiation, structure and thermo physical properties of
materials like wall thickness, area ratio of window to wall, thermal conductivity and specific
heat of wall material, indoor heat source and air change rate among others. Insulation acts as
a barrier to heat flow and is essential to keep a building warm in winter and cool in summer.
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A well insulated and well designed building will provide year-round comfort, reducing
cooling and heating energy cost. This, in turn, will reduce greenhouse emissions. Building
thermal mass acts like a thermal battery. In cold regions, during daytime it absorbs heat from
the sun, keeping the building comfortable and at night the same thermal mass can release the
heat. Correct use of thermal mass can delay heat flow through the building envelope by as
much as 10–12 hours producing a warmer building at night in winter and a cooler one during
the day in summer. Present researches on reflective material for outdoor wall painting have
led to the development of suitable materials for solar cooling load reduction. Reflective
material when compared to the conventionally used coating material of same color, results in
a reduction in the surface temperature of about 150C. Solar control of transparent components
comes from the switchable glazing technology. Combination of the cool material with green
space and heat sinks can reduce the inside building temperature [15, 16, 17].
3.2.2. Passive and hybrid cooling techniques
(i) Earth to air heat exchangers (buried pipes)

Air is drawn from the environment around using an electric fan and cooled by circulating it
through an underground duct. The coldness of earth is transferred to air and it is flown into
the building. It was verified experimentally that 2–50C reduction of peak indoor temperature
can be obtained as the depth of earth to air heat exchanger ranges between 1.5 and 6.5m,
respectively. Many building have been designed and monitored and the performance of this
concept is proven [17].
(ii) Evaporative cooling system
Direct evaporating cooling device uses evaporative principle to cool the air entering the
building. Droplets of water when evaporated absorb the heat of evaporation from the air and
in the process the air gets cooled [15].
(iii) Ventilation techniques
Ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air through an indoor space by
natural and artificial means. Natural ventilation (Figure 8) uses outdoor air flow caused by
pressure differences between the building and its surrounding to provide ventilation and
space cooling. When carefully designed, natural ventilation can reduce building construction
costs and operation costs and reduce the energy consumption for air-conditioning and
circulating fans.
There are two types of natural ventilation systems that can be employed in a building, i.e.
wind driven ventilation and stack ventilation. Both are caused by naturally occurring pressure
differences. However, the pressure differences that cause wind driven ventilation uses the
natural forces of the wind whereas stack ventilation is caused by pressures generated by
buoyancy as a result of the difference in temperature (known as stack ventilation) and
humidity (known as cool tower). Hence, there are different strategies in the optimization of
the two types of natural ventilation systems [18].
215
Night ventilation is a method by which the structural components are cooled down using
cold night air, thus providing reduced temperature of indoor air conditions for the following
day. In places where the diurnal range of the ambient temperature is high and the low night
temperatures are suitable for night cooling, night ventilation can be used. This ventilation
system uses a fan to enable accelerated night cooling using ambient air for ensuring sufficient
night cooling. However, in urban locations due to increase in air temperature and decrease in
wind velocity the efficiency of the night ventilation decreases [19].
The cooling potential of artificial or mechanical ventilation system (central fan or local
fans that provide ventilation air which further depends on primary or secondary energy
source) can be improved by the integration of short term Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage
Systems (LHTES). The LHTES store the coldness of the ambient air during the night and
supplies it during the daytime. This process is called Free Cooling. In short, free-cooling is
the method of storing outdoor coolness during the night, and supplying it to the indoor air
during the day. The main advantages of free cooling are cooling with reduction of green
house gases and excellent indoor air quality maintenance in the building. Since the
temperature difference between day indoors and night outdoors is small, phase change
material is the best storage option. Free cooling systems perform better in places where the
diurnal temperature range is greater than 150C. If the melting temperature of the phase change
materials is at the middle of the diurnal extreme temperatures, then equal temperature
difference is available for charging and discharging [15].
Fig.8.Cross section through the building showing natural ventilation path [20]
The design for natural ventilation should incorporate the following general design
considerations [18]:
• Increase air supply intake by ensuring no outside obstruction (such as vegetation or
site objects) nor inside obstruction (such as furniture and interior partition) obstruct
inlet openings.
216
• Rooms should have inlet and outlet openings located in opposing pressure zones.
This can include openings on the windward and leeward walls or on the windward
wall and roof.
• All occupied spaces should have an inlet and outlet opening in which at least a
minimum of one opening should be an operable window to control flow.
• Inlets should supply air at a location low in the room. Outlets should be located
across the room and at a higher level.
• The long facade of the building and the majority of the openings should be directed
so that the windward wall is perpendicular to the summer wind.
• Use skylights or ridge vents for night time thermal comfort in buildings like houses
to vent heated/warm air that rises, and allow heat to be radiated into the cold. It is
also a good outlet for wind driven ventilation.
• At least 3m allowance of wall surface from the floor to ceiling level should be
maintained.
• Window areas should not be excessive and should be protected by exterior shading
devices.
• Design for high thermal capacity and exposed ceilings for night cooling.
• Reduce the possibility of wall warming by the sun through use of light-coloured
building exteriors, plant trees/shrubs to provide shading and evaporative cooling,
grass and other groundcover to keep ground temperatures low, and include ponds and
fountains to enhance evaporative cooling.
• Internal loading should be kept low.
Many of the considerations mentioned above are directed towards either increasing the air
flow or lowering the heat gain so that natural ventilation can effectively cool the spaces in the
building.
4. Conclusion
Solar-powered integrated energy system, involving heating, air-conditioning, natural

ventilation and hot water supply for green buildings can reduce the load on energy
consumption and increase their self-sustainability to provide environmental, economic and
social benefits.
217
References
1. Florides, G. A., Tassou, S.A., Kalogirou, S.A. & Wrobel, L. C. (2002). Review of solar and low
energy cooling technologies for buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 6: 557–
572.
2. Maciel, A. A., Ford, B. & Lamberts, R. (2007). Main influences on the design philosophy and
knowledge basis to bioclimatic integration into architectural design—the example of best
practices. Building and Environment 42 (10): 3762–3773.
3. Isaac, M. & Van, V. D. (2009). Modeling global residential sector energy demand for heating and
air conditioning in the context of climate change. Energy Policy 37(2): 507–521.
4. Schild, E., Casselmann, H. & Dahmen, G. (1997). Bauphysik, Planung und Anwendung (Building
Physics, Design and Application), Vieweg+Teubner 32 (in German).
5. Karkanias, C., Boemi, S. N., Papadopoulos, A. M., Tsoutsos, T. D. & Karagiannidis, A. (2010).
Energy efficiency in the Hellenic building sector: An assessment of the restrictions and
perspectives of the market. Energy Policy 38: 2776–2784.
6. United States Environmental Protection Agency. www.epa.gov/greenbuilding.
7. ASTM (2005). Standard Guide for General Principles of Sustainability Relative to Buildings.
Designation: E2432-05 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International.
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building
8. www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/whybuild.htm.
9. www.greenglobe.com.
10. www.gbtech.emsd.gov.hk/english/minimize/daylight.html.
11. www.archsd.gov.hk/ExhGallery_ViewPage.asp?lang=1&ViewProject=stanley_complex
12. Han, H. J., Jeon, Y. I., Lim, S. H., Kim, W. W. & Chen, K. (2010). New developments in
illumination, heating and cooling technologies for energy-efficient buildings. Energy, 35: 2647–
2653.
13. Building shell (2007). Windows. Boulder, CO: E Source Companies, LLC.
14. Raj, V. A. A. & Velraj, R. (2010). Review on free cooling of buildings using phase change
materials, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
15. Zhang, Y., Zhou, G., Lin, K., Zhang, Q. & Di, H. (2007). Application of latent heat thermal
energy storage in buildings: state-of-the-art and outlook. Building and Environment 42: 2197-
2209.
16. Santamouris, M., Pavlo, K., Synnefa, K., Niachou, K. & Kolokotsa, D. (2007). Recent progress on
passive cooling techniques, advanced technological developments to improve survivability levels
in low income households. Energy and Buildings, 39(7): 859–66.
17. www.gbtech.emsd.gov.hk/english/utilize/natural.html
18. Gero, V., Santamouris, M., Karatasou, S., Tsangrassoulis, A. & Papanikolaou, N. (2005). On the
cooling potential of night ventilation techniques in the urban environment. Energy and Buildings
37: 243–257.
19. http://www.architecture2030.org/regional_solutions/ventilation.html.
218
Promoting Sustainable Architecture through Innovative Green
Building Solutions
GUPTA Jit Kumar1, MONGA Ajay2

1
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bhaddal, India
2
jitkumar2000@yahoo.com, ajaymonga2008@gmail.com
Abstract. Considering the fact that built up structures are consumers of 50 percent of the
global primary energy and generators of 24 percent carbon dioxide emission, the criticality of
buildings and their role in minimizing energy consumption and promoting sustainability
assumes importance. Looking at the high degree of consumption, the built environment offers
enormous opportunities and options in scaling down the energy consumption. The options
used have been largely confined to building materials, building technologies, heating and
cooling systems etc. Looking at the entire gamut of the built environment, building design
offers the best option for reducing energy consumption. Accordingly, the paper focuses on
design strategies for making buildings energy efficient and sustainable. Sustainability can be
promoted through site planning, study of macro and micro climatic conditions, landscaping,
orientation, fenestration and shading, materials, insulation & use of courtyards to name some.
1. Introduction
India is passing through a phase of massive urbanization with the level of urbanization placed
at 31.16 percent and urban dwellers numbering 377 million in 2011 [1]. With India opening
its economy and following an agenda of globalization and liberalization, urban centers are
fast emerging as key drivers and script writers of economic growth and development. It has
been estimated that by 2050, urban and rural population will have parity in total population of
1500 million with 750 million residents living both in rural and urban areas. Urban India will
accordingly have enormous requirements for built space for living, working, leisure, industry
etc. for this additional population. Studies have revealed that with the liberalization of the
Indian economy, the real estate sector has assumed great importance. With the construction
J. K. GUPTA, A. MONGA
industry contributing 5 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), India is expected to
become the third largest construction industry in the world by 2020. The real estate industry
is expected to reach a size of USD 180 billion, and the major drivers of this volume shall be
the service sector involving communication, biotechnology, manufacturing and
pharmaceuticals, thereby leading to increased demand for office space besides retail segment
and provision of affordable housing with the shortage standing at 26 million dwelling units.
Mckinsey’s 2011 report also states that India would be required to build 700-900 million
square meters of commercial and residential space annually to meet its emerging demand in
urban areas [1]. Accordingly, India will have massive construction of buildings on the anvil
in the years to come.
Studies have revealed that buildings have enormous energy implications and leave a
significant impact on the environment, consumption of resources and generation of waste.
Buildings have been consuming the following resources [2] (Figure 1):
• 16 percent world’s fresh water withdrawal
• 25 percent wood harvested
• 30 percent consumption of raw material
• 50 percent global energy consumption
• 25 percent timber harvested
• 35 percent world's carbon dioxide emission
• 40 percent municipal solid waste generation
• 50 percent Ozone layer depletion due to use of Chloro Flouro Carbons (CFC)
• 55 percent timber cut for non-fuel uses
• 30 percent residents having sick building syndrome
Building
10% 5% Construction
20% Heating cooling

and lighting of
45% buildings
20% Industry
Fig.1.Global energy consumption pattern

Source: Journal of Indian Building Congress, 13(3) 2006.
The energy consumption level of India is comparatively of a lower order as compared to

the developed economies and the world average. As against 13,616 kWh of power consumed
220
PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE THROUGH INNOVATIVE GREEN BUILDING…
per capita in the USA, India’s consumption level is hardly of the order of 543kWh i.e. 4
percent. India also ranks low as compared to the world average of 2,752 kWh, i.e. 1/5th
(Figure 2). Looking at the increase in energy consumption level due to higher urbanization,
population, industrialization, etc., the future energy requirements of the country will be
enormous. Considering the fact that existing built up structures account for 50 percent of the
global primary energy consumption and generator of 24 percent of Carbon Dioxide emission,
the criticality of buildings and their role in minimizing energy consumption and promoting
sustainability of human habitat assumes importance. With rapid urbanization and growth of
population, more and more buildings would be required to be constructed to meet the
increasing demand of shelter, trade & commerce, industries, entertainment, institutions, etc.
accordingly energy consumption levels are likely to rise on a compounded pattern. Therefore
buildings are required to be made energy efficient and least consumers of resources and
generators of waste. Making buildings energy efficient have distinct advantages in terms of
not only saving money on energy costs but also reduction of adverse impact on the
environment through the reduced use of fossil fuel, increased comfort levels achieved through
effective use of natural light and ventilation and probable improved resale value of property
due to lower power bills.
Fig.2.Power consumption in India in comparison to global consumption

Source: www.KBK.in.
Considering the role and importance of energy as the major driver of economic growth and
physical development coupled with limited availability of conventional and non-renewal
sources of energy and ever rising demand and spiraling market prices, issues related to energy
consumption, energy conservation and promoting non-conventional and alternate sources of
energy have assumed global concerns. As the environmental impact of buildings becomes
221
more apparent, concept called Green Building is gaining momentum. A green building is also
known as a sustainable or high performance building. Green or sustainable building is the
practice of creating healthier and more resource efficient models of construction, renovation,
operation and maintenance. Such buildings are the outcome of a design philosophy which
focuses on increasing the efficiency of resources, water and materials while reducing impact
of building on human health and the environment through better siting, design, construction,
operation and maintenance. Research and experience has increasingly demonstrated that
green buildings can provide great environmental, economic & social benefits and while
reducing adverse impact on human health and natural environment by:
• Efficiently using non-conventional sources of energy, water, and other resources.
• Protecting occupant health and improving productivity.
• Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation.
• Using materials which are locally available, sustainable and can be
reused/recycled.
• Reducing operational cost of buildings.
2. Building design
Buildings, as they are designed, constructed and used have enormous energy and resource
implications over their entire life cycle. With a number of people and institutions rushing
towards urban centers, energy and resource requirements of cities due to buildings is rising
sharply. Looking at the high degree of energy consumption by the built environment, which
has been placed at 300 kWh for every square meter on annual basis, enough options are
available to bring it down to the level of 140 kWh [2]. Accordingly, the built environment as
a sector would require close scrutiny and monitoring for effecting overall economy in the
level of energy consumption. Experience has shown that buildings can be designed to meet
the occupants’ needs for thermal comfort at reduced level of energy/resource consumption by
adopting an integrated approach to building design. The integrated approach could include
orientation, site planning, shape and size of the building, built form, surface to volume ratio,
building efficiency, ratio between length and depth of the building, among others. It could
also involve use of simple techniques of building construction, efficient structural design,
landscaping, improving water efficiency, principles of solar passive techniques in building
design, using energy efficient equipment, control and operational strategies for lighting,
heating, ventilation etc., using solar energy for meeting the energy needs of buildings,
replacing energy intensive materials with low energy components etc (Figure 3).
222
Fig.3.Amalgamation of energy efficient design principles in a building

Source: Authors.
3. Green buildings
Considering the impact of buildings on energy and the environment, building design offers
enormous opportunities to create Green Buildings, Zero Energy Buildings (ZEB) and Energy
Plus Buildings. Green buildings are defined as those buildings which use resources more
efficiently and reduce negative impact on the environment. Zero energy building is a building
that over a year does not use more energy than it generates, while an Energy plus building is
that building which produces more energy than what it consumes over the year [2].
24% 26% Envelope

Structure
Finishes
6% Construction
7% Site Work
24%
Services
13%
Fig.4.The percentage of energy consumption by various components of a building

Source: Journal of Indian Building Congress, 2010.
223
The percentage of energy consumption by various components of a building is shown in

Figure 4. Designing green buildings would essentially revolve around the following factors
[3, 4, 5, 6, 7]:
• Site planning
• Building orientation
• Internal layout of buildings
• Window placement, sizing and shading
• Internal windows
• Skylights
• Walls
• Insulation
• Ventilation
• Courtyard
• Landscaping
• Green roof
• Using energy efficient building materials
• External building finishes
• Use of energy efficient appliances
• Promoting water efficiency
3.1. Site planning

Orientation has the greatest impact on energy consumption by buildings. The issue of energy
of building, has to be viewed in the dual context of planning of plots/sites and the actual
designing of buildings. To ensure that buildings make best use of solar and wind energy, it
would be essential that a majority of buildings should have the site advantage. Accordingly,
town planners have an important role cast for themselves while preparing the layout plan, so
that the maximum of plots have the best orientation. Once this is ensured at the planning
level, it would be much easier for architects to evolve a design which would be energy
efficient. Further, planners should ensure that the ratio of plot width and depth is fixed in a
manner that the entire depth of the built-up area allowed on a plot should have access to
natural light, minimizing the requirement of artificial lighting. This would be particularly
important in case of row housing where plots have a limited option to draw light only from
the front and rear.
3.2. Building orientation

Orientation needs to be effectively used in order to evolve energy efficient building design by
making use of solar radiation and the wind. However, requirements of building design would
vary from region to region, state to state and within regions and states. Accordingly, buildings
with regard to sun and wind will have to be oriented differently in different regions.
224
Architects can ensure a high degree of energy efficiency both in construction and operation
by critically studying the macro and micro climate, applying bioclimatic architectural
principles and making optimum use of desirable conditions.
Fig.5.Orienting a building with respect to sun and wind

Source: Authors.
Artificial heating and cooling are biggest consumers of energy in buildings, which is
placed at 26 percent of average household energy consumption. Accordingly, it will be
critical to minimize the energy load on building due to heating and cooling. Basic principle of
energy efficient building design would be to orient the building in a manner that maximizes
heat gain into the building during the winter while excluding it during the long hot days of
summer. This can be made possible based on the fact that the angle of sun changes from
season to season (Figure 5). In summer, the sun rises early in north east and climbs high in
the south before setting in the northwest. Heat gain in summer is mainly through the roof, and
the east and west windows of buildings. In winter, the sun rises later in south of east, stays
low in south before setting in south of west. South windows and the walls receive the
maximum winter sun and warmth. To achieve the design goal of optimal energy efficiency,
the basic rule for a building would be to have north and south facing walls 1.5 to 2.00 times
the length of east and west facing walls in order to allow limited access to morning and late
afternoon sun on the east and west whereas permit maximum sun exposure during winter on
southern walls. However, a small projection on the southern wall will help in cutting the
vertical sun and avoiding the heat trickling into the buildings during summer.
3.3. Internal layout of buildings

Not only is the placing of external walls critical but also the rational allocation of internal
spaces in the buildings is important for achieving the desired level of energy efficiency.
Spaces can be classified and grouped considering their energy requirements. Space requiring
ambient temperature should be grouped and planned in the best orientation, whereas spaces
having little relevance to living can be placed in directions considered as adverse from the
point of view of orientation. Accordingly, indoor living and entertaining spaces can be placed
225
on the eastern and southern sides for having bright and warm areas during winter and cool
spaces in summer. Thus in a house, placing bedrooms on the east and south will be more
comfortable for sleeping during both summer and winter. Mechanism of grouping rooms with
similar uses together for creating different zones and using doors to separate them would help
in evolving appropriate design solutions. Closed designs offer distinct advantages in terms of
energy efficiency as compared to open designs. However, wherever the specific need of
planning requires open plans, then use of glass doors would be appropriate to define different
zones. Kitchen, laundry, bathrooms can be grouped together to minimize the need for long
hot water pipes. Garages and stores can be kept on the western side of the house so as to seal
the living areas from intense summer heat.
Fig.6a.Window placement and sizing is critical for an energy efficient approach

Source: Authors.
3.4. Window placement, sizing and shading

For evolving energy efficient design solutions, appropriate placement, sizing and shading of
buildings would be critical. Windows have multiple functions to perform including that of
solar collectors that trap heat from the sun which is useful in winter but not in summer; they
also act as ventilators during summer, funneling cool late afternoon and night time breeze to
reduce heat accumulated during the day and to let in daylight to make spaces bright. A
balance needs to be made between controlling sun access, allowing adequate cross-ventilation
and permitting natural light to enter (Figure 6a, b).
Accordingly 1/3rd to ½ of the southern face of the building can be put under glass for
trapping the winter sun and shading from the summer sun with correctly designed eaves. An
overhang of 0.4 times the distance from eaves to bottom of windows will be sufficient to save
it from the heat of the sun during summer. Use of a solar pergola can also be made to regulate
the impact of the sun in the building. However, it should be important to ensure that shading
devices do not block the sun’s access to the interior of the building during winter. East and
west windows provide warmth in winter from early morning and afternoon sun, but they pose
difficulty from the sun in summer. It makes rooms on the east and west uncomfortably warm,
226
in particular those on the west. Accordingly it would be critical to keep the area of east and
west windows minimum and wherever provided, it should have vertical screens, louvers,
blinds, shutters to block the sun. North facing windows can be made large to facilitate good
ventilation and light without the loss of much heat. Efficient planning and carefully designed
shading devices, fenestration design and efficient lighting design can bring brought about 40
percent energy savings over a conventional building of similar size and function.
Fig.6b.Eaves to provide protection from the summer sun

Source: Authors
3.5. Internal windows

The internal windows are important for reducing winter heat loss. Windows can lose heat five
to ten times faster than an equivalent area of wall. Heat loss can be minimized by keeping
warm air inside the room away from cold windows. A closed curtain covering the entire
window up to floor level made of heavy fabric is considered effective in minimizing heat loss
(Figure 7).
Fig.7.Use of curtains is important for heat retention

Source: Authors.
227
3.6. Sky light

Sky lights are known for their effectiveness to reduce day time lighting needs (Figure 8). Sky
lights can also lead to heat gain during summer and heat loss during winter. To minimize this,
sky lights can be positioned for shading in summer and provided with special glazing that
minimizes heat transfer during winter by closing non-vented ducted skylights, as the air
trapped in duct acts as a thermal buffer.
Fig.8.Skylights facilitate the entry of light into built space

Source: Authors.
3.7. Walls
Walls forming bulk of the building envelope receive large amounts of solar radiation. The
wall thickness, material and finishes should be chosen based on the heating and cooling needs
of the building. The heat storage capacity and heat conduction properties of walls are a key to
meeting desired thermal comfort conditions. Appropriate thermal insulation and air cavities
in walls reduce heat transmission into the building in a hot region. The performance of walls
considerably improves if the cavities are ventilated or insulated. The Rat-Trap method used
for construction of walls improves thermal insulation, besides reducing consumption of brick
and cement.
3.8. Insulation
Acting as a barrier, insulation makes spaces more comfortable by reducing heat loss in winter
and heat gain in summer. Insulation of ceilings, roofs, external walls and air gaps would be
critical to achieve the desired objectives of energy efficiency. Bulk and reflective are the two
major kinds of insulations used. Bulk insulation works by trapping small cells or layers of air
within the insulating material which are effective in retarding heat transfer whereas in case of
reflective insulation, reflections of light and heat are used as a mechanism to reduce the heat
transfer.
Effective use of thermal insulation for treating the roof to regulate solar radiation, using
cavity walls, locating, sizing and detailing windows and shading devices help in evolving
228
design solutions that are bioclimatic and ultimately help in reducing energy requirement of
the building. However, advanced techniques of passive heating and ventilation for example
through interventions like Trombe wall (Figure 9), water wall, roof based air heating system,
wind tower, courtyard, earth-air tunnel, evaporative cooling etc. can be effectively used for
evolving low energy buildings designs.
Fig.9.Trombe wall
Source: Authors.
3.9. Ventilation
Natural ventilation is considered an essential part of energy efficient structures. To improve
natural ventilation in the building through cross-ventilation, correct positioning of doors and
windows would be critical. A large opening on the leeward side of the building will
maximize the air flow through rooms facilitating the removal of heat accumulated during the
day. Ventilation is very critical in the hot and humid zones for creating climate sensitive
design solutions for buildings.
3.10. Courtyard
The courtyard has been considered critical in promoting energy efficiency in buildings.
Courtyards not only facilitate natural air and light into inner areas but also promote high
degree of cross-ventilation. Courtyards protect buildings from large heat intake and glare.
Acting as large evaporative coolers during summers, courtyards promote enormous cooling
without mechanical aids. Landscaped courtyards are great moderators of micro-climate
within buildings (Figure 10). Acting as great heat dump, courtyards minimize heat loss during
winter and heat gain during summer. Courtyards with water column fountains have been
considered as great environmental moderators.
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Fig.10.Courtyards act as micro-climate moderators within buildings

Source: Authors.
Looking at the distinct advantages, courtyards should be considered as valued partners in

building designs. Building and zoning laws should permit creation of courtyards within the
buildings in order to leverage them for evolving energy efficient building solutions.
3.11. Landscaping
Effective use of landscaping as part of building design can help considerably in lowering
energy consumption in buildings. Gardens can act as significant climate moderators. Use of
deciduous trees/vines in the west can help in providing required shade during summer and
permitting winter sun to filter through when the leaves are dropped, as a simple option to
manage the ill/good effects of the sun (Figure 11). Plantation of trees can also be used to
shield buildings from the adverse impact of the climate. Plantation of shrubs or creepers and
an open pergola on the south face of a building can provide windows with required level of
shading in summer. Use of evergreen creepers and trees along the west walls can help in
considerable reduction of heat intake in summer. Use of unshaded pavings on the south and
west sides should be avoided to minimize heat intake reflected via windows during summer.
Wherever provided, they need to be properly designed and shaded. Existing landscape
features within the site should be made an integral part of the building design in order to
optimize their use in contributing towards improving the quality of the environment.
Tampering with the natural land topography should be avoided in order to minimize cost due
incurred due to excavation, filling and leveling. Earth berming is recommended wherever site
conditions permit.
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Fig.11.Trees to shield buildings from the sun

Source: Authors.
3.12. Green roof

Most of the heat in buildings is gained through the roof. Therefore it becomes critical that the
roof in a building is treated with care and caution in order to make the building energy
efficient. One of the options to design a green building is to make the roof green which
includes using the roof terrace for landscaping and plantation (Figure 12). A green roof
because of plantation/evaporation acts like a green courtyard that protects the building from
heat gain during summer and heat loss during winter. Properly designed roof gardens help in
reducing heat loads in a building to a large extent. Further depending on the climatic
conditions, proper roof treatment can help in creating ambient temperature in the building.
Fig.12.A green roof acts as an energy saving intervention

Source: Authors.
In a hot region, the roof should have enough insulating properties to minimize heat gain.
Some roof protection methods that can be employed to minimize heat gain/loss are as
follows:
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• Using the roof form as a mechanism for modulating heat by adopting a domical or
sloping roof that helps to absorb less heat as compared to a flat roof.
• Achieving roof insulation by covering it with clay tiles or painting the roof white to
minimize the radiation absorbed and the consequent conductive heat gained.
• Covering the roof surface with inverted earthen pots to keep the building cool.
• Covering the roof with deciduous plants or creepers to minimize heat gain/loss.
3.13. Using energy efficient building materials

The choice of building materials has an important bearing on the energy consumption level of
the building. Using low energy materials, efficient structural design and reduction of energy
used for transportation can help in achieving a high degree of energy efficiency. Choice of
locally available materials and innovative construction techniques has clearly demonstrated
their usefulness in reduction of energy consumed by buildings during construction and
operation. In addition, using dense materials such as brick, stone, concrete and rammed earth,
which heat up and cool down slowly (having high thermal mass) are critical for adequately
storing winter daylight warmth and gradually releasing it at night. In summer, the thermal
mass can also help in keeping buildings cooler during the day when provided with proper
ventilation, allowing the night air to cool down the inside mass resulting in more comfortable
conditions next day.
Selection of building materials should be based on zero or low toxicity, high recyclable
value, durability, longevity and availability within the local region. Reuse and recycling of
material reduced to debris would be critical in promoting green buildings. Materials used for
developing eco-friendly buildings would vary from one region to another, based on location,
climate, etc. Efforts should be made to ensure that the materials used are available locally to
minimize transportation costs.
For evolving energy efficient buildings, the role of the building industry would be critical.
The government should encourage the industry which produces energy efficient materials.
Industry must evaluate and monitor every material in terms of energy besides encouraging
and promoting research and development in support with organizations like Building
Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMPTC) to ensure that energy requirement of
each material is thoroughly studied before the material is allowed to be marketed. Material
specification should also include the energy component in order to make architects and
builders aware of the energy implications of the material being used.
3.14. External building finishes

External finishes of buildings need to be chosen carefully in order to regulate the heat
gain/loss by walls/roof. As a general rule, light colors have a tendency to reflect the sun’s
heat, while darker colors have a tendency to absorb more heat. This fact can be made use of
for identifying colors for the roof and walls. During summer, the choice of light colour would
be critical to minimize heat gain and to keep the inside spaces cooler by reflecting heat from
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the sun, while in winter, darker colors would be more appropriate for heat absorption. This
would call for repeatedly changing the colors of walls and the roof therefore a better option
will be to keep the building properly insulated which is an effective mechanism of controlling
and regulating heat transfer.
3.15. Use of energy efficient appliances

90 percent of the energy consumed by any building over its entire life cycle is during the
operational phase of the building, whereas 10 percent energy is consumed during construction
[2]. Accordingly, it is critical to minimize energy consumed after the building is made
operational. A substantial portion of energy is consumed by electric gadgets used for lighting,
heating and cooling. This energy can be reduced considerably by resorting to energy efficient
appliances. CFL lights, evaporative coolers, rated kitchen gadgets, etc. help in minimizing
energy consumption. With careful design and planning, only low energy light fittings should
be used along with dimmers placed strategically to achieve the maximum impact.
Fig.13.Use of energy efficient appliances as an effective measure to save energy

Source: Authors.
Roof areas can be used for installing series of photovoltaic solar panels which can generate
enough electricity to cater to the entire electricity needs of the building making it a zero
energy building (Figure 13). Excess power, if available, can be returned to the main power
grid. Buildings having large facades can be used for installing solar panels to generate
electricity to meet their energy requirements.
3.16. Promoting water efficiency

Promoting water efficiency through reduced consumption and optimum utilization of
available water resources shall hold the key to making buildings green. This will include
careful planning of services, using water efficient fixtures, rainwater harvesting and recycling
of waste water. Promoting water efficiency will include:
• Planning the building with all the water usage points like bathrooms, toilets, kitchen and
utility area placed close to ducts and repeated on successive floors.
• Using low-flush toilets, low-flow showerheads and other water conserving systems to
minimize water wastage throughout the life cycle of the building.
• Designing dual plumbing system for grey and black water. Using grey water for irrigation
and gardening purposes and solar system for heating water.
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• Providing rainwater harvesting system in the building.

• Promoting recycle and reuse of water and conserving natural resources.
4. Conclusion
Looking at the existing scenario, accelerated urbanization in the Indian context imposes
immense pressure on the dwindling energy resources. However, the resource crunch
confronting the energy sector can be effectively alleviated if we plan, design and develop
human settlements and buildings by using appropriate strategies and incorporating sound
concepts of energy efficiency and sustainability.
Appropriate knowledge and technology is available for creating energy efficient and green
buildings but behavioral, organizational and financial barriers would need to be overcome for
achieving desired results. Adopting a holistic and integrated approach, shared accountability
and responsibility towards improved energy performance, promoting energy awareness
through education and motivation of professionals involved in the building industry would be
critical to promoting energy efficient buildings. Efficiency gains in buildings are likely to
provide the greatest energy reduction globally. It is estimated that demand reduction
measures could almost halve the expected growth in global electricity demand and carbon
dioxide emissions, from building energy use by 29 percent at no net cost by 2020 [1].
However, creating green buildings would involve the design community in order to create
energy efficient building designs; the financial community to support investment in energy
efficiency; the building industry to offer products and services for supporting designs
economically; building owners and operators to commission/support designs financially and
to encourage utilities that support intelligent distribution and sustainable content of energy to
and from buildings. It will require all stake holders to work together in a cooperative and
collaborative manner that in turn would require effective policies and programs to be put in
place on priority. Placing rational and objective policies based on ground realities for
promoting green buildings on priority, within a realistic time frame, would hold the key to
promote sustainability of buildings and cities.
References
1. Sankhe, S., et al (2010). India’s Urban Awaking: Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic
Growth. Mckinsey Global Institute.
2. IBC (2010). Indian Building Congress Journal.
3. Gupta, J. K. (2006). Energy Efficient Designs of Human Settlements. Architectural Society of
China, ACA-12.
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4. WBCSD (2008). Energy Efficiency in Buildings-Transforming the market. World Business

Council for Sustainable Development. http://www.wbcsd.org/work-program/sector-
projects/buildings.aspx
5. TERI (2001). Representative Designs of Energy-Efficient buildings in India. Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources and Tata Energy Research Institute.
6. www.greenconcepts.com
7. (2009). Green Source. July/August.
235
Zero Energy Buildings: A Cost Effective Solution
OJHA N. K., VOHARA Sarika

Construction Division, M. S. University, Vadodara, India
navinojha13@gmail.com, sarikavohara@gmail.com
Abstract. The concept of a net Zero Energy Building (ZEB) has gained international
attention during the last few years and is now seen as the future target for the design of
buildings. A zero energy building is one with reduced energy needs through efficiency gains
such that the balance of energy needs can be supplied with renewable technologies. Zero
energy buildings do use energy generated through fossil fuels but utilize green energy
generated on site through solar, wind, biomass or hybrid systems. The excess energy
generated is passed on to the energy grid and can be drawn as and when required. This results
in saving battery cost for storage of green energy for later use. Such buildings are known as
Energy-plus buildings. By using the grid to account for the energy balance, excess production
can offset later energy use. The cost-effective steps towards reduction in a building's energy
consumption occur during the design process that is a departure from conventional
construction practice. Successful zero energy building design combines time tested natural
conditioning designs or principles that work with the onsite assets. This can be achieved
through orientation of building, passive solar techniques in building design, envelope
measures, natural ways of cooling, equipment & system, and lighting to name some.
1. Introduction
A net Zero-Energy Building (ZEB) is a residential or commercial building with greatly

reduced energy needs through efficiency gains such that the balance of energy needs can be
supplied with renewable technologies [1]. Zero energy buildings can be defined and named in
many ways based on their architectural features, passive solar design, ways of operating and
construction material used. A building, which is water efficient, eco friendly, consumes less
energy and which has a better indoor environment quality can be termed as a Green building
[2]. A green building need not necessarily be a zero energy building but a zero energy
building needs to be a green building.
N. K. OJHA, S. VOHARA
The zero energy building is no more a concept of a future, but is a realistic solution for the
reduction of energy use in the building sector. The residential sector is a large consumer of
electrical energy. Green homes can have energy savings to the tune of 20-30 percent. Still 70-
80 percent energy required is drawn from fossil fuels, a rapidly depleting resource and the
world over. The use of fossil fuel for transportation has been a major source of pollution. The
pollution through thermal power plants has an adverse effect on the environment through the
release of carbon dioxide, global warming, rising sea level and heat waves. Nuclear power
may lead to catastrophic accidents as witnessed in Japan and Chernobyl besides waste
transportation & disposal issue. Hydroelectric resources tend to disrupt natural water flow
and disturbance of habitat and ecology of the environs.
Hence, renewable or green energy or zero energy approach is the only potential solution to
neutralize environmental issues, including reducing carbon emissions, dependence on oil
power, fuel imports, use of fossil fuels and provide a measure of energy security against
nearing fuel crisis. It also overcomes ever increasing cost of fossil fuels and its shortage too.
A large amount of energy is consumed in the operation of a building and this may be brought
down to increase profitability.
2. Overview
Necessity has led to zero energy building, also referred to as net zero building as they have
zero net consumption of energy/fuels measured in terms of cost, energy and carbon
emissions. They are dependent on green power or hybrid power which is renewable power
generated within the building. Some zero buildings divert excess green energy generated to
an electric substation through the energy grid and draw energy from the grid, when required.
This results in saving of battery cost for storage of green energy for later use. Such buildings
are known as Energy-plus buildings. It may also happen that the owner invests in green
power at some other place and diverts that power to the grid and draws the same quantum of
power or less than that at the building site from the grid.
This green energy has also to be utilized carefully. Proactive actions are taken for the
energy performance of the building and energy efficiency of building equipment so that the
operating cost of the building is minimized and the excess green power generated can be
diverted to reduce power generation through fossil fuels.
The breakup of energy consumption in the building starting from the higher order is in the
form of energy used for air conditioning, water heater, ventilation fans, miscellaneous
equipment and lighting. The focus area to reduce building energy consumption is air-
conditioning and water heater, which together consume 75 percent of the total consumption.
The solar heat reduction inside the building will ease down cooling load, which will
require lesser load of air-conditioning to achieve comfort level, which would have been on
higher side if the roof and envelope were not treated. The operation cost of the building can
be reduced by many ways, which are discussed in detail later in the paper.
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ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS: A COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION
3. Cost effective steps to reduce building energy consumption
The first and foremost step is to reduce building energy consumption through following focus
areas:
• Site selection
• Environmental architecture
• Energy simulation software
• Energy efficient building materials
• Energy efficient lighting
• Solar water heaters
• Water conservation
• Segregation of waste
• Other innovative measures (sustainable construction practices )
3.1. Site selection

Site selection plays a vital role in the energy performance of the building. The site should be
such that the building can be oriented in the best possible direction to reduce solar heat
ingress into the building. Project impact on the surroundings after construction can be
minimized by addressing heat island effects and reducing light pollution.
The disruption and pollution of natural water bodies is to be limited by managing quantity
and quality of storm water runoff. The impact on microclimate, human and wild life habitat is
to be minimized by reducing the thermal gradient between developed and undeveloped areas
on the ground. Light coloured open grid pavement is to be used with pervious surface for
parking lots, walkways, plazas etc.
The fallout of unrestrained human activity will result in global warming, green house
effect, ozone layer depletion, increased carbon dioxide levels, increased temperature, soil
erosion, flash floods and reduced ecological footprint. All this imparts solar heat ingress into
the building, which has to be curtailed.
3.2. Environmental architecture

The key issues that are of critical importance in the evolution of an environmentally
responsive architecture is an architecture aimed at achieving occupant thermal and visual
comfort with little or no recourse to non-renewable energy sources. Hence, the strategy of
building design will be based on the following: (a) analysis and inference to understand the
problem and its context, characterize important requirements, establish relative priorities and
to determine desired objectives; (b) application to formulate design strategies, to apply
strategies which establish relationships between architectural form, space and energy; and (c)
evaluation, to monitor the performance of the building, to evaluate the performance with
respect to the analysis of the requirements, priorities and objectives.
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Passive building design strategies enable to develop buildings that are comfortable with
very little or no use of any artificial device. These design concepts can be in the form of
passive heating, cooling and ventilation systems.
A passive heating system is based on the collection of naturally available energy, storage
of collected energy and use of stored energy in controlled fashion for achieving thermal
comfort. This is achieved by the use of solar energy, ambient energy and internal source of
heat.
Passive solar concepts are based on solar heat gain that is direct, indirect and a
combination of both. Indirect heat gain through normal glazed thermal storage wall and
trombe wall is very effective. The disadvantage of direct heat gain for space heating is that
the space gets heated up rapidly. Similarly, after sunset, space gets cooled rapidly too. In
contrast, a thermal storage wall for indirect heat gain absorbs solar radiation for several hours
before it begins to heat up the living space but it continues to provide heat even after sunset.
The most appropriate strategy for overcoming the disadvantages of individual direct and
indirect heat gain methods would be through a combination of direct and indirect gain
method through thermosiphon air panel, which is essentially a solar energy collector for air
heating without a storage medium that is usually fitted in the south wall of a building for
supplying warm air to building space.
Selection of proper orientation is also important to take advantage of prevailing breezes in
warm and humid climate and for prevention of hot winds in hot and dry climate. Buildings
arranged in clusters can be spaced such that they shade each other mutually. The amount and
effectiveness of the shading, however, depends on the type of building cluster. Shading by
trees and vegetation is a very effective method of cooling the ambient hot air and for
protecting the building from solar radiation.
As a result of the absorbed solar radiation and due to convective heat gain from the hotter
ambient air, the external surface of the building gets heated. This heat gets transmitted
through the building fabric to the internal envelope. Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF) also
called Solar Heat Factor (SHF) is an indication of the fraction of the heat of solar radiation
transmitted into the building. It is defined as the ratio of heat transmitted into the building to
the incident solar energy on that surface.
There are three basic principles that have to be intelligently used by architects for
achieving natural cooling in hot climates:
i. Reducing solar radiation that reaches the building envelope
ii. Reducing heat transmission through the building envelope
iii. Increasing heat losses from the building by convection, radiation and evaporation
In order to reduce the amount of solar radiation that reaches the building, the natural way is
to use the shade of neighboring buildings, provide water bodies, vegetation, overhangs and
louvers. Reflecting surfaces wherever possible and solar reflective coatings can also be
useful. A boundary of shrubs and/or trees around the house is very useful to effectively
reduce the speed and even the temperature of incoming hot winds. The planting material
notably trees can be carefully selected and it can be located in the appropriate direction to
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intercept solar heat and hot winds. The next step is to reduce heat transmission into the
building. In this context the use of air cavities within walls or an attic space in the roof,
ventilated cavities and thermal insulation reduces heat transmission. It is a well known fact
that the temperature of the earth a few metres below the surface remain constant and normally
equal to annual average temperature of the ambient air. It is due to this that cellars are cooler
in summer and warmer in winter. Building underground has been one of the traditional ways
that offer protection from the heat, besides also cooling the ambient air. The ambient air is
drawn into an earth air tunnel and the cold air is then discharged into the building.
Once the heat has been transmitted into the building, it has to be removed and discharged
to the outside atmosphere. The most natural way to remove heat is by ventilation, which can
be natural or forced. The arrangement, location and size of windows and ventilators play a
vital role in this regard. The use of courtyards is a common and effective way to discharge
heat and to create natural ventilation. Wind towers and air vents can also be used effectively.
Zero energy buildings are also designed to make dual use of energy by using refrigerator
exhaust to heat domestic water. Further, ventilation air and shower drain can also be used as
heat exchangers, besides office machines, computer servers and body heat being used to heat
the building. These buildings make use of heat energy that conventional buildings may
exhaust outside.
Ventilation plays an important role in passive cooling of the building. Air flow in a
building is either due to pressure differences caused by temperature differences (stack effect)
or due to pressure differences of the wind. Windows play a dominant role in inducing indoor
ventilation due to wind forces. There can be a number of other innovative ideas for passive
architectural design depending on site conditions. Natural ventilation systems should be
designed for occupied spaces to meet the recommendations set forth in the Carbon Trust
Good Practice Guide 237 [3]. Design of the natural ventilation systems meets the
recommendations set forth in the CIBSE Manual [4]. One can also use a macroscopic, multi-
zone, analytical model to predict that room-by-room airflows will effectively naturally
ventilate in accordance with the minimum ventilation rates of at least 90 percent of occupied
spaces as specified by ASHRAE [5]. For mechanically ventilated spaces, one must resort to
heat recovery, where appropriate, to minimize the additional energy consumption associated
with higher ventilation rates.
Excessive use of daylight is considered as a distinctive feature. Orientation of the building
has to be designed so as to get maximum natural sunlight during day time. Painting of interior
walls with light colours will ensure maximum reflection.
3.3. Energy simulation software

Energy simulation software are available to model the performance of the building (relative
to the daily and seasonal position of the sun) on a number of factors like window and door
type and placement, overhang depth, insulation type and values of the building elements, air
tightness, efficiency of heating, cooling, lighting and other equipment, as well as the local
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climate. These simulations help to predict how the building will perform before it is built and
enable the modeling of the economic implications on building. Each approach is worked out
with cost-benefit analysis, life cycle cost analysis and payback period.
The building envelope and building systems are designed to maximize energy performance
by using a computer simulation model to assess the energy performance and to identify the
most cost effective energy efficiency measures. Energy performance is quantified in
comparison to a baseline building and subsequently the percentage improvement in the
proposed building performance rating is calculated in comparison to the baseline building
performance rating, which can be as per ASHRAE/IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society
of North America) Standard 90.1-2004 (without amendments) or the final version of ECBC
(Energy Conservation Building Code) of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), India,
whichever is stringent [6, 7]. The use of software facilitates achieving the best orientation for
minimum solar heat ingress, maximum daylighting and optimum use of envelope, which
necessarily may not be similar on all the sides of the building [8, 9].
3.4. Energy efficient building materials

The thermal capacity of the building material can delay the entry of heat and reduce the
temperature amplitude inside (difference between maximum and minimum temperature). The
thermal storage effect increases with increasing compactness, density and specific heat of the
materials. This is the reason why the temperature of the ocean fluctuates by only a small
range during the year, whereas a thin metal sheet immediately assumes the temperature of the
ambient air. All building elements, such as walls, roof and floor can be used for thermal
storage. In order to dampen the effect of diurnal variations of the exterior environment and
thus maintain the internal temperature at a relatively constant value, a heavy wall is used.
This wall can store heat and has the ability to resist heat flow. The most effective way of
maximizing these two properties in a building is to use a combination of materials, with one
having a large thermal capacity (concrete, brick etc.) and the other with low thermal
conductivity or high resistance to heat flow (such as expanded polystyrene). Insulation is an
ideal way to reduce the effect of diurnal temperature fluctuations.
The cooling load components of the building i.e. the break-up of the heat gain through
various building components is as follows:
• Wall conduction 38-40 percent
• Glazing conduction 8-10 percent
• Internal gains (light, people, computers, etc.) 5-10 percent
• Roof conduction 43-45 percent
Hence, more attention is to be paid to the envelope and roof of the building, which attracts
almost more than 90 percent of solar heat. Hence material with lower U value i.e. heat
transmission in unit time through unit area of a material, boundary air films induced by unit
temperature difference between the environments on each side and high Solar Reflective
Index (SRI) can be used to prevent solar heat ingress. Another method is to install high
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albedo and vegetated roof surface. Further, building material must be carefully selected for its
various thermo physical properties such as R value (Measure of resistance of material to heat
flow), U value, SRI, emmitivity, absorptivity and reflectivity to name some.
3.5. Energy efficient lighting
3.5.1. Low cost measures
These low cost measures are being selectively implemented in all categories of buildings.
• Providing electronic chokes: chokes help to induce high voltage and complete the circuit
between two terminals of a tube rod. Electronic chokes reduce the voltage drop in the
choke and hence reduce the power consumption. It is discouraged to purchase copper
chokes. Thus, whenever an existing choke is burnt out, the same is replaced with
electronic chokes or the complete fixtures are being replaced with T-5 (28 watts) tube and
fixtures.
• Separate light switches from group control to individual control: Group control light
circuits are rewired to provide individual controls so that only minimum numbers of
lights are switched on actual need basis.
• Switching off lights through sensors/timers: In spaces like office buildings, senior
executive chambers, passages, wash areas and other randomly occupied spaces,
occupancy. Sensors are provided to switch ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ the lights. Timers and Nature
Switches are provided for compound lighting and common area lighting.
• Power Improvement Factor (PIF): The power factor of an AC electric power system is
defined as the ratio of the true power flowing to the load over the apparent power in the
circuit and is dimensionless number between 0 and 1. As a result of energy survey and
monitoring of energy bills, the power factor can be improved by providing additional
capacitors namely Automatic Power Factor Control (APFC) or by replacement of
defective capacitors so that the power factor is more than 0.98 likely to be unity.
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) indicators in panels & in all sign boards: the conventional
indicator lamps in panels and sign boards are to be replaced with (LED) lamps that can
also be used as lighting fixtures.
• Use of dimmers/dali system: spaces such as conference halls should be provided with
dimmer systems. For example, in a state-of-the-art conference hall, “Hall of Inspiration”
at Chennai, the dimmer controllers were provided to offer a variety of scene settings. The
dimmer system along with suitable luminaires with dimmable chokes offers a highly
flexible programmable lighting system for lighting levels from 0 to 100 percent. The
system offers a saving of up to 30 percent in energy over conventional lighting design
and thus is a cost effective lighting solution for spaces like conference halls.
• Replacement of discolored reflectors, shades & their timely cleaning: Discolored
reflectors and shades are replaced as a part of the energy survey to restore the designed
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lighting levels. As a part of the energy conservation campaign, the electric maintenance
staff is motivated for timely cleanliness of luminaires.
3.5.2. High cost measures
• Automation and building management system: Building management system is used in

the lighting system for centralized monitoring and controlling of the operations. Use of
occupancy sensors, photo sensors, timers, dali and dimmable blast are planned for the
building. The lighting system is integrated with building management system for
programmed switching on/off of lights in various areas/zones based on occupancy, day
light, time of the day and holiday schedules.
• Commissioning: It is essential to verify and ensure that the entire building is designed,
constructed, and calibrated to operate as intended.
• Energy auditing: Detailed energy auditing is carried out by certified energy auditors.
Lighting installations in buildings can be upgraded to meet the Energy Conservation
Building Code (ECBC) 2006 guidelines [10]. Provision can be made for the ongoing
accountability of building energy consumption performance over time. Further, a
Measurement & Verification (M & V) Plan can be developed and implemented that is
consistent with calibrated simulation or energy conservation measure isolation, as
specified in the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol
(IPMVP) [11]. The M &V period shall cover a period of no less than one year of post-
construction occupancy.
Even though various energy conservation measures/strategies as indicated have been
adopted, yet, the quality and life of some energy efficient lamps (T-5) and electronic chokes
are not as per the parameters claimed by the manufacturers. The energy labeling programme
(Star Rating) of BEE will go a long way in improving the quality and life of these energy
efficient lamps and chokes. Continuous monitoring, energy surveys and re-auditing is
necessary to retain the cost effectiveness of energy conservation measures.
3.6. Solar water heaters

As stated earlier, hot water is also major source of energy consumption, which can be reduced
to zero level by placing solar water heater. These panels can be placed on terrace, which can
also act as shading device on terrace to prevent solar heat ingress in the building through roof.
3.7. Water conservation

Water conservation also plays an important role in zero building design. The lesser the
amount of water used, the lesser will be the energy required for pumping and by extension,
lesser green energy will be generated and utilized.
Water conservation has been achieved by experimenting with three Rs notably Reduce,
Recharge and Reuse. There are many ways of achieving water conservation that also depend
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on site and climatic conditions. Further, there are many innovative ways of achieving the
three Rs. Water consumption can be reduced by monitoring water use, prevention of losses
and through water-efficient management techniques such as, providing a main control valve,
moisture sensor controller, segregating the turf and each type of bedding area into
independent zones based on watering needs, drip irrigation, time based controller, use of
pressure regulating devices to maintain optimal pressure to prevent water loss and many other
innovative methods for watering. Irrigation water can also be conserved through drought
tolerant species that do not require supplemental irrigation, bio-dynamic farming and
hydroponics.
Efficient plumbing fixtures, faucets with low flow aerators and taps having 10-12 litres per
minute (LPM) and 6-8 litres per flush (LPF), touchless sensors, waterless urinals can also
contribute to water conservation. Falling rain can provide some of the cleanest naturally
occurring water that is available anywhere. It can be stored in underground sump beneath the
living area. This will provide geo-thermal cooling, cost of sump can be reduced and harvested
water can be directly connected to a hand pump in the kitchen sink, which will save energy
for pumping and the house can never be without water on any day under any circumstance.
Grey water can be treated and reused for flushing and irrigation, thereby reducing
consumption of potable water and also reduces load on municipalities to treat sewage. One
can also design zero discharge building. Here black soil can be treated to get organic
fertilizers. Bio-gasifiers can be used to obtain methane gas, which can be further used to run
generator set for green energy.
3.8. Segregation of waste

Implement aggressive post occupancy waste management plan to segregate waste produced.
Collect organic waste produced separately. Also collect waste in form of leaves and wood.
This organic waste can be utilized to generate bio-gas and organic fertilizers.
4. Generating green energy
We have observed and taken steps to reduce energy consumption in the building, which is the
first step towards Zero energy Building. Now the second step will be to generate Green
power to meet with the energy demand. Steps to be taken to make sure that maximum of
Green energy to be generated if it is not adding to the cost. The excess of energy generated
can be diverted to electric grid and can be withdrawn whenever required. Generated energy
can also be stored in batteries. Green Power can be generated in following ways.
4.1. Solar power system

Solar power system can be designed to generate power from the “abundant and free” natural
source, the sun rooftops standard power packs comprise of arrays of Photovoltaic (PV) cells,
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which uses the solar energy directly from the sun to generate electricity for daily use. It can
be in form of following systems:
• Standardized and modular systems built around benchmark performance
parameters.
• Harmonized components delivering increased efficiency.
• Grid tied/interactive systems for maximum utilization of power.
• Standardized products to improve performance ensure zero-maintenance and
allow for improvised services couple with longer warranties.
• Superior power management electronics to allow for a longer life and to ensure
optimum power performance.
• Integration with existing power systems to facilitate the replacement of regular
invertors.
• It can be grid-tied/off-grid and can be custom designed with PV modules
integrated in them, which convert the solar energy directly into electricity with
grid-tied as well as off-grid features.
• It can also be in the form of building integrated PV system, which can be :
– Incorporated in a building as a part of the building structure.
– In new building, PV system can be built-in at the design and construction
stage.
– They can be retrofitted on existing buildings as well.
– It can be integrated in every possible structure –from bus shelters to high rise
buildings.
– It can be used as part of the building envelope, a building in three basic
ways: facade-integrated PV system, curtain walls, and semi transparent PV
windows, roof-integrated PV system, PV systems can also be used as
shadowing systems.
• Solar power can also be used as solar garden lights, solar lights for common areas of
buildings, solar lanterns, torch, cap, street lights, sign board, solar water pumping,
solar based industrial hot water heating systems, etc.
4.2. Solar cooker

Dish solar cookers with a provision of direct cooking system or steam cooking system.
4.3. Bio-mass
Biomass gasification is basically conversion of solid fuels into a combustible gas mixture
normally called Producer Gas. Solid biomass fuels which are usually inconvenient and have
low efficiency of utilization can thus be converted into a high quality, gaseous fuel with
associated convenience etc.
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There is availability of cheap, abundant raw material in form of organic waste from
kitchen, gardens and sewage with no Sulpher compound emission. It reduces Green House
Effect and is Efficient, Reliable &Affordable with easy operation & maintenance. It is
cheaper Energy production replacement of petroleum product for wide variety of thermal
applications. It has grid connected power generation facility. The by-product can be used as
fertilizers.
4.4. Solar fence

Solar fencing is the modern day alternative to the conventional type of perimeter protection.
These are active fences and punish the unwelcome intruder the moment they touches the
fence or try to tamper the fence. The conventional types of fences are only passive fences and
cannot resist the intruder if they try to forcibly intrude into the protected area. The solar fence
gives a sharp, short but a safe shock and creates psychological fear. Against any tampering
the alarm incorporated in the system gets activated and alerts the inmates of the protected
area, which facilitates them to counter the unwelcome intruders.
The solar fence is scientific fence and works on solar energy with backup facility to run
uninterruptedly during the nights as well as cloudy days. The whole system can be derived
into two segments, one is the central control unit or solar power generating system with
Crown CS250 unit and the other one is the fence. The solar photovoltaic module converts the
sunshine into electrical energy and sends them to the Crown CS250 unit through a backup
battery [12]. The Crown CS250 unit takes 12V supply as input and energizes the same into
high volt pulses in the range of about 7000 volts. These pulses will travel through the fencing
wires at regular interval of 1.2 second and the duration of each pulse will be 3 milli seconds.
Solar fencing is not fatal or harmful as these system works only on solar power DC with low
amps current i.e., 300 milli amps4.5.
4.5 Wind into watts

The wind systems that exist over the earth’s surface are a result of variations in air pressure.
These are in turn due to the variations in solar heating. Warm air rises and cooler air rushes in
to take its place. Wind is merely the movement of air from one place to another. There are
global wind patterns related to large scale solar heating of different regions of the earth’s
surface and seasonal variations in solar incidence. There are also localised wind patterns due
to the effects of temperature differences between land and seas, or mountains and valleys.
Wind speed generally increases with height above ground. This is because the roughness of
ground features such as vegetation and houses cause the wind to be slowed. Wind speed data
can be obtained from wind maps or from the meteorology office.
The power in the wind is proportional to:
• The area of windmill being swept by the wind
• The cube of the wind speed
• The air density - which varies with altitude
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The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is shown below:
Power = 0.5 Air Density x Swept Area x Velocity3, P = 0.5.ρ.A.V3
Where, P is power in watts (W), ρ is the air density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3),
A is the swept rotor area in square meters (m2).
Although the power equation above gives us the power in the wind, the actual power that we
can extract from the wind is significantly less than this figure suggests. The actual power will
depend on several factors, such as the type of machine and rotor used, the sophistication of
blade design, friction losses, and the losses in the pump or other equipment connected to the
wind machine. There are also physical limits to the amount of power that can be extracted
realistically from the wind. It can be shown theoretically that any windmill can only possibly
extract a maximum of 59.3 percent of the power from the wind (this is known as the Betz
limit). In reality, this figure is usually around 45 percent (maximum) for a large electricity
producing turbine and around 30 percent to 40 percent for a wind pump. So, modifying the
formula for ‘Power in the wind’ we can say that the power which is produced by the wind
machine can be given by: PM = 0.5.Cp.ρ.A.V3, where, PM is power (in watts) available from
the machine. Cp is the coefficient of performance of the wind machine.
It is also worth bearing in mind that a wind machine will only operate at its maximum
efficiency for a fraction of the time it is running, due to variations in wind speed. A rough
estimate of the output from a wind machine can be obtained using the following equation:
PA = 0.2 A V3
where, PA is the average power output in watts over the year, V is the mean annual wind
speed in m/s and A is the Area Swept by Rotor in square meters (m2).
5. Conclusion
The zero energy building is a complex issue with number of approaches for various aspects of
Zero Energy Building. Furthermore, the energy balance calculation of a building equipped
with on-site and or off-site renewable energy generation systems and or interacting with the
utility grid and striving to fulfill ‘zero’ goal is not an easy task. Hence Zero energy buildings
starts with architectural and engineering input the best performance of building against solar
heat and energy efficient building. This reduces net energy consumption i.e. demand load in
the building is reduced. Connected load is reduced too. Hence green energy required to
operate building is minimized. The zero energy buildings can be achieved by various ways
and means. There cannot be a particular copy book style. It depends on following criteria.
The zero energy buildings has an additional cost do costs more as compared to
conventional building. This additional cost can be recovered through savings, which is shown
in payback period and cost benefit ratio. It is necessary to calculate cost benefit ratio, life
cycle and payback period. Understanding/knowledge of features adopted, its use and benefits
by the user and the visitors is also equally important.
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The zero energy building is not necessarily a residential building. It can be commercial,
industrial, institutional or any other type of building.
6. Acknowledgement
The research work and the knowledge gained in green building in last three years are
dedicated to Mr Anand Vohara and Ms Nidhi Ojha. Their constant monitoring and
observations on the work being done has made this possible today. I am also obliged to Ms
Shilpi Sharma, who was instrumental to take up green buildings and Indian Green Building
Council helped me to understand and implement this subject matter.
References
1. Torcellini, P., Shanti, P., & Deru, M. (2006). Zero Energy Buildings: A Critical Look at the
Definition. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U. S. Dept of Energy, Conference paper
NREL/CP-550-39833.2.
2. Indian Green Building Council, www.igbc.in
3. Carbon Trust (1998). Energy Efficiency – Best Practice Programme (EEBPP)- Good Practice
Guide 237: Natural Ventilation in Non Domestic Buildings. Carbon Trust.
4. CIBSE (2005). Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings, Applications Manual 10. Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE).
5. ASHRAE (2004). Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality – Part 3 Chapter 6,
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers.
6. ASHRAE. (2001). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2001 Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers.
7. BEE (2007). Energy Conservation Building Code, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of
Power, Government of India, New Delhi.
8. Ecotect. http://usa.autodesk.com/adsk/servlet/pc/index?id=12602821&siteID=123112
9. eQUEST. doe2.com/equest.
10. BEE (2009). Energy Conservation Building Code User Guide, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New
Delhi. http://www.emt-india.net/ECBC/ECBC-UserGuide/ECBC-UserGuide.pdf.
11. IPMVP (2003). Concepts and Options for Determining Energy Savings in New Construction
Volume III. International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol.
12. http://www.crownsolarfence.com/
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Lighting as a Tool to Mitigate Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Carbon
Neutral Approach
VEDAMUTHU Ranee, JEYARADHA Jayaram

Anna University, Chennai, India
raneev@annauniv.edu, jradhajram@gmail.com
Abstract. Lighting in various sectors accounts for 15 percent energy consumption in India, as
against 7-10 percent in developed countries. Lighting is also responsible for greenhouse gas
emissions (especially carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere. This paper deals about how
lighting design can influence mitigation of carbon dioxide emissions by carbon neutral
principles. Carbon neutrality in lighting design can be achieved by integrating natural and
electric lighting very effectively.
1. Introduction
The Central Electricity Authority of India has calculated that approximately 5,177 million
kilowatt hours per year are used for public lighting [1]. This represents 1.09 percent of actual
electricity consumption for the country as a whole. Energy consumption by lighting in the
Indian residential sector is 28 percent and commercial sector is 60 percent. The major source
of carbon dioxide emissions from the cities is the combustion of fossil fuels for electricity
generation for lighting, cooling, and water pumping in both commercial and residential
sectors and from the fossil fuels being used up during transportation, cooking and generators.
Once CO2 gets into the atmosphere, it stays there for over 100 years and continues to cause
global warming.
2. Carbon and carbon dioxide (CO2)
To understand carbon neutral design, it is important to study the basics of carbon and how it
is related to building industry.
R. VEDAMUTHU, J. JEYARADHA
2.1. Embodied Carbon (EC)

Embodied carbon refers to the energy consumed and also the resultant carbon emissions
associated with the production / manufacture of all the materials used in the construction of a
new building (including transport of raw materials and manufactured component).
2.2. Construction Carbon (CC)

Construction carbon refers to the amount of carbon created through the building process –
site development, construction, installation, site equipment, site labour, material delivery,
energy used on site.
2.3. Operating / running / in use Carbon (RC)

Operating or running carbon refers to the amount of carbon created by the building over the
complete lifespan looking at each material and product - cleaning, repairs, renovation,
refurbishment, redecoration, maintenance.
2.4. Post construction Carbon (PC)
Post construction carbon refers to the amount of carbon created at the end of the building
lifespan looking at removing each material and product.
This could be demolition, disposal and preparation of the land for the next construction or
deconstruction and dismantling for salvage, recycling, reuse and reclaim.
2.5. Carbon dioxide

CO2 is used as the reference gas against which the other greenhouse gases are measured since
it has the smallest Global Warming Potential (GWP). CO2 emissions are reported in CO2e;
the standard unit is Mt CO2e or metric tons or tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e). The
global warming impact of all greenhouse gases is measured in terms of equivalency to the
impact of carbon dioxide (CO2) via global warming potentials. For example, one million tons
of emitted methane, a far more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, is measured as 23
million metric tons of CO2 equivalent, or 23 million Mt CO2e.
3. Energy use and CO2
In India, per capita electricity consumption is about 630 kWh, energy consumption in
residential sector is 116 billion units and in commercial section 33 billion units [2] (Figure 1).
Energy use in the buildings sector was responsible for 7.85 Gt Carbon dioxide emissions in
2002 [3] equivalent to 33 percent of the global total of energy-related emissions. The
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LIGHTING AS A TOOL TO MITIGATE CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS: A CARBON NEUTRAL…
emission of CO2 in Indian cities ranges between 0.3 tons per capita to 2.25 tons per capita,
which is much lower than the global average. India’s carbon dioxide emissions are only 5
percent of the world emissions whereas China’s is 22 percent in the year 2008. According to
the Fourth Assessment Report (chapter 3) of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
(IPCC), emissions are to decline before 2015 and should be reduced to less than 50 percent of
their emissions by 2050 [3]. This figure could be reduced by 40 to 60 percent with energy
efficient technologies and control systems. India has already announced that it will reduce the
emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25 percent over the 2005 levels by the year 2020,
through pursuit of proactive policies. Hence, suitable measures could be taken in India to
prevent further emissions in the future.
Fig.1a.Energy consumption in residential Fig.1b.Energy consumption in commercial

sector116 billion units [2] buildings, 33 billion units, 2004 [2]
4. Mitigation measures
The carbon dioxide reduction measures are of two types: supply side and demand side
measures [4]. Supply side measure refers to the reduction of carbon intensity of electrical and
heat production. At the demand side, it refers to the reduction of energy intensity in the end
use technologies, appliances and devices for residential, industrial and commercial
applications, reduction of demand for energy for transport services, as well as decline in
transport fuel demand. Since buildings and industries contribute to a major percentage of
emission into the atmosphere, it is the responsibility of architects and stakeholders to mitigate
emissions by adopting carbon neutrality principles in buildings.
5. What is carbon neutrality?
Carbon neutrality [5] refers to the practices followed to achieve net zero carbon emissions by
balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or
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offset. Carbon positive refers to positive contributions from human activities to atmosphere,
like, producing more energy from renewable resources and feeding it to grid. Carbon-neutral
design standards represent the future of the building industry, as highlighted by the IPCC,
which identifies integrated building design as a “key mitigation technology” that needs to be
commercialized before 2030 if we are to avert catastrophic global climate change. In
response to this imperative, architectural design and hence architectural design education
demands to be reformed to make climate responsive, ‘zero-emissions’ architecture a baseline
of creative practice.
To build a carbon neutral, a paradigm shift from the classic 3 Rs, Reduce, Reuse and
Recycle, to Reduce, Renew and Offset, is suggested:
• Reduce - build less, protect natural ecosystems, build smarter, and build efficiently.
• Renew - use renewable energy, restore native ecosystems, replenish natural building
materials, use recycled and recyclable materials.
• Offset - compensate for the carbon you can't eliminate, focus on local offset projects.
Carbon offsetting is gaining popularity, but it needs to be remembered that purchased
offsets cannot be generated in adequate quantity to perpetuate and sustain our current
practices.
Carbon neutral design [5] has the following four principles:
• Reduce the energy demand
• Meet loads effectively and efficiently
• Incorporate energy efficient technologies
• Offset carbon equivalents in other activities
5.1. Meet loads effectively and efficiently
5.1.1. Load management and load shedding
Electrical load in buildings refers to the demand for energy for lighting, motors and
communication equipments. These loads vary in voltage and during times of use. Peak load
management can be done by rescheduling of large electric loads in different shifts and
implementing to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. Reducing the electric grid
peak demand is known as load shedding. Electric power is cut off in certain lines of power
transformers when the demand approaches the system capacity in a process. This can be done
by installing demand-monitoring systems, which will switch off when a preset maximum
load is reached. Simple systems send an alarm and loads are shed manually [6].
For every increase in lighting level by 10 lux, the lighting load increases by 3.5 percent [7].
5.1.2. Maximum demand control
The electricity boards exercise power tariff structures to end users in order to control the
maximum demand capacity. The measures are time of use tariff, penalties on exceeding
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maximum demand, night tariff concessions, etc. Load management is a means of efficiently
meeting the maximum demand of the end user and the utility.
5.1.3. Dimming controls
According to light research center studies, load responsive lighting can be designed by using
dimming controls. Dimming up to 40 percent in brief periods is acceptable in offices with
relatively low daylight and 80 percent with daylight. Dimming can play a significant role in
peak load demand reduction. Load shedding ballast is instant start ballast with bi -level
dimming [8] and built in power line carrier. It has a power reduction by 33 percent and is
economical. Dimming can be done in fluorescent, incandescent and high intensity discharge
lamps using manual or programmable dimmers [9]. The advantage of dimmers is that
dimming can be done without the awareness of occupants and quality of lighting
compromised.
The efficiency of lighting source is indicated by luminous efficacy of the lamp. Target
luminous efficacy of the light source is the ratio of the lumens that can be made available in
the work plane under best luminous efficacy of source, room reflectance, mounting height
and the power consumption of the lamp circuit. Light emitting diode (LED) has a luminous
efficacy of 60-92 lm/watt [10] and higher luminaries’ efficiency than any other lamps. LED
gives only light and does not release heat, which does not affect the air conditioning load.
Efficiency of luminaries can be enhanced by retrofitting- replacing old lamps with energy
efficient lamps which release less heat, cleaning and maintaining to remove dust and dirt.
5.2. Incorporate energy efficient technologies

A Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) uses about 75 percent less energy than an incandescent
bulb [11]. This means that the same amount of light can be generated using 1/5 of the power.
Over the lifetime of one 18W compact fluorescent lamp (the equivalent of a 100W
incandescent), which is approximately ten thousand hours, therefore, a saving of 800kWhrs
of electricity will be achieved. When one 100w incandescent lamp is replaced by a 20 W
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), the annual carbon dioxide emission is reduced by 84 kg and
the annual electricity bill by Rs. 400/- [10]. When one fan and an incandescent bulb are
switched off, 28 kg of CO2 emission is reduced per household per year. From an
environmental perspective, approximately 800kg [12] of CO2 will be saved over the lifetime
of one CFL as compared to an equivalent incandescent, assuming that the electricity source is
a coal based power station. LEDs have a life span of 20 times that of an incandescent bulb
and if designed properly, a LED circuit can have 80 percent efficiency (which means 80
percent of electrical energy can be converted to light energy).
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5.2.1. Street lighting
Street lights can use LED slashing energy use by 52 percent over Mercury vapor (138W) and
26 percent over a high-pressure sodium fixture (90W). They have a higher efficacy of 50
lm/W compared to mercury vapor’s 31lm /W contributing to energy savings. Another virtue
of LED-based street lighting is the ability to eliminate hot spots and wasted light. This degree
of control over the light distribution – a byproduct of the LED form factor itself - not only
improves safety and visibility but also reduces the lumen requirements of the luminaire.
Consequently, the use of LEDs delivers energy savings above and beyond that made possible
by their low power demands. LED street lights reduce pollution and carbon footprint by
energy savings that lowers carbon dioxide and mercury emissions from coal-burning plants,
as well as reduced fuel consumption by maintenance crews dispatched for bulb replacement.
5.2.2. Energy efficiency schemes in India
The Ministry of Power, Government of India, has formulated “Bachat lamp yojana” (lamp
saving scheme) in domestic sector to replace incandescent lamps by CFLs in a discounted
price. The reduction in the price will be met by the carbon credits through clean development
mechanism under the Kyoto protocol. At present, Energy Star labeling is made mandatory
only to four products like refrigerators, air conditioners, tube lights and distribution
transformers and anything below one star cannot be manufactured and sold as part of the
Energy Conservation Act, 2001. In the future, carbon neutral appliances should be made
mandatory likewise.
5.2.3. Renewable energy
Integration of renewable energy resources like solar or wind energy for lighting helps in
conserving energy. It is clean and environmental friendly. Lights with integrated solar panels
for road side lighting, solar lanterns, building integrated photovoltaic on the window glazing
or on the roof top can help save energy.
5.2.4. Controls and sensors
Time controls can be used to save energy by prescheduled timing, which reduces lighting
time of use. Time controls may be simple time switches or special purpose time control
switches time. Occupancy sensors switch off light when there are no occupants in the room.
In offices and institutions, where the rooms are left unattended, use of occupancy sensors can
save around 25-50 percent lighting energy.
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5.3. Offset carbon equivalents in other activities

A carbon offset [13] negates or ‘neutralizes’ a ton of CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent)
emitted in one place by avoiding the release of a ton of CO2e elsewhere or absorbing /
sequestering a ton of CO2e that would have otherwise remained in the atmosphere. Carbon
offsets are created through various types of projects, such as renewable energy, energy
efficiency, destruction of various industrial gases, and carbon sequestration underground or in
soils and forests. A project does not necessarily have to offset CO2 (carbon dioxide), but can
also offset a variety of other greenhouse gasses (GHGs), such as methane and
hydrofluorocarbons. These greenhouse gas offset projects in turn generate carbon/GHG
credits or emission reductions, which can be purchased by individuals or organizations to
neutralize their greenhouse gas emissions. These carbon offsets can be traded with other
parties within or outside the country.
5.3.1. Products
One of the recent advancements is the introduction of the first carbon neutral bulb, which
combines the advantages of CFL along with free carbon offsets. The Philips SpeedStar [14]
LED road lighting luminaire has been awarded a certificate of carbon neutrality. The
certificate acknowledges that the emissions of carbon caused by the production and recycling
of the fitting, have been offset by investing in greenhouse gas reduction projects from the
Climate Neutral Group.
6. Case study
Masdar City in Abu Dhabi, designed by Foster and Partners, is developing into the world’s
first carbon neutral and zero-waste city. A typical street will be sheltered from most direct
sunlight with solar panels overhead built into the walls of buildings will provide power. Solar
panels on the roofs provide sun protection in public spaces between buildings. A 75 percent
reduction in energy consumption compared with a conventional city of the same size. The
energy that is used will come almost entirely from solar with wind and power from
technology that converts garbage into fuel contributing smaller amounts.
Active day lighting system is a system, which mechanically tracks the sun and redirects the
sunlight inside the building with such an intensity to reduce the use of electric light. The
active day lighting system from 3M and Targetti [15] uses a collector with a sun tracking
mirror array to provide maximum and constant illumination. The system measures the light
intensity in the room and either defocuses part of the mirror array to avoid excessive light on
a clear day or illuminates integrated backup fluorescent lights installed in the light duct to
provide illumination in low daylight or night conditions. The system emits the collected
daylight through a 12m-long lighting duct. It replaces six conventional fluorescent light
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fixtures with a total capacity of 432W and is set to deliver a constant illumination of 500 lux
to office workspaces.
SolatubeTM Daylight-capturing dome lenses and in-dome reflectors redirect low-angle
sunlight and reject overpowering summer midday sunlight to provide consistent lighting
throughout the day. The system measures the light intensity in the room and either closes a
damper to avoid excessive light on a clear day or uses the integrated electric light kit to
provide additional illumination in low daylight and night conditions. Office occupants enjoy
natural daylight for improved quality of life, while also registering reduced electricity
consumption.
7. Conclusion
Carbon neutral approach is still in the experimental stages in the lighting industry. In the
future, however, carbon reduction measures would be a mandatory standard in all sectors like
the energy efficiency standards. The aim of carbon neutrality is not only the mitigation of
green house gases, but also to encourage renewable energy resources in a larger scale. India’s
carbon emission projection in 2050 is 11.7 percent of the global total whereas in case of
China it is 25.6 percent [12]. Issue of carbon emission reduction certificates or carbon offsets
are useful in carbon trading in the international markets. Carbon neutral measures in the
lighting sector can prove to be environmental friendly (reducing carbon footprint in the
environment), energy efficient, managing peak loads and cost saving.
References
1. WB (2009). Energy Efficient Street Lighting Carbon Offset Project. World Bank. http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/05/11/000333037_20090
511013659/Rendered/PDF/484630In0PID0energy0efficient0Box338909B.
2. Gupta, R. & Chandiwala. (2010). A critical and comparative evaluation of approaches and policies
to measure, benchmark, reduce and manage CO2 emissions from energy use in the existing
building stock of developed and rapidly-developing countries -case studies of UK, USA, and
India, Cities and Climate Change: Responding to an urgent agenda. The World Bank, Washington,
USA. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/336387-
1256566800920/gupta.pdf.
3. Metz, B., Davidson O. R., Bosch, P. R., Dave, R., & Meyer, L. A. (eds) (2007). Contribution of
Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge University Press, UK and New York, NY, USA.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/contents.html.
258
4. Dinica, V. (2002). Energy policies for CO2 reduction. In Yotova, A. (ed) Natural resource system
challenge II –Climate Change, human systems and policy, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems,
EOLSS Publishers Co. Oxford, UK. http://weblx030.civ.utwente.nl/cstm/staff/cv/dinica/eolss.pdf.
5. Boake T. M. (2011). Zero is a number: carbon neutral design pushes the science back into the
building envelope. The 13th Canadian conference on building science and technology, the future of
the building envelope: building upon our past.
http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/faculty_projects/terri/pdf/NBEC-zero_paper.pdf
6. Shokooh, S., Khandelwal T.et al. (2005). Intelligent Load Shedding Need for a Fast and Optimal
Solution Electrical systems, IEEE PCIC Europe.
7. http://www.teriin.org/ResUpdate/reep/reep_lighting.pdf
8. Kumar, P. (n.d.). Energy efficiency in artificial lighting. The Energy Resource Institute.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/eep_light_controls.html
9. The role of dimmable lighting in demand-responsive buildings. http://www.nrc-
cnrc.gc.ca/obj/irc/doc/pubs/nrcc51210/nrcc51210.pdf
10. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/energy_efficiency_white_leds.pdf
11. http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5920
12. http://www.energycommunity.org/documents/SEA5.Energy%20efficient%20lighting
%20implementation.pdf
13. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00268.pdf.
14. http://www.lighting.co.uk/news/philips-speedstar-carbon-neutral/8612834.article
15. http://www.thefuturebuild.com/brochures/page-files/files/Masdar_City_exploring.pdf.
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ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN EXEMPLARS
Occupant Comfort and Climate Sensitive Architecture

Sangeet Sharma
Green Building Initiatives at Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram

University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Shashank Bhargava
Learning from the Past: Passive Solar Architecture in

Hot Dry Regions
Kishor P. Rewatkar, Priyanka K. Rewatkar
Passive Approach for Achieving Energy Efficiency in a

Commercial Building
Shreyasi Ansingkar, Pradnya Nesarikar, Pratibha Chincholikar
Shading of Buildings: A Cost-Effective Solution for

Saving Energy in Hot Tropical Regions
Amitava Sarkar
Capitalizing on Energy Efficiency in Buildings through

Bioclimatic Design
Rashmi Ashtt, Ajay Monga
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Occupant Comfort and Climate Sensitive Architecture
SHARMA Sangeet
SD Sharma & Associates, Chandigarh, India
www.sangeetsharma.com
Abstract. The need of the hour is sustainable architecture. The contemporary need to be
sustainable is not only the most appropriate but also relevant considering the fact that the
manner in which buildings are now being designed and cities are being built, have emerged
as major consumers of energy and resources besides being generators of large amounts of
waste which are impacting the local and global sustainability to a large extent. In the given
context, population, poverty and pollution have emerged as major threat to human
sustainability, which needs to be tackled on priority by all professionals, administrators and
stakeholders. Holding this conference is no doubt, a small but valuable step to improve our
ecology and environment besides ensuring that all human beings lead a dignified life.
1. Sustainability
The word “sustain” means to thrive under a given set of conditions, to endure. The term
sustainability implies a state where existence occurs in set conditions. This term is
extensively being used today in the context of architecture. Sustainability in architecture may
be a new term but the concept underlying it, is ages old. From the pages of the past, we can
trace the footprints of sustainable building culture. Sustainability in architecture is nothing
but building in such a fashion that the natural environment is not disturbed and is conditioned
to derive more benefit to the building, instead of being harmed by the latter. In short, it is
about maintaining the green cover on the surface of the earth in addition to architectural
development.
Architect’s role is significant as architects are the modern wizards, creating masterpieces in
the shape of new buildings, which are beyond imagination. This era is, indeed, a dream come
true for the designers, where they can breathe free and erect edifices which match the
economic suitability and the lifestyles of the clients. Moreover, the architectural revolution
S. SHARMA
has also endowed the architects and builders with the power of influencing the lifestyles of
people as a whole.
The chemical equation from which an architecture emerges – the array of circumstances
and events which prompts a building project, and entrains workers, energies, talents and skills
into itself and, finally, bears the completed building out of itself is not always self-evident. In
fact, most buildings are the mute bearers of a hidden narrative. Like any collective activity,
the creation of architecture embraces a complexity of interacting factors. A building is the
product of multifarious influences, and individual ways of seeing and ways of knowing. Seen
in this way, it can be considered as a built memory: an artifact, which has materialized out of
sometimes problematic and sometimes opportunistic circumstances.
Let us understand the man and his environment. In an endeavour to live well (read
comfortably) man has been alienating himself from natural surroundings. Simple free
amenities available in nature like air, water, sun, wind, rain have all suddenly become a
luxury. We spend thousands and go miles to enjoy the same rain and water, which were
always there behind the windowpane. Therefore, all designs must cater to the goal or
destination that is man, where the human aspects must envisage the social and technical
problems, which can be addressed to renovate the life of man.
1.1. Design features

i.Southern orientation of important bedrooms in a house
ii.Courtyard planning as a climatic response
iii.Central courtyard covered by ‘tropical skylight’
iv.Centralized evaporative cooling for dry summers
v.Roof insulation
vi.Optimization of structure to reduce embodied energy
1.1.1. Reduction of heat gain of the following design features
• Air cavity in walls and roofs

• Earth berms
• Shading by overhangs and louvers
• Shading by vegetation
1.1.2. Increase of heat loss of the following design features
• Cross ventilation
• Cooling through evaporation by water surfaces and plants
• Cooling through earth air tunnel system
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OCCUPANT COMFORT AND CLIMATE SENSITIVE ARCHITECTURE
1.1.3. Increase of heat gain of the following design features
• Direct gain through windows

• Underground earth air tunnel
• Reduction of heat loss by
o Air cavities
o Compact building form
The term I have coined to express the quality of my sustainable space is as follows:
E. C. O.
Economic Conscious Optimum

E.C.O Space= E.C.O aesthetics
Let me demonstrate by my own live projects as a practicing architect.
2. KMG towers, Mohali
An information technology project in Mohali that is based on sustainable techniques,

methodologies and management of the services as its core design. A project being multi-use,
multi-disciplinary and entailing mixed landuse, the requirements were to assemble offices,
residential blocks on the top floor, cafeteria and seminar rooms all clubbed into one.
KMG towers at Mohali
2.1. Planning achievements:

a. Perfectly well balanced plan was derived by providing able structure system that
comprised concrete fin columns at the corners with only one central pivot column in
one hall.
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S. SHARMA
b. Simple grid system was adopted for primary and secondary structure.
c. As a deviation from the normal pattern, the entrance was designed on the side to
allow direct access into the circulation lobby with vertical circulation core in the
vicinity.
d. The movement towards the two halls originates from this core, which is directional,
visible and approachable. This has enabled to provide independence and individuality
to the two adjoining halls and can be operated without intrusion.
e. Maximum light has been achieved with windows on all sides.
f. Natural ventilation has been provided by giving an openable slot in the structure
glazing.
g. Directional entry and exit points in the basement, service areas and parking are taken
care of.
h. The cafeteria is placed on the mid-level that acts as a buffer and all the other
recreational facilities are provided on this floor. It has an extended terrace for outdoor
activities.
i. To monitor and divert services from the residential upper floors, a service floor has
been created where all the services are kept and diverted clear off any functional and
usable space inside the halls.
Orientation is the crux of planning Elevation originates through sun path
2.2. Sustainable achievements

a. As an approach to design, the fundamentals of orientation have been given
priority.
b. Interplay of vertical and horizontal louvers/fins are an integral part of the design
and planning. They are instrumental in cutting the harsh sun and let in the
defused light.
c. The front façade of the building is tapered along 45o from the centre point based
on the orientation and sun light and preferences.
d. For natural draft of ventilation, the building is oriented SE-NW.
e. As the adjoining plots are close by, privacy has been achieved by efficient spatial
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planning and design, so that visual interference from the neighboring buildings is
minimal.
Natural light is the source of life Louvers can be an important sun-breakers
f. Vertical fins also called “light shelves” take shape of vertical slit windows, where
beams of defused sunlight travels in the interiors.
g. The south west wall is slightly skewed inwards and is devoid of any openings, so
that the harsh continuous summer sun does not penetrate into the building.
h. On both the longer sides of the building, the glazing is provided at an angle to
avoid direct infiltration.
i. All artificial lights are low energy and efficiency oriented.
j. Adequate shading for southern & western oriented windows to reduce heat gain.
k. Energy efficient materials including low-e glass is used.
l. Large span of green area in the front has been retained for microclimate
efficiency modified by vegetation and water body.
m. Rainwater harvesting is incorporated.
n. Ready mix concrete is used to established perfect strength and save energy on
site.
2.3. Services achievements

a. Efficient air conditioning system and chillers are used.
b. Service floor systems are adopted for easy maneuverability, management and
repair. Thus, building management and services management becomes accessible
and easy.
c. Vertical and horizontal ducts are provided for pipes and services.
2.4. Aesthetical achievements

a. As an architectural icon, that is the requirement of any Information Technology
project, KMG towers is an answer to its complicated requirements achieving a
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S. SHARMA
perfectly balanced and graceful aesthetical outcome.
Wind orientation is equally important
b. The verticality is dignified with balancing central “nose”, which also breaks the
monotony of perpendicularity.
c. The mix and match of concrete with blue tinge glass makes KMG building
monolithic and sculptural. For harmonious aesthetics on both the sides, the
angular glazing has been exemplified on the rear elevation.
d. Soothing interiors are increasing efficiency and reducing fatigue.
e. The spaces are somber, cool, adequately lit, and congenial to work.
3. Boys hostel at NIPER, Mohali
In the existing campus of National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research

(NIPER), this new boys hostel, had the same spirit of existing vocabulary but came out fresh
with sustainable techniques.
Local materials are best utilized
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Constructed in pure exposed bricks and finished in simple Kota stone (blue coloured
limestone), the hostel is oriented for maintaining best micro-climate in the central courtyard
and in the recessed balconies. The natural shape and sciography of the balconies provides
constant relief from glare and direct sun. Open courts, adequate ducts for light & ventilation,
ventilation shafts in the rooms produce a natural draft and reduce the ambient temperature.
The outcome is aesthetical with pleasing shades that are a pleasure in the colourful ambience.
3.1. Concept
Architectural density whenever created is to benefit interaction and climatic conditions and
over all to take maximum advantage of natural topography and vegetation which the campus
has got as nature’s gift, that can be instrumental in making the campus a memorable
experience.
The straight road and strong straight lines dictated the form of the building. The form was
divided into two blocks separated by a mess and kitchen block. The subtle shift in the axis
from the symmetry has given a new dimension in the geometry of the form.
The seemingly symmetrical plan is accentuated by the semi circular balconies that protrude
out of every room, 110 in number adorning each wing of the hostel. A central court is the life
line of this project. It is the breather, the space provider and a reminder of Mother Nature.
While each room maintains a close connection with the corridor on one side and court yard
on the other, there is abundant privacy and light. Small ventilators for ventilation have been
provided on the top of the built-in cupboards. The rounded module’s effect is so dramatic that
it calls for repetition and this is what the architect has tried to do; both in physical and
implied effect. The interiors have an effect of calmness and pose both the austerity and
serenity of a Zen garden.
We are accustomed to thinking of nature as a backdrop to architecture. However, here
architecture is functioning as the backdrop for nature and making it pleasing.
3.2. Planning achievements

a. Cutouts in the corridors at specific places were under utilized but provided cross
ventilation, view and light. Thus the corners, which were neglected and accumulated
dust are now non-existent and are properly used.
b. Specially designed aerators facilitate natural ventilation. The vertical slit fenestration
enhances the flow of air with a high velocity.
c. Ventilators on the top of the cupboard are for cross ventilation as the rooms are not
air conditioned. This area otherwise remains redundant and underutilized. This small
innovation in planning enhances natural flow of air increases light.
d. Crazy pattern flooring out of broken terrazzo tiles and unfinished kota stone has been
designed. This promotes craftsmanship and traditional heritage and the task is skill
oriented.
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S. SHARMA
Centre courtyard creates the microclimate
Light and natural ventilation makes the plan livable
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e. The balconies act as sun shades obstructing the direct sunlight and providing shade to
the windows below it. The design is such that most of the building takes the “shade”
as its companion for providing cool vertical and horizontal surfaces throughout the
building.
f. Exposed brick walls are primary load bearing structures. This is not only cost
reducing but also ecologically rich in this region. The red brick finish brings the
whole ambience to a domestic scale which is rich to habitat.
Central courtyard creates natural cooling and ventilation
g. The corridors are well lit through skylights and cutouts are provided in the slabs for
natural light.
h. Kota stone is the basic material used for major circulation path. The monotony of the
movement is constantly broken by punctures of cutouts and through diffused blue
light coming through the sky light.
i. The interior of the rooms are planned to comprise a bed, a study table and a chair.
Placement of each unit effectively using minimum circulation and taking advantage
of the windows for best orientation. Terrazzo tiles are used for flooring.
j. The bed is placed to get a constant view of the courtyard and the study table is placed
against the wall for minimal disturbance yet gets the best light while studying.
k. The courtyard has been planned as a strategic passive solar contribution. Due to the
triangular shape and two storied buildings all around there is natural “shading” on
any two of the sides at all times of the day. Due to this natural phenomenon provided
through planning, the rooms are cool even in the warmest season. This also
considerably reduces the night radiation rendering the balconies cool and usable. This
courtyard is thus a great source to modify the micro climate. The beautiful lawn also
absorbs the solar radiation and provides cool passage of air from the rooms through
humidity.
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4. Mega boys hostel at NIT, Jalandhar
A hostel with a thousand single bed rooms has been planned by the National Institute of
Technology (NIT), Jalandhar as an urgent requirement for the students who need boarding
facilities. Institutional buildings, particularly hostel buildings, are not air-conditioned and rely
on natural ventilation for cooling. Many features considering sustainable techniques like
ducts for natural ventilation draft, openings for cross ventilation, and central courts for
creating micro climatic zones are special features of this design
The elevations evolved out of sun paths
Evolution of the master plan and orientation Macro and micro climate dominate planning
The central area is used as dining area, play areas, library and computer rooms with their
terrace as an open air theatre. Intricately woven and linked, this simple and aesthetically
designed hostel is unique in many ways. Natural building materials and un-obstructive
structural system makes the whole construction system easy, expandable and phase-able.
State of the art blend of natural techniques in planning and modern facilities and technology
are the hallmark of the design.
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5. Information Technology building for Netsmartz
The Netsmartz building is built on an area of 8825.79 m2 (95,000 Square feet). The clients
with their head office at Rochester, USA, aspired for a futuristic, efficient and a world class
building. One of their main requirements was to achieve sustainability without compromising
on the aesthetics. Effective use of space without compromising on the entrance lobby was an
important instruction. Although the project was air conditioned, provisions for air ventilation
were primary.
Glass used judiciously
The zoning regulations in Chandigarh have always been a deterrent to free architecture,
which is otherwise practiced in the rest of the country. Overcoming these hindrances, the
outcome is a graceful and smart looking four storied building, two basements and a penthouse
for the owners at the terrace level.
With the plot facing north east, the project is an essentially framed structure and makes an
intelligent use of glass. The ultra violet rated structural glazing at certain angles marks the
entrance foyer and helps in bouncing the glare off the face through reflections. The northern
side glass has been intelligently tilted to take in the light whereas on all the other sides, the
glass has been kept straight, thus enhancing the aesthetic sensibility of the building and
leading to glare-free light. At the western side, inclined glazing helps reduce the sun glare.
The plan of the building has been kept simple. The aluminum tubular space frame in the
front façade laced with Aluminum Composite Panel gives away to a double height cut-out.
The floors are divided into halls with workstations, each of them accommodating around
seventy five people. The lower basement serves as part parking and part indoor games and
gymnasium space with good amount of light streaming in through the overhead skylights.
The two-floored guest house, behind the main block is linked with a bridge to the first floor.
The basement’s location is such that it can be used for the people working as well as living in
the guesthouse.
The building has enough vertical circulation in the form of four staircases and three lifts.
The built up area decreases as one advances up the building. The pent house on the fourth
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floor is a temporary residence of the owners accessed by one of the lifts that would be
operational twenty four hours. The emphasis has been on the open court and the living areas
opening to the outside. The terrace garden helps reduce the heat emission by 40 percent. The
landscaping using decorative palm trees, green lawns and water bodies, forms an integral
aspect of the project. Sustainability is also visible in the project’s rainwater harvesting
system, energy saving light fixers and air condition systems, which are kept under control by
personalized sealing and mounted air handling units (AHU).
The efficacy of intelligent planning
6. Conclusions
I believe that sustainable architecture must adhere to the following principles to achieve
effective results:
• Examine existing ecosystem of the site, its pastoral and agricultural heritage.
• Form and design should be contrived so as to maximize the wind and the sun as free
energy sources.
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• The design must be formed around a central opening which acts as a wind
concentrator, its wind turbines are designed to generate a significant percentage of
free energy.
• The new sustainability order is not universal but, like classicism is modified by
regional circumstances. It is an order of process and thought necessarily adjusted by
local circumstances.
• Architecture must originate out of regional building traditions
• Buildings should be like birds which ruffle their feathers and change their shape and
metabolism to suit different environmental conditions.
• It is our duty to preserve biodiversity.
• Architecture accounts for roughly half of all resource consumption in the world
(materials, energy, water and the loss of fertile agricultural land).
• Excess consumption is often expressed in excess architectural display.
• If green is taken as representing a sympathetic approach to culture as well as climate,
then sustainable architecture will emerge as a significant life-enhancing force.
• Cities will again become identifiable places based upon a synthesis of cultural and
environmental values.
• Renewable energy sources (sun, wind, biomass) is the future.
• Select more appropriate technologies, using the best, not cheapest, method of
construction, employing life-cycle assessment, seeking out local sources of energy
and materials, employing local building skills and know-how.
I believe in perusing sustainable buildings. Green is only the byproduct. Buildings, like
human beings that are conscious perform better. The sensibilities of the building are directly
proportional to the sensibilities of its architect. Like music, the architect conveys his
innermost feelings in his composition. Sustainable does not mean energy saving-it means a
building that functions naturally amidst the surroundings most suitable to its performance
without depleting natural resources. Follow Sustainability - all other factors will be put in
place by themselves.
Through these projects, I make my own architecture as a medium to transform society.
Through this noble profession, I give comfort and joy to the user of the magnificence of
space. I wish to continue this pursuit for which I think I am destined.
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Green Building Initiatives at Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University,
Murthal, India
BHARGAVA Shashank
Bhargava & Associates (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India
baplarch@gmail.com
Abstract. Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology located in Murthal
district Sonepat in Haryana was earlier a state College of Engineering and received a status of
University in November, 2006. There has been reasonable progress in development of the
campus facilities in infrastructure, academics, sports and other residential facilities ever since
its up-gradation to University status. The campus is spread in an area of 273 acres as a
residential campus having facilities like academic buildings, administrative complex, hostels,
residential units for staff, shopping center, sports facility like cricket, football, and other track
and field games, tennis academy with international level courts. Further, on the anvil are
buildings for indoor sports like badminton, table tennis, swimming and gymnastics. The close
proximity to the cities of Sonepat, Panipat and Delhi attracts a good number of students both
from the state of Haryana and Delhi. The connectivity to the University is also well
established through National Highway No. 1 allowing ease in access through all modes of
transportation.
1. Introduction
As part of the emergent campus, there is a need to bolster the existing library and assembly
infrastructure by way of building a Central Library and a Convention Center facility. A
national level open architectural design competition was held and the winning entry
submitted by Bhargava & Associates Pvt. Ltd. was selected amongst the various participants.
The focus of the design was to create a facility for an upcoming Science and Technology
University in a contemporary architectural vocabulary that used technology effectively to
enhance the function of the spaces within the buildings. The concepts of sustainability and
green building using energy efficient systems and products was found appropriate for the
S. BHARGAVA
Library and the Convention Center buildings to showcase technology that is envisaged as a
blend of modern scientific concepts and traditional principals of construction. The building is
designed to achieve a minimum of Gold rating of LEED while aiming to be a Platinum rated
building.
The Central Library and Convention Center buildings are inherently different in their
programme and functions. The Library building shall be put to use in a continuous manner
and often on an extended hour basis. There is also a facility for a night reading hall in the
building.
On the other hand, the Convention Center which houses a 2000 capacity hall and a separate
conference/seminar area for 250 capacity is likely to be used sparingly on specific occasions
and functions. Hence the building design system has been designed in keeping with the
building function and use.
2. Central library
In the Central library, the use of day lighting has been encouraged. This has been achieved
essentially through the orientation of the building and sizing the spaces in the building
including the structure where spaces are planned in such a way that either they get direct or
diffused light. The electrical fixtures as provided are controlled through lux control sensors so
that they operate as per the lighting requirement in the building.
Central library
The major feature of building design has been the use of earth air tunnel. The earth air
tunnel has been dug approximately 4 meter below the ground for a length of approximately
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120 meters. The temperature of the earth at this level is a constant of 28-30ºC. Hence the air
that passes through the tunnel in summer at about 45-46ºC is available due to natural cooling
down at 28-30ºC. In order to attain comfort in the building, it has to be cooled down to 24-
26ºC to attain a comfortable temperature. The energy is saved in cooling only by 4-6 K and
the air-conditioning equipment is sized accordingly. The system is designed as a 100 percent
exhaust system as all the air is thrown out of the building through the building. The system is
designed on the principal that cold air is let in at a lower level close to the floor though
vertical ducts spread throughout the building and exhausted naturally through vents located
on the external face at upper levels of the building. The concept of hot air rising and cold air
sinking is used effectively in the system. The system being 100 percent exhaust system is also
healthier as the re-circulation of air is often associated with the spread of germs and therefore
needs to be avoided, an attribute achieved in this case.
In the winter season, there is no need to operate the air-conditioning chiller units, as the
natural air through the earth air tunnel shall flow through the vertical ducts at a temperature
of around 22-24ºC which shall make the library comfortable while ensuring minimal energy
consumption.
The front façade which is facing north has the maximum glazing including a four storey
high atrium which lights up the inner halls in the building and provides an international
vocabulary to the building.
3. Convention centre
Convention center as already mentioned is likely to be sparingly used and has a 2000 capacity
auditorium with 1500 capacity in the main hall and 500 seating capacity on the balcony. The
building also has a 250 capacity conference cum seminar hall equipped with a kitchen cum
utility area for creating a facility for supporting any banquet like functions. There is an
adequately spaced pre-function lobby in front of the conference and seminar hall which has
direct and independent access from the main entry at the ground floor level. This pre-function
lobby will also act as a space for banqueting and other pre-functions like display area for
events.
Convention center building is also designed on green building principles where orientation
of the building has been effectively used in providing natural daylight in the building. The
lobbies are designed to allow maximum day lighting when using the facility in the daytime.
The building also consists of Air Handling Units (AHU) which are connected to earth air
tunnels that work on the same principle as in the Library building allowing cooler air to enter
into the building. However, due to the sparing use of the building facility, the air-conditioning
system of supply and return of air is by the conventional system. The building reduces its
equipment load by 30-40 percent through the use of earth air tunnels.
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S. BHARGAVA
The buildings follow specifications that subscribe to green building norms. A majority of
the building specifications have a certified green building rating or are products subscribing
to low energy consumption and have been made from recyclable materials.
Lighting is also another major source of energy consumption. Energy efficient fixtures
namely T-5 and Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) have been used in the building. The
facility has been designed optimally keeping in view the lux requirement of the spaces and
the fittings are coupled with lux control sensors to provide optimum light and control energy
consumption in the building.
Convention centre
The sanitary fixtures being used are of the type that works on low water consumption, taps
used are press-matic taps with self-closing mechanism to control water consumption, and
urinals have photo-sensor units to save water. The building also has separate lines for grey
water which can be used for recycling purposes.
The paints used inside and outside the building are low Volatile Organic Compound
(VOC) paints with certified ratings for green building. The glazing used in the building is
nano glass of Saint Gobain which is a high performance low e-glass with performance ratings
specified for green buildings. This is used as double glass unit and provides both thermal and
acoustical insulation in the building along with required light transmission.
The site planning for the facilities also adopts green building principles. The majority of
the paved areas are provided with grass paver blocks which reduce the heat island effect. The
tree plantation has also been done in such a manner to support the building orientation as well
as provide a cohesive green environment.
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Learning from the Past: Passive Solar Architecture in Hot Dry
Regions
REWATKAR Kishor P., REWATKAR Priyanka K.

Priyadarshini Institute of Architecture and Design Studies, Nagpur, India
kishorrewatkar@yahoo.com, priyankarewatkar_17@yahoo.co.in
Abstract. Architecture in the past was strongly influenced by the context to which it
belonged. The geoclimatic and cultural factors were the most significant of them which
distinguished the architecture of one region from other. India’s rich cultural and architectural
heritage too is deeply rooted in its geoclimatic conditions. This is reflected in densely
clustered settlements, Havelis (elite mansions) of Rajasthan and deep overhanging sloping
roofs with vents, sweeping windows, verandahs and short walls of coastal regions; and the
Wadas (neighbourhoods) with intimately designed courtyards of western Maharashtra.
Mainstream contemporary architecture in a developing country like India seems to have
failed to establish a vital link with this rich heritage of the past while imitating international
style of design and irrational use of materials and technology. This paper attempts to draw
attention to various strategies practiced by our ancestors at different levels of design in a
particular climatic condition and created the architecture which had strong roots to the place
it belonged and was compatible with the lifestyle, culture, craftsmanship and societal
aspirations. It delves into the study of different strategies of the past which could be relevant
in present time too if reinterpreted appropriately. It is not intended that we create structures
imitating the traditional ones, but a thoughtful combination of time tested passive methods,
use of appropriate technologies and materials to suit the present aspirations and social context
can certainly help to evolve the architecture of relevance with which the society can identify
itself better.
1. Introduction
India’s rich cultural and architectural heritage is deeply rooted in its context of which climate
has been one of the most significant influencing factors. As a result of which the architecture
K. P. REWATKAR, P. K. REWATKAR
which emerged in a particular context or region was always characteristically different from
the other. Thus, we can easily distinguish between architecture of different regions; just as its
flora and fauna; the food people eat, soil and landscape are distinguishable. Architecture in
other words, responded to the climate. Today’s mainstream architecture often underestimates
the tremendous influence of climate on the building; and overestimates the impact of stylistic
elements and certain out of context images, motifs and materials. This type of contemporary
architecture in general has no relevance to its context of climate and culture. These are
merely buildings which do not relate to the variation in sun path, wind direction, and
temperature in different seasons. When we visit any old parts of our cities, we are astonished
to see typical plastered brick and concrete buildings mostly air conditioned with irrational use
of glass and aluminum cladding just standing apart amidst the traditional buildings around.
These blocks are mere structures which neither respond to the context, culture nor are climate
responsive. They consume high amount of energy which ultimately adds to the creation of
global warming due to green house effect. The immense amount of electricity used to create
many air conditioned spaces consumes great quantity of fossil fuels to generate that
electricity. We are least bothered to look up to the potential of passive solar techniques
incorporated in buildings to create an environment conducive to thermal comfort; and save
fossil fuel and environmental damage. There is a growing awareness amongst the people to
protect our environment from bad effects of global warming. The green buildings are
misunderstood to be buildings with high tech materials but with solar panels and wind
turbines. Critical of much of contemporary “Green” Architecture, Prince Charles remarks,
“Why, I must ask, does being green mean building with glass and steel and concrete and then
adding wind turbines, solar panels, water heaters, glass atria - all the paraphernalia of a new
green building industry - to offset buildings that are inefficient in the first place?” [1]. He
further states “People need to resist the urge to seize on slick, highly marketed techno-fixes.
[...] We must act now by using traditional methods and materials to work with Nature rather
than against Her” [2].
This phenomenon is common in many Indian cities. Typically these new modern buildings
rarely function as per dynamic climatic conditions. These buildings have a high maintenance
cost due to heavy reliability on electrical energy for heating, cooling and lighting devices. It
is indeed painful to note that in many buildings artificial lighting is required even during
daytime when natural lighting is freely available in abundance. The need is to adopt the
appropriate strategy to harness it. The study of traditional buildings and analysis of their way
of creating responses to climate and culture to give the sense of identity could reveal the
possibilities of reinterpretation of principles and strategies relevant to present socio-cultural,
economic and technological scenario.
Whenever we think of a traditional Indian house, the first thing which strikes us is the
image of a very comfortable ambience. The people in the past were successful to tackle and
treat the climate to create a microclimate in their own indigenous way. Dwellings and
structures are evolved through a process that is compatible with the climate in which they are
built. We have many traditional building examples, which can be documented and studied to
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LEARNING FROM THE PAST: PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN HOT DRY REGIONS
know the design strategies which make it climate responsive. A visit to these traditional
buildings, whether a residence, palace or precinct, leaves one mesmerized by the timeless
quality. The conducive environment prevailing there is an outcome of inherent detailing, use
of indigenous building material, planning concepts, which performed well in a particular
condition. Even the way of users’ life style and pattern was respected and the building was
planned accordingly. This study shall lead to understanding the passive solar design solutions
which can be used to design the contemporary buildings with modern materials, technologies;
but by learning from virtues of the past. These climate responsive buildings also contribute
towards reducing the heating or cooling cost of a building. This paper delves into the passive
solar design strategies incorporated in traditional buildings in hot and dry conditions.
A passive solar design strategy refers to the use of the sun’s energy for the heating and
cooling of living spaces. The use of passive design strategies in architecture aims at
minimizing the demand for energy by measures such as appropriate building location,
organization of spaces, energy efficient envelopes, with appropriate fenestration, day lighting
design, and thermal mass. The basic intent of a passive design is to allow daylight, heat and
airflow into a building whenever beneficial, store and distribute the heat and cool by natural
means. In this approach, the building itself or some element of it takes advantage of natural
energy characteristics of materials and air created by exposure to the sun. Passive systems are
simple, have few moving parts, and require minimal maintenance and require no mechanical
systems. The hot and dry climate has mean monthly temperature greater than 30ºC and
relative humidity less than 55 percent.
2. The objectives of thermal comfort
The characteristics of hot and dry climate are high daytime temperatures, large temperature
variations between day and night temperatures, high winds, very high solar intensity reflected
by the ground and low humidity. The range of day and night temperature, however, varies in
hot season and cool season. Water is scarcely available. Thus, the challenge for the designers
is to create structures that prevent heat gain during day, and remain warm during night in cool
season as well as that keep a building warm while keeping the hot winds out of the structures
in hot season. Even within a given climatic zone, one needs to study the prevailing wind
direction, wind velocity, microclimates created by the surrounding vegetation, landform,
urban form for developing the passive solar design agenda (Figure 1) [3, 4].
In hot and dry regions, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot
winds. The design criteria aims at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed
area, controlling and scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. The presence of
water is an asset as it helps increase the humidity, thereby leading to lower air temperatures.
The ground and surrounding objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and evenings
therefore as far as possible, this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features such as
shading trees, building mass and use of appropriate paving designs to avoid radiated heat.
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Fig.1.Compact settlement of typical town with hot and dry climate

Source: www.placesonline.com.
Fig.2.The climatic zones of India

Source: BIS (2005) National Building Code of India.
The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India; Jaisalmer, Jodhpur
and Sholapur are some of the towns that experience this type of climate (Figure 2) (Table 1).
The traditional buildings belonging to hot and dry conditions have employed some
indigenous passive solar features and techniques in order to maintain the thermal comfort
within an individual building. Let us consider the various strategies for effective use to
provide thermal comfort in this climate.
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Table 1.A typical hot and dry zone: climatic data for Jaisalmer [4]
Month of the Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Air Temperature ºC
Monthly mean max. 21.9 26.5 32 36.5 40.2 40.3 35.9 34.4 34.7 34.3 28.8 23.6
Monthly mean min. 10.4 14.1 21 25.8 29.3 30.4 28.5 27.2 26.9 25.1 19.4 12.3
Average 16.2 20.3 26.5 31.2 34.8 35.4 32.2 30.8 30.8 29.7 24.1 17.9
Relative Humidity %
Monthly mean max (AM) 64 56 56 56 55 67 76 76 75 58 52 56
Monthly mean min (PM) 41 39 37 39 29 32 51 59 49 38 39 41
Average 52.5 47.5 47 47.5 42 49.5 63.5 69 62 48 45.5 48.5
3. Planning of the settlement pattern
Isn’t it difficult to imagine ourselves roaming along the streets in hot summer afternoons
without any discomfort? The urban fabric itself is planned in such a way that it counteracts
the harsh hostile conditions of the climate. Further, the inside as well as the outside
temperatures is comfortable. The first strategy deals with the planning of the urban fabric
itself to create a climatic responsive building. In Jaisalmer, which is a unique traditional
settlement, we find that the passive solar techniques were incorporated at an urban level. The
settlement is very compact and dense. The longer faces of the houses are shared. This
minimizes the surface exposure to sun. The width to height ratio and the orientation of streets
ensured blocking of the harsh hot winds and also limited the sun to penetrate and allowed the
street to remain shaded during much of the day so that one can walk around in cool shade
(Figures 3, 4). Another settlement, the Shekhawati town of Mandawa depicts the same
compact settlement form. Secondly if the streets were not narrow it would have allowed the
ferocious sand winds to flow through the settlement.
Fig.3.Narrow self-shading streets of Jaisalmer

Source: www.featurepics.com, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:patwon_ki_haveli_jaisalmer.jpg
285
Fig.4.Compact settlement form of Jaisalmer city

Source: Gupta, V. Indigenous Architecture and Natural Cooling.
4. Effective use of landscaping
The second strategy involves the effective use of landscaping to ameliorate the hot and dry
conditions. The Mughal garden is one of the perfect examples where we can study the
effective use of landscaping to create a microclimate. Babur, the founder of the Mughal
Dynasty introduced the four-fold garden, the Char Bagh, to India as an ameliorator of the hot
and humid climate of the North Indian plains (Figure 5). A typical Mughal Char Bagh had
colorful vegetation, water channels and water tanks. Hence, in the Mughal Gardens, apart
from the planting, water was valued as a precious material and accordingly used sparingly to
modify the microclimate.
Fig.5.Mughal gardens with water channels dividing the garden

Source: http://islamic-arts.org/2011/the-symbolism-of-the-islamic-garden/.
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It was used by channelizing it into the garden. Evaporative cooling takes place due to
presence of water and green landscaped areas that makes the environment cool since hot air
loses heat to water and thus gains humidity. Water has been an important feature in the
traditional landscapes of Islamic regions. For humidification during the summers a water tank
with a fountain, a water body and a landscaped area was added in the court of many
traditional courtyard houses especially Havelis to induce a local microclimatic effect. For
example in Nand Lal Devra Haveli in Shekhawati, Rajasthan we find decorative water
fountain placed in the centre of the court for evaporative cooling (Figure 6a).
Fig.6a.Nand Lal Devra Haveli, Fig.6b.The Shekhawati Haveli, Mandawa: verandahs used as
Shekhawati: use of water buffer spaces
fountain in the court Source: www.flickr.com/photos/ashish_tibrewal.
Source: www.profimedia.si/photo/india-
rajasthan-shekhawati-fatehpur-nand-lal-
devra/profimedia.
5. Use of buffer zones
The strategy to introduce buffer zones in the traditional buildings is widely found. These
buffer zones can be covered porches, use of arcades around the courtyards and verandahs that
shade the peripheral rooms and function as a transitional space between the enclosed room
and the open spaces. They also provide shade to the walls to reduce the heat gain (Figure 6b).
287
6. Spatial organization in a building with courtyards
Fig.7.Mohanjodaro house with central court surrounded by habitable rooms

Source: www.goldenageproject.org.uk.
A proper spatial organization can take care of prevention or maximizing heat gain in
building spaces. The fourth strategy deals with the spatial organization in a building. The
arrangement of the rooms around the courtyards proves to be a better temperature regulator.
The traces and clues of courtyard house planning can be seen in the Indus Valley houses. The
house was planned as a series of rooms opening on to a central courtyard providing an open
space inside for community activities (Figure 7). Houses were built with a perimeter wall and
adjacent houses were separated by a narrow strip of land. This indicates that in those earlier
times people knew the importance of a courtyard both for climatic benefits and as a place for
social gatherings. The courtyard continues to have relevance in contemporary times as
testified by Charles Correa, a leading Indian architect, who has remarked, “I find that climate
helps determine form on two different levels. One it is an immediate determinant finding
expression in courtyards (hot and dry) or in through ventilation, climate helps to determine
the patterns of culture and rituals/and in that deeper sense, since it is primary determinant of
ritual, it also determines built form. People of different climatic zones have a different
relationship with the built form,” [5] (Figure 8).
The courtyard in the traditional Wada in Maharashtra privately separates women by
ensuring them maximum freedom for their informal outdoor activities but within thermally a
comfortable setting (Figure 9a-c). Further, during hot and dry conditions of summer the
equilibrium of climatic factors is attained by night air in the court which is surrounded by
habitable built spaces. The courtyard thus acts as a cool container where passive cooling is
attained when the cool air moves into surrounding spaces. The width to height ratio is
maintained which gives openness and the courtyard acts as a source of light.
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Fig.8.Courtyard house, Mandawa, Rajasthan: well shaded by surrounding built mass.

Source: http://chaloghumne.net/holiday_images/original_images/b473fa2ba7a16e3382f5149750aec00b.jpg.
Fig.9a.Plan of a Wada, Maharashtra

Source: Authors.
Fig.9b.Exterior view of the Wada

Source: Authors.
289
Fig.9c.Section through a Wada, Deshmukh Wada, Nagpur.

Source: Authors.
During hot season, the absorbed temperature causes problems and the conditions inside
the building prevent comfort for residents as the heat is released by the walls inside. As a
result during the night people prefer to sleep on the roofs or terraces as the outdoor
temperature is lower than indoor radiant temperature.
The so called Jodha Bai’s Palace, the largest spatial ensemble of the imperial Mughal
Zenana (women) quarter, in the city of Fatehpur Sikri built by the Mughal emperor, Akbar, is
an excellent example of orientation and placement of rooms according to the sun path for
attaining conducive climatic conditions. It has a conventional arrangement of a series of
apartments on two floors arranged around a central open courtyard (Figure 10a, b).
Adequately enclosed on all sides, it is a single quadrangular space with double storied
apartments in the middle of each of all the four sides of the court. It has correct easterly
orientation. Spacious inner court provides adequate light and air to inmates who lived in
Purdah (veil). Open terraces have also been provided for proper ventilation thereby creating
favorable living conditions. Similarly, in many traditional Rajput buildings notably the royal
palace at Amer there was a provision to use different sets of apartments as per seasonal
variations for maximum human comfort.
Fig.10a.Jodha Bai’s Palace, Fatehpur Sikri: plan Fig.10b.Jodha Bai’s Palace, Fatehpur Sikri: view
Source: www.archigraphie.eu. from the courtyard
Source: www.archigraphie.eu.
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7. Fenestration design
One more strategy observed involves controlling the fenestrations to minimize solar radiation
inside the building. The sizes, location and treatment of windows play a crucial role. Northern
windows receive little or less solar radiation and therefore work well in summer, while
allowing high amount of heat escape during winter. Eastern windows allow the hot morning
summer sun to enter. The western and southern side openings are exposed to hot afternoon
sun in summer and also face the cold, western winter sun. This knowledge finds
representation in many traditional buildings with careful attention paid to the size and
orientation of windows. In the Indus Valley houses one finds that the openings facing the
west were smaller in size than those facing the north (Figure 11). We can see that high level
windows are used to let out the hot air and openings allow cross ventilation without letting
hot air pass through living habitable zone.
Fig.11.Model of Indus Valley houses with small windows facing the streets
Source: http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://instructional1.calsta tela.edu/bevans/Art101/Art101B-0-India.
The typical Havelis in Shekhawati have two courtyards and their fenestration pattern
exhibits an increased emphasis on the design of the openings. Its proportions have influenced
the surface articulation and architectural detailing of the facade. Large arched openings at the
lowermost floors allow the cool air to circulate inside the rooms while the small openings at
the upper floors are well shaded by the projected roof overhangs (Figure 12). The balconies
thus formed serve as a winter living space and at the same time create adequately shaded
buffer space to create comfort conditions during summer. To shade the punctures, the haveli
has continuous projections rather than individual overhangs called Chajjas, above the
openings.
Another significant feature of fenestration noticed in the hot and dry regions and
conditions are the use of carved Jalis (lattice screens). Traditionally intricately carved stone
Jalis have been used to block the direct radiation of sun and permits air to enter the rooms. A
notable example is the Hawa Mahal (Palace of Winds) at Jaipur built by the poet king Sawai
Pratap Singh in 1799 for the women of the royal family to view the royal processions and
other activities in the street below from the Palace without being visible themselves.
Centrally, located in the city, the Hawa Mahal is an unusual structure with 953 small
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windows along the large wall facing the street (Figure 13). The numerous latticed Jalis were
a novel feature that came from Gujarat and were constructed to allow the breeze to enter the
enclosure in the hot summer months besides providing shade and balancing the heat in the
building. Small openings were provided near the terrace level to act as a heat escape
accelerating the air flow.
Fig.12.Shekhavati Haveli with projecting balconies

Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/soulofindia/458984839/.
Fig.13.Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

Source: www.picturesindia.com.
The next feature of fenestration pattern used to reduce solar radiation is the interesting
design of the combination of a projecting window type called the Jharoka and the overhang
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called the Chhajja. Both are constituents of the strategy to allow the winter sun and to avoid
the summer sun inside the building notably the Haveli. Both these design elements can be
seen at their best in the Havelis of Jaisalmer built mostly in the 18th century by the Marwari
merchants of Rajasthan. A typical Haveli has multi-floor apartments with ground plan
enlivened by the designs of the entrance and shop windows.
Fig.14.Havelies of Rajasthan
Source: www.imageforte.com.
Verandahs, Jharokhas, Jalis and curved overhangs called Bangladaar roofs, besides
screened terraces for living outdoors in the summer months are all found on the upper floors
(Figure 14). Haveli walls were mutually shaded and deep roof overhangs, supported by
elaborate brackets, ensured that the openings were shaded. The building envelope was
intricately carved with surface modulations that created air movement thus reducing the
surface temperature.
8. Roofs and walls
The roof responsible for 30 percent of heat gain plays a crucial role in reducing solar heat
gain. This strategy is seen in the design of many roofs to prevent heat gain by the use of a
curved or sloping roof form as the intensity of incident radiation is less due to change in angle
of incidence at different area than a flat roof. In Indo-Islamic structures one finds domical
roof form notably in tombs that helped to keep large buildings cool in summer. In Rajasthan
Havelis the roofing invites admiration for its smooth curves, final finish, and above all for its
role in creating thermal comfort. The flat terraces in Rajasthan have a parapet wall with Jali
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screens that allow air to pass over the roof and by convection the hot air is driven off and the
roof is cooled to a considerable level (Figure 15).
Fig.15.The Rikhji Bagri ki Haveli in Bikaner: screened parapet for air circulation
Source: www.rajasthantour4u.com/blog.
Fig.16.Birbal’s House, Fatehpur Sikri: section

Source: Batley C., The design and development of Indian Architecture.
The so called House of Birbal in Fatehpur Sikri complex is an excellent example where the
roof is acting as an insulating layer (Figure 16). In its two storeys, there are four rooms on the
ground floor besides two porches, while the upper floor has only two rooms with a terrace.
There are domical roofs over the upper rooms and pyramidal roofs over porches all of which
are based on modified principle of double dome [6, 7]. By this means interiors were kept cool
as the space between the two roofs acted as an insulating layer tending to keep the building
cool from the hot rays of the sun and the porches acted as the buffers. The Mughals
introduced the double dome technique in India notably in tombs like Humayun’s Tomb and
the Taj Mahal Tomb (Figure 17) [8].
Roofs being constantly exposed absorb about 30 percent of the total solar radiation from
the scorching sun and unless properly insulated they make habitable rooms uncomfortable to
perform activities. Roofing material also plays an important role. Country tiles like
Mangalore and Guna tiles are excellent materials if provided with false ceiling as they have
294
poor thermal capacity. Mud, straw, stone walls, glazed ceramic tiles as a wall cladding
material serve as thermal mass by limiting the penetration of solar heat during the daytime
and returning this heat to the outside during the night. Thick mud/adobe walls act excellently
as a thermal reservoir and heat up after a long input of heat during the day. After the sun sets,
the warm wall continues to transfer heat inside due to time lag. Thus adobe walls with
appropriate thickness are very effective at controlling inside temperature through wide
fluctuations of the hot and dry climates (Figure 18).
Fig.17.Taj Mahal, Agra: section showing the double dome technique

Source: Tadgell C., History of Architecture in India.
Fig.18.Khuri, Rajasthan: huts with thick mud walls and thatched roof
Source: www.realtravel.com.
9. Rooms with high ceilings
Further strategy seen in the traditional buildings belonging to hot and dry regions is rooms
with high ceilings and greater volume (Figure 19). During hot seasons the high ceilings allow
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warm air to rise. It takes more time for internal air to get heated up as compared to low
heighted ceilings.
Fig.19.Morarka Haveli, Mandawa, Rajasthan: rooms with high ceilings

Source: www.shekhawatifestival.com/art_and_architecture.html.
10. Advanced passive techniques
10.1. Wind tower

One of the strategies is an advanced passive technique namely the wind tower. A wind tower
is a formal structural element found in Iranian architecture and called Badgir that is used to
convey the wind current to the interior spaces of buildings in order to provide living comfort
for occupants [9]. In wind towers the wind is caught as per the prevailing wind direction and
directed inside by the projected shaft, where it hits the walls of the wind tower and cools
down. Further, it is made to pass through a screen of water which cools it down and this
cooled air is circulated in the interiors.
In the city of Hyderabad, Sind, Pakistan, there are wind scoops which have an elaborate
system to treat air. The winds always blow from the same direction, so the position of the
wind scoops is fixed which also gives a specific urban image to the city (Figure 20a, b).
10.2. Earth as a heat sink

This strategy deals with the use of earth as a heat sink. The subterranean earth temperature is
constant. While building the Baolis (step wells) of Ahmedabad in Gujarat the Muslim rulers
envisioned them also as a summer retreat besides a using them as step well. Called Wavs in
Gujarat, these step wells were not merely erections over well shafts but also took the form of
296
extensive subterranean galleries of a high architectural order (Figure 21a, b). The typical Wav
consists of a deep square, circular or octagonal well approached by a long flight of steps with
landings. Decent is by steps divided into a number of flights by landings, each provided with
an open colonnaded structure. Amidst these galleries, overlooking the water and the
beautifully carved shaft of the main well, loungers could secure a cool retreat during the
hottest summer days. Often there is nothing to be seen on the surface of the ground other than
a simple entrance pavilion. Such structures penetrate the ground to a depth of more than thirty
meters. While step wells were primarily meant for a utilitarian purpose, their ritual and
symbolic values suggest other uses as meeting places, resting places and even hiding places.
The ambience in the step well was very comfortable giving solace to visitors in summer and
during the rainy season the covered pavilions provided shelter.
Fig.20a.Functioning of the wind scoop Fig.20b.Hyderabad, Pakistan, wind scoops on the

[9]. roofs of buildings, which channel air into building
interiors [9].
Fig.21a.Bai Hari’s Wav, Ahmedabad: section

Source: Grover S., Indian Architecture- Islamic Period.
297
Fig.21b.Bai Hari’s Wav, Ahmedabad: view and plan

Source: Grover S., Indian Architecture - Islamic Period.
11. Conclusion
In hot and dry regions the layout of the settlement pattern is the first strategy to control the
climate through compact town and settlement layout that permits mutual shading. The street
and residence orientation and shape of the building ensures that the buildings and their
facades remain in shade longer. The landscaping and use of water creates a microclimate by
evaporative cooling.
The opening and fenestration pattern regulates the solar radiation due to the overhangs and
perforations on the surfaces. The Jalis allow air circulation but at the same time block solar
radiation. The buffer zones namely verandahs and balconies help to cut off the heat during
the summer while act as warm lobbies during the winter. The courtyards act as a cool
container. The thick walls of mud have a high thermal capacity and thus respond favourably
during day time as well as night time. The roofs with insulation act well in hot and dry
conditions. The high ceiling rooms take more time to get heated up.
These traditional exemplars evince passive solar techniques creating optimum habitable
climatic conditions. These strategies are still valid and it is possible for today’s designers and
architects to incorporate these design strategies in hot and dry conditions to serve the cause of
protecting our environment and to support sustainability.
298
References
1. http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-product-design/quote-of-the-day-prince-charles-on-
modern-green-architecture.html
2. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3353008/Prince-Charles-attacks-architects-for-
making-green-gestures.html.
3. Sharma, A., Dhote, K. K. & Tiwari, R. (2003). Climatic Responsive Energy Efficient Passive
Techniques in Buildings. Institution of Engineers (India) Journal- AR 84, April.
4. Krishnan A., Baker N., Yannas S. & Szokolay S. V. (2001). Climate Responsive Architecture - A
Design Hand Book for Energy Efficient Buildings. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
5. Correa, C. (1983). Quest for identity. In R. Powell (ed.) Architecture and Identity. Concept Media,
Singapore.
6. Brown, P. (1975). Indian Architecture (Islamic Period). 6th reprint of the 1956 edition, Bombay.
7. Nath, R. (1999). Fatehpur Sikri and its monuments. The Historical Research Documentation
Programme.
8. ASI (n. d.). Archaeological Survey of India. http://www.asi.nic.in/
9. Ghaemmaghami, P. S. & Mahmoudi, M. (2005). Wind tower a natural cooling system in Iranian
Traditional Architecture. International Conference on Passive and Low Energy Cooling for the
Built Environment, Santorini, Greece.
299
Passive Approach for Achieving Energy Efficiency in a Commercial
Building
ANSINGKAR Shreyasi, NESARIKAR Pradnya, CHINCHOLIKAR Pratibha

Dr Bhanuben Nanavati College of Architecture for Women, Pune, India.
shreyasi.architect@gmail.com, pradnya87@gmail.com, prathiba_778@rediifmail.com
Abstract. Buildings are responsible for at least 40 percent of energy use. Buildings can make
a major contribution to tackling climate change and energy use. Air conditioning & lighting
consume a lot of energy in a commercial building. Achieving comfort is a necessity in an
office building where the internal gains are very high. While making offices energy efficient
it is important to optimize on air conditioning & lighting through passive strategies. An
energy analysis was done on an existing energy intensive building of Persistent Systems at
Pune. The problem statement was to delineate energy efficiency measures in a building and
reanalyze its energy patterns. The focus was as to critically look at architectural design
elements like building envelopes in the energy performance of the building. The approach
was to retrofit passive measures for improving the energy performance of the building based
on the study of the existing building. The performance of the retrofit measures will be
assessed using manual calculations and a simulation tool called Ecotect. The result would be
the change in energy consumed by the building. As a conclusion, the final product is the
effort to display how an energy intensive commercial building can be made energy efficient
by adopting a passive approach.
1. Introduction
In today's scenario, commercial buildings have an image associated with glass and
mechanical systems. They are glass boxes, irrespective of climate and context (Figure 1). Our
approach is to explore the new face of these buildings incorporating passive strategies.
Keeping the basic plans and orientations same, only the building envelope should be designed
to improve energy efficiency.
S. ANSINGKAR, P. NESARIKAR, P. CHINCHOLIKAR
Fig.1.Glass front façade

Source: Authors
Passive approach is based upon response to nature with climate as basic parameter of
design and comfort as a critical issue. It attempts to control comfort (cooling) without
consuming fuels. It maximizes use of free ventilation for cooling and free solar energy for
heating and lighting. It uses materials to control heat and shade to control heat gain. Tiered
approach to passive cooling is necessary to prioritize the notion of impact reduction. Overall
passive cooling relies on two primary strategies:
• Heat avoidance - first and foremost, prevent heat from getting into the building. This
is partially achieved through shading and ensuring that unwanted solar gain does not
enter the building. Shading strategies include shading devices, vegetation, mutual
shading. Reduction of heat ingress includes use of cavity wall, green roof,
intermediate green terraces, and apt material choice. Daylight strategies include light
shelves, skylights, solar pipe systems.
• Passive cooling - Passive cooling is not as much an actual reduction in the dry bulb
temperature as the sensation of coolness that is achieved through air movement or the
addition or subtraction of moisture from the air. Ventilation strategies include
evaporative cooling, natural ventilation etc. The rate of internal heat gain changes
over the day and week for offices – the highest in morning and afternoon, the lowest
at night and over the weekends.
2. Introduction to the case study
An existing energy intensive building, Persistent Systems at Rajiv Gandhi InfoTech Park,
Hinjewadi at Pune, was analyzed (Figures 2, 3a, b). The site area is 19750 m2 with 7885 m2
as ground coverage. It is a linear building with 7 floors and 4 blocks. Each floor plate of work
hall has built-up area of 994.26 m2. C block has an auditorium and meeting rooms.
Occupancy is 670 people per building and 136 per floor of work hall.
Various patterns of energy consumption in the building were studied and basic energy
analysis, focusing on the building envelope was done as shown in Table 1. The facades and
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PASSIVE APPROACH FOR ACHIEVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN A COMMERCIAL BUILDING
building envelope design, along with space planning were critically scrutinized to understand
its impacts on energy efficiency of any building.
Table 1.Derivation of approach and strategies
Determining factors Existing condition Approach/possibilities
Planning & Orientation - north east -south Keeping orientation & floor plate with
orientation west axis. reinforced concrete structure as same. Maximize
utilization of wind daylight.
Built form Bulky mass and very Building façade need to be changed to justify
monotonous façade. climate and will contribute to aesthetics.
Open spaces & built Built form is dominating open To create open spaces in buildings integrating
form spaces. open & built spaces. Open spaces should
complement enclosed spaces.
Wall l200 mm thick cement block Wall with low U value. 230mm thick Aerated
wall plastered both sides. Concrete block wall (25mm plaster from outside
Cavity wall on east side. and 12.5mm inside) U Value 0 .434 W/ m2K
Roof 200 mm thick Reinforced Keeping the slab design as same. Reduction in
Concrete Post Tensioned slab heat gain. Utilization of roof space for
with 50 mm under deck renewable source. Green roof, solar panels.
insulation & brick bat koba on Raised intermediate floor for cooling services
top. Flat roof. Aesthetic which will add an air gap also.
overhang of roof on all the
blocks but not providing
shading.
Fenestration pattern, Low e glass. NW façade clear Removal of double skin on NW facade.
orientation glass wall, SE walls with 450 Provision of proper shading devices. Allow
mm recessed fixed tinted vistas to appreciate the urban sprawls from high
windows. above. Daylight- light shelf's, daylight window
& openable vision window, placement of
window near walls (wash) ventilation- natural
ventilation, shading-fins, horizontal shading
devices.
WWR NW-61.28% SW-49.76 % The WWR is limited to a maximum of 60
percent of gross wall area as prescribed in
ECBC-2007. As per LEED-40%
Internal materials & Wood furniture Glass block partitions, low voc paints, light
finishes coloured paints.
Vegetation Vegetation at site level Green spaces, garden, terraces and shrubs and
contributes to shading on creepers can be planted in windows will help
ground floor only. maintaining indoor comfort levels.
Source: Authors
303
Fig.2.West façade of the Persistent System building, Pune

Source: Authors
Fig.3a.Google map showing site [1] Fig.3b.Site plan showing blocks

Source: Authors.
2.1. Climate of Pune

Parameters that need to be considered while designing the facade will be the temperature,
solar radiation, horizontal and vertical shading angles, winds etc. The bioclimatic chart
suggests that providing evaporative cooling system for most of the months in Pune is the best
passive strategy (Figure 4). Climate of Pune is arid climate as only three months of the year
are under humid condition. Further, inferences from Mahoney table (Table 2) are as
following:
• Open spacing for breeze penetration is required but protection from heat & cold wind is
also required.
• The walls & the roofs should be heavy.
• Provision for air movement is required.
304
• Medium size openings of 20-40 percent are required. Position of openings should be on
the north & south walls at body height on windward side but should restrict direct
sunlight.
• Summer radiations are the highest on horizontal surface as compared to northwest and
southeast surfaces.
Fig.4.Bioclimatic chart [2]

Source: Authors.
Table 2.Mahoney table

Month of the Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Air Temperature ºC
Monthly mean max. 29.9 32.3 35.8 37.9 37.2 32.0 28.4 27.5 29.3 31.7 30.2 29.1
Day Comfort Upper 29 31 31 31 31 29 27 27 27 29 29 29
Lower 23 25 25 25 25 23 22 22 22 23 23 23
Monthly mean min. 10.8 12.1 16.0 20.2 22.4 22.9 22.1 21.4 20.6 18.4 14.2 11.6
Night Comfort Upper 23 24 24 24 24 23 21 21 21 23 23 23
Lower 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
Thermal stress day H O H H H H H H H H H O
Night C C C O O O H H O O C C
Humidity group 3 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 3 3 3
Humid: H1 √ √ √
H2
H3
Arid A1 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
A2 √ √
A3
Indicators H1 H2 H3 A1 A2 A3
3 0 0 8 2 0
Source: Authors.
305
3. Passive approach
3.1. Ventilation strategy: Passive Downdraught Evaporative Cooling (PDEC)

Designing of the cooling towers is done to cater to the building heat gain rate of 189 W/m2
assuming the percentage of inlet area of cooler pads to floor area, with back and forth
calculations to obtain the result.
Stack tower size (Figures 5, 6) - 2m x 2m (solar chimney + mechanical control) 3 per block
5 percent of floor area will obtain a cooling rate of 100 W/m2
Inlet tower size (Figures 7, 8) - 5m x 2m (4 sided fan mounted inlets) 3 per block
Summer dry bulb temperature = 37oC, wet bulb temperature = 20oC
Outdoor wet bulb depression = dry bulb – wet bulb = 17oC
Fig.5.Ventilation system Fig.6.Area of stack tower (graphical method) [2]

Source: Authors.
Fig.7.Area of cooling tower (graph method) [3] Fig.8.Block A façade

Source: Authors.
306
Fig.9.Part section AA through towers at sixth floor

Source: Authors.
Fig.10.Plan of block A
Source: Authors.
Fig.11.Part section through towers

Source: Authors.
307
Evaporative cooling systems only work well where ambient humidity levels are low and
are dependent on an unrestricted water supply. Cool towers use fine mist fed by header tank
arrangement, and electric pump. When outdoor humidity is high, fans are placed within the
cooling tower to enhance evaporative cooling. Since, this moist air is denser than the
surrounding air; it falls down the tower and into the building and generates a self-
perpetuating air current, a form of natural ventilation. This works on a push pull effect of
positive pressure on windward side and negative pressure (suction) on leeward side, thus,
dropping the temperature before the air enters the building. The cool, dense, humid air sinks
down into cooling tower and distributed in the building and the warmer, dryer air is less
dense than colder, and therefore rises above and escapes from the stack tower at other end
(Figures 9, 10). Air inside the building will be warmed by the bodies of the occupants, by
lighting and any electrically powered equipment, and by solar gain in the building fabric. The
warmer air is allowed to escape from top of room; cooler air can be admitted at ground level
to replace it. Air ducts or channels are incorporated in the slab to encourage internal air
circulation (Figure 11). Plenum chamber ducts cooled air pressurizes the void and diffusers
are located amongst the raised floor to allow the cooled air to escape over as wide an area as
desired. Modular raised prefabricated floor panels and pedestals are installed by a dry
construction method.
The energy consumption of the system can be further reduced by integrating other passive
systems. Solar chimney/thermal chimneys along with mechanical fan systems are used to
promote the essential airflow. It has an exterior vertical glass block open at the top,
connecting it to the building interior. It is a way of improving the natural ventilation of
buildings by using convection of air heated by passive solar energy [4].
The cooling media is a sprinkler system using mist spraying system with water pump. It
has less dust and fewer insects. It is 95 percent efficient as against 60 percent efficiency of
pads system. Pads require maintenance. The standing water that serves as the cooling base is
prone to fouling, if not changed regularly or used in a dusty environment. It leads to frequent
cleaning and changing of dripping pads. Thus, sprinkler system can be used with high-
pressure pump brass and stainless steel mist nozzle.
3.2. Efficiency of PDEC system

The ventilation rate required for single floor = 1/3 (total volume of hall x air changes per h)
= 1243 x 8 = 9945 m3/h (2.76 m3/s)
For single tower inlet, required ventilation rate = 9945 x 7 (no. of floors) = 69615 m3/h
Thus number of diffusers required for 1/3 of area = 10 to 12 fan units.
No. of fans required at main inlet of tower = 10 to 12 fan units
3.3. Daylight strategies

Average daylight levels in work halls A, B, D and E are less than required standard lux levels
as per National Building Code (NBC) of India standards for computer workstations. Daylight
308
received in areas near west side glazing and east side windows is far more than standard
creating glare in those areas. Daylight distribution from near window zones up to the central
areas is not satisfactory.
The illumination levels i.e. quantity of daylight received in all the four blocks A, B, D and
E is between the ranges of 200-500 lux, which is recommended by National Building Code of
India for commercial buildings. The reflective ceilings and light shelves extend the reach of
light until centre of work halls. There is provision of daylight and vision window. With clear
wide openings flushed till the wall so that the wall also gets diffused light, (Figures 12, 13, 14
and 15).
Fig.12.West façade section Fig.13.East façade section

Source: Authors. Source: Authors.
Fig.14. Lux levels at block A Fig. 15. Lux levels at block E

309
3.5. Innovative technologies in day lighting

A Solar pipe system consists of a pipe that transmits ambient sunlight to desired location in
the building interiors. The heart of the sun pipe system consists of a mirror finished; highly
reflective aluminium tube which is electrolytically enhanced anodized aluminium. A clear
polycarbonate top dome seals the light pipe and a prismatic polycarbonate ceiling fitting
evenly diffuses light into the room or space below. The sun pipe system is highly effective in
both sunny and overcast conditions and even when it is raining. The sun catcher is the ideal
alternative to roof lights and skylights. It is also an ideal method for providing additional
natural daylight and ventilation to internal rooms or spaces, poorly served by other external
glazing. Providing greater capability of the batteries during winter periods to recharge,
allowing the system to provide up to five hours use per day. This makes the solar-vent system
ideal for all commercial areas.
Light capture is high at low sun angles (i.e. before 9 am and after 3 pm). Bright light for 10
to 12 hours in a day, no heat buildup, works efficiently even on rainy days, long life
(minimum of 20 years), light dispersion is uniform. This is designed for larger areas, such as
kitchens and utility areas, parking, cafeteria, ground plus one storey structure.
3.4. Façade design and building materials

The wind/ stack towers have become one of the primary elements of architectural form. The
façade design is such that there is mutual shading done by the floors above (Figures 16, 17).
Staggering is done for the floors. Vertical fins and shading devices are provided for
intermediate flows. Autoclave aerated Concrete Block Cavity wall is provided for south-east
façade. Intermediate green zones at points of relaxation for the employees from their
strenuous work are provided (Figure 18).
Fig.16.Facade Fig.17.Cut section

310
Fig.18.Perspective view
Source: Authors.
The building envelope is made of the following materials:

• Wall is 230 mm thick Aerated Concrete Block wall (25 mm plaster from outside and
12.5mm inside) with a U value of 0.434 W/m2 K.
• Roof is 100 mm reinforced concrete (25 mm plaster from outside and 12.5 mm inside)
with a U value of 3.59 W/m2 K.
• Window is single glazed U value of 5.6 W/m2 K
4. Energy and cost management
The PDEC system has higher embodied energy due to the construction of infrastructure, but
generally, energy consumption will be greatly reduced in the range of 25 to 70 percent,
depending on the individual evaporative cooling system setup. Thus, total energy saving
through passive approach as compared to existing Persistent System building is 46 percent as
shown in Table 3 and Figure 19.
Initial building cost is generally higher, as there is a need to construct addition structure
and the equipment needed is usually more costly as compared to the conventional cooling
systems. However, the advantages are that it reduces operational cost significantly as shown
in Figure 20 and Tables 4, 5.
Estimated cost of PDEC system is INR 5,36,56,701.00
Estimated savings per annum is INR 92,29,429.00
Simple payback period is 5 years.
311
Table 3.Comparative analysis energy reductions

Systems Existing (kW) Proposed (kW) Energy Percentage
savings kW savings
kW
Cooling system HVAC PDEC system

Variable calculated from
Refrigerant power of fans of
Volume (VRV) 54 KEC, CSD used
hp & 14 hp in towers
Cooling load/ 144.21 23.32 90.21 82.49

power
consumption
Lighting system Artificial lighting Natural daylight
Power 61.006 0 61.006 100

consumption
Building envelope AAC wall, roof, Cavity wall, green

glazing roof, double
glazing, shading
Heat gain through 287.78 196.14 91.60 31.84

envelope (steady
state method)
Heat gain through 21.30 21.30 0 0

computers
150 W/comp

persons

equipment
Total kW 539.83 293.68 246.21 45.59

Source: Generated by Authors.
312
350
300
250
existing proposed
200
150
100
50
0
cooling lighting envelope computer persons equipment
Fig.19.Total kW energy savings

Source: Authors.
Table 4.Energy bills of existing air conditioning system

Appliances No Consumption/ Duration/ Consumption/ Total for all Rate Cost
day kWh day h month blocks kW per INR
kW unit
HVAC (single block) (single block)
VRV - 54 hp 3 967 8 29004 116018 7 812126
VRV - 14 hp 1 143 8 4297 17188 7 120316
Total cost per month INR 932442
Total cost per annum INR 11189304
Source: Authors.
Table 5.Energy bills of the proposed PDEC system

Appliances No of Consumpti Duration/ Consumption/ Rate Cost
App. on/day Day h month per INR
kW h kW unit
PDEC System for all
blocks
Inlet tower fans 240 115 8 3226 7 22579.2
Diffuser 1000 480 8 13440 7 94080
Exhaust fans for 96 46.08 8 1290.24 7 9031.68
stack
Electric pump 12 192 8 5376 7 37632
Total cost per month 163322.9
Total cost per annum 1959875
Source: Authors.
313
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
Existing A.C system PDEC system
electricity bill per anum( Rs) savings
Fig.20.Cost comparison of existing and proposed ventilation systems

Source: Authors.
5. Conclusion
The above case study of Persistent System building demonstrates that the total energy saving
through passive approach as compared to existing building is 46 percent. There is reduction
in operational cost significantly. Further, there is an increased quality of environment and
interior ambience in terms of views, daylight, and ventilation for the employees. It is
imperative to incorporate passive approach in designing of commercial buildings to achieve
comfort along with energy efficiency and cost savings.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the guidance and help of experts Poorva Keskar, Anshul Gujarathi,
Sujit Kothiwale, Namrata Dhamankar, Gayatri Godse, Dhananjay Sinharkar, Arun Atre,
Sudhanva Kolhatkar, Sonali Rajwade, Sujata Kodag, and students of final year Masters of
Architecture, BNCA, the paper would have not been possible. The authors also would like to
acknowledge Abhikalpan Architects for providing drawings of the building.
References
1. Shah, S., Kolhatkar, S. & Joshi, R. (2008). Retrofitting of Persistent building at Hinjewadi Pune.
YCMOU.BNCA. Pune.
2. Brown, G. & DeKay, M. (2000). Sun wind and light. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York.
3. Kolhatkar, S. (2005). Responding to thermal environment. Quality Improvement Program,
National Institute of Advanced Studies in Architecture, Pune.
4. Nayak, J. & Prajapati, J. (2006). Handbook on Energy conscious buildings. Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay & Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources, Government of India.
314
Shading of Buildings: A Cost Effective Solution for Saving Energy in
Hot Tropical Regions
SARKAR Amitava
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, India
amitava@nitham.ac.in
Abstract. The building industry is one of the major consumers of energy in the world as well
as in India both during its construction and operation. The modern buildings and their
unrealistic faith in artificial systems leads to designs which disregard the climate and produce
buildings that many times are both physiologically and psychologically inhospitable as well
as more energy consuming. The parameters which greatly influence building performance
include building orientation, construction, natural ventilation, design of fenestration that
includes window type and opening area, shading devices and their position, daylighting,
cooling and heating strategies. This paper will examine an approach of using building
simulation technology presenting a case study of an office building, to evaluate the impact of
shading on its energy performance and sustainability and to enable the building designers to
adopt low carbon strategies while creating a comfortable and sustainable indoor environment.
1. Introduction
It is a fact that buildings consume a lot of energy both during their construction and their
operation. Hence buildings are also a great source of carbon dioxide emission to the
atmosphere. In India, the building sector represents about 33 percent of electricity
consumption, with the commercial sector and residential sector accounting for 8 percent and
25 percent respectively [1]. Understanding the implication of this situation on energy
resources of India, the Government of India has introduced the Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC) in 2007 and made further addition in the Code in 2008 to provide minimum
requirements for energy efficient design and construction of buildings and their systems [2].
It is estimated that the nationwide mandatory enforcement of the ECBC will yield annual
savings of approximately 1.7 billion kWh [1]. Therefore, building design cannot depend
A. SARKAR
solely on the whim of the building designer. Energy saving measures have to be integrated in
the early conceptual stages of the building design process to create an energy efficient
comfortable building and building simulation tools can assist the building designer to take the
optimum to the best design decisions.
Most of the energy used in buildings is for the provision of heating, cooling, lighting and
hot water supply. Much of the buildings energy consumption is to maintain comfortable
environments for its occupants and users. For example, heating and cooling is used to
maintain comfortable temperatures, fans are used to provide ventilation preventing a buildup
of moisture, carbon dioxide and odors, and lighting is used to ensure visual comfort [3]. By
understanding the factors responsible for occupants’ comfort and by analyzing the source of
building loads, the designers will be in a better position to employ passive design measures to
reduce and in some case to even eliminate these loads to provide comfortable living and
working places to the occupants. In this decision making process, building simulation tools
can help designers to make energy efficient design decisions without compromising the
comfort of the occupants.
In this paper, a case study of an office building is used for the analysis of the baseline
design to first understand the building loads and its performance. In this study, the impact of
using shading devices on energy performance and sustainability of the office building will be
analyzed by a building simulation tool. After performing the analysis by the simulation tool,
the result will enable the designer to choose the optimum design strategy to achieve energy
efficiency in the building.
2. Methodology
2.1. Computational Simulation

The e-QUEST v3.64 building energy simulation tool was used to perform the analysis of the
case study [4]. The e-QUEST uses DOE 2.2 as simulation engine which can predict hourly
energy use and energy cost by carrying out hourly energy simulation of the building design
for one year based on DOE-2 input weather data. It is easy to use and has Graphical User
Interface (GUI) for faster energy analysis of complex building projects. The input data
regarding building geometry, internal load, and Heating, Ventilation & Air Conditioning
(HVAC) system of the building project was entered into the simulation engine by the
‘Building Creation Wizard’ and by ‘Detailed Design Spreadsheet Data’ mode.
2.2. Description of the case study building

A four storey office building facing north, located in Amritsar (31.38° North Latitude, 74.52°
East Longitude, 234 meter MSL altitude), Punjab, having composite climate, is chosen for the
case study. The office building has an approximate floor area of 265 m2 (2850 ft2) per floor.
The building uses mixed mode ventilation. Figure 1 shows the layout of the floor plans.
316
SHADING OF BUILDINGS: A COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION FOR SAVING ENERGY IN HOT…
`2.3. Inputs for simulation and assumptions

Since the office building is located in Amritsar, Punjab, Amritsar, ISHRAE weather file will
be used in the simulation [5]. Also, the building faces the geographical north. Now, the major
inputs about the building geometry will be provided to the simulation engine as per the
architectural and HVAC drawings. HVAC drawings are important for the internal thermal
zoning, which detail out the conditioned and unconditioned spaces in the building. Table 1
shows the input details about the geometry of the office building under consideration.
Fig.1.Layout of the floor plans of the office building

Source: Author
Next, the details of various elements of the building envelope will be supplied to the
simulation engine to carry out the analysis on probable annual energy consumption of the
317
A. SARKAR
building. Table 2 shows the important inputs about the building envelope of the office
building. From the HVAC drawings, types of systems used for cooling and heating purposes
are found out along with their efficiencies. The set point temperatures maintained inside the
various zones are also found out. The details of HVAC system used in the office building are
given in Table 3. Some of the other important facts and assumptions considered in the energy
simulation of the office building are as follows:
• The ground floor is in contact with the ground beneath.
• It is assumed that each floor area comprises a single zone for HVAC purpose.
• As per the drawings, the window size is 1.8 x 1.8m with single glazed tinted glass.
• The rate of infiltration (shell tightness or air leakage) in the external wall area is
assumed as 0.695 m3/h/m2 ~ 0.038 CFM/ft2 and in the core floor area as 0.0183
m3/h/m2 ~ 0.001 CFM/ft2.
• A normal 5 day week from 9.00 am to 5.00 pm office operation schedule is assumed.
• Maximum occupancy density in the office area is assumed as 9.29 m2/person ~ 100
ft2/person.
• The design ventilation rate is 25.5 m3/h/person ~15 CFM/person.
• The lighting and equipment load is 10.76 W/m2 ~ 1 W/ft2 and plug load is 16.14 W/m2
~ 1.5 W/ft2.
Table 1.Details about Building Geometry

Building Geometry Units Input Explanation
2
Gross floor area m 1059 As per the drawings (floor plans)
Total conditioned floor area m2 1059 As per the drawings (HVAC
layout)
Number of floors above grade Number 4 As per the drawings (sections)
Number of floors below grade Number 0 As per the drawings (sections)
Floor to floor height m 3.35 As per the drawings (sections and
Ground floor elevations)
First floor
Second floor
Third floor
Plenum height m No false As per the drawings (sections)
Ground floor ceiling
First floor
Second floor
Third floor
Source: Author
318
Table 2.Details about building envelope

Building Envelope Units Input Explanation
Roof U-value W/m2 K 0.36 Roof construction considered as
per the ASHRAE 90.1 standard
for India [6]
Roof reflectivity 0.3 No cool roof
2
Wall U value W/m K 2.0 230 mm (9”) brick wall
plastered on either side
Partition wall U value W/m2 K 2.19 Metal framed gyp board
partitions
External floor U value W/m2 K 2.0 125 mm (4”) thick concrete slab
with ceramic tiles on the
internal face
False ceiling W/m2 K NA No false ceiling and ceilings
have drywall finish, having no
extra insulation
Windows
U value W/m2 K 5.85 U value of the assembly
considered
SHGC 0.59 Single glazed tinted glass
VLT 0.76 6 mm tinted glass
Frame NA
Window wall ratio
(on all floors)
North wall % 40
South wall % 25 As per the drawings provided,
the total window area to
East wall % 15 external wall
West wall % 15
Shading Yes 0.6 m horizontal shading device
Self shading Yes
319
A. SARKAR
Table 3.Details of HVAC System used in the building

HVAC System Units Input Explanation
HVAC system type Packaged single zone Split system single
zone DX with electric
heat
Cooling type DX high efficiency
Cooling-EER 10.239 COP = 3.0
Heating type Electrical Resistance
Heating-EER 10.239 COP = 3.0
Supply fan control Constant speed
Motor efficiency of fan 0.9
Fan off hour of control Fan is off
Cooling set point ºC 24.4 Comfort zone as per
ASHRAE, 2005 [7]
Heating set point ºC 21.1
and NBC, 2005 [8]
2.4. Design of shading

According to the sun path diagram for Amritsar, Punjab, India, the shading is required for the
hot months in summer and monsoon – late May, June, July, August and September. To
design horizontal shading, the sun’s position in mid August noon is considered.
The overhang is calculated from the formula (eqn. 1) given by David Ballast [9].
H = D*tan (solar altitude angle) / cos (solar azimuth, window azimuth) (1)
H = height of shadow,
D = depth of overhang
Solar altitude angle = 70°
Azimuth difference = (solar azimuth, window azimuth) = 0, since on the southern wall
windows are facing south, and at noon the sun will be almost opposite perpendicular to the
south wall at noon
Hence, from equation (1), D = 0.65 meter, say, 0.6 meter ~ 2 feet.
Figures 2 and 3 show the shading pattern on the southern walls because of horizontal
external shading of windows. The overhang has been designed to cut off harsh solar radiation
on windows in the hot summer months of May, June, July and August, and to allow the sun
rays on windows in cooler winter months of November, December, January and February.
320
2.5. Process of simulation

The aim of running the simulation of the office building is to find out the probable annual
energy consumption because of the design decision taken at the initial level and at the end in
respect to certain elements of the building envelope.
At first the building model was developed based on the input data as per the building
drawings to analyze the building’s probable annual energy usage as per the baseline design
data. Reasonable assumptions were made at this stage about the usage and zoning pattern of
various parts of the case study building. Next, the models were developed based on the
scenarios namely presence and absence of shading, and probable annual energy consumptions
because of these conditions were measured. Figure 4 shows the building model generated by
e-QUEST simulation tool based on input design data.
The Energy Efficiency Measure (EEM) wizard of e-QUEST simulation software was used
to carry out the comparative analysis based on the various options. After completing all the
simulations, the probable annual energy consumptions and thermal comfort of various zones
because of each solution can be compared and the best optimum design solutions can be
chosen.
Fig.2.Window shading analysis for summer month of July

Source: Author
321
A. SARKAR
Fig.3.Window shading analysis in winter months December

Source: Author
Fig.4.Building models generated by e-QUEST without and with shading

Source: Author
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Energy consumption comparison

Figure 5 shows the comparison of probable annual energy consumption of the office building
by end use with and without external shading. It is clear from the figures that the largest
consumer of energy in air conditioned buildings is the HVAC system and the office
equipments and lighting. Since the office equipments load will remain the same, measures
should be taken to reduce the load of space cooling and artificial lighting. It is seen from the
figure that, although the annual lighting load and equipment load remain the same, substantial
energy savings (4 percent) are achieved in HVAC and mechanical ventilation by using
external shading (overhangs) of the windows in south, east and west facade of the building.
322
Primary End-use Space Cooling
Ventilation
Misc. Equipment
Area Lighting
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Electric Use (kwh x1000)
Windows with external shading Baseline design without external shading
Fig.5.Comparison of annual energy consumption by end use with & without shading
Source: Author
Fig.6.Comparison of monthly energy consumption with & without shading

Source: Author
Figure 6 shows the comparison of monthly energy consumption of the office building
without and with shading. It shows that energy savings are achieved in all the months by
using external shading (overhangs) of the windows in south, east and west façade of the
building.
323
A. SARKAR
Table 4 shows clearly a substantial incremental saving in annual energy consumption and
demand of the office building in terms of annual source energy, annual site energy and annual
HVAC energy consumption because of using external shading to the building. The table also
shows a reduction in the peak hour power demand and cooling load because of external
window shading.
Although, the probable annual energy consumption per square feet of the office building is
calculated to be within the acceptable limit (181.371 kWh/m2 ~ 16.85 kWh/ft2) prescribed by
the ECBC guidelines (107.64 kWh/m2 ~ 10 kWh/ft2 to 269.09 kWh/m2 ~ 25 kWh/sq ft) even
without shading because of other energy efficient design measures, but by using external
shading of the windows on south, east and west side, that value is brought down to 177.389
kWh/m2 ~ 16.48 kWh/ft2, a saving of 2 percent electric energy. Also, the ‘cool’ design
capacity of the HVAC system is found to be in the range of 13.94 m2/ton ~ 150 ft2/ton, which
is quite satisfactory and above the normal range of 9.29 m2/ton ~ 100 ft2/ton. The unmet
hours or hours outside throttling range is as low as 1 percent which is quite good compared to
the ECBC and ASHRAE guidelines (4-5 percent).
Table 4.Incremental savings of energy due to external shading of office building

Annual Annual source Annual Lighting HVAC energy Peak
energy use energy site
and demand energy
Total EUI Elect Elect Elect Total Elect Cool
kWh kWh/m2/ kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh Tons
yr
Base design 576.5 543.70 192.09 24,673 113.4 113.42 115 72
without
external
shading
Design with 563.9 531.86 187.90 24,673 109.2 109.32 112 70
window
external
shading
Incremental 12.6 11.85 4.19 0 4.2 4.10 3 2
savings for (2%) (2%) (0%) (4%) (4%) (3%) (2%)
option 1
Source: Author
324
4. Conclusion
The result of the case study has shown that the use of external shading (overhangs) of
windows can reduce annual energy consumption of the building and improve its energy
èfficacy along with maintaining indoor thermal comfort conditions in the air-conditioned
office building [7, 8]. The study has shown that the building simulation tools can assist the
building designers to take judicious decision about the incorporation of efficient measures at
various stages of design so as to ensure that the building consumes less energy during its
operation while providing comfortable living and working environments to the occupants.
The use of internal shading devices, like curtains, blinds, screens on windows may further
contribute to maintaining indoor thermal comfort conditions and save energy cost by reducing
internal cooling loads. In this case, the use of external horizontal shading of two feet
overhang, has shown an incremental 2 percent energy saving annually thus proving that the
judicious design of external shading of windows, which are part of the building system and
design, as per building location, will contribute to annual energy saving in hot tropical areas.
References
1. BEE (2009). Energy Conservation Building Code User Guide. Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New
Delhi.
2. BEE (2008). Energy Conservation Building Code 2007. Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New Delhi.
3. Pollock, M., Roderick, Y., McEwan, D. & Wheatley, C. (2008). Building simulation as an
assisting tool in designing an energy efficient building: a case study. Integrated Environmental
Solutions Limited, UK.
4. http://www.energydesignresources.com/tools/equest.htm
5. WMO (2011). Statistics for Amritsar ID WMO no. 420710. Indian Society of Heating,
Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers, World Meteorological Organization.
6. ASHRAE (2004). ASHRAE 90.1 – 2004, Appendix G: Performance Rating Method. American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Atlanta, USA.
7. ASHRAE (2005). Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Atlanta, USA.
8. BIS (2005). National Building Code, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
9. Ballast, D. (1988). The Architect’s Handbook of Formulas, Tables, and Mathematical
Calculations. Prentice Hall, USA.
325
Capitalizing on Energy Efficiency in Buildings through Bioclimatic
Design
ASHTT Rashmi1 , MONGA Ajay2

1
Hindu School of Architecture, Sonepat, India
2
rushme_arch@yahoo.com, ajaymonga2008@gmail.com
Abstract. Buildings are an essential component of a human settlement to allow unimpeded

activity irrespective of conditions of the natural environment. However, as they are designed
and used today, they contribute to serious environmental problems, as there is an excessive
consumption of energy and natural resources. To achieve the thermal comfort for occupants,
energy sensitive solutions are to be sought to control the depletion of invaluable
environmental resources. While designing a building, the approach should be energy sensitive
and comfort can be achieved by adopting an integrated approach to building design. Among
the most effective way is to follow an approach based on Bioclimatic Design, to design
buildings and spaces (interior-exterior) based on climate, aimed at providing thermal and
visual comfort, making use of solar energy and other environmental sources. Basic elements
of bioclimatic design are passive solar systems which are incorporated into buildings and
utilize environmental sources (for example, sun, air, wind, vegetation, water, soil, sky) for
heating, cooling and lighting the buildings. Thus, the paper is an effort to present bioclimatic
principles to achieve an energy efficient building and illustrate with an exemplar.
1. Introduction
Buildings are an essential component of a human settlement to allow unimpeded activity

irrespective of conditions of the natural environment. It may also be configured as an
enclosure, which is a means of containment and articulation of habitable space, selected and
assembled to resist and control effects of environment and other external forces on it.
Buildings incorporate all the essential services required for comfortable living and are
resistant to outer forces while encapsulating the elements of the interior. Further, it is
R. ASHTT, A. MONGA
expected to act as an envelope to separate the internal environment from the external. There
are various environmental factors which are to be dealt with by a building such as heat,
moisture, sound and fire, to name some (Figure 1). There is a close connection between
energy use in buildings and environmental damage which arises because energy intensive
solutions are sought to construct a building and meet its demands for heating, cooling,
ventilation and lighting. However, as buildings are designed and used today, they contribute
to serious environmental problems as there is an excessive consumption of energy and natural
resources (Figure 2).
Fig.1.Building as an enclosure with services

Source: Authors.
Fig.2.Interaction of building with environment and its elements

Source: Authors.
To achieve the thermal comfort for the occupants, energy sensitive solutions are sought to
control the depletion of valuable environmental resources. However, while designing a
building if the approach is such that the comfort can be achieved by adopting an integrated
approach to building design there is a scope of minimizing energy consumption to achieve
desired results.
One of the most effective and comfortable way is following an approach based on
bioclimatic design [1]. This entails creating a building which should provide comfort and
energy efficiency based on the analysis of climate and ambient energy represented by the sun,
wind, temperature and humidity as prevailing in the respective area’s microclimate.
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CAPITALIZING ON ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS THROUGH BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN
2. Energy efficiency in buildings
To minimize and reduce energy consumption and to meet the occupants’ need for thermal and
visual comfort, buildings should be given due consideration while they are being designed.
Energy resource efficiency in new constructions can be achieved by adopting an integrated
approach to building design [2].
2.1. Passive solar techniques in building design

Passive solar techniques can be followed in building design to minimize the load on
conventional HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) and daylighting systems.
Thermal and visual comfort can be achieved by passive energy utilization techniques by
using natural energy sources like solar radiation, outside air, sky, wet surfaces, vegetation,
internal gains, etc. Energy flows in these systems are by natural means like by radiation,
conduction, convection with minimal or no use of mechanical means [3].
• Conduction: heat flow from hotter object to cooler object by direct contact.
• Convection: heat flow from the air film next to a hotter object by exposure to cooler air currents.
• Radiation: heat flow from hotter object to cooler object within the direct view of each other
regardless of the temperature of air between.
The passive solar systems thus, vary from one climate to the other, for example, in a cold
climate an architect’s aim would be to design a building in such a way that solar gains are
maximized, while in a hot climate, the primary aim would be to reduce solar gains, maximize
natural ventilation and so on.
2.2. Energy efficient lighting and HVAC

Once passive solar architectural concepts are applied to a design, the load on conventional
HVAC and lighting systems is reduced. Further, energy conservation is possible by judicious
design of the artificial lighting and HVAC system using energy efficient equipment, controls
and operation strategies [4].
2.3. Renewable energy systems

Use of renewable energy systems (solar photovoltaic systems/solar water heating systems)
should be encouraged to meet a part of the building load. The pressure on the earth’s non-
renewable resources can be alleviated by the judicious use of the earth’s renewable resources
like solar energy [2]. Use of solar energy for meeting electrical needs for a building can
further reduce consumption of conventional forms of energy.
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2.4. Low energy materials and methods of construction

An architect should also aim at efficient structural design, reduction of use of high energy
building materials (glass, steel, etc.), reduction of transportation energy, and use of low
energy building materials and methods of construction. The last includes a diverse range of
materials like bamboo, straw, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled metal, and other
products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable like trass, linoleum, sheep
wool, panels made from paper flakes, compressed earth block, adobe, baked earth, rammed
earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linen, sisal, sea grass, cork, expanded clay grains, coconut, wood
fiber plates, calcium, sand stone, and concrete (high and ultra high performance, self-healing
concrete) [3].
Thus, in brief, an energy efficient building balances all aspects of energy use in a building
namely lighting, space conditioning and ventilation, by providing an optimized mix of
passive solar design strategies, energy-efficient equipments (which function with renewable
energy and give better results) and renewable sources of energy. Use of materials with low
embodied energy as mentioned, also form a major component in energy efficient building
design.
3. Bioclimatic design
The term bioclimatic architectural design is linked to the biological, physiological and
psychological need for health and comfort of a human being. A bioclimatic design approach
in architecture is an attempt to create comfort conditions in buildings by utilizing the
microclimate and resulting design strategies that incorporate and optimally utilize natural
ventilation, day lighting and passive heating and cooling.
3.1. Climate characterization

It is very important to categorize the climatic regions based on the type of climate prevailing
in the region, according to temperature variations, humidity, etc. The relative effectiveness of
passive cooling strategies follows in part the climatic characterization from arid to humid.
The suitability of ventilation and evaporative cooling as cooling strategies are related to
atmospheric humidity during summer months. The main bioclimatic strategy of a region is
thus to use shading and ventilation, to minimize, if not to replace mechanical
dehumidification and air conditioning, which may be required as a function of building type
and climate.
3.2. Envelope dominated and internal dominated

Bioclimatic design strategies are effective for “envelope dominated” structures, to provide a
large portion if not all of the energy required to maintain comfort conditions [2]. Buildings
330
such as hospitals, offices, commercial kitchens, retail stores that can be categorized as
“internal load dominated” buildings, experience high internal gains imposed by the heat of
occupancy lights and equipments. In such cases, the external climatic conditions may have a
more complex influence on achieving comfort and low energy utilization. Internal loads can
be reduced through energy efficient design, low wattage equipment and lighting, occupancy,
scheduling and zoning.
3.3. Bioclimatic design strategies

The basic objectives of bioclimatic design are to recover and overcome the gaps between the
prevailing climatic conditions and the required comfort conditions by intelligent and optimum
utilization of natural resources. In winter, the objectives of bioclimatic design are to resist
loss of heat from the building envelope and promote gain of solar heat. In summer, these
objectives are reversed, to resist solar again and to promote loss of heat from the building
interior. The strategies can be set forth as:
• Minimize conductive heat flow: this strategy is achieved by using insulation. It is
effective when the outdoor temperature is significantly different, either lower or higher
than the interior comfort range. In summer, this strategy should be considered whenever
ambient temperatures are within or above the comfort range and where natural cooling
strategies cannot be relied upon to achieve comfort.
• Delay periodic heat flow: while the insulation value of building materials is well
understood, it is not as widely appreciated that building envelope materials can also delay
heat flows that can be used to improve comfort and to lower energy costs. Time lag
through masonry walls, for example, can delay the day thermal impact until evening and
is a particularly valuable technique in hot arid climates with wide day night temperature
variations.
• Minimize infiltration: infiltration refers to uncontrolled air leakage through joints, cracks
and faulty seals in construction and around doors and windows. Infiltration is considered
the largest and potentially the most intractable source of energy loss in a building once
other practical insulation measures have been taken.
• Provide thermal storage: it is a function of its specific heat and weight. Thermal mass
inside of the building envelope is critical in dampening the swings in air temperature in
summer and winter.
• Promote solar gain: the sun provides a substantial portion of winter heating energy
through elements such as equatorial facing windows and greenhouses and other passive
solar techniques which utilize space to collect, store and transfer solar heat.
• Minimize external air flow: winter winds increase the rate of heat loss from a building by
washing away heat thus accelerating the cooling of the exterior envelope and also by
increasing infiltration losses. Siting and shaping a building to minimize wind breaks can
reduce the impact of such winds.
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R. ASHTT, A. MONGA
• Promote natural ventilation: cooling by air flow through an interior may be propelled by
two natural processes, cross ventilation and stack ventilation. While a fan can be used to
augment natural ventilation, cooling in the absence of sufficient wind or stack-pressure
differential is attained by pressures created by buoyancy on account of temperature
variation.
• Minimize solar energy gain: the best means of ensuring comfort from the summer heat is
to minimize the effects of the direct sun, the primary source of overheating, by shading
the building from the sun by use of radiant barriers and by insulation.
• Promote radiant cooling: a building can lose heat effectively if the mean radiant
temperature of the materials at its outer surface is greater than that of its surroundings,
principally the night sky. The mean radiant temperature of the building surface is
determined by the intensity of solar irradiation, the material surface and the emissivity of
its exterior surface. This contributes little however well insulated.
• Promote evaporative cooling: the latent heat is consumed from the air for change of phase
from liquid to gaseous state and thus the sensible heat in the air is lowered. Sensible
cooling of a building interior can be achieved by evaporating moisture into the incoming
air stream. These are simple and traditional techniques and most useful in hot dry
climates if water is available for controlled usage. Modern evaporative cooling is
achieved with an economizer, a cycle evaporative cooling system, instead of or in
conjunction with refrigerant air conditioning system.
3.4. Bioclimatic design techniques

Each locale in a region has its own bioclimatic profile, sometimes evident in indigenous and
long established building practices appropriate for different regions. Bioclimatic design
techniques can be set forth as a set of design opportunities which the designer may choose
from for both region and site specific microclimatic response.
3.4.1. Wind breaks
Two design techniques serve the function of minimizing winter wind exposure.
• Use neighboring landforms, structure or vegetation for winter wind protection.
• Shaping and orienting the building shell to minimize winter wind turbulence.
3.4.2. Thermal envelope
Isolating the interior space from the hot summer and cold winter climate by resorting to the
following:
• Minimizing the outside wall and roof areas.
• Using the attic space as a buffer zone between the interior and outside climate.
• Using the basement or crawl space as a buffer zone between the interior and the grounds.
332
• Centralizing heat sources within the building interior.

• Using the vestibule or exterior wind shield at entryways.
• Locating low use spaces, storage utility and garage areas to provide climatic buffers.
• Subdividing the interior to create separate heating and cooling zones.
• Selecting insulating materials for resistance to heat flow through the building envelope.
• Applying vapor barriers to warm side to control moisture migration.
• Developing construction details to minimize air infiltration and ex-filtration.
• Selecting high capacitance materials to dampen heat flow through the building envelope.
• Providing insulating controls at glazing.
• Minimizing window and door openings on north, east and west walls.
• Detailing window and door construction to prevent undesired air infiltration.
• Providing ventilation openings for air flow from specific spaces and appliances.
• Using heat reflective surfaces oriented to summer sun.
3.4.3. Solar windows and walls
Using the winter sun for heating a building through solar oriented windows and walls is
provided by a number of techniques [4]:
• Maximizing reflectivity of ground and building surfaces outside the windows facing the
winter sun.
• Using high capacitance thermal mass materials in the interior to store solar heat gain.
• Using solar wall and roof collectors on equatorial oriented surfaces.
• Shaping and orienting the building shell to maximize exposure to winter sun.
• Optimizing the area of winter solar gain and natural illumination.
3.4.4. Indoor outdoor rooms
Courtyards, covered patios, seasonal screened and glassed-in porches, greenhouses, atriums
and sun spaces can be located in the building plan for summer cooling and winter heating.
These spaces offer the following advantages:
• Provide outdoor semi-protected areas for year round climate moderation.
• Provide solar oriented interior zone for maximum solar heat gain.
• Allow planning of specific rooms or functions to coincide with solar orientation.
3.4.5. Earth sheltering
Techniques such as covering earth over the walls of a building or on the roof or building a
concrete floor on the ground have a number of climate advantages for thermal storage and
damping temperature fluctuation, providing wind protection and reducing envelope heat loss.
These techniques are often referred to as earth contact or earth sheltering design.
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R. ASHTT, A. MONGA
• Recessing the structure below grade or raising the existing grade for earth sheltering.
• Using slab-on-grade construction for ground temperature heat exchange.
• Using earth covered or sod roofs.
3.4.6. Thermally massive construction
This is particularly effective in hot arid zones or in temperature zones with cold clear winters.
Thermally massive construction provides a Thermal fly wheel, that allows the absorption of
heat during the day from the indoor air which can create comfort and it is cooled at night if
necessary through night time ventilative cooling.
• Using high mass construction with outside insulation and night time ventilation
techniques in summers.
3.4.7. Sun shading
Owing to the variation in the sun angles in summer and in winter, it is possible to shade
windows from the sun during the over heated summer period while allowing it to reach the
window surfaces and spaces in winter (Figure 3).
• Using neighboring landform structures or vegetation for summer sun.
• Shaping and orienting the building shell to minimize exposure to summer sun.
• Providing seasonally operable shading including deciduous trees.
`
Fig.3.High mass construction and shading [7].
3.4.8. Natural ventilation
Natural ventilation is a simple concept that helps in cooling a building in summer [5].
• Using neighboring landform structures or vegetation to increase exposure to breezes.
• Shaping and orienting the building shell to maximize exposure to summer breezes.
334
• Using open plan interiors to promote airflow.

• Providing vertical airshafts to promote thermal chimney or stack effect air flow through
shafts and perforated domes (Figure 4).
• Using double roof construction for ventilation within the building shell.
• Orienting door and window openings to facilitate natural ventilation from prevailing
summer breezes.
• Using wing wall overhangs and louvers to direct summer wind flow into the interior.
• Using louvered wall for maximum ventilation control.
• Using roof monitors for stack effect ventilation (Figure 5).
Fig.4.Air flow through perforated domes [7]
Fig.5.Stack effect of air
3.4.9. Plants and water
Several techniques provide cooling by the use of plants and water near building surfaces for
shading and evaporative cooling in summer (Figure 6) [6].
• Using ground cover and planting for site cooling.
• Maximizing on-site evaporative cooling.
• Using planting next to the building skin.
• Using roof spray or roof ponds for evaporative cooling.
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R. ASHTT, A. MONGA
Fig.6.Plants and water [7]
4. Passive solar design exemplar: Dr. Reddy’s Lab. Ltd, Hyderabad

Dr. Reddy’s laboratories Ltd (Figure 7) is located in hot dry climatic zone of the country and
is an example of passive solar design [8]. The area of building is 25, 682.6m2. The building
operates 8h 30min for five days a week. The longer façade is on north south orientation and
least exposure on west to reduce the solar heat gains in this hot climate region (Figure 8). The
store and wash buffer areas act against intense solar radiation. The built areas are integrated
with lot of greenery and water bodies. Roofs have skylights made from translucent asbestos
sheet. Existing landscape preserved and integrated with the built spaces makes all working
areas as naturally ventilated areas which do not require any air conditioning. The reception
areas as well as research building blocks are surrounded by water bodies, major modifiers of
micro climate which helps in maintaining thermally comfortable circulation areas and semi-
open areas.
Fig.7. Dr. Reddy’s laboratories Ltd, Hyderabad [8]
336
Fig.8.Dr. Reddy’s laboratories Ltd., Hyderabad, plan [8].
The building envelope is designed to provide thermal insulation. Single glazed blue grey 6
mm windows with shading helps in reducing solar heat gain and also the problem of glare.
Natural daylight integration through skylights in all the spaces between the labs and
circulation areas which makes the spaces require no artificial light during day time. Inner
glass partitions also help integrate daylight for outside circulation areas. 8.08% of the total
connected load for the building. Luminaries mostly Florescent Tube Lights (FTLs), Metal
Halides (MHs), Compact Florescent Lamps (CFLs) and Sodium vapour lamps. The Light
Power Density (LPD) is 7.28 W/m2 and is less than the maximum allowed LPD of Energy
Conservation Building Code (ECBC) 10.8 W/m2; which is acceptable. According to Energy
Star, CFLs provide the same amount of light as ordinary bulb using 75% less energy.
Translucent glass for roofs makes use of natural lighting and reduce the electricity
consumption due to artificial daylight during day time. Two water cooled centrifugal chillers
have been used. Total cooling capacity is 1100 TR chiller with Coefficient of Performance
(COP) rated 5.58, operating m2/TR: 21.
Annual consumption (lighting) - 428735.2 kWh
Annual consumption (HVAC) - 2957292 kWh
Annual electricity consumption due to lighting and cooling (kWh) 3386027.2
Lighting performance index -17 kWh/m2/annum
HVAC Performance Index 231 kWh/m2/annum
Energy Performance Index of the building (kWh/m2 of built up area/annum) 131
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R. ASHTT, A. MONGA
Table 1.Comparison of various parameters for passive solar building with conventional case [8]
Parameters Passive solar case features Conventional case
Dr Reddy’s laboratory
Building design Building longer facades are Building orientation was
facing north south. changed to longer facades
facing east west.
No roof and wall shading No roof and wall shading
Building envelope No insulation on wall and No insulation on wall and
roof. roof.
U value for wall 1.32 W/m2 U value for wall 1.92 W/m2 K
K U value for roof 3.35 W/m2 K
U value for roof 3.35 W/m2 K Double glazed window
Single glazed windows (U WWR 60%
value of glass 4.1 W/m2 K
and shading coefficient 0.61)
WWR 50%
Building Lighting Power Lighting power density is Lighting power density
density 7.28 W/m2 work station 12.7 W/m2
cabins 24 W/m2
Building chiller 2 water cooled centrifugal Air cooled screw chillers with
chillers with COP (rated) of COP (rated) of 3.05
5.58
Energy Performance Index 131 199
(kWh/m2/yr)
Table 2.Energy saving potential of low energy and ECBC compliant strategies [8]
Parameter Conventional Existing case (low ECBC compliant Overall impact of
comparison case energy strategies) case low energy passive
solar strategies and
ECBC measures
Electric load Base case 2% less than the 6% less than the 33% less than the
conventional case conventional case conventional case
Cooling load Base case 6% less than the 14% less than the 19% less than the
EPI Base case 2% less than the 7% less than the 45% less than the
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4.1. Energy saving potentials

The conventional case was compared by incorporating low energy passive solar design
strategies on the annual electricity consumption (kWh), electric load (kW) and cooling
demand (TR) of the building, Table 2.
5. Conclusion
There are many ways and means to create energy efficient buildings and structures if desired.
It is necessary to prioritize and accordingly optimize natural resources to achieve energy
efficient solutions. Energy efficiency can definitely be capitalized upon by bioclimatic
designs through detailed study and intelligent analysis of the environment and resources
available at a particular location. If dealt with intelligence and expertise it can definitely cut
down on artificial energy requirements and at the same time bring down costs to achieve
human comfort conditions globally.
References
1. Watson, D. & Milne, M. (1998). Bioclimatic Design. In D. Watson & M. Crosbie, M. Time-Saver
Standards Architectural Design Data. McGraw Hill, New York.
2. Nayak, J. K., Hazra, R. & Prajapati, J., (1999). Manual of Solar Passive Architecture, Energy
Systems Engineering. IIT Delhi and Solar Energy Centre, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy
Sources, Government of India. New Delhi
3. Nayak, J. K., & Hazara R. (n. d.). Development of Design guidelines by laws
4. TERI (n. d.). Window design optimization. Report 96, The Energy Resource Institute.
5. (2009). Green Source, July/August.
6. (2010). Green Source, January/February.
7. Morteza, S. (2011). Passive cooling systems for hot arid climate in Islamic Iranian Architecture. In
S. M. Akhtar, Proceedings of International Conference on Islamic Architecture at the cross roads,
Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi.
8. http://high-performancebuildings.org/case_study_solpass_hybd_drreddy.php.
339
SUSTAINABLE CITIES
De-Ruralization and Urbanization in India 3.0: Drivers and

Pitfalls in the Change Process
Reinhard Doleschal
Sustainable City Strategies for Developing Countries

Anil Laul
Pahari, Darya aur Shahar (Ridge-River-City): Sultanate

Environmental Urbanism in the Delhi Triangle and Lessons
there are for the Taking
Jyoti Pandey Sharma
Sustainable Urban Design: Lessons from the Chandigarh

Neighbourhood
Sangeeta Bagga
Sustainable Development: Crossroads at Urban Disaster Risk

Management and Climate Change
Neha Bansal, Mahua Mukherjee, Ajay Gairola
Sustainable Redevelopment of Single Industry Resource

based Mining Towns to Counter Urban Decay
T. S. Sagar
Green Highways: A Step Towards Sustainable Development

Satpal
341
De-Ruralization and Urbanization in India 3.0: Drivers and Pitfalls
in the Change Process
DOLESCHAL Reinhard
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Lemgo, Germany
reinhard.doleschal@hs-owl.de
Abstract. This article describes the demand and relevance of ecological innovations in the
growing economy of India. It shows the political opportunities, risks and hurdles of
sustainable modernization in different states and regions in India in both urban
agglomerations and remote rural districts. Energy saving and energy efficiency is one of the
key drivers in a country with a population over 1.2 billion, and an average annual economic
growth of 8 to 9 percent. Yet, the development, production and dissemination of new
sustainable technologies and products are interwoven with heterogeneous social and political
structures and influences. International collaboration (particularly with Germany) in research
and development on green technologies and associated pilot projects can accelerate and
democratize the dissemination and inclusion/participation of all stakeholder groups.
1. Introduction
The issue of clime related energy efficient design and product solutions (title of the CREED-
PS Project) plays a key role of a fundamental socio-economical and ecological paradigm shift
in India. Successful sustainable modernization of buildings and houses in Greenfield and
Brownfield areas within urban agglomerations and in remote rural districts in Indian States is
a fundamental issue of a long term political strategy in India.
Since 1991, India has undergone a rapid socio-economic transformation towards
liberalization, privatization and globalization. Many economic reforms through the Central
Government have stimulated an environment of strong competition, decontrol and
deregulation in Indian society.
Today, India is the fourth largest economy in the world behind USA, China and Japan. The
Gross Domestic Product (Purchasing Power Parity) reached 4.2 trillion USD and the GDP per
R. DOLESCHAL
capita (PPP) add up to 1,340 USD [1]. However, there exists an enormous difference in
income among various Indian states. The National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi for
example has a GDP per capita of 2,746 USD, in a sharp contrast to that of Bihar where it is
343 USD [2].
In the coming decades, the demand for critical natural resources such as gas, coal, oil and
water will swell together with a dramatic rise in greenhouse gases. This requires a smart
leapfrog strategy and smart management for emission reduction, energy security and clean-
technology in combination with political and administrative reforms. This will call for an
annual investment of 1.3 percent to 2.3 percent of GDP in the next 20 years [3].
Nearly 302 million people (27.5 percent) live below the poverty line in India. Orissa has
the highest poverty rate of 46.4 percent, while Jammu and Kashmir has the lowest with 5.4
percent. The majority (73.2 percent) of India’s poor live in rural areas. However, the rural-
urban distribution of the poor has shifted in the last three decades, from 81 percent in rural
and 19 percent in urban areas in 1973-74 to 73 percent in rural and 27 percent in urban areas
in 2004-05 [2]. A number of typical poor households belong to the economically lower end of
the societal hierarchy [4a, 4b, 4c]. Both these groups have been identified as being
chronically poor with a blurring of distinction between caste, tribe and class in many Indian
states [5].
One can recognize that economic growth in India is strongly associated with a population
flow from rural to urban areas. According to the provisional census, 833 million people live
in rural areas and 377 million people live in urban areas. The level of urbanization increased
from 28 percent in 2001 to 31 percent in 2011 [6]. Well educated people followed the
expanding service and industry sector in sprawling urban agglomerations. Migrant workers
and poor families both aspire to better income opportunities and better livelihoods in big
cities [7]. This causes poor migrant dwellers to often settle in urban slums without clean
water and electricity supply and sanitation.
Against this background, the India 3.0 approach is based on increasing Information
Technology (IT) driven social networks in India. Furthermore, the approach is driven by the
notion of achieving sustainable innovation and development in urban and remote rural areas
that is socially participatory and inclusive.
2. Economic modernization and sprawling urban agglomerations (UA) in

India
2.1. Economic growth and social change

In the previous two decades, India’s economy rapidly shifted from agriculture to services and
industry. In 2010 the composition of the GDP included 16.1 percent agriculture, 28.6 percent
industry and 55.3 percent services. In 2020, the share of services will be the highest being 70
percent followed by the industry at 20 percent and agriculture at 10 percent [8]. As a result,
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DE-RURALIZATION AND URBANIZATION IN INDIA 3.0: DRIVERS AND PITFALLS IN THE…
the country will remain among the top five economies by 2020 globally and lie among the top
three by 2030. The rising Indian IT industry has had a tremendous impact on the Indian
economy. Between 1998 and 2010 it quadrupled its contribution to the GDP from 1 percent
to 4 percent [9].
Today, India is the world’s largest producer of milk and the second largest producer of
wheat and rice. After China, India has the second largest and highly differentiated
pharmaceutical industry of the world focused on generic drugs, besides a growing
biotechnology industry, a booming healthcare industry and an increasing number of private
hospitals.
The tremendous economic growth rate of 8 to 9 percent per year since 1991 has had a
strong impact on social change and consumption patterns. In the previous 10 years about 50
million Indian households joined the ranks of the new middle class with an annual income
above 200.00 INR (3.99 USD). In 2030 more than 100 million households, which is about
500,000 Indians will join the middle class level [6].
Through this clearly recognizable social transformation the new middle class creates a high
demand for an improvement in the standard of living, such as housing conditions, individual
mobility and international consumer goods. Furthermore, the new middle class in India is
extremely technological savvy. In 2011 about 842 million Indians used a mobile phone and
123 million had access to the internet. Many sections of the new middle class are increasingly
becoming aware of sustainable technologies and environmental protection. A large majority
of the middle class members are well educated and aware of environmental issues and
therefore wary of becoming victims of environmental destruction and harmful environmental
influences like air and noise pollution and other ecological disasters.
2.2. Rapid growth of urban agglomerations and mega cities

Like many other demographic indicators, urbanization has both positive and negative
impacts. Urban districts become the engines for social change and rapid economic growth.
Urban frameworks have increased access to education, employment and health care resulting
in delayed marriages and reducing family sizes. India’s urban population has tripled from 109
million (1981) to 286 million in 2011 [6]. In 2030, the urban population could achieve up to
590 million people (Figure 1). Today, urban areas account for about 60 percent of the GDP
while by 2030 it is expected to rise to 70 percent.
Urbanization in India is very diverse. Some Indian states like Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Punjab have a current urbanization rate above 35 percent which
by 2030 in each of these five States will rise to above 50 percent. However, Uttar Pradesh
with a total population of 200 million people will have an urbanization rate of only 26 percent
in 2030, with about 69 million people, but the highest number of urban dwellers (Figure 2).
Urbanization in India is structured into categories from Class IA cities with more than 5
million people to class IV+ cities with less than 20000 people. India has three so called mega
cities (with population above 10 million people) namely NCT of Delhi, Mumbai
345
R. DOLESCHAL
(Maharashtra) and Kolkata (West Bengal). Each of these mega cities will have more than 20
million inhabitants in 2030. Next in hierarchy are three 10 million plus cities namely Chennai
(Tamil Nadu), Bangalore (Karnataka) and Pune (Maharashtra) followed by seven 4 million
plus cities that include Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh), Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Surat (Gujarat),
Jaipur (Rajasthan), Nagpur (Maharashtra), Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) and Vadodara (Gujarat)
[6]. In 2030, thirteen cities in India will have a population of more than 4 million inhabitants
(Figure 3).
Fig.1.Challenges for a planning portfolio in India [6]

Furthermore, some states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have
planned new, specialized cities and townships (e.g. hubs of manufacturing, Interface Testing
and Consultancy (ITC), Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), services and
tourism), new world class satellite cities and high-tech corridors near or around Tier 1 cities
(Figure 2). All these cities and corridors are connected with new highways, expressways, ring
roads and radial roads. The Golden Quadrilateral Road Project (5,846 km of four to six lane
expressways) connects all the metro cities namely Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore and
Mumbai via highways on the northern, eastern, western and southern parts of India.
Furthermore, the Indian Government has invested in the North-South and East-West corridor
(7,300 km) from Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) to Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) and from
Silchar (Assam) to Porbandar (Gujarat) respectively.
Most of the urbanized states are located in west and south west India. Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu have an urbanization share of above 35
percent however other states also have their share of urban centers (Figure 4). It has been
found that in states like Uttar Pradesh with a population of 200 million and West Bengal with
346
a population of about 91 million, the urban share is smaller in relation to the total population.
The Empowered Action Group (EAG) of states that includes Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa, host about 46
percent of India’s population. EAG states are characterized by high fertility rates and weak
socio-demographic indicators and have been identified by the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare (MoHFW) to improve population stabilization and socio-economic convergence
[10].
Fig.2.Urban population growth in India 2008 to 2030 [6]
Fig.3.India 2030: thirteen cities will have a population of more than 4 million inhabitants [6]
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Fig.4.Urbanization share in India with the west and south west at the forefront [11]
2.3. Environmental deterioration, modernization of urban infrastructure and

sustainability
The rapid growth of urban dwellers also poses some difficult challenges. The increasing
urban population has outpaced the supply of basic needs namely housing, water supply,
sewerage and solid waste disposal. Unlimited waste generation at home, offices and
industries, coupled with weak waste disposal facilities result in rapid environmental
deterioration. The expanding automobile population (comprising two, three and four
wheelers), underdeveloped road networks and weak traffic control systems add to chronic
congestion as well as air and noise pollution.
Mega cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad and Bangalore have
continued to struggle with many infrastructural problems. Chronic congestion through an
increasingly critical modal split of motorization, weak public transportation conditions,
increasing air and noise pollution, shortage of energy efficient housing, weak power and
clean water supply, missing sanitation and solid waste disposals have had a negative
influence on urban living standards. In order to mitigate the falling standards of urban living
quality, these mega cities have invested – with support provided by Central Government -
increasingly in road modernization, introduction of the Metro and Bus Rapid Transport
(BRT) systems, improved water and electricity supply and initiation of building projects and
new townships in the peripheries. A number of airport and port projects have been realized to
improve both domestic and international connectivity since 2000.
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Most infrastructure projects use international and contemporary state-of-the-art

technologies. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) play an increasingly vital
role in new infrastructure and other urban modernization projects creating new high-tech
clusters with an enormous potential in different parts of India.
2.4. The rise of India’s new urban middle class

Simultaneous with the economic growth in India, a new middle class is emerging rapidly.
Today, about 50 million people come under this income class. Within the next twenty years
this class could swell to about 148 households comprising about 600 million people (Figure
5). As a socio-economic consequence, changing spending patterns will evolve from food and
apparels to housing, mobility, communication and health care. Likewise, the demand for
modern infrastructure and an excellent education system will also increase. This could
accelerate the high demand for sustainable and energy efficient products and services.
Fig.5.All India households by income brackets, 2000 to 2030 [12]

Today, rural households accounting for 57 percent of the population are the largest middle
class consumer group. In the next two decades this group will shift to the urban middle class
category and account for approximately 62 percent of the population.
However, in urban areas one can recognize a paradoxical pattern: a rapid growth of the
middle class income group and a continuous growth of poor households because the
aggregated population growth in urban areas moves faster than the income growth.
2.5. Marginalization and inclusion of the urban poor

The majority (73 percent) of India’s population amounting to 302 million lives in remote
rural areas. Since 1974 this share has decreased slowly. In urban and suburban areas poverty
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R. DOLESCHAL
persists. The share of urban poor increased in this period from 19 percent (60 million) to 27
percent (81 million). As a consequence, the urban areas and mega cities are facing the
problem of expanding urban chronic poverty is mostly an outcome of lack of resources and
asset-lessness. Access barriers to land, water, forests, housing, credit, literacy and capital as
well as crop failures, ill health, physical disability, natural/manmade disasters and economic
crises all contribute to poverty as subsequently to chronic poverty. They impact urban living
standards adversely and give rise to inefficient energy consumption.
Although urban livelihoods in general are more convenient than their counterparts in many
rural areas, urban agglomerations suffer from increasing slum population. About 75 percent
of 286 million urban dwellers in India live in urban slums or likewise wards. States with the
highest urban slum population are Maharashtra (14 million), Uttar Pradesh (8.5 million),
West Bengal (7.5 million) and Andhra Pradesh (7.3 million) [9]. Most slum dwellers belong
to the lowermost economic strata of society.
Fig.6.Slum population in Mumbai 2001 [13]

In the urban area of Mumbai 40 percent of the population lives in slums and about 10
percent are pavement dwellers. The largest slums of Mumbai like Dharavi (with nearly 1
350
million dwellers the largest slum in Asia) in north Mumbai, Antop Hill in the east, Geeta
Nagar and Ambedkar Nagar in the south and Worli village in the west, have been home to
about more than 6 million dwellers in the past decade [14] (Figure 6).
The Central Government and State Governments have initiated a number of development
programs for slum dwellers. Table 1 shows the drivers of chronic poverty and
marginalization as well as the maintainers of and the interrupters to a better societal inclusion
of the urban poor. In the future one of the biggest challenges of India’s social modernization
will be to generate an all inclusive societal growth.
Table 1: Drivers, maintainers and interrupters of chronic poverty [15]
Drivers Maintainers Interrupters
Health shock Illiteracy/lack of skills Diversification of income

Sudden disability Poverty/disability/old age Intensive farming/crop
Large social expenditure Social exclusion diversification
High interest borrowing Geography (remoteness) Off-farm work/new job
Investment failure Poor health care facilities Urban linkages
Natural disaster Larger household size Kinship networks
Loss of productive assets Lack of job information Asset accumulation
Macro policy change Forced sale of assets Marketable skills/linkages
Loss of job Indebtedness Information network on job
Social and class conflict Governance failure opportunities
Decrease in dependency
Increase in wages
Access to credit
3. Conclusion
The socio-economic change through the expanding market economy in India has a
tremendous impact on ecological issues and opportunities for sustainable development. This
article shows several important socio-economic indicators which have a strong impact on
sustainable modernization in India. One can identify a lot of positive drivers and many
opportunities for energy efficient and energy saving approaches in both urban and rural areas.
The high standard of research and development capacity in India, international knowledge
sharing and the availability of world class Information Technology can play a key role on the
next wave of sustainable modernization. To underestimate the power and awareness of the
new middle class on sustainability issues and to ignore the needs of both the poor urban and
rural dwellers are critical pitfalls in the path of further development. There is a need to carry
out scientific investigations and specific research to explore all these issues. The CREED-PS
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R. DOLESCHAL
project is an important milestone of German-India-Partnership in this direction for knowledge

sharing on energy efficient human habitat.
References
1. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP_PPP.pdf
2. Planning Commission (2009). Report of the Expert Group to Review the Methodology for
Estimation of Poverty. Planning Commission, New Delhi.
3. McKinsey (2009). Environmental and Energy Sustainability: An Approach for India.
www.mckinsey.com.
4a. Nath, N. C. B. (2004). Political Perspectives to Chronic Poverty. CPRC-IIPA Working Paper 13.
Chronic Poverty Research Centre, University of Manchester and Indian Institute of Public
Administration, New Delhi:
4b. Bhide, S. & Mehta, A. K. (2005). Tracking Poverty through Panel Data: Rural Poverty in India
1970-1998. CPRC-IIPA Working Paper 28. Chronic Poverty Research Centre, University of
Manchester and Indian Institute of Public Administration New Delhi.
4c. Mehta, A. K. & Shepherd, A. (2004). Chronic Poverty in India: Overview of Key Emerging
Issues. CPRC-IIPA Working Paper 24. Chronic Poverty Research Centre, University of
Manchester and Indian Institute of Public Administration New Delhi.
5. Kozel, V. & Parker, B. (2001). Poverty in Rural India: The Contribution of Qualitative Research
in Poverty. World Bank, Washington, DC.
6. McKinsey Global Institute (2010). India's urban awakening: Building inclusive cities, sustaining
economic growth. www.mckinsey.com/mgi
7. Kumar, A. (2003). Poverty in India: Between Politics of Poverty and Poverty of Politics. Working
Paper 3. University of Manchester and Indian Institute of Public Administration New Delhi.
8. NASSCOM (2009). Perspective 2020. Transform business, transform India. New Delhi.
9. Government of India/MoHUPA (2010). Report of the committee on slum statistics/census. New
Delhi.
10. http://mohfw.nic.in/
11. Ministry of Home Affairs (2011). Distribution of population. http://www.censusindia.gov.in
12. McKinsey Global Institute (2007). The Bird of Gold: The Rise of India´s Consumer Market. San
Francisco.
13. www.mha.nic.in
14. Gruber D., Kirschner A., Mill S., Schach M., Schmekel St, Seligmann H. (2005). Living and
Working in Slums of Mumbai. Working Paper, Magdeburg.
15. Deshingkar, P. (2010). Migration, remote rural areas and chronic poverty in India. ODI Working
Paper 323. CPRC Working Paper 163. Overseas Development Institute. London. www.odi.org.uk.
352
Sustainable City Strategies for Developing Countries
LAUL Anil
Anangpur Building Centre, Faridabad, India
anillaul@vsnl.com, anillaul@rediffmail.com
“Our societies will never be great until our cities are great. There is decay of the centre and
despoiling of the suburbs. There is not enough housing for our people, nor enough
transportation for our traffic. Open lands are vanishing and landmarks are being violated.
[...] A few years ago we were concerned about the ugly country. [...] Today we must act to
prevent an ugly city.” Lyndon B. Johnson, President, USA, 1964 [1].
1. Overview
An inadequate comprehension of the housing problem in its totality has resulted in a large
proliferation of slums and unauthorized colonies on prime lands in the city. In addition to
this, are the unemployed educated, destitute, senior citizens and working women, who when
combined, comprise almost one third of Delhi’s urban population (taken as a case in point).
The same may be true in metros of other developing nations, the extent of which may vary,
although the problem areas remain similar. Though the government is spending a vast sum on
various programmes for the benefit of these groups, the demands are growing at a faster rate
than the delivery system. Limited by their own resources, this vital segment of the population
encroaches upon public land or resides in low rental areas, which for the most part, are
devoid of all facilities and amenities. Such disorientation puts severe environmental
constraints upon both the city and city dwellers, and the basic constitutional right of living
with dignity is fast becoming a distant dream.
The government’s efforts by way of increasing investments in urban areas have further
aggravated the situation due to large scale, inadvertent migration creating high density,
unlivable pockets – “a forced living option”. In Delhi around 600,000 such households with a
population of around 3 million (and ever on the increase), inhabit such shanties on prime
public land, amounting to about 4,000 hectares. To use an analogy, this problem, with no
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apparent feasible solution in sight, seems to roll along like the veritable snowball, ever
increasing in size. The failure of municipal bodies and government housing agencies with
respect to the needs of this strata of society is leading to public resentment and consequently
to breaking down of law and order.
There is little evidence to suggest the success of the popular slogan - “one household - one
house”. Although there is no dearth of various planning strategies, technological efforts, slum
clearance and rehabilitation schemes in subsidized, standardized, unliveable, unaffordable
housing units, with the government constantly ready with new solutions, the problems keep
outpacing any solutions on the anvil. Although the government has repeatedly emphasized its
role as the great provider at policy level (for political gains or otherwise), it has been
frequently found wanting in this regard, with neither the resources nor the ability to carry out
its plans. Surely, it is time for the government to admit its limitations and face up to the
reality of the situation.
Populist schemes such as the Panchayati Raj (Council of people), professing ‘power to the
people’, have been formulated but they either stagnate at the discussion table or die a natural
death at the execution stage since they clash with other policies and schemes which are
formulated on the principles of centralized decision making processes. By the time some
semblance of a solution is achieved, the problem is already out of hand and requires a
different solution. It is therefore time that limitations in this role are accepted by the
government. The Panchayati Raj typically depended on the wisdom of the five village
headman to look after the day-to-day problems of the village, thereby dealing with problems
in their initial stages. It was only the residual problems that were taken to the next level of
decision making, where the individual representatives went to the decision making body of
the group of villages, following the principle that “Every action is best performed at the
lowest level”.
The city is what it is today principally due to external factors (bureaucratic and political)
influencing its planning strategies. One glaring misfortune is that the common man seems to
have almost no influence whatsoever on his life-style in terms of planning or decision
making. He is dependent, almost body and soul as it were, on the civil servant who is the
major planner and decision maker. This natural obeisance is a spillover from the British Raj
(Colonial rule) days when the government servant was the pivot of the entire administrative
machinery. The hub of the city was dominated by this machinery with the civil servant and
his vast entourage of service providers as business centres moved to the city periphery. When
the British civil servant completed his term in office, it was expected that he would return to
his homeland. Today upon retirement, however, the bureaucrat instead provides sustenance
for his entire entourage of domestic and office staff, who after retirement are willing to stay
on permanently in the metro that they administered. Where the bureaucrat takes up residence,
initially determines the pace and nature of development and eventually the fate of the metro
hinges on this.
In understanding the rationale as contained in Vastu Vidya, one would have to understand
the manner of exercising control in human settlement patterns for a system that is sustainable,
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whilst at the same time respecting the social fabric of the citizens that the settlement was
designed for. Vastu Vidya is a body of traditional Indian texts containing the fundamental
principles of planning and building for human settlements that can be compared to Feng Shui
of the Far East. Though propagated through myths and religion, if analyzed logically, these
texts constitute a complete builders manual of do and don’ts. They demonstrate a strong
understanding of climatology, behavior of building materials and their appropriate
application, respect for the natural elements and most importantly, the control of human
aspirations. The texts are zone specific and several versions exist, but the fundamental logic
of living with nature is the common thread that holds all the versions together. These texts
were revered by the ruler and citizenry alike, and propagated by the religious heads through
the planners.
The other aspect of the form of governance as being subservient to Vastu Vidya and co-
related and contained in another ancient text, the Artha Shastra, must also be de-mystified
and dovetailed into the understanding of providing sustainable human settlements. Artha
Shastra is a Hindu text written for good governance that outlines the rules that the ruler,
religious leaders and people must live by. Though mystified around religion, the
fundamentals are true and co-relate with the democracies that we are trying to develop today.
There are various versions of this text written by several authors that have also been
translated into English. The document goes into various details such as the basis for town
planning for good governance, strategies for defense, basis of tax and revenue generation, etc.
Careful examination shows that it is the tropical regions, the areas with the most fauna and
flora that are today considered as the developing nations. It is these regions that have the
largest number of diseases as well as the antidotes for them. These regions are the most
densely populated areas of the world, have the largest amount of produce from the land and
are interdependent according to social and community values. Further, they also abound in
myths and religious beliefs, which have been their mainstay in the past.
Similarly, the traditional architecture in the Asian region, as also in most parts of the
tropical regions of the earth, was more than just the built-up form and its symbolism. The
town planning methodologies, the mysticism linking it to religion, the symbolism and the
architecture all provided for a total form of sustainable human settlement. Over years of
rationalization, the past generations realized that most of the problems relating to sustainable
human settlements were related to the immense human desire to leave an imprint on the sands
of time. This aspiration to make an individual statement could be best met by the buildings
man built. This would also be the single largest contributor to environmental degradation.
The control of this aspiration was best exercised through formulation of mystic codification
propagated around religion. A sensible form of controls, considering the fact that man has
never had to deal with the phenomenal level of land and building-related issues as he is
confronted with today. The very existence of mankind seems to be at stake but in spite of
this, individualistic issue based approaches are being explored, with each issue seeming
larger than the previous one. A point of view that requires consideration is that maybe earlier
generations realized that the single largest factor that could affect sustainable development
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was the built form and the city plan. What we today call Behavioral Sciences was
encompassed in the traditional building and planning strategies. Today, what is known as
architecture was in fact the most powerful tool that was devised through which the behavioral
pattern of the entire society was controlled. Today it is being intensely debated whether
architecture is a science or an art, with no conclusions emerging. Architects and planners are
today considered as a supportive profession to engineers, but continue to feel that it is the
architectural profession that should be the lead profession. Architects themselves do not
realize that it is not the engineers that pose a threat to them, but they are a threat to their own
profession. If architects and planners are to command the respect that they did in the past,
then their endeavours should be directed towards the integration of the architect, engineer,
artist and artisan. Though designated the leader of the team, the architect in the past worked
in close co-operation with the religious head, who was responsible for overseeing that social
aspects were well-integrated in the planning and implementation stages to provide for
sustainable development issues.
The endeavour to provide for sustainable human settlements led man to mystify the
guidelines for social and value-based controls [2]. This mystification ensured that the entire
interdependent system of sustenance was respected. The forms of mystification gave rise to
various religious beliefs of the regions and the forms of governance are a derivative of both
these aspects. A simple analogy of sustainable development is clear if religion is examined
from a very interesting point of view. All religions are the same and only the manner of
explanation differs. All religions propagate sustenance through interdependence and most
religions are based on the Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of Man, (e.g. the
commandments say so or the Holy Book says so), but religions or the manner of living in the
tropical regions suggest the Brotherhood of Man and thereby the Fatherhood of God, i.e. in
coexistence one can achieve salvation. While religion may be viewed from two different
approaches, namely, a top down approach and a bottom up approach, both approaches clearly
propagate sustainability through interdependence. That is why, it is often said that Hinduism
is not a religion, but a way of living. It is also within the tropical regions that humankind
worshipped or propagated myths around the elements, plants and animals that helped
sustenance. The Hindus in the Indian Subcontinent, First Nations in the Americans, Africans,
Greeks, Chinese and the entire so-called Orient, all offer examples of this belief and form of
worship.
Strangely, most of this system of planning with religion seems to be true within the
tropical belt, and as one moves away from the tropics towards the poles, the interdependency
seems to reduce considerably, until it is almost absent in those regions close to the poles. It is
within the tropics that society is interdependent and it also within this region that most of the
values for survival are propagated around religion. Mysticism is a way of life and is the chord
that holds society together. It was therefore, the responsibility of the architect or the planner
of the human settlement to ensure that the principles of interdependency were respected as
propagated by the religious doctrines and their propagators. The built-up form, being the
most powerful manner of influencing the human mind, was thus utilized to full advantage. It
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was also within the tropical regions that most diseases were prevalent but the largest variety
of plants and herbs also existed within this region. It was almost as if nature had provided the
largest laboratory for man within this region, to explore, appreciate and evolve the principles
of co-existence. Today, the aspect of disease is being highlighted and is being used as a tool
for labeling this region as a developing region. The aspect of co-existence with nature and its
other offshoots such as the form of human settlements, region specific customs, resultant
forms of governance, traditional values, customs and cultures are being limited to
romanticism only. So intense and wide spread is this belief that the civilizations in the
tropical regions are themselves convinced about their own shortcomings and continuously
aspire to mimic the so-called advanced nations without attempting to delve into their own
past and understand and appreciate their own values. It is not that the development of the so-
called advanced nations must be ignored and wished away, this would be a grave error, but
the rationale of the past must be dove tailed into present day developments without losing
sight of coexistence. This is best understood by examining the rationale that governed the
nature and patterns of human settlements and their inter-relationships.
2. Land and appropriate planning
Evolving appropriate sustainable city strategies for developing as well as developed countries
requires a re-examination of modern day frameworks of the city as well as its components.
The modern day framework has, for over a century, ensured that cities have developed in
tandem with political and economic resources. In other words, as long as there is ample
money that is expendable, combined with access to other resources, most modern cities have
rapidly developed with little consideration given to their natural environment and long term
sustainability.
Sustainability can be achieved as long as some very basic issues are examined, developed,
and implemented. Prior to the Modernist movement the majority of town planners, architects,
engineers, artisans etc. had a natural understanding of the relationship between the built form
and the natural environment. One characteristic of the Modernists was the imposition of their
rational concepts to make the earth conform to their vision of man.
In order to achieve sustainability, smooth amalgamations of traditional (read context
specific) building practices and modern technologies can be developed and implemented. Of
course this is an arduous task, but at the same time there are some very basic guidelines and
issues that, when viewed in the correct perspective, could form the foundations of sustainable
development. Amongst other things, we could do well to deal with the issues of land, roads,
water supply, water disposal and appropriate building materials.
Technologies that are appropriate at a national level must be segregated from those that are
appropriate for local consumption. This would distinguish technologies that need to go into
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macro-industrial production from the micro-enterprise. Appropriate technologies are those

that respond to the local environment, resources and economic needs.
Raising public awareness on environmental and equity issues is indispensable for
sustainable development. For the successful implementation of comprehensive and
appropriate development issues, it is essential to educate the public, government, social and
technical institutions and business groups about comprehensive sustainable development
issues.
It is essential to ensure that future generations are constantly made aware of sustainable
development issues in their decision making process. The subject must be introduced into the
basic educational curriculum. Just as an individual understands the implications of his/her
daily financial decisions, similarly he/she should be cognizant of the social and
environmental implications of his/her actions.
3. Land value and credit reforms
“We have not inherited the Earth from our forefathers, but borrowed it from our children.”
Chief Seattle, 1854.
Land is the basic matrix of life and all development activities generate on or from it. The
other essential input for generating development activities is capital. In most developing
countries, absolute value is based on land holdings. The fact that you can trade in land is in
itself the core of the problem. Logically, it is the asset on the land that can be bought and
sold, and not the land itself. Most developing countries are suffering from the ill effects of
unsustainable land and credit-related financial policies. The three areas that need critical
examination are:
• The commodification of land, which is the largest contributor to inflation
• Credit against land as a mortgageable asset, which in turn leads to inequity
• Lack of access to credit due to land as the basis for credit and inequitable access to land
The values attributed to a product are frequently unrepresentative of its real value, due to
various market and credit systems. The manner in which land is valued is a typical example
that has far-reaching effects. In most Asian countries, land has become a tradable commodity.
Land values are often far greater than the produce of the land or the value of the asset on it.
For instance, if the cost of a building is X, then typically in an Asian metropolis, the value of
the land may be as high as 20X, or even up to 200X i.e., it gets magnified to a
disproportionate extent.
This is mainly due to the banking system, which lends against the value of land, in addition
to the value of the existing or potential asset. The outcome is inflationary effects on all
products (since real estate value constitutes a major component of a product's value) and it
leads to speculation that also fuels inflation, without any real value/product/asset, being
created.
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A possible remedy may lie in changing the financing system, so that lending agencies such
as banks remove the land value from the project cost. Instead, a project should be financed
against the produce or value of the asset created on it. If land were valued, then it would be
safe to assume that the entire earth stands sold today. Is this an acceptable hypothesis?
A safe barometer for sustainable development would be land values not exceeding the cost
of construction by more than four times, even in the most expensive metropolitan real estate.
In other words, if the construction cost is X, then the land cost should not be more than 4X.
Any increase in land cost beyond four times would result in the commodification of land that
consequently leads to the quality of construction being adversely effected. For example, since
the owner/builder has spent a high price just for the land, he will compromise on the building
itself. This is most often done by constructing thinner walls with more plinth area to save on
construction, material and labour costs. This then leads to the use of inappropriate building
materials and a complex process of problems is set in motion.
If we were to hypothetically take away the value of land from the cost of an immovable
asset, the entire economic face of financial as well as legal transactions would change.
Approximately seventy percent of litigations in our courts are land related. Land values and
land ownership are considered synonymous with progress but this perspective needs to be re-
examined. Traditional building practices, as well as the Artha Shastra, propagated a system
that was very different from present day practices. Over the years, we linked value to the land
and made it a transactable commodity with astronomical value.
4. Land use, its distribution and management on a sustainable basis
National and state planning commissions deal largely with financial planning and resource
management, which are divorced from land use planning. Land use planners are not involved
in the process of formulating development strategies and plans of a region at a macro-level
for sustainable human settlement design. Development strategies that are based on natural
resource planning are often relegated to the background, and instead allow political
considerations to dictate the regional plans. This results in the misuse of land, inequitable
growth and extensive degradation.
5. Land: flat versus gradient
Besides the financial and legal aspects of land issues that need to be re-formulated, the
physical characteristics of land need to be re-defined. There is a general misconception that it
is more economical to build on flat land rather than on undulating terrain. Historically, urban
centres that were built on higher ground were situated thus not only for militarily strategic
reasons, but also Higher land lent itself to better drainage and more economical disposal
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systems owing to natural slopes. There are some pertinent lessons that we can learn from the
past in order to have sustainable development in the present. Provided, one respects the lay of
the land and determines a city master plan on the basis of water supply systems and the
disposal of waste etc. there are greater chances of developing a sustainable city environment.
The micro plan can then be envisaged leading to comprehensive development plans.
6. Roads
The largest single contradiction in our present day planning methodologies is the relationship
between roads and drainage systems. Roads require minimal slope while drainage requires
steep slopes and yet we choose to combine the two by placing our drainage systems alongside
roads. If the performance criterion of roads and drainage is taken separately then possible
solutions emerge that are very different from present day planning practices.
If one were to de-link drainage from road networks on undulating land, then the obvious
first step would be to establish drainage routes. These routes should logically follow the
shortest path to ensure maximum slopes and therefore emerge as straight lines placed within
the lowest formation of the land to be developed. Roads should then wind across this path
thus ensuring minimal road slopes, meandering across from one side to the other. Areas
between the road and the drainage paths should be used as neighborhood green areas or
public recreational areas and development zones should therefore be located on the outer
areas of the meanders created by the roads (Figure 1).
Fig. 1. Road layout

Source: Author.
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In flat land areas, inappropriate and unsustainable road designs have become increasingly
prevalent. The problems that arise stem from the fact that most roads without proper drainage
culverts are built higher than adjacent lands. These roads act as mini-check dams, causing
water logging and flooding. This problem is further compounded when houses are
consequently built higher than the roads. Since developments on flat lands have inadequate
slopes for natural drainage, deep waste and storm water drains have to be built, once again
generating a complex series of problems (Figure 2a, 2b).
2a. Road design: conventional approach
2b. Road design: ideal situation

Source: Author.
8. Water drainage
Traditionally sewage and kitchen and bath waste were never intermingled. Both these were
separated right at the source itself. The night soil as well as the water that was used was
disposed of by allowing it to percolate into the soil. Whether this was done through localized
pits or by physically lifting and disposing it in pits at distant locations, the night soil was
never disposed of in combination with the kitchen and bath waste. It is not that our earlier
generations were incapable of designing good enough drains to transport the combined
effluent. Logical analysis shows that they chose not to adopt this system owing to their
complete understanding of sustainable development. As stated earlier, human settlements of
the past almost always existed on high land, therefore disposal through drains was even
easier, thus negating the argument of non-availability of technology, which is often used as
the main reasoning. We acknowledge the advanced systems of planning adopted in the town
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planning strategies as adopted in Mohenjadaro and Harappa and yet we fail to take
cognisance of one of the strongest features of these developments. It is now acknowledged
that the planning of the past provided for separate drainage systems for the kitchen and bath
wastes. They did recognize the fact that waste water did not necessarily mean contaminated
water as in the water used in disposal of night soil, and very simple methods were adopted to
clean kitchen and bath waste. This was done at the first point, i.e. the house itself and the
methods applied were extremely elementary by disposal in the kitchen garden. The plants
used here were papaya or banana, which are good digesters of grease which in turn acted as a
nutrient for these plants.
At present, kitchen and bath waste are taken separately to the point of the first manhole and
are then combined and discharged into a combined manhole. At this point, corrective action
can be taken and both the effluents disposed of separately. Kitchen and bath waste can be
safely discharged into the open storm water drains that are presently provided outside every
developed plot of land. This water must be allowed to absorb into these drains that often lie
unutilised for most parts of the year and are often blocked due to non-utilization. Lately, there
has been a practice of plastering the inner surfaces of these drains thus preventing line
percolation and ground water recharge. Some may argue that this is unhygienic, but any
unmaintained service is unhygienic. The answer therefore lies in regular maintenance and not
in its avoidance. The centralized system of city management is ill equipped to perform this
function effectively. This is where the issue of a decentralized system of city management
down to the neighbourhood level would become important.
An area so far unexplored for waste percolation is the soling layer of the road. It seems that
large parts of our roads lie under utilised. Natural slopes to enable waste water flow are
available because buildings are built with plinths higher than the road. Waste water can
therefore be allowed to flow under the roads into the soling layer, through leaking pipes, thus
providing for waste water disposal that is not exposed.
Some argue that the separation of kitchen and bath waste from the main sewage line leads
to sewage disposal line obstructions owing to inadequate water. Here again, it seems that the
root of the problem is not being examined and a solution that leads to further complications is
being relied upon. The first discrepancy in this argument is that it presupposes handling of the
effluent through a centralized system. If the soil water were disposed of at the localized level,
then the excess water required to carry it over large distances would be unnecessary. It may
be seen that the civilizations of the past dealt with high densities within their fort precincts in
this manner. Densities within the urbanized areas or within the confines of the forts were
often far higher than the ones that we are unable to deal with today and yet we quote high
densities as the main reason for our centralized municipal malfunctioning. However,
localized disposal of soil water is only possible where the soil is absorptive and this is largely
possible on the higher lands. The alluvial basin or flat land that we build on today is not as
absorptive and is ideal for agriculture owing to its ability to retain water and this is where the
proper identification of land for human settlements assumes tremendous significance.
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Today, as things stand, Delhi is on the brink of a major disaster. The water shortage has
reached alarming proportions and the next elections may well be contested on the assurances
that the political parties can give with regard to water. Our text, the Vastu Vidya stated that if
a planner should design his human settlement around water, then he will live for 6000 years.
Today this seems truer than ever. This statement did not however mean that the Sthapati (city
planner) would never die, but implied that the settlement would be sustainable and would be
so for thousands of years, thus the Sthapati would be remembered. The question upper most
in everyone’s mind is “Has Delhi run dry” or “Where has all the water of Delhi
disappeared”? In a couple of years, the essential appendage to a Delhite may well be a mobile
phone in one hand and a bottle of suspect mineral water in the other. The cell phone and the
computer may well be considered a mark of upward mobility and the rapid progress of
information technology, but a bottle of mineral water can hardly be considered a sign of
progress.
An area that requires critical examination is the flushing cistern that we use today. The
earlier flushing cistern of the British Raj had a capacity of was 5 gallons that has now been
scaled down to 12 liters, based on the quantum of water required to take down toilet paper.
The traditional cistern was based on the water required to flush newspaper, which was used
as toilet paper when the typical bottom on the throne was a British one. Most Indians wash
and with the availability of the super satin variety etc. even 6 liters is adequate. While it may
not be possible to replace almost 4 million cisterns that are of the 12 litres variety, a simple
solution may suffice. Encourage people through the media to use approximately 6 liters of
stones on the opposite side of the ball valve in the typical cistern. Even bottles filled with
water and then sealed would reduce the capacity of the cistern to 6 liters. Considering an
average of 4 flushings per person of the 4 million people owning these, one would conserve
approximately 96 million liters of water per day in Delhi alone.
Fig.3.Grass grown in perforations of ferrocement Jaalis (ferrocement concrete panel in inset)

Source: Author.
In Delhi there are over 2 million vehicles, which require nearly 6000 hectares of paved
parking. The water falling on these vast paved areas also finds its way into the famous storm
water drains. If one were to use ferro-cement Jaalis (perforated concrete panels used in toilets
for ventilation) for the parking areas, and grow grass within the perforations, the result would
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be soft paved parking areas. The vehicles would not pressurize the roots of the grass and one
could safely mow the lawn. A fringe benefit is the reduction of heat build-up within the
urbanized areas (Figure 3).
Emphasizing the first point, never has land been traded upon more than in this century.
Consequently, there has never been more discontent amongst people than in this century.
Environmental degradation has reached new heights. Roads are designed on a 'universally
standard' basis, without considering their multifarious functions and the natural lay of the
land. Cities spring up on seemingly empty canvases, barely surviving their unnatural
locations and consuming massive resources. Water is one of the earth's greatest resources,
and yet we have forgotten the numerous ways to replenish the earth. Building materials are
standardized to theoretically ensure consistency and uniformity, without considering the long
term and humane effects of the manufacturing process and material usages.
9. Sustainable building technologies and appropriate materials
Building activity and related industrial production in developing nations account for a large
proportion of their Gross National Product (GNP). Within these societies, use of
inappropriate building technologies and designs is the largest single contributor to
environmental degradation, depletion of natural resources and inequitable distribution of
wealth and opportunity. Developing nations must therefore focus on the use of appropriate
technology in their building industry. At least 50 percent of developing nations’ GNP goes
into building and construction. Of this 50 percent, 60 percent is for material consumption and
40 percent is for labour. Therefore, in order to have sustainable development it is imperative
to identify the areas where macro industry and micro enterprise are required. If, as in the case
of most macro industries, the add-on is more than 40 percent then there is unsustainable and
inappropriate development.
10. Micro enterprise and sustainable consumption patterns
The developing nations are today following the advanced nations' policy of achieving
economic growth through macro industrial production, which revolves around the concept of
large scale production and high consumption patterns. The consequent environmental impact
is often overlooked. Large scale production and consumption necessitates large distances for
transportation of raw material and end product, high marketing costs and other add-ons.
Advanced nations today have 30 percent actual production costs and 70 percent add-on value
to a product. Developing nations still have 70 percent production costs and 30 percent add-on
value, but are rapidly following the unsustainable patterns of the developed nations.
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Macro production essentially leads to a centralized economy and imbalanced growth,

while micro production facilitates distribution of wealth and power. There is a need to
differentiate between products that need to go into the macro enterprise and those that are
appropriate for micro enterprise. A safe barometer to evaluate products that should be in the
micro industry should be established. Broadly, if add-on costs exceed 40 percent, then the
product or the means of production must be re-examined for possible manufacture at the
micro industry level.
11. Building materials
Misuse of building materials is probably the largest single factor that contributes to
environmental degradation. In the last century, the largest amount of development in the
construction industry has been that of surfacing materials. RCC (reinforced cement concrete)
was clearly not the answer and it is to protect RCC that several surfacing materials have been
developed, which also provide colour and texture.
Uniformly distributed load on wall is less than 0.5 Kg/cm2
Fig.4. Soil bearing capacity is less than 3 Kg/cm2

Source: Author.
A common misconception is that the life of a building depends on the strength of the
building material. This is incorrect. If the soil bearing capacity of earth is 2-3 Kg/cm2 then it
would seem irrational to use building materials of 300-400 Kg/cm2. The strength of the
material required is the direct consequence of its surface requirements. Surface engineered
building materials require serious consideration (Figure 4).
Traditionally, a considerable amount of importance was given to the choice of materials to
ensure conservation of natural resources. It is the incorrect choice of materials that has
resulted in the environmental degradation that we have today.
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To begin with, let us look at the most ubiquitous actor in the building drama, namely the
Burnt Clay Brick. This tiny element of the building industry has for centuries, been most
misunderstood. Today, the brick is considered a building material having universal
application and standards. The sole determining factor is the crushing strength of the brick.
However, the performance criterion around which the crushing strength has been formulated
is often relegated to the background or has been long forgotten. Analyzing the established
thumb rule for crushing strength throws up a contradiction. Since the soil bearing capacity of
most soils is a mere 2 kg/cm2 then the reason for using bricks of crushing strengths of 150 to
200 Kg/cm2 is open to question. It seems highly illogical to use material of such high strength
when the soil that the building is to rest on is of a lower crushing strength.
Yet the practice of achieving high crushing strengths for bricks is correct for an entirely
different reason. The rationale is very simple: the strength determining factor for the brick is
a direct consequence of its surface requirements. To ensure non-erodability, clay must be
burnt adequately. Suitable non-erodability is achieved when there is a crushing strength of
above 150 Kg/cm2. If the strength achieved was lower, then the brick wall would require
additional surface treatment such as cement plaster. In blocking off the natural porosity of the
brick, one is confronted with the additional problem of having created a heat trap, apart from
having used an unnecessary expensive material.
Another aspect of the brick that requires rationalizing is the size itself. There is a basic
error in standardizing the size of a brick at 75 mm x 125 mm x 230 mm (3"x 4.5"x 9") for the
entire country. The physical aspect of clay and its content varies from region to region. In
attempting to standardize this building element, we are actually trying to standardize the
quality of clay that the earth yields. This is clearly not possible and in order to obtain a
standard product, set technological solutions such as high draft kilns have been invented. This
further leads to consumption of coke that aggravates the fragile ecological balance. However,
the bricks of yesteryear were of excellent quality in terms of strength and surface
requirements. This was because the clay of the region determined the thickness of the brick
and the final decision was that of the potter working in that area (Figure 5).
The fundamental error in crushing strengths of bricks was discussed with a view to
rationalize material use. Before going back to the brick and any possible alternatives, let us
establish the criterion for good walling elements. It is a misnomer that walling elements
require great strength. This first assumption is where the basic approach to materials really
goes wrong. Walling elements must essentially be non-erodable and this must be the main
criterion. Low thermal conductivity is the next priority as well as the least amount of
consumption of processed material. Economy, colour and texture as intrinsic elements are
other criteria that must be met.
The high benchmark of load bearing capacity for brick was established to ensure its non-
erodability. It is also an established fact that the denser the burnt clay brick, the greater is the
strength and non-erodability achieved. Conversely, greater density of bricks increases its
thermal conductivity. This results in higher internal temperatures resulting in the vicious
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cycle of expensive cooling systems. The essential criterion of a good walling material thus
seems to be a non-erodable surface and a lean back up material (Figure 6).
This brings us to the concept of Surface Engineering (Figure 7). This refers to the creation
of a permanent, non-erodable surface diaphragm composed of waste material. Integration of
this diaphragm with a lean back-up material like mud or fly ash enables a walling block with
a non-erodable surface and a body with low thermal conductivity. This surface diaphragm
can also be made in the form of a tile with a wedge that can be integrated with the body
material in the mould while casting the walling block. Tiles can be used on both sides of
blocks for a permanent finish on the interior and exterior.
Fig.5.Thin bricks used for masonry.

Source: Author.
Fig.6.Good walling material

Source: Author.
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Fig.7.Surface engineered blocks

Source: Author.
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12. Reinforced Concrete (RC)
The second building material that dominates the building industry the world over is
Reinforced Concrete (RC). RC is considered as the epitome of human achievement in the
realm of building materials. It is pertinent to question ones’ blind and misplaced faith in it as
a magic formula. In order to evaluate RC, it is necessary to briefly go into what may have
been the reason for its development. In the past, stone was the most resilient material known
to man. However, transporting, handling and processing it, was cumbersome and required an
immense amount of labour input. Besides, the available size of stone was a limitation in
terms of design possibilities. With the rapid developments during the Industrial Revolution
and the invention of cement as a quick setting adhesive, it became possible to crush stone and
remould it, thus making it pliable in the creation of a variety of forms. Pliability was,
therefore, the main criterion and to this extent the invention and usage of concrete is justified.
RC is an invention that forces natural materials to behave in a manner that we wish them to
behave. Just as stone has the inherent quality of being able to take considerable crushing
loads, the derivative of stone as used in concrete, has tremendous capabilities of resisting
crushing loads. It is only when we try to use this material as flat slabs and push the material
to respond against its natural properties, that we encounter a series of problems that
constantly compound themselves. Instead of reflecting and examining where we may have
gone wrong, we strive to find solutions without examining the base.
Typically, RC consists of cement as an adhesive to bind sand and stone aggregate to create
reconstituted stone. The coarse sand is the intermediate, used to fill voids, and the attempt is
to once again achieve the strength of the stone that we crushed to begin with. The steel
reinforcement is introduced in the lower regions of the RC, to neutralize the tension generated
when RC is used in a flat form. In the upper regions, when seen in the cross section of the
beam, concrete is behaving in compression and responding to its inherent qualities. The
problem, thus, lies in the lower part of the RC, which is being made to withstand tension -
against its natural behavioral capabilities.
It is not as if stone is incapable of withstanding tension. Flat stone slabs have been used in
Hindu temples to roof considerable spans and the form of construction adopted was based on
the inherent qualities of the material (Figure 8). For instance, flat stone slabs, in our
traditional forms of construction, were used only where sedimentary stone existed. In areas
where metamorphic or volcanic rock existed, compressive structures were built. Sedimentary
rock is often capable of taking far more tensile stresses than RC. Yet, the faith reposed in RC
is so great that it seems virtually impossible to convince the die-hards that there is a
fundamental error in our perception of this material.
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Fig.8.Stone slabs used for roof in Hindu temples

Source: Author.
13. Heritage art culture
These were not mere flights of fancy, as they seem to be today, but a way of living. To re-
learn our heritage and history and imbibe what is relevant for us in today’s world and make it
a way of living - not all this can be achieved at once. A harmonious blend of the past with the
present, of tradition and the individual talent: that is what this paper seeks to illustrate and
prove. The issues raised are not merely for the sake of making one aware of the problems.
Most of us are aware of these, as we live with them. The intent here is to rationalize the
problems with the single objective of arriving at workable solutions. In order to arrive at the
solutions, one finds it necessary to link the solutions with the traditional wisdom of the past,
with an open mind and some lateral thinking. One believes that the best solutions are often so
simple that they are disregarded because of their simplicity.
14. Education, training and awareness for sustainable human settlement

design
Although within the past few decades a number of institutions, research organizations and
Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in India have worked in the field of sustainable
development planning and appropriate building technologies and have made considerable
headway, there has been no dynamic change in the mainstream planning and design of the
habitat. Two main problems exist in the current system.
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14.1. The challenge: to create a corps of sustainable design implementers

The first and most important problem is a lack of integration of these efforts within the
education system, since development as well as research in the field of sustainable human
settlements and building systems is not linked with academic institutions. Consequently,
future architects and planners, who continue to absorb outdated, conventional methods,
cannot apply their skills in the everyday working system. At best, any change and
development work continues to remain one of many pilot projects, or alternative options.
Their propagation at a mass level is hindered by the lack of appropriately trained
professionals within the profession, government agencies and amongst the educators
themselves. This lack of awareness also exists amongst the general public that has a woeful
lack of information and expertise.
Currently there are more than two hundred accredited schools of architecture and planning
in India, with many more soon to receive government recognition. A central approving
authority grants recognition to these institutes. The curriculum and syllabus of these schools
are defined within a common framework laid out by the recognizing authority. As a result,
education provided within this formal system functions on the principle of the lowest
common denominator – institutions are thus unable to strive for excellence and further,
regional response is lacking. In such a system, students are unable to develop skills to deal
with sustainable design and technology issues. This is largely due to the following reasons:
• Lack of awareness and exposure to sustainability issues in a holistic manner.
• Lack of awareness and inability of the faculty to guide and support the students in these
efforts.
14.2. Need for more holistic planning and research

The other problem is that, much of the research done in building technologies and planning is
not done in a holistic manner, to be truly sustainable. The research institutions, development
agencies and other organisations address each issue individually and in a singular way. For
instance, agencies involved with building technologies focus on specific technologies such as
ferro-cement or soil blocks as isolated elements, while others deal with pollution, transport
planning, environment or social issues. Co-ordination and cross-sectoral work between these
agencies is lacking and thus development activities related to the design and management of
human settlements does not take place in a holistic manner.
14.3. New models for educational institutions and curricula

The education, training and awareness of sustainable human settlement design should focus
on training future professionals in areas of appropriate building technologies and sustainable
planning. Through such a programme, a discerning group of trained personnel would be
created to become future practitioners and educators within the field as well as in government
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and other institutions. In India, an example of such a new educational institution is the
Academy for Sustainable Habitat Research and Action (ASHRA) [3].
Developing modules that become a part of the regular curriculum at school level should
also be high on the educational agenda. Just as mathematics and other sciences are taught
right from the primary level of the basic school curricula, the subject of sustainable
development must be taught so as to become a part of the daily thought process.
14.3.1. ASHRA
ASHRA is envisaged as a program to train future professionals in the areas of appropriate

building technologies and sustainable planning strategies and develop a corps of sustainable
habitat advocates, within the mainstream. The primary target group is architectural and
engineering students who are the future decision makers. The main focus will be to take
sustainable practices from the laboratory to land through a network of students with the
Anangpur Building Centre as the catalyst. A website and over 11 films have been made and
the site has been selected as the best educational site by Study Web. These resources will be
used for lectures and online education. Students will be enrolled as members to the web site,
from this group of students the most motivated 30 students will be selected for hands on
training on live pilot projects at the ASHRA’s base at Anangpur Building Centre. After one
year of training, these students will go back to their colleges to complete their education and
influence students and teachers.
The objective of ASHRA is to facilitate the absorption and diffusion of sustainable
planning and design practices and technologies into the main stream and its propagation at a
mass level. Through its partners in diverse countries, having similar problems, it will foster
exchange of knowledge and experiences. It will specifically look at the relevance of
traditional wisdom in several areas of the world and dovetail it into development practices of
today. It will create links between agencies in sustainable development work and educational
institutions in a cyclic self sustaining manner. Typically, it takes a few decades for a fresh
approach and thinking to become part of the conventional education curriculum, but through
the ASHRA process, hopefully the time taken for this is will be shortened.
14.4. Awareness promotion and diffusion of technology

Apart from training, information dissemination is also a necessary objective. Awareness
promotion, information and technical support will be provided to students of architecture and
planning, to architecture and planning schools, as well as to architects, builders and
developers, interested citizens, institutions, business and industry in a comprehensive manner.
Developing countries can set up academies similar to ASHRA, but which are suited to their
zones and the programmes can be location specific. The process of rationalisation and
adaptation is much the same but if these academies interact on a continuing basis, the very
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fundamentals of sustainable development can be re-examined and definitive correct actions

initiated.
15. Conclusion
Human settlements are the basis of all development activities and interaction of man with his
environment. The building industry and the other activities related to human settlements
account for nearly half of the GNP in most developing countries. It is also the single largest
factor that contributes to environmental degradation and has direct consequence on finance,
productivity and social behaviour. The design of human settlements encompasses a plethora
of issues including land usage strategies, watersheds and drainage systems, water supply,
economic activity and resource generation, etc. Thus adopting a sustainable approach in a
holistic manner is a powerful mechanism for promoting appropriate development.
These are just some of the issues pertaining to sustainable building technologies and
appropriate building materials, and yet they form the core of sustainable development. Once
the question of macro industry versus micro enterprise is addressed, it becomes obvious that
there is more at stake than just simply building materials. To ensure consistent sustainable
development at all levels, long-term strategies must envision the processes of manufacturing,
creating viable livelihood, appropriate technologies and appropriate materials. Once these
strategies are combined with the parameters set down, sustainable city strategies for
developing countries can be implemented and a healthy future ensured.
References
1. Johnson, L. B. (1964). The Great Society.

http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/speeches/Lyndon_B_Johnson/1.htm
2. Mystify, or mystification is used in its sense of inducing a sense of the sacred. Thus mystifying
planning controls would be to declare them as sacred and part of the spiritual and/or religious
doctrine.
3. The word ‘Ashra’ encompasses the concepts of home, security, support, refuge, and shelter.
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Pahari, Darya aur Shahar (Ridge-River-City): Sultanate
Environmental Urbanism in the Delhi Triangle and Lessons there
are for the Taking
PANDEY SHARMA Jyoti

jyotip.sharma@gmail.com
Abstract. Cultural diversity is increasingly gaining acceptance globally as a bastion of

sustainable development. Traditionally the art of city building has always underscored the
notion of a heterogeneous urbanism where the urban landscape was regarded as more than the
sum of its manmade environment celebrating diversity as a complex overlay of a manmade-
natural-spiritual-ritualistic combine. In the times we live in, focus has once again shifted on
the role that culture can play in the realization of a development agenda that embraces the
idea of sustainability. Indeed, the need to revisit the past and more importantly to learn from
it is being felt more than ever before as cities aim to conserve and utilize their heritage
resources to foster a heritage based sustainable development. This Paper presents the case of
the city of Delhi, that while positioning itself for recognition as a World Heritage City is
underscoring its heritage of urbanism as an invaluable asset that can help meet the city’s
urban development agenda driven by the need to be sustainable. It examines Sultanate
Delhi’s many heterogeneous urban landscapes that were shaped by local topographical and
hydrological conditions, namely the ridge, Pahari and the river, Darya coupled with human
creative endeavour within the confines of a small geographical domain known as the Delhi
Triangle. The paper while underscoring the relevance of traditional man-nature interactions in
the creation of built environments to the idea of contemporary sustainable urbanism, urges
that Delhi’s Pahari-Darya-Shahar (river-ridge-city) combine be taken cognisance of as a
sustainable cultural landscape with the potential to enrich the quality of life in a rapidly
growing global metropolis.
J. P. SHARMA
1. Introduction
The discourse on the shaping of the urban environment has seen a paradigm shift in the last
couple of decades as it is being increasingly underscored that a city is more than the sum of
its manmade environment. The emerging discourse on urbanism is accommodative of a host
of issues that range from land and resource management, energy needs, human well-being,
and role of the past [1]. The emphasis on heterogeneous urbanism has turned attention to the
man-nature interface in shaping the city and by extension to traditional cultures that celebrate
diversity embodied in the landscape as a complex overlay of a manmade-natural-spiritual-
ritualistic combine. Scholars who have examined traditional urban landscapes notably in
South Asia have argued that indigenous cultures have since centuries created landscapes
through a harmonious coming together of the manmade and natural environment calling this
traditional practice, Indigenous Landscape Urbanism that has a strong undercurrent of the
notion of sustainability [2].
This Paper bolsters the above argument by asserting that cities in the Indian Subcontinent
have indeed demonstrated a tradition of city building where topography and hydrology have
shaped the urban environment not just physically but also enriched urban life through a
culturally rich assortment of human rituals, ceremonial beliefs and practices. The Paper
presents the case of the city of Delhi, a rapidly growing global metropolis, that while
positioning itself for recognition as a World Heritage City is underscoring its traditional
urbanism as an invaluable asset that can help meet the city’s urban development agenda
driven by the need to be sustainable [3]. The city with its historicity that goes back in time to
the pre-Islamic ages is an ideal candidate to examine man-nature interface in the creation of
the urban landscape. The Paper examines the shaping of Sultanate Delhi’s many urban
landscapes as an outcome of human response to environmental conditions where the ridge,
Pahari and the river, Darya become determinants of urbanism in its many cities, Shahrs
within the confines of a small geographical domain known as the Delhi Triangle. The Paper
underscores the relevance of traditional man-nature interactions in the creation of sustainable
built environments and states that Delhi’s rich past can play a meaningful in the city’s quest
for sustainable urbanism today.
2. The Delhi Triangle: core of urban activity
Geographically speaking, Delhi’s urban growth in all its Sultanate dynastic manifestations
was determined by two topographical conditions, namely the Darya (river), the Jamuna, and
the Pahari (ridge), an extended spur of the Aravalli hills. Both these physiographic features
together defined a triangular tract of land referred to as the Delhi Triangle, with the river on
the east and the ridge on the west and south, as all Sultanate dynastic expressions of capital
building from the Mamluks to the Sayyids and Lodhis were confined to this geographic space
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PAHARI, DARYA AUR SHAHAR (RIDGE-RIVER-CITY): SULTANATE ENVIRONMENTAL URBANISM…
(Figure 1). While the river was an attractive proposition for city building due to supply of
water, means of transportation and cool easterly breeze, the ridge offered a vantage location
in times of unrest besides being a steady source of building material. The evolutionary
trajectory of the cities of Delhi began with the Pahari as a favoured site for city building as
demonstrated since the beginning of the Sultanate era, followed by a move to the riverfront as
the era drew to a close with each city building venture drawing in equal measure from
practicality and human creativity.
Fig.1.The Delhi Triangle defined by the Pahari and the Darya

Source: Drawn by the Author on map titled: ‘Sketch of the Environs of Delhi (Delhi and surroundings)
circa 1807’ Reprint 1989.
Nineteenth century colonial records divided the Delhi region into four subtypes [4]. The
level plain or Bangar that was arable, level mainland and largest in extent; riverine plain or
Khadar that lay along the Jamuna and had sandy soil; low lying land or Dabar that lay west
of the ridge and was highly prone to flooding besides being agriculturally unproductive and
the Pahari or Kohi that was the ridge, an elevated rocky landform that was an extended off-
shoot of the ancient Aravalli hills that entered the Delhi region from the south west. A
scrutiny of early 19th century cartographic sources sheds light on the course charted by the
Pahari and the Darya [5]. The ridge branched out in two directions, one proceeded eastwards
from Mehrauli, the latter fulcrum of the two arms, towards Tughlakabad, Asola, Bhatti and
Jaunapur, the other northwards from Mehrauli to Vasant Vihar, Dhaula Kuan reappearing at
Civil Lines, Kingsway Camp before terminating at Wazirabad. The area was very sparsely
vegetated, unfit for cultivation with water lying deep below the surface. It supported flora that
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J. P. SHARMA
typified the semi arid region being stunted and thorny including Dhau, Khair, Phulai and
Kikar [6] (Figure 2).
Fig.2.The Pahari at Civil Lines marked by rocky terrain and semi arid vegetation
Source: Archaeological Survey of India (henceforth ASI), Delhi Vol. 12, 5897/1931-32.
It was also home to wild life notably Neelgai, Chinkara, besides monkeys, wolves and
hyenas making it an ideal place for Shikaar (hunting) [7]. The Darya called Jamuna, a
perennial river originating in the Himalayas is believed to have once flown west of the ridge
as revealed in local folklore and legends and also seconded by recent research that indicates
that it flowed through the ridge in present day South Delhi with tectonic shits causing it to
alter its course frequently [8]. The river meandered eastwards over centuries leaving behind
palaeo-channels, marshes and lakes that are identifiable today as drains and lakes,
prominently Najafgarh Jheel and Bhadkal Lake. Over centuries, during the course of shifting,
the land occupying the old course of the river was identified as the fertile Bangar while the
relatively recent riverine land was the sandy Khadar. The Delhi Triangle was drained via a
network of natural drains called Nallahs with the two prominent ones being Najafgarh Nallah
and Barapullah Nallah [9]. The Sultanate cities of Delhi were built on the Kohi and Bangar
areas and catered to their water needs by drawing water from the ground and from the river
through an assimilation of natural geography and human conditions.
3. Pahari (ridge) urbanism of the Sultanate period
The Sultanate period marked the occupation of the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent
by successive Muslim dynastic powers from the Mamluks in the end of the 12th century to the
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Lodhis in the early 16th century, who built their capital cities in the Delhi Triangle.
Cartographic sources of early 19th century and a study of the surviving remains of Sultanate
cities show that most Sultans chose to build on the Pahari that marked the base, as it were, of
the Delhi Triangle, stretching from Mehrauli in the west to Badarpur in the east [10]. Besides
Sultanate capitals cities, urbanism also thrived on account of some prominent Sufi Silsilas
(Islamic brotherhoods) setting up home in the region by founding seminaries called
Khanqahs that attracted followers from both the religious fold and laity [11]. Sufi khanqahs
became the nuclei of settlements that evolved into a cultural cauldron of religious, mystic,
spiritual and ritualistic vitality with followers from among both Muslims and Hindus.
Sultanate Delhi’s most revered Sufi saints were Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, Hazrat Shaikh
Nasiruddin Mahmud Raushan Chiragh Dilli and Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki whose
respective khanqahs were established in the Delhi Triangle [12]. The relationship between
Sultans and saints was not always cordial, often a saint’s popularity and patronage seemingly
undermining imperial authority as described in the legendary tales associated with Hazrat
Nizamuddin Auliya and Sultan Ghias-ud Din Tughlak. The choice of the ridge as a site for a
capital city was determined by the need to bolster defenses against imminent threat of
invasions notably by the Mongols. The Pahari offered a naturally bolstered location besides
providing stone, quartzite, for building. The choice of a establishing a khanqah on the other
hand was based on the patron saint’s predilection and could be along a water source like
Nizamuddin Auliya’s khanqah at Ghayaspur in close proximity to the Jamuna, or on the
Pahari as in the case of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli and Shaikh
Nasiruddin Raushan Chiragh Dilli in Chiragh Dilli where water was drawn from the ground.
Both settlement types coexisted in Sultanate Delhi each with its own distinctive urban
character, the former drawing on political authority and the latter on Islamic spirituality. The
founding of a new city did not imply the death of the older one as settlements continued to
coexist even as their imperial glory was long past. Sultanate city building endeavours
manifest themselves both as folklore with no surviving remains as in case of cities like
Kilokri founded by Kaiqubad, a descendant of Balban and Mubarakabad founded by
Mubarak Shah, as well as through ruinous remains of Qila Rai Pithaura (Mamluk), Siri
(Khilji), and Tughlakabad, Adilabad and Jahanpanah (Tughlak) (dynastic capital cities built
in chronological order) [13]. The chief non-imperial settlements were those around the three
khanqahs of Delhi’s three prominent Sufis.
Urban water architecture of Sultanate cities went beyond catering to human consumption
needs and irrigation of the hinterland for cultivation, instead playing a vital role in enriching
the cultural makeup of urban space by catering to religious and worldly pursuits. Both Sultans
and Sufi saints patronised the construction of water works. The import of water architecture to
urban life is also attested to by the fact that infrastructure created by one ruler was kept in
good repair and often upgraded by another to ensure the continuity of the water resource. The
following section will examine Sultanate infrastructure interventions that enriched urban life
in the many Shahrs in the Delhi Triangle.
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3.1. Bandh (dam), jheel (lake) and talao (pond)

The monsoon runoff was collected through check dams called Bandh made in mud and stone
across seasonal streams to create Talaos (ponds) and Jheels (lakes) [14]. Embankments were
made across a number of water channels along both arms of the Pahari in places like
Wazirabad, Kushak, Malcha, Basantpur, Zamrudpur, Mahipalpur, Chattarpur, Mehram
Nagar, Jaunapur, Asola, among others [15]. The resultant water body and its environs besides
being utilitarian also served as royal hunting grounds of Delhi’s Sultans attracting wild life
due to the presence of water. Among the most ambitious project was Sultan Ghias-ud-din
Tughlak’s city, Tughlakabad, built on the Pahari as a fortified citadel. Water was dammed to
create a large lake that enveloped the citadel providing water for irrigation and general usage
besides creating an additional line of defense and a visually appealing urban landscape of
hillocks, water and architecture. A causeway led from the citadel to the Sultan’s tomb built in
the midst of the lake, while an embankment led to Adilabad, a relatively smaller citadel built
by Sultan Ghias-ud-din Tughlak’s successor, Muhammad bin Tughlak, probably as a leisure
retreat (Figure 3). The latter also contributed to building water works for his capital city,
Jahanpanah, created by throwing a walled enclosure between Qila Rai Pithaura and Siri. A
structure called Satpula (literally seven arched bridge) was built to regulate the dammed
water with eleven openings (seven large ones and four subsidiary in nature) and topped with
two identical chambers. Today most of these water works have either been lost to
urbanisation or at best, survive as ruins.
Fig.3.Tomb of Sultan Ghiyas-ud Din Tughlak

Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 8, I.332/1923-26.
3.2. Hauz (reservoir/tank)

Reservoirs were built to collect the surface drain-off during the monsoon. An elaborate water
works system was evolved with sluice gates to regulate water flow and channels to feed
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reservoirs. The earliest surviving hauz is attributed to Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish

(Mamluk) who built a large reservoir, Hauz-e Shamsi, to cater to the water needs of his
capital, Qila Rai Pithaura in the 13th century (Figure 4). The tank and its environs emerged as
an idyllic retreat with the Sultan constructing a pavilion in its centre accessed by boats when
the tank brimmed with the annual monsoon runoff. Legend also ascribed its water to be
sacred making the environs a venerable place for the devout thronging the area in large
numbers particularly on religious occasions. Not far from the site was the khanqah and final
resting place of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki and a Jain temple, Dadabari Jain Mandir
that together sacralised the landscape. The site also emerged as a prominent spiritual and
leisure destination during the late Mughal era. The founder of Siri, Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji
built a large reservoir, Hauz-e Alai, to supply water to the residents of his capital city in the
early 14th century. The tank was also fed by the monsoon drain-off. Both reservoirs were kept
in a state of repair by other rulers, some even adding new buildings to the precincts to
enhance the sites’ role as nodes of human activity.
Fig.4.Hauz-e Shamsi with pavilion

Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 3, 871/1963.
3.3. Baoli (step well)

Baolis also referred to as Bain were wells that tapped ground water and were designed as
elaborate multi level spatial entities with cool subterranean apartments and colonnades
overlooking the water. While baolis were designed as grand architectural ensembles in
Gujarat and Rajasthan as an integral feature in an arid and semi arid landscape, those in the
Delhi region while being numerous were certainly modest in comparison [16]. Sunk wherever
there existed the possibility of finding ground water relatively easily, baolis were scattered
throughout the Delhi Triangle with a greater concentration in the Mehrauli area of Qila Rai
Pithaura, Siri and Jahanpanah [17]. A number of them were built during the rather brief
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reigns of the Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties in the 15th and 16th century, their city building
ventures being of little significance. Like tanks, baolis went beyond their function as sources
of water supply and a leisure venue of the elite, as those built by or associated with Sufis also
had a sacred symbolism with their waters believed to be endowed with healing power that
drew believers from all sections of society. Indeed a Sufi khanqah more often than not had a
baoli as part of the complex as seen at the seminaries of Nizamuddin Auliya where the baoli
was built by the saint himself and of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, that had two baolis
in its vicinity (Figure 5). Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak, whose architectural exploits are
discussed in detail below also made a large, circular baoli within his palace-fort.
Fig.5.Baoli at DargahHazratNizamuddinAuliya
Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 3, 4025/1916-20.
Fig.6.Wazirabad: Tomb of Shah-e Alam and bridge over seasonal nallah

Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 2, D.473/1914-15.
382
Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak deserves special consideration on account of his enormous
contribution to Sultanate water urbanism. His patronage extended from city building to public
utility works namely bridges, aqueducts, dams, reservoirs, step wells and irrigation canals. He
founded cities like Hisar Feroza and Ferozabad, the latter a new capital city in the Delhi
Triangle built in the 15th century. The Sultan broke with conventional practice by selecting a
riverfront site to build the city whose focus was the citadel called Kotla Feroz Shah. Indeed,
this Tughlak Shahr disregarded the ridge location of the previous cities and shifted
northwards to a site on the banks of the Jamuna marking the beginning of river urbanism in
the Delhi Triangle that would reach its zenith in the 17th century during Mughal rule.
During the Sultan’s reign dams were built across seasonal streams to make provision for
water [18] (Figure 6). A number of reservoirs were also built during his reign that can be
attributed to both imperial and sub-imperial patronage [19]. With a penchant for Shikaar
(hunting), the Sultan is known to have also built a number of hunting lodges, Shikargahs that
survive largely as ruins today, to hunt game across the landscape where water was dammed
into ponds and lakes [20] [Figure 7 a, b].
Fig.7(a).Shikargah Kushk Mahal

Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 3, 3809/1916-20.
Fig.7(b).Shikargah Bhuli Bhatiyari ka Mahal

Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 2, D.531/1914-15.
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J. P. SHARMA
Fig.8.Madrasa complex overlooking Hauz-e Alai

Source: ASI, Delhi Vol. 3, 842/1963.
To him also goes the credit for keeping in good repair reservoirs built by the preceding
Delhi Sultans, the most significant work being undertaken at Sultan Ala-ud din Khilji’s Hauz-
e Alai. In what can be described in contemporary terms as an environmentally conscious
conservation project, on the orders of the Sultan the reservoir was desilted and repaired and
its environs transformed into a place of learning by building a Madrasa (Islamic seat of
learning) complex that overlooked the water providing an idyllic setting conducive for
contemplation in nature thereby enriching the teaching and learning process (Figure 8).
Hailed by historians as one of the most outstanding examples of Sultanate architecture, the
entire spatial ensemble was orchestrated to take advantage of the water with fenestrations
offering views and a series of steps providing descent to the water level [21]. Indeed, the
setting appealed to the Sultan so much that he chose it as his final resting place and was
interred in a tomb raised on the site, thus adding a solemn funerary dimension to the complex.
Furthermore, the water supply of Ferozabad in general and the royal palace in particular drew
on the Darya along which they were built as discussed in the following section.
3.4. Sultanate nahr (canal) building

It would not be an exaggeration to assert that to Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak goes the credit
for the greatest demonstration of environmental urbanism during the Sultanate era as manifest
in the building of canals on a regional scale. Canal building meant harnessing the water of
rivers like the Jamuna and directing it to irrigate large tracts for agriculture. Indeed
contemporary chronicles attribute the economic wellbeing ushered by increased agricultural
production to regional canal building undertaken on an unprecedented scale by the Sultan.
Barauni, a well-known chronicler, stated that “During the auspicious Firuz Shah's reign, the
canals, one hundred and one hundred twenty miles long, were led off from the rivers, the
Jamuna and the Ganges. The water, flowing through them, irrigated the desert and desolate
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tracts where no well or lake existed. The depth and width has made the use of boats possible;
people travel in boats, covering distance from one to the other place” [22]. Canal building
was linked to city building as Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak initiated the venture with the
founding of the city of Hisar Feroza lying to the west of the Delhi region in a semi-arid
territory. Intending to bring water to his new city, the Sultan tapped the waters of two
Subcontinental Himalayan rivers, Satluj and Jamuna via two canals that led to the new city.
Another canal drawn from the Jamuna irrigated his retreat at Safidun, east of Hisar Feroza,
while yet another, called Ju-e Ferozabad, made its way to the new capital, Ferozabad in the
Delhi Triangle to supply his capital city and imperial citadel, Kotla Feroz Shah with water
[23].
Canals were considered important assets for irrigation, water supply, transportation and
leisure and efforts were made for their regular maintenance usually by imperial diktat and
even as their patron’s authority waned, successive rulers endeavoured to keep them in good
repair by undertaking de-silting and maintenance and sometimes also extending the network.
Indeed, Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak’s network of canals proved to be an asset during the reign
of the Mughals with the network being maintained and extended by royal diktat in the 16th
and 17th centuries to create a spectacular display of water urbanism in Mughal Delhi.
Sadly, this trait of cherishing what had been built in the past and keeping it in a state of
perpetuity for posterity was lost over time as Delhi walked on the road to progress rejecting
tradition for modernity that was ushered during the colonial era. The city has never looked
back. Delhi’s ridge has been encroached due to urbanization and its forest cover lost. The
river has been reduced to a pale shadow of its former self today, largely identified as a carrier
of human waste, barely managing to survive as a natural feature in the landscape. Historic
Sultanate cities have transformed completely under rapid and unregulated urbanization with
their urban infrastructure that was the subject of much remark among Sultanate era
chroniclers a victim of neglect. While some historic Sultanate era sites have been lost, others
that survive, either intact or as fragmentary remains are protected as monuments and
conserved in a landscape setting that does little to enhance their relationship with the original
environs. Indeed, both the ridge and river, together with the Sultanate Shahrs have ceased to
play a meaningful role in shaping urban life as they did in the past. With the traditional
connect of the Pahari-Darya-Shahr combine with people who inhabit Delhi’s geographical
space being as good as nonexistent, it is worth asking ourselves if there are any lessons for
the takingfrom the past and whether traditional knowledge systems of city building should
remain confined only to academic space.
4. Lessons there are for the taking
It is increasingly being realized globally that the notion of urban sustainability that forms a
vital part of the larger notion of sustainable habitat, must increase its ambit beyond
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J. P. SHARMA
environment, ecology and economics to also embrace the human dimension by way of local
culture. Indeed in its 2001 Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, the United Nation
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has declared cultural diversity
to be the fourth bastion of sustainable development. Furthermore, the 2010 United Nation
Summit on the Millennium Development Goals has strongly articulated the pivotal role
played by culture towards the realization of sustainable development goals [24]. Cities across
the globe have identified sustainable urban development as an achievable goal underscoring
the need to focus on the principle of redevelopment rather than new development. In India,
UNESCO’s Indian Heritage Cities Network (IHCN) programme has made sustainable
development a priority by enabling cities covered by this programme to conserve and utilize
their heritage resources to foster a heritage based sustainable development.
Delhi that is projecting itself for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage City will have
to convincingly demonstrate that its rich heritage, including both natural features and
manmade endeavours have been seamlessly woven together in the city’s present development
agenda. The question one must therefore ask is how does Delhi’s Sultanate natural and built
heritage contribute towards the idea of a sustainable urbanism to bolster the city’s claim as a
heritage city? This naturally shifts the spotlight on the Pahari-Darya-Shahr combine and the
role it can play in improving urban quality of life. The conventional perception of
compartmentalizing natural and man-made heritage as separate entities and regarding
heritage conservation as being anti-development is slowly giving way to a multi-disciplinary
assimilatory approach for improved urban experiential quality as attempts towards re-
establishing the human-flora-fauna connect are being made. Projects initiated both by the
state and non-state agencies including NGOs aim to integrate the city’s natural and man-made
heritage more meaningfully with citizenry’s life.
Notable among these endeavours are Delhi Development Authority’s river-front
redevelopment project that envisages the Jamuna waterfront as a landscape ensemble with a
public realm offering leisure and recreational facilities that draw on the river through a
hierarchy of urban level green spaces; conservation of natural marshes, flora and fauna by
designating areas as bio-diversity zones; permitting organic agricultural practices in limited
and defined zones; and renewal of land use to mitigate its impact on the larger environment
[25]. The canals remain a major source of irrigation today as in the past, although with altered
alignments and extensions. The old river channels are also receiving attention with proposals
to revive them. One such proposal is the South Delhi Greenway Master Plan for the
Barapullah channel, today a prominent storm water drain that has been envisaged as a 12.5
Km long eco-corridor along the drain linking the historic cities and remains of Delhi with
facilities for walking and cycling [26]. The ridge has been notified as a reserved forest area
although in parts, the earliest notification dating to the colonial times under Act VII of 1878
in November, 1911 [27]. It is being administered as four zones, namely Old Delhi or
Northern Ridge; New Delhi or Central Ridge; Mehrauli or South Central Ridge and
Tughlakabad or Southern Ridge [28]. This delineation notwithstanding, these four zones
continue to lack a well defined precinct and are affected by urbanization even as they
386
contribute towards the aeration of a densely built urban fabric through man-made
interventions namely designed parks, notably Buddha Jayanti Park (Central Ridge), Kamala
Nehru Park (Northern Ridge) and Sanjay Van (South Central Ridge); wildlife sanctuaries like
Asola and Bhatti (Southern Ridge) and the semi-wilderness of Jahanpanah city forest and
some parts of District Parks like those at Hauz Khas and Shalimar Bagh. The role played by
traditional urban water bodies is being appreciated to meet increasing demand for water
through augmentation and nourishment of depleted aquifers given the scarcity of this
resource in the city particularly during summer. Delhi’s Sultanate era reservoirs and baolis
are perceived as valuable assets that can contribute to the upgradation of the natural
environment. Hauz-e Shamsi tank, a protected monument has been desilted by Delhi Circle of
Archaeological Survey of India and it is once again able to catch the monsoon runoff to brim
with water and attract local visitors as a site of interest; likewise, Hauz-e Alai has been
revived by Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) into a lake with
supply of clean water into which were introduced fish that in turn brought birds notably wild
ducks thus setting into motion an ecosystem. Other benefits accrued include augmentation of
the water table and improvement in both water yield and quality. Sultante era baolis are also
being revived as viable sources of water. Restoration of water to the traditional source,
besides being an environmental asset also adds to the cultural worth of the site offering a
scenic environ for the citizen and tourist alike. The sacred baoli in the Dargah of Hazrat
Nizammudin Auliya has been revived after its sudden collapse in 2008 through a judicious
intervention relying both on traditional and contemporary technology [29]. This endeavour
formed part of a larger initiative of urban renewal being undertaken by the Aga Khan Trust
for Culture (AKTC) called the Sundar Nursery-Humayun’s Tomb-Nizamuddin Basti
Renewal, where built, natural and intangible heritage are being considered holistically as
contributors to a sustainable process of urban redevelopment [30]. Among the other notable
features of this initiative are the environmental development measures being undertaken to
redevelop Sundar Nursery into an eco-urban park, the redevelopment of the Nila Gumbad
parkland and landscaping of local urban parks in Nizamuddin Basti. Furthermore, the stretch
of the Barapullah drain skirting the southern periphery of Nizamuddin Basti is being
redeveloped to make it a part of the residing community’s life with provision of walkways,
children activity spots, planting of fruit and flowering trees, besides water plants to
organically clean the drain water.
The success of these heritage based urban interventions that focus on redevelopment of an
existing natural and built resource quite simply bolsters the argument that the role of the past
in securing sustainability of urban space is of no small significance and must therefore form
an integral part of any policy on urban development.
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J. P. SHARMA
Acknowledgement
This paper is part of the larger outcome of research undertaken at the Dumbarton Oaks
Research Library and Collections, Harvard University, USA where the Author spent the
summer of 2010 as a Summer Fellow. The Author thanks Professor James Wescoat Jr., Aga
Khan Programme for Islamic Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA for sharing his thoughts and his paper, “The water and
landscape heritage of Mughal Delhi” (forthcoming), that he presented at the INTACH-Delhi
seminar on Delhi: A Heritage City, Delhi’s Mughal Period on October 08, 2011 in New
Delhi. The images in the paper have been reproduced by the kind permission of the Director-
General, Archaeological Survey of India, Photo Archives, New Delhi while the Map,
illustrated by the Author, has been reproduced by the kind permission of Survey of India,
Dehradun, India.
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Minneapolis.
2. Shannon, K. (2008). South Asian Hydraulic Civilizations: India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh. In K.
Shannon, B. De Meulderet al (eds.), Water Urbanisms, SUN, Amsterdam, 46-56. For a discussion
on a case study of a South Asian context, see, K. Shannon & S. Manawadu (2007). Indigenous
landscape urbanism: Sri Lanka's reservoir & tank system. Journal of Landscape Architecture 2: 6-
17.
3. Delhi’s heritage makes it a worthy candidate for inscription in UNESCO’s list of World Heritage
Cities. To facilitate the inscription of the city, the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural
Heritage (INTACH) Delhi Chapter in association with the Government has launched a public
campaign to raise awareness about the city’s rich living past through exhibitions, seminars and
public discussions besides through urban and architectural interventions notably the Delhi
Heritage Route Project. For a discussion on the project see, A. G. K. Menon, S. Liddle & A.
Lopez (eds.) (2010). Delhi: A Living Heritage, IGNCA and INTACH Delhi Chapter, New Delhi.
4. Punjab Government (1988). A Gazetteer of Delhi (1883-84). Vintage Books, 2nd Edition, Gurgaon.
5. The following data has been drawn after examining maps of the Delhi Region prepared following
the British occupation of the area in the early 19th century. The sources consulted include:
Trignometrical Survey of the Environs of Delhi or Shahjahanabad. 1808 IOR X/1658 OIOC
Collection, British Library, London & Sketch of the Environs of Delhi (Delhi and surroundings)
circa 1807. Survey of India, Reprint 1989, Dehradun, India.
6. Krishen, P. (2006). Trees of Delhi: A Field Guide. Dorling Kindersley, Delhi.
7. Lal, R. (2010). The Fauna of Delhi. In Delhi: Living Heritage, op cit., 176-183. (Today much of
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8. Sharma, A. K. (1993). Prehistoric Delhi and its neighbourhood. Aryan Books International, New
Delhi; and Grover, A. K. & Bakliwal, P. L. (2006) River migration and the floods: A study of a
section of the Yamuna river through remote sensing; in Singh, U. (ed.) Delhi: Ancient History,
Social Science Press, New Delhi.
9. For a detailed account of the drainage of the Delhi region, see, Punjab Government, op cit., 4-9.
10. Yamamoto, T. et al (1967). Delhi: Architectural remains of the Delhi Sultanate period. Institute of
Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, Tokyo. Further supported by data drawn from maps of
early 19th century colonial Delhi, op cit.
11. Troll, C. (ed.) (1989). Muslim Shrines in India: Their Character, History and Significance. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
12. Sethi, A. (2010). Sufi Shrines: Sacred landscapes; Artistic Crucibles. In Delhi: A Living Heritage,
op cit., 184-195. (Discussion on Delhi’s Sufi saints).
13. Both these non-extant cities, Kilokri founded in the late 13th century and Mubarakabad established
in the 15th century are believed to have been sited on the Jamuna river-front. Kilokri is certainly an
exception in this regard having abandoned the practice of city building on the ridge and choosing
the river location instead. The absence of any surviving remains of both the cities makes any
reconstruction difficult.
14. Sharma, Y. D. (1990). Delhi & its Neighbourhood. Archaeological Survey of India, Delhi. (This
method of collecting monsoon runoff was not introduced by the Muslims to the Delhi region as
the Rajput rulers of Delhi are known to have constructed both dams and reservoirs to fulfill their
water requirements. Surviving remains of a dam at Anangpur village and a reservoir called
Surajkund are a testimony to water storage techniques being adopted for a terrain like the Pahari.)
15. Cherian, D. (2004). as cited in Wescoat Jr., J. L. (2011). The water and landscape heritage of
Mughal Delhi. Paper (Forthcoming) presented in INTACH-Delhi seminar on Delhi: A Heritage
City, Delhi’s Mughal Period, 8 October, 2011.
16. Jain-Neubauer, J. (1981). The Stepwells of Gujarat: An Art Historical Perspective. Abhinav
Publications, New Delhi.
17. Yamamoto, op cit.
18. Siddiqui, I. H. (1986). Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times.
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 29 (1) 59-60. (A contemporary
chronicler, Shams-i-Siraj’ Afif, the Sultan’s court historian, mentions the names of the dams as
follows: Band-i Fath Khan; Band-i Maljah; Band-i-Mahipalpur; Band-i Shukr Khan; Band-i
Salura; Band-i Sipanah and Band-i Wazirabad. These were probably named either after their
patrons or places where they were raised.)
19. Farishta, another chronicler of the Sultan’s reign, attributes at least thirty reservoirs to Sultan Feroz
Shah Tughlak in the Delhi region for irrigation. Ibid, 59.
20. Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlak’s hunting lodges survive as ruins and are scattered along the ridge
from the north to the south. While Pir Ghaib with a ruined baoli is in the Northern Ridge, Kushk
Mahal, Malcha Mahal and Bhuli Bhatiyari ka Mahal are in the Central Ridge while another
structure today called the Mahal is in Mahipalpur village.
21. Welch, A. (1996). A Medieval Centre of Learning in India: The Hauz Khas Madrasa in Delhi.
Muqarnas 13: 165-190.
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J. P. SHARMA
22. Barauni as cited in Siddiqui, op cit., 72.

23. Ibid, 52-77.
24. Parsuramen, A. (2010). Heritage-based Sustainable Development. Conference Papers UNESCO-
IHCN and Embassy of Switzerland in India, Delhi, Preface, v.
25. http://dda.org.in/tendernotices_docs/may10/River%20Front%20Development.pdf. (The proposal
by Delhi Development Authority for the River Front Development Zone ‘O’).
26. Hingorani, A. (2009). South Delhi Greenway. In Sinha, A. (ed.) Delhi’s Natural Heritage:
Symposium jointly organised by INTACH and United States India Education Foundation (US-
IEF), INTACH and US-IEF, New Delhi, 42-46; and Hingorani, A. (2010) Revitalizing the
Historic Water Channels and Waterways in Indian Cities. In Heritage-based Sustainable
Development: Conference Papers, UNESCO-IHCN (Indian Heritage Cities Network) and
Embassy of Switzerland in India, Delhi, 38-39. (Detailed account of the South Delhi Greenway
Master Plan).
27. Mann, M. & Sehrawat, S. (2009). A City with a View: The Afforestation of the Delhi Ridge, 1883-
1913. Modern Asian Studies, 43/2, 543-570. (The afforestation of the Central Ridge was initiated
with the building of New Delhi once a rocky outcrop called Raisina hill was chosen for raising the
Viceroy’s House. The task was considered necessary by the Town Planning Committee to create a
green cover over which could then command the imposing Viceroy’s House of the new capital.
The planting scheme was drawn up by P. H. Clutterbuck, Conservator of Forests in the United
Provinces and was both labour and capital intensive).
28. Krishen, P. op cit.
29. Bhatnagar, M. (2009). Revival of Hauz Khas Lake, Delhi. Power of Creativity: For Sustainable
Development 4: 42-45 and Nanda, R. (2009). Hazart Nizamuddin Auliya’s Baoli Conservation.
Power of Creativity: For Sustainable Development 4: 46-51. (Detailed account of the revival of
Hauz-e Alai and Nizamuddin Baoli, respectively).
30. http://www.nizamuddinrenewal.org.
390
Sustainable Urban Design: Lessons from the Chandigarh
Neighbourhood
BAGGA Sangeeta
Chandigarh College of Architecture, Chandigarh, India
sangeetabagga@gmail.com
Abstract. Sustainable communities continuously strive to conserve and harness their

resources in order to be livable and to offer a certain quality of life to their residents. Today’s
global scenario shows the concerns of real estate developers in cashing upon the indicators of
quality of life for greater project viability as well as economic value. Advertisements of
residential neighbourhoods rely heavily on “close to nature”, “living in the clean
countryside”, “close to the centre city”, concepts, which are explicit of our growing
awareness, affinity and responsibility towards resource conservation. Good urban design is
the backbone towards realising sustainable neighbourhoods where pedestrian priority is as
much important as clean air, water and the social safety of the neighbourhood. This paper
revisits the Chandigarh Neighbourhood - the Sector to bring to the fore the learnings for
sustainable neighborhoods which can guide future development of sustainable communities
which are both cost and resource effective. The ideas of Open Building and Lean
Construction viz a viz sustainability are discussed in light of the Chandigarh Sector.
1. Introduction
Neighbourhood communities are constantly trying to address issues of sustainability in a

rapidly modifying environment where the only constant is an ever changing global scenario.
Harnessing resources for the future, infrastructure and resource management, exploring
conservation strategies for the present, so that future generations should not face water crisis,
clean air, food and fuel shortage. These are the concerns and relevant themes at almost all
platforms and forums for discussion today.
The present crisis of depleting energy resources makes us reflect at two critical things.
What are we suddenly doing (that is different from our past lifestyle) that it is causing this
S. BAGGA
global debate on food security, reduction of carbon footprint, per capita energy requirement
and consumption. Why are we faced with the crisis suddenly? To address these, a revisit into
our present day communities is inevitable. Our lifestyle reveals that the bicycle/walk to the
bread-eggs-milk shop has been replaced by the car drive/motorcycle. Even the haircut trip
demands a car drive. Lifestyle changes from an economically conservative and ecologically
viable one to a consumerist one have made us slaves of the automobile. While on one hand,
all our gadgetry has been invented to liberate us so that we can spend more time in pursuing
more creative pursuits, yet we have become victims to the very machine.
The Citrohan and the Dom-ino houses designed by Le Corbusier “the machine - the
habiter” were to bring in “functional efficiency’” into our lifestyles and relieve us from the
drudgery of daily life. Le Corbusier’s Dom-ino reinforced concrete frame was an affordable,
prefabricated system for the modern age and large scale post war constructions. The modular
columns and slabs of the Dom-ino could be trucked to site; the exterior claddings as well as
internal walls were free from structural constraints to suit and add flexibility to the needs of
the modern users. Variously interpreted as a statement of functional drive, technological
aspirations, classical idealism, and ‘self referential sign’, the Dom-ino has come to be the
‘ideogram of modernity’ [1] (Figure 1). The Dymaxion House by Buckminister Fuller was a
similar response to post war reconstruction with functional efficiency as well as efficient use
of energy as its priority [2] (Figure 2).
Fig.1.The Domino construction system Fig.2.Interior of Dymaxion house showing

Source: Author. structural details
Source: Author.
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SUSTAINABLE URBAN DESIGN: LESSONS FROM THE CHANDIGARH NEIGHBOURHOOD
2. Chandigarh: sustainable urban design at city level
Ideally nestled in the foothills of the Shivaliks, the lower ranges of the Himalayas, 333 m
above sea level, Chandigarh’s chequerboard plan is laid on a gently sloping site, whose
eastern and western boundaries are marked by seasonal rivulets, the Sukhna Choe and the
Patiali ki Rao (Figure 3).
Fig.3.Sketches by E. Maxwell Fry of the site and setting of the new capital of Panjab
Source: Author.
Fig.4a.Wall model of the city in wood Fig.4b.Map of the city delineating the four main
Source: Author. functions of living, working, care of body and
spirit and circulation
Source: Author.
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S. BAGGA
As a socialist utopia too, it had a mandate to fulfill o provide the best of amenities to all
classes of citizens. Therefore, the city had many first to its credit, including being the first
Indian city to have a fully underground waterborne sewage disposal system.
Aptly hailed as a city of convenience and comfort, Chandigarh was to occupy an area of 70
km2 , and its places of residence, work and recreation were based on the principles of Congrès
Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM)) would be easily accessible from all parts of
the city (Figure 4 a, b). Beginning in 1951, Le Corbusier played a significant role in ordering
the present urban form of the city. The city has been developed in two phases, Sectors 1-30
being developed in phase one and 31-47 in phase two. It was designed for a population of
1,50,000 in the first phase and 3,50,000 in the second phase. Presently phase three comprising
sectors 48-56; 61, 63 is being developed in an additional area of 8.47 Km2. The population in
1961 was 1,19,881 and in 2011 it was 10,54,686. At the urban level, the town was a new
conception, devoid of architectural clichés, governed by its own exigencies of climate,
geography, economic and technological constraints. Chandigarh symbolises an east-west
dialogue reflecting its modernist ideals. A general slope of 1:100 southwards, a natural gorge
conserved as the Leisure Valley through the concrete city as to temper the microclimate.
Recognising the dual role of trees as elements for microclimatic amelioration, Le Corbusier
devised a comprehensive plantation scheme, specifying the shape of trees for each category
of avenues - the Vs, keeping in view their potential for cutting off the harsh summer sun. A
protected green belt, the ‘Periphery’, girdles the town. It was introduced to set limits to the
built-mass of the city and as a measure against unsolicited sprawl and to serve the dairy and
farm products needs of the city. These were the means to achieve sustainable urban design for
Chandigarh - a finite sized city to serve a finite population.
3. Chandigarh: sustainable urban design at sector level
A closer look at the group of buildings, the community level, is the next necessity. The idea
of the neighborhood unit originated as early as the Roman Cuadra. The Chandigarh Sector -
the repetitive neighbourhood unit draws inspiration from the Roman Quadra and the Sectors
at Bogota carried out by Le Corbusier at the request of United Nations Educational Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The master plan of Chandigarh is based on the
principles of CIAM and the principles of Urbanisme as formulated by Le Corbusier. The plan
is based on the ‘7V Rule’, determining an essential function namely the Sector, the container
of family life representing the 24 solar hours’ cycle, which must be fulfilled in perfect
harmony. Its dimensions are the outcome of studies, which were conducted in 1929, 1936,
1939 and in 1949 at Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Sao Paulo, and Bogota. These plans had to
determine a valid regulation of traffic of automobiles in towns of Spanish colonisation, which
were products of Roman towns. The chequerboard of the streets covering the area of these
towns was a mesh of 100 to 110 metres (the ‘Cuadra’), crossing at every 110 metres and
therefore, paralysing the automobile circulation and posing danger for the pedestrians and an
394
unhappy life for the inhabitants inside the ‘Cuadras’. A useful reclassification of them led to
a ratio of harmonious dimensions and productive combinations: seven to eight cuadras on one
side and ten to twelve on the other side, that is to say 800 m x1200 m. This was the Sector
that issued from a valid and ancestral geometry established in the past on the stride of a man,
an ox or a horse, but henceforth adopted for mechanical speeds (Figure 5). The mesh was
rectangular, the car traffic being only regulated by the four-branch crossing (i.e. two straight
lines intersected at right angles or approximately). The entrance of the cars into the sectors
(measuring 800m x 1200m) which are exclusively reserved for family life would take place at
four points only in the middle of 1200 m and only in the middle of 800 m. All stoppage of
circulation was to be prohibited at the four circuses. The bus stops were proposed regularly at
200 m from the roundabouts so as to serve the four entrances for the pedestrian into the
sector. The transit traffic was to move at the sector periphery; the sectors thus, being
surrounded by four wall bound car roads without openings. And this novelty in town planning
was applied at Chandigarh: no house (or building) door opens on the thoroughfare of rapid
traffic [3] (Figure 6).
Fig.5.The sector of Chandigarh based on the human Fig.6.Sector 22, one of the earliest sectors to
being’s safety and convenience. be built in the city with an explanation of the
Source: Author. function of the Vs within the sector
Source: Author.
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S. BAGGA
Fig.7.Sector as a self sufficient neighbourhood unit.

Source: Author.
The self-sufficient neighbourhood sector had an elementary school, a group of sectors

shared a Health Centre, and a High School. Other public functions were arrayed along the
sector vertical N-S green. The V4 shopping street had shops on the northeast side so that the
shopping would remain shaded during the course of the day (Figure 7). The public
architecture, the state owned (government housing and the private residences were scaled to
the comfort of the sector population and its needs. This formed the basis to the sustainability
of the sector. Though the contribution of Le Corbusier to the city is ineluctable, yet it must be
emphasized that the contribution of his team was no less significant in the realisation of the
large, pioneering stock of people’s architecture and public architecture. The development of
an architectural design vocabulary for the city - low rise cubic compositions (which constitute
the bulk of the city) in local brick and stone as well as concrete, interspersed with brise soliel,
sun breakers for trans-aeration, parasols and white plastered surfaces fashioned by the
dictums of economy, climate and material, is credited to the team of Pierre Jeanneret,
Maxwell Fry and Jane Beverly Drew (Figure 8a). The trio is responsible for the development
of the city’s grain and texture and what has popularly fetched it the name, “Chandigarh
Style” (Figure 8b).
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Fig.8a.Aesthetic legislation in the City’s urban form arising from the mandates of economy,
indigenous material and climate.
Source: Author.
Fig.8b.The Chandigarh style

Source: Author.
The architectural work at Chandigarh was neatly divided between Le Corbusier and his
associates. Le Corbusier, besides being the spiritual director of the project, was also
responsible for the master plan, the layout and design of the Capitol Complex and
establishing the architectural control. Fry, Drew and Jeanneret were assigned the task of the
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S. BAGGA
actual construction of the city; state owned housing for government employees, schools,
shopping centres, hospitals, and other civic structures of the city. The design brief presented
to the team was essentially a reflection of what a modern capital of modern India should be,
the first Indian city where water, drainage, and electricity would be available to even the
poorest of the poor. The vision was of a capital that would serve as a model for the nation, if
not the world, in city planning [4].
4. Sustainable urban design: subsector and building level
Another tool devised to regulate the city’s urban form was its Aesthetic Legislation - a system
of visual controls, covering volumes, materials, textures, fenestration, boundary walls and
gates as well as a scheme for plantation, since trees perform a potential role in urban design.
The city had thirteen categories of government houses designed to suit the categories of its
government employees. The accommodation depended on the employees’ monthly salary as
well as the position. Each sector had a mix of various categories of house types keeping in
view the socialist agenda of the government. The commonality between the thirteen
categories came from the use of building materials and climate control devices, which created
the rich architectural vocabulary in the housing typology. Local brick, river sand, stones and
pebbles were used for walls, terracotta Jaalis (lattice screens), whitewashed lime surfaces,
brise soliel (egg crate louvers), deep overhangs and verandahs. Since the concept of courtyard
living and terraces was a common feature, ample open areas were given to the smaller houses
to cater to the outdoor activities such as chilli, grain drying and laundry yards as well as
interaction spaces between clusters of houses. The basis for this was:
• Disciplines of cost, local material and technology
• Absence of machinery
• Precast construction and labour constraint
• Responsibility to climatic comfort
• Budgeted accommodation to all classes of society
• Economy also achieved through low-rise cubic forms in exposed brick, plastered bands
and exposed concrete, brise soliel, Jaalis and small windows
• Minimal use of glass for windows
5. Exploring the concept of the Open Building
Lessons from Chandigarh’s urban design bring us to the concept of the Open Building. The
origin of the concept of Open Building is best captured by one of John Habraken's finest
quotes: “We should not try to forecast what will happen, but try to make provisions for the
unforeseen” [5]. In order to accommodate unknown future change, he suggested introducing
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different levels of decision making in the building process: tissue, support and infill,
respectively referring to the urban fabric, containing base buildings with their fit-outs. The
Chandigarh sector fulfils these with its street system, social security of neighbourhoods, array
of public amenities and scale of built forms and last but not the least, in the individual design
of the unit. The raison d’être of Open Building can also be expressed in terms of care,
responsibility and technology. People, who care about the environment they live in, will
make it a better and a safer place. Therefore, the built environment must encourage people to
take responsibility for their own territory. An environment that clearly distinguishes those
spaces and parts of a building for which occupants should take responsibility, will address the
user’s needs to feel responsible. Buildings, which are designed and built with separate
systems, can create conditions for responsibility and care. Therefore, the subdivision of the
building process needs to reflect the lines of decision making and the definition of
responsibilities between the parties. This subdivision can then be translated into
specifications for connections between building parts. It offers the basis for a well structured
building process with well defined interfaces. It allows us, to at least partially transfer the
construction process from building to manufacturing. It is the key to reducing waste by co-
coordinating dimensions and positions instead of improvising on site by cutting to size.
5.1. Applying information instead of energy
This is an important condition to re-use building parts, thus, extending the lifetime of
building parts, without the waste of dumping and recycling, coinciding with degradation and
the use of energy. The prefabricated units at Chandigarh are a pointer in this direction. Even
the shuttering units used for the buildings of the Capitol were reused and thus the door and
window as well as roof spans of Chandigarh’s residential units were designed to use the same
shuttering.
6. Lean Production and Lean Thinking
Lean Construction is a construction management concept that originated in the late eighties of
the past century. The American and European car manufacturing industry was in a deep crisis
and saw their market share decreasing, while the Japanese car makers took over [6]. World
War II had changed the world and Japan faced import as well as export restrictions. The local
market was too small for mass produced cars, such as the T-Ford and the Volkswagen Beetle.
They were forced to look into ways of assembling different cars in small production runs on
the same production line. Toyota was the first automobile company that successfully adapted
American style car manufacturing to Japanese circumstances. The change over time of the
production line was considerably reduced, long term relationships with sub contractors
opened the way to just in time delivery and the relationship with the end users were vital in
399
S. BAGGA
determining future car programs. This becomes known as the Toyota Production System
(TPS), or in more general terms, Lean Production [7]. These ideas caught on and there is no
manufacturing industry, these days that is not applying one of these ideas. The house building
industry was mentioned in the same category. Lean Production guidelines were described in
more general terms as Lean Thinking [8]. Based on Habraken [9], one and a half years later,
the Foundation for Architectural Research (SAR) published SAR '65. This publication
advocated industrialization of the house building process as a means to improve the quality of
the built environment. It can be summarised in five key steps. The first being “Value” which
determines what the end user expects as an added value to the product. The next is the “Value
Stream” which is a process that delivers the desired added value. The next in line is the
“Flow” defined as a means to optimise the production process. This optimisation must be
influenced by the “Pull” (desire/needs) of the end user, rather than the push factor of selling
products associated with consumerist society. Last but not the least is the overriding
“Perfection” quality bound by continuous improvement for both functional efficiency as well
as consumer satisfaction.
7. Lean construction
Lean construction is inspired by Lean Production and aims to apply lean thinking to the
construction industry. The basic principle of “Lean” is to reduce waste, “specifically any
human activity which absorbs resources, but creates no value” [10]. Lean construction results
from the application of a new form of production management to construction. Essential
features of lean construction include a clear set of objectives for the delivery process, aimed
at maximising performance for the customer at the project level, concurrent design of product
and process, and the application of product control throughout the life of the product from
design to delivery. Open building is the term used to indicate a number of different, but
related ideas about the making of environment. For instance:
• The idea of distinct levels of intervention in the built environment, such as those
represented by “'support” and “infill” or by urban design and architecture.
• The idea that users/inhabitants may make design decisions as well.
• The idea that, more generally, designing is a process with multiple participants also
including different kinds of professionals.
• The idea that the interface between technical systems allows the replacement of one
system with another performing the same function.
• The idea that built environment is in constant transformation and change must be
recognized and understood.
• The idea that built environment is the product of an ongoing, never ending, design
process in which environment transforms part by part.
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8. Conclusion
The open building approach seeks to formulate theories about the built environment seen in
this dynamic way and to develop methods of design and building construction that are
compatible with it. Nobody builds alone. The very act of building is one of cooperation.
Making a design is to communicate what is to be put together by others, for others. There is a
limit to innovation. When designing, we must deal with what we consider peculiar to the job
at hand. All else must necessarily remain in the realm of convention [10].The urban design of
the Chandigarh master plan, the sector and the building level depict the learnings of an open
construction and lean building technology. It is for us to take these lessons further, recombine
them to present needs and develop sustainable communities where human comfort is a
priority.
References
1. The iconic patent illustration of the Dom-ino in perspective is a golden section in plan composed
of two square open bays plus a stair. It differed from the then standard, poured in place Henebique
frame in both its prefabrication and its idealised form.
2. The Siberian grain-silo house was the first system in which Fuller noted the "dome effect." Many
installations have reported that a dome induces a local vertical heat-driven vortex that sucks cooler
air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral
vents). Fuller adapted the later units of the grain-silo house to use this effect.
3. Le Corbusier (1961). The Master plan. MARG The Magazine of Arts 15(1): 6-9.
4. Joshi, K. (1999). Documenting Chandigarh – volume 1: The Indian Architecture of Pierre
Jeanneret, E. Maxwell Fry & Jane Drew. Mapin Publishing in association with Chandigarh
College of Architecture, Chandigarh.
5. Habraken, N. J. (1998). The Structure of the Ordinary. J. Teicher (ed) Form and Control in the
Built Environment. Cambridge, MIT Press 359.
6. Research of the IMVP (International Motor Vehicle Program) made clear that the car
manufacturing in Japan had deviated from America, which had always set the example with mass
production of cars.
7. Wowmack, J. P., Jones, D. T. & Roos, D. (1990). The Machine that Changed the World. Free
Press, New York.
8. Womack, J. P. & Jones, D. T. (1996). Lean Thinking. Free Press, Simon & Schuster, Inc. New
York. Preface http://2ndbn5thmar.com/lean/Notes%20on%20Lean%20Thinking.pdf
9. Habraken, N. J. (1999). Supports: an Alternative to Mass Housing. J. Teicher (tr) Urban
International Press, UK.
10. Cuperus, Y. J. (1996). Housing for the Millions. The Challenge Ahead, conference papers,
Hongkong.
401
Sustainable Development: Crossroads at Urban Disaster Risk
Management and Climate Change
BANSAL Neha, MUKHERJEE Mahua, GAIROLA Ajay

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
nehabansal02@gmail.com, mahua1965@gmail.com, garryfce@iitr.ernet.in
Abstract. A sustainable development needs to sustain itself by economical utilization of

resources, by striking the right balance between economic development, social equity and
environmental protection. It cannot be an expansive development in present context but needs
to be comprehensive. Climate change intensifies the disasters that affect human livelihood,
settlement, infrastructure, financial aspects and thus impede years of development leading to
waste of resources which could have been otherwise used for growth and development of the
area. Urban centres have a higher concentration of population, poor infrastructure, haphazard
planning, which not only reduces the coping capability of people during disasters but
continuously degrades the environment. There is an extensive relationship between urban
development, urban disaster management and climate change where each sector affects the
stability of the other and their impacts are interwoven. The urban planning approach needs to
bridge the gap between them by capacity building, adopting strong legislative and
administrative measures, decreasing carbon emissions, compact development planning,
reducing travel time; tapping dense local knowledge. There is a need for adopting a holistic
integrated approach. This paper tries to explore this relationship of climate change, disaster
management and sustainable development. It also tries to identify the strategies to reduce the
impact of climate change which can be incorporated in disaster management policies, disaster
strategies and adaptive capacity that need to be incorporated in development programs to
reduce people’s vulnerability to achieve sustainable development.
1. Introduction
A sustainable development needs to sustain itself by economical utilization of resources, and

keeping the right balance between economic development, social equity and environmental
N. BANSAL, M. MUKHERJEE, A. GAIROLA
protection. Urban areas concentrate populations, economic activities and built environments,
thus increasing their risk from floods, heat waves, and other climate hazards in addition to
other hazards. Global warming is created by societal activities such as combustion of fossil
fuels, land use changes. Urban households, industries and infrastructures are key sources of
greenhouse gases. Climate change, although a natural phenomenon is accelerated by human
actions. The impact of climate variability and change, climate policy responses, and socio
economic development will affect the ability of countries to achieve sustainable development
goals. Sustainable development cannot be an expansive development in the present context; it
needs to be comprehensive considering the changing environment (which triggers the
disaster) and considering the changing societal needs in terms of development.
A disaster is defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society
causing widespread human, material, economic and environmental losses which exceed the
ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources [1]. Disasters
interrupt the societies by claiming lives, creating victims, and destroying infrastructure and
houses. During the course of the occurrence of disasters, funds and budgets that have been
assigned for development purposes are diverted to respond to disaster and to recover the
quality of life to its normal state. Disasters also have negative impacts on the environment as
they affect natural resources and delay sustainable development. Climate change in turn
intensifies the hazards and disasters. On the positive side, most urban environments have
considerable strengths in terms of economic production and distribution, human resources,
social capital and civil society. Cities by definition are resource rich with the wealth of
human and social capital in cities being the major attraction that draws people to them. This
makes them suitable to support humanitarian response, recovery and development throughout
disaster response efforts [2].
There is an extensive relationship between urban development, urban disaster management
and climate change where each sector affects the stability of the other and their impacts are
interwoven. The urban planning approach needs to bridge the gap between urban disaster
mitigation, sustainable human development and adaptation to climate change. Governments
need to integrate climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction through the
identification of climate related disaster risks, design of specific risk reduction measures, and
improved and routine use of climate risk information by planners, engineers and other
decision makers [3]. Developing resilience by capacity building, adopting strong legislative,
administrative measures, decreasing carbon emissions by stratifying planning measures,
going for compact development, reducing travel time, tapping dense local knowledge and
adapting local strategies are some measures which are needed to be taken up in an integrated
manner with the planning principles. This paper tries to explore the relationship of climate
change adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and sustainable development and tries to
identify the strategies to reduce the impact of climate change which can be incorporated in
DRR policies, strategies of resilience integrated in development programmes to reduce
people’s vulnerability.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: CROSSROADS AT URBAN DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT…
2. Cities and concept of sustainable development
Cities are characterized by high and rapid urban growth, which is increasing urban poverty,
as city governments are incapable to keep pace with rapid urbanization. By 2030 nearly 60
percent of the global population is projected to be urban with the developing world housing
nearly 80 percent of this population [4].There are currently 19 mega cities in the world and
there are expected to rise to 27 by 2020. Over half of this growth will be in Asia where the
world’s economic geography is now shifting.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable
Development was defined in the Bruntland Report, released by the United Nations (UN) in
1987 [5]. The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three
constituent parts: environmental protection (ecological development), economic
sustainability, and social justice (community development) (Figure 1).
Fig.1.The overlapping zones of interest within the weak interpretation of sustainable development
represented by ‘Ecological Modernization’
Source: http://www.trp.dundee.ac.uk/library/pubs/setfig22.gif.
The UN Habitat and the UN Human Settlements Programme defines a sustainable city as a
city where achievements in social, economic, and physical development are made to last. It
has a lasting supply of natural resources on which its development depends (using them only
at a level of sustainable yield).
405
3. Urban character of most of the cities in developing countries
3.1. Urban poverty: a challenge

Urban poverty, as a proportion of total poverty in India, has doubled from 15 percent in the
early 1960s to nearly 30 percent in 2004/05 [6]. Urban poor in slums, squatters and informal
settlements are especially vulnerable to climate change impacts as these settlements are
usually built on hazardous sites in high risk locations, or located in low lying areas prone to
direct and indirect risks due to environmental degradation such as regular floods, landslides
occurrences and lack of access to basic urban services [7].
3.2. Cities are models of environmental and political efficiency

Cities can also be models of environmental efficiency, because increased density and better
management reduce the cost of service delivery, promote innovation, and enable prosperity
through economic development. At the political level, cities are credible laboratories of social
change with sufficient scale to bring about meaningful actions [8]. At the economic level, the
world’s 50 largest cities alone have a combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 9.6 trillion
USD, more than all of China, and second only to the entire U.S. economy [8].
3.3. Vulnerability of mega cities (due to urbanization)

The incredibly rapid growth of mega cities causes severe ecological, economical and social
problems. It is increasingly difficult to manage this growth in a sustainable way. It is
recognized that over 70 percent of the growth currently takes place outside the formal
planning process and that 30 percent of urban populations in developing countries are living
in slums or informal settlements [3].
3.4. Impact of urbanization on climate change

Urbanization is also contributing significantly to climate change and poor disaster
management. The 20 largest cities consume 80 percent of the world’s energy and urban areas
generate 80 percent of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide [9]. Cities have the unique
ability to respond to a global issue, such as climate change at a local, more tangible level.
They usually offer more immediate and effective communication between the public and
decision makers in comparison to other groups. Co-benefits of climate change mitigation and
adaptation are largest in cities [8].
3.5. Inefficient administration in cities

Administrations in large cities are often confronted with a multitude of key problems, like
poor governance, high urban densities, traffic congestion, energy inadequacy, unplanned
development and lack of basic services. This leads to illegal construction within the city and
406
in its periphery, informal real estate markets, proliferation of slums, poor natural hazards
management in overpopulated areas climate change and environmental degradation.
3.6. Inefficient disaster management

Natural hazards and emergency management are major issues in most cities. Risk profiles
from floods, fires, earthquakes and other hazards differ among cities, but capacity to plan,
prepare, respond and recover from disasters is a common need. Risk assessment is lacking
greatly.
3.7. Cities offer dynamism to deal with environmental problems

Environmental factors and phenomenon such as climate change, risks and hazards, quality of
air, land and water, etc. in cities offer dynamism, scale, stronger linkages, and a greater sense
of urgency among residents and their local leaders [8]. Urban functions like transport,
building, energy, etc. provide opportunities for improvements in the urban environment
through institutional factors that include urban planning, governance, land management,
legislation and financing.
3.8. Urban risks due to poor spatial arrangement and poor urban planning
The spatial arrangement of population and assets in an urban environment creates a different
hazard profile for urban areas as compared to rural areas, in terms of the population at risk,
the nature of hazards and the chances for interaction between different hazards (example
floods and epidemic outbreaks). Cities often expand in ways that may degrade natural buffer
systems, for example mangroves (that provide protection from the sea) and creeks (that
enable drainage) degradation. People construct impermeable surfaces that prevent percolation
of water into the soil [7]. Constraints on the availability of land as a resource in urban areas
often results in proliferation of slums and informal settlements on public and private land [6].
These are due to a combination of factors, such as faulty land use and planning, rapid urban
population growth, migration from rural areas, lack of integrated land use and transport
planning that enables mass transit and efficient clustering of settlements and industries.
3.9. Cities play an active role in mitigation compared to their rural counterpart
Cities will play a more active role in global dialogues and policy development as citizens
demand more comprehensive and immediate responses from all levels of government.
4. Urban disaster management and sustainable development
Due to rapid urban growth, the vulnerability of those living in urban areas is also increasing.
This is for two main reasons: failure to address safety and sustainability adequately in current
407
growth patterns; and changing hazard patterns, especially those beyond the experience of
local coping mechanisms. As per Fouad Bendimerad, in his paper on “Disaster Risk
Reduction and Sustainable Development” [10], it is said that urban disasters damage
infrastructure, lifelines and critical facilities, resulting in human, financial and environmental
losses to a much greater extent in urban areas. Disasters halt or slow progress towards the
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) [3]. They delay development
programs by reducing available assets and utilizing the financial resources allotted for
development being used for rehabilitation and post disaster recovery. Disasters also decrease
the economic potential of society by exacerbating poverty, disrupting small business and
industry activities, and disabling lifelines vital for economic activity and service delivery.
Disasters also reduce human capital as a result of the deaths, injuries and long term trauma
suffered by affected individuals. The increase in the cost and frequency of disasters is the
direct result of human action.
The most vulnerable are the underdeveloped and developing countries as they do not have
the ability and resources to manage the high rate of urban growth. Poorly built urban
environments and urban poverty significantly increase vulnerability and fragility of socio
economic systems resulting in extensive setbacks to development. This is intensified by the
urban poor being located at hazard prone land, with unregulated and unsafe construction and
inadequate or nonexistent services. These people cannot afford insurance, savings or asset
accumulation, and their vulnerability is immense [4]. Land use and urban development
practices often do not take into account susceptibility to natural hazards. The impact is a
direct result of vulnerability related to complex development factors, along with poverty,
disability and gender inequality.
Environmental vulnerability by way of unplanned and ill planned urbanization has been the
cause of environmental degradation (e.g. deforestation), over exploitation of natural resources
(e.g. water), ecological disturbances (e.g. pollution), and social destitution (e.g. increase in
poverty). Changes in climate in particular imply that urban areas may face hazards in the
future which are outside their past experience. The real driver of urban disaster risk is weak
governance. Recovery and reconstruction provide an opportunity to redress these failings, but
only if prevention is made an explicit priority.
Factors that correlate disasters and development are poor land management, increased
population concentrations in hazard areas, environmental mismanagement, resulting in
environmental degradation, lack of regulation and lack of enforcement of regulation, social
destitution and social injustice, unprepared populations and institutions, inappropriate use of
resources [11]. Any disaster response should reduce future vulnerability by improving both
the urban built environment and the resilience of urban social communities to the adverse
effects of natural hazards and governance systems. Preemptive risk reduction is the key, with
an emphasis on resilience and disaster planning [3].
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5. Impact of climate change
5.1. Impact on development

India is a large developing country directly depending on natural resources (water,
biodiversity, mangroves, coastal zones, grasslands) for economy, subsistence and livelihoods.
Indian economy is largely based on climate sensitive sectors (agriculture, forests and
fisheries). Further, the adaptive capacity of a majority of rural and urban population is very
low. Climate change is likely to impact all the natural ecosystems as well as socio economic
systems as shown by the National Communications Report of India to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) [12, 13].
Expert scientific evidence confirms that human activity is altering the climate, clearly
increasing temperatures resulting in global warming, increasing the extremes in maximum
and minimum temperatures and rise in sea level, changing rainfall patterns (20 percent rise in
all India summer monsoon rainfall), reducing water availability, and increasing the frequency
and intensity of severe weather events such as cyclones, monsoons [3]. It is the socio
economic and technological characteristics of different development processes that strongly
affect emissions, the rate and magnitude of climate change, climate change impacts,
capability to adapt, and capacity to mitigate [4].
Climate change would impact by altering the hydrological cycle thereby increasing the
severity of droughts and intensity of floods in various parts, reduction in the quantity of
available run-off, decrease in yield of crops due to increase in temperature, shifts in the forest
grids of India, increase in frequencies of tropical cyclones during post monsoon,
displacement of population in coastal zones due to increase in sea level, increased flooding in
low lying areas, increased inundation and salinization of low lying areas thus impacting
health through increased deaths, disease and injury due to heat waves, floods, storms, fires
and droughts that could lead to land degradation and desertification, increase of stress and
socio economic pressure on already stressed climate sensitive sectors. Changes in the climatic
variables are likely to impact future patterns of spatial growth in cities challenging
sustainable development. Climate policies can be more effective when consistently embedded
within broader strategies of sustainable development and disaster management policies.
5.2. Impact on disasters

The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters identified climate change as one of the threats posed to the world
future and identified disaster risk management planning as one of the key points of entry to
tackle climate change threats [14]. Climate change will affect disaster risks in two ways,
firstly through the likely increase in weather and climate hazards, and secondly through
increases in the vulnerability of communities to natural hazards, through ecosystem
degradation, reductions in water and food availability, and changes to livelihoods.
409
Climate change can bring considerable changes in the hazard profile of the region by
changing the type of hazards, changing the hazard intensities, magnitude and frequency [6].
According to Munich Re, the frequency of hydrometeorological disasters has increased
between 1960 and 2005. Many of these impacts may not be uniform across spatial and
temporal scales. One estimate of the increase in damage associated with changed tropical
cyclone activity as a result of climate change is between 28 and 68 billion USD annually by
2100 [8]. The year 2004 saw many natural disasters including drought like conditions in the
Indian subcontinent, devastating floods in South Asian countries of Bangladesh, India, Nepal
and Pakistan, typhoon in Philippines and a series of hurricanes in Florida reflecting impacts
of changing climate and these are being associated with climate change. The intrinsic
relationship of disasters and climate change are conceptually presented in Figure 2.
Fig.2.Conceptual linkages of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) & Disaster Risk Management (DRM)
Source:http://www.planetaction.org/automne_modules_files/polyProjects/public/r4027_7_cca-drm_linkages_thumbnail.png.
5.3. Conceptual linkages between disasters and climate change

There has been an increase in the global burden by way of weather related disasters namely
events that can threaten the sustainability of development processes and undermine progress
toward poverty reduction. The number of weather related disasters increased from an average
of 195 per year in 1987 to 365 per year in 1998 [15]. Climate change will add stress and also
reduce communities’ abilities to cope with even the existing levels of weather hazards.
Climate change is becoming one of the greatest economic, social, and environmental
410
challenges of our time, the response to which will impact all future generations [3]. There is a
need to relook at the existing disaster risk reduction approaches due to new risks brought
about by climate change and due to problems in the existing risk management approaches [6].
For sustainable risk reduction, disaster risk management planning should deal with current
and future risks. At the same time, the existing methods and tools of disaster risk reduction
should provide powerful capacities for adaptation to climate change [3].
6. Linkage of urban disasters, climate change and sustainable development
As seen from the above argument, it can be stated that the ultimate goal of DRR climate
change adaptation is to achieve sustainable developments, safety and food security. However,
it is pertinent to understand that mitigation and management strategies of one process might
become a problem for the other. Thus, it is important to understand the linking points
between the two and the entry points of the two into the policies and strategies of sustainable
developmental goals. Through these linkages it is concluded that adaptation and resilience
should be taken up as an integrated approach.
DRR and climate change adaptation are concerned with an ongoing problem (disasters)
and an emerging issue (climate change) respectively. While these concerns have different
origins, they overlap a great deal through the common factor of weather and climate and the
similar tools used to monitor, analyse and address adverse consequences. It makes sense,
therefore, to consider them and implement them in a systematic and integrated manner.
Fig.3.Relationship between climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction

Source:ISDR (2009). Adaptation to climate change by reducing disaster risks: country practices and lessons.
411
Fig.4.The Disaster Management Cycle

Source: http://www.fdc.org.au/images/workshops/DRMC.jpg.
Fig.5.National framework strategy on climate change, 2010-2022, Philippines

Source:http://www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/ssentinel/resources/2010/climate%c20change/presentation/national%20strategic%20fra
mework%20on%20climate%20change%20_sec.%20alvarez.pdf.
The linking measures include adaptation policies like energy conservation measures, green
building concepts, compact development and reduction of carbon emissions through green
buffers or protection of natural ecosystems. Adaptation measures can contribute to reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, while conversely mitigation measures can be planned to help
412
reduce, and not inadvertently exacerbate, disaster risks. At the core of a sustainable city
framework lies the health, comfort, safety and quality of life of its residents within the social,
economic and environmental dimensions.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between climate change and DRR at the program action
level. It illustrates the relationship, with each pyramid representing the hierarchy from a
distinctive top level policy goal down through institutions and mechanisms to a base of
concrete programme actions that increasingly overlap with one another.
Figure 4 tries to understand the disaster management cycle, where its end goal is to revive
sustainable habitat, livelihoods and infrastructure facilities, achieved through early warning
system, risk assessment, management and coordination of various stakeholders, detailed
damage and needs assessment, and effective community participation process.
Figure 5 is the national framework strategy on climate change evolved in Philippines under
the Philippines Climate Change Act Republic Act 9729. The vision of this strategy is to go
for “a climate risk resilient Philippines with healthy, safe, prosperous and self reliant,
communities and thriving and productive ecosystems [16]. This will inversely also increase
the coping capability of the people towards disaster risks, reduce the risk intensities, and
frequencies and increase the resilience of people in all respects, thus, enabling the
achievement of a sustainable and healthy development of the region. A similar strategic
approach is needed by other developing countries, strongly taking into account the local
factors.
7. Strategies for sustainable development with resilience and adaptation

goals for disaster risk reduction and climate change impact reduction
The Philippines Vice President, Jejomar Binay once stated that when disasters strike, they hit
the poorest and most vulnerable the hardest. We don’t know what will strike next, but we do
know we have to offer our constituents the level of protection they expect, especially from
governments, [16].
Likewise, Saroj Kumar Jha, Program Manager, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and
Recovery (GFDRR) has also stated that GFDRR is deepening its support in priority countries
by helping prepare longer term country programs for disaster risk reduction and climate
adaptation [17].
Building cities that are green, inclusive and sustainable should be the foundation of any
local and national climate change agenda. This requires better management of cities,
mobilization of a global array of stakeholders, additional financing, and strengthened
partnerships, as well as specific sector policy reforms such as urban transport policies,
sustainable city planning, and enhancing city resilience against urban disasters and energy
efficiency [8]. As seen, so far climate change and disaster management affect each other and
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development as a whole. There is an international recognition of the problem. Some strategies

to deal with this have been identified as listed below.
7.1. Concept of urban resilience

Urban resilience can be defined as “the ability of cities to tolerate alteration before
reorganising around a new set of structures and processes” [6]. Rapidly changing urban
system variables (like socio economic and demographic indicators, land use patterns,
resource demand and utilization patterns, lifestyle changes, etc.), uncertainty of climate
change variables, and inability of policies and developmental initiatives of cities to
incorporate changing nature of urban systems, lead to the concept of “urban resilience.”
7.2. Adaptation and mitigation to climate change

Adaptation refers to changes in processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential
damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation includes
preparing risk assessments, protecting ecosystems, managing water resources, building
settlements in safe zones, developing early warning systems, instituting better building
designs, improving insurance coverage and developing social safety nets.
Mitigation refers to human interventions to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of
greenhouse gases [18]. Mitigation actions include developing new low energy technologies
for industry and transport, reducing consumption of energy intensive products, and switching
to renewable forms of energy, such as solar and wind power.
7.3. Integrating/mainstreaming low carbon, climate resilience, disaster risk

reduction thinking to urban development
Developing risk reducing adaptive measures include:
• Strong political and institutional arrangement at national and local level by specific fund
allocation, prioritizing the issue in development plans, mainstreaming climate change
adaptation and DRR policies and activities with the development activities, involving
local people in vulnerability assessment and formulation of local adaption and mitigation
programmes.
• Knowledge sharing and developing early warning systems by disseminating climate
change and disaster risk information to people, risk assessments, developing risk based
early warning and public information systems.
• Promoting innovation and education to build safety and resilience at all levels by
publicizing community success, training people on upcoming climate change related
issues, supporting research of resilience and adaptation.
• Urban planning practices by incorporating climate risk information in long term planning
measures, land use planning and water management. Adopting design of settlements,
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infrastructure planning, coastal zone development, etc. in order to achieve sustainable

land management, avoid hazardous areas, and build safe life lines and critical facilities.
• Strengthen preparedness by developing preparedness plans for settlements and
livelihoods under the threat of hazards, building evacuation mechanisms and shelter
facilities as a part of emergency management.
• Other practices of DRR and adaptation include diversification of cropping pattern to
reduce agricultural losses, going for insurance schemes, going for integrated water
resource management to deal with water risks, developing public awareness and public
warning systems for water and vector borne diseases, developing community based
information web, poster campaigns, etc., protecting natural ecosystems like mangroves,
coral reefs, etc. to reduce the impact of climate change, and to develop a strong enforcing
regulatory framework.
7.4. Urban planning as tool for sustainability, resilience and adaptive capacity
Urban planning can be used as a tool for sustainable development because it specifically
directs land use (directs the location and concentration of socioeconomic activities) [4] and
transportation systems. Planning can reduce population vulnerability to climate change by
facilitating improved access to resources, services and amenities. It also creates sensitivity
towards the environment whilst incorporating social and economic goals.
7.5. Understanding the linkages between disaster risk reduction and adaptation
Assessment of the changing profile of hazards due to climate change can provide key inputs
for the DRR and risk management efforts in cities. Convergence of DRR and adaptation in
cities is essential not only for managing current risks but also potentially higher risks in the
future. There may be opportunities to link indigenous knowledge with modern technology or
scientific know how with mutual learning for DRR and adaptation. The focus needs to be on
factors or conditions that create risk and vulnerability, rather than the event itself.
Climate risk screening for mainstreaming DRR: climate risk screening is an approach for
reducing climatic risks to developmental objectives and integrating DRR and adaptation
options within developmental programmes at the national and sub-national levels (Figure 6)
[4].
7.6. Updating present codes and regulation with the change in urban systems
Local regulations often prohibit the type of climate friendly, compact development. Outdated
land development codes and regulations mandate sprawl by restricting the mix of land uses
and requiring large amounts of parking as well as large minimum building setbacks. Thus,
there is a need to amend local policies and regulations, zoning regulations and subdivision
ordinances, parking standards, annexation rules, and design guidelines. Initiatives like
levying carbon tax in the centre of the city limits vehicles and promotes use of public
415
transportation as has been adopted in London in also an effective measure to tackle climate
change impacts. It also seeks to establish a low carbon economy through sustainable green
markets, services and jobs. Initiatives like planting trees to green the city and decarbonize its
energy supply while capturing heat waste are also taken up strongly.
Fig.6.Climate risk screening

Source:www.teriin.org/div/mod2.pdf.
7.7. Research and development and technology support for risk management
Creating incentives to use sustainable technologies and practices, promoting research and
training on climate change issues while supporting new, environmentally friendly
technologies could be an effective measure to achieve sustainability [6]. Technology should
be leveraged to support of municipal data gathering and management systems. Spatial
mapping software and remote sensing offers a means to explore and understand the
environmental risks associated with cities. Advanced mapping, visual and spatial
technologies can promote effective resource allocation and resilience strategies in cities.
7.8. Low carbon development strategies incorporated in planning

Low carbon development strategies can simultaneously promote mitigation, adaptation and
resilience and are best implemented through an environmentally oriented and integrated city
planning process. For example in China, several cities have begun implementing policies for
low carbon economies. There are efforts to establish a low carbon city in Shenzhen and a zero
carbon eco city in Dontang. In Taiyuan, the government has implemented city level emission
trading, while Yangzhou has used an eco city approach since 1999.
416
Other international examples of low carbon technology include [4]:

• Thailand: Comprehensive urban environmental management
• Philippines: Integrated and medium term development that creates employment
opportunities, addresses poverty and raises living standards of the poor. This is an
inclusive approach that considers and anticipates the impact of climate change on
livelihoods and the economy.
• Singapore: Land use and transportation policy
• USA: Comprehensive planning and socio economic preparations
• Canada: Economic and infrastructure resilience
• Australia: Comprehensive energy efficiency and green house gases mitigation
• Denmark: Energy reuse
7.9. Increasing resilience by strengthening urban services

Strengthening urban services will strengthen the bearing and coping capability of people as
informal settlements are often inadequately connected to basic urban services and are often
located in low lying areas prone to direct and indirect risks due to environmental degradation
and changes in the climate. Further, these have low coping capability, weak economy and
hazardous geographical settings, thus making them the most vulnerable to climate change.
7.10. Green buildings to promote resilience and increase adaptive capability

Energy consumption in buildings gives rise, directly and indirectly, to as much as 40 percent
of carbon dioxide emissions and represents more than a third of global consumption. Climate
change will further increase resource consumption by buildings as people shall seek to
maintain comfort levels in more extreme conditions. Green buildings entail promotion of
energy efficiency, land sustainability, water efficiency, resources efficiency and better
building environment. Green buildings have minimal adverse impacts on the built and natural
environment, thus there is a strong need to promote green building construction. Policy
instruments of various types have the potential to rightly promote green buildings directly and
indirectly.
7.11. Incentives and initiatives

• Create a carbon impact fee for new development: Creating and implementing a regional
carbon dioxide emissions impact fee would internalize carbon impacts into development
costs. Fee revenues could be used to help fund transit, bicycling facilities, sidewalks and
other pedestrian amenities, and similar projects in compact areas.
• Establish a regional transfer of development rights program: Transfer of Development
Rights (TDR) programmes enable landowners to sell their development rights to other
landowners through a market based system. This can help by directing growth to
417
compact, transit served areas and away from low density greenfield sites, thus reducing
the need for long distance travel.
• Give funding priority to compact, transit-served areas: The local govt. should designate
priority funding areas where they have planned for compact development. In addition to
receiving priority for public funds, areas could go for streamlined development approvals
and other financial incentives
7.12. Concept of Compact Development

There is an intense relationship among urban development, travel, and the carbon dioxide
emitted by motor vehicles. There are evidences that carbon dioxide savings can be expected
with compact development. The term Compact Development implies higher average blended
densities and features a mix of land uses, development of strong population and employment
centers, interconnection of streets, and the design of structures and spaces at a human scale
[9]. As a larger and larger share of our built environment has become automobile dependent,
car trips and distances have increased, and walking and public transit use have declined and
this has considerably increased carbon dioxide emissions.
Population growth and the changing built environment, in terms of longer trips and people
driving alone are responsible for increased green house gases. As with driving, land is being
consumed for development at a rate almost three times faster than population growth. This
expansive development has caused carbon dioxide emissions to rise and has reduced the
amount of forest land available to absorb it. Compact development planning helps people live
within walking or bicycling distance to get to work, shops, schools, and parks, as well as
transit stops every day. Rather than building single use subdivisions or office parks,
communities can plan mixed use developments that put housing within reach of these other
destinations. The street network can be designed to interconnect, rather than end in cul de-
sacs and funnel traffic onto over used arterial roads. Individual streets can be designed with
safe and convenient places to walk, bicycle, and to wait for the bus. Finally, by building more
homes, offices, stores and other destinations up rather than out, communities can shorten
distances between destinations. This makes neighbourhoods more economically viable,
allows more frequent and convenient transit service, and helps shorten vehicular trips.
8. Conclusions
Some key recommendations as identified from the review of the literature include mapping
and strengthening the institution and mechanism already in place for DRR and climate
adaptation, taking stock of available information on risk studies and assessment, conducting
multi stakeholder discussions to identify opportunities to harmonise policy and address
capacity gaps, initiating capacity development to strengthen approaches to climate change
adaptation and DRR, and conducting adaptation planning with a multi sectoral, development
418
based approach. Nevertheless, several key issues remain outstanding. The data availability
and assessment techniques are limited and need more focus, very less research is practically
brought into action for integrated, adaptive and resilient approach, no standard guidelines are
yet developed, and long term risk management under a changing climate is often very
limited. The informal sector and local community play a very important role as actors, in
adaptation, DRR and development. Sustainable development goals need to address it as a
strong pillar of development. It is high time that we realize what we are losing.
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Sustainable Redevelopment of Single Industry Resource Based
Mining Towns to Counter Urban Decay
T. S. Sagar
Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, India
sagarprasadts@gmail.com
Abstract. Every town is affected by trends of transformations or the process of change.

Towns dependent on a single economic source for their sustenance are greatly affected by the
decline of the economic generator. The transformation or change which leads to decay of
certain areas or the whole town is alarming, especially in a natural resource based industrial
town. Diminishing resource or failure of the industry makes the town economically
unsustainable resulting in the physical decay of the town which makes it unlivable. The paper
addresses the concern of mining towns in their declining period to face the common
challenges from economy, society and the ecosystem. The present work concentrates on
understanding the various causes of urban decay and its reflection on the built environment of
a mining based industrial town. For this, various models that provide sustainable
development opportunities for the decayed areas in such towns are explored. To revive the
urban realm of the resource based industrial town, diversifying its economic resources and at
the same time, providing good living condition for the people is necessary. The prime motive
of redevelopment of mining towns should be to transform a decaying town into a livable
town.
1. Introduction
Urban decay is the process whereby a previously functioning city or part of a city falls into
disrepair and decrepitude. It may feature deindustrialization, depopulation or changing
population, economic restructuring, abandoned buildings, high local unemployment,
fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and a desolate, inhospitable city
landscape. Urban decay has no single cause; it results from combinations of inter related
socio economic conditions including the city’s urban planning decisions, poverty of the local
T. S. SAGAR
populace, construction of freeway roads and rail road lines that bypass the area, depopulation
by suburbanization of peripheral lands, real estate neighborhood redlining and xenophobic
immigration restrictions to name a few.
The key role played in the transformation of a town is by the change in the nature of the
generation of economic activity in the area. There are possibilities of new generators of
economic activity introduced in an urban area like industries and mining or a sudden increase
in activities like tourism that contributes to increase in the economy of the area. These
transformations bring huge opportunities for people of the region and attract more migrants to
settle in these areas. During the process of rapid urbanization, planning of such areas could be
neglected or not be thought of in keeping with the pace of urbanization. These areas will
function well until the generators are in a good condition and there is surplus economic
generation from them. Once the economic generators start diminishing, the physical,
economic and social layers of the town are likely to be directly affected.
In case of natural resource based mining settlements, exhaustion of resources will not only
affect the social and economic development of resource based towns, but will also have an
impact on other kinds of cities directly by while restricting the entire development of the
domestic economy. In resource based towns transition is unavoidable once they reach a
certain stage and therefore the critical question is how to facilitate the inevitable transition of
these towns and how to ensure that they develop sustainably. This paper hopes to offer a
strategy for the transition of the industrial structure of resource based towns while promoting
the idea of sustainable urban development.
A mining community, also known as a mining town or a mining camp, is a community that
houses miners as a majority population. Mining communities are usually created around a
mine or a quarry for the extraction or smelting of ore. Mining is the main occupation of the
people of the town which is tremendously important to the town’s economy. In India, mining
activity attracted colonizers to an area’s rich mines with mining becoming the main economic
indicator of the area. Mining activity was also the incentive for the foundation of new villages
and towns far away from the large cities and with difficult access. During colonial times,
these new villages and towns were populated and grew until they reached the status of cities.
However, during the second half of the last century, the decline of mining activities led to the
shrinking of these mining cities leading to urban decay.
2. Industrial structure of mining towns
Resource based towns are towns whose main functions are exploitation of natural resources
and that sustain themselves on a resource oriented economy [1]. Their economic prosperity is
determined by their workable reserves which are closely related to the competition in the
process of industrial structure upgradation and competitive market capability of the town
(Figure1).
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SUSTAINABLE REDEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE INDUSTRY RESOURCE BASED MINING TOWNS…
Fig.1.Resource exploiting life cycle

Source: Author.
In the beginning and the middle of the mining cycle of exploitation of natural resource,
because of handsome economic benefits the town gets adequate capital for rapid
development. Construction of infrastructure mainly caters to the need of resource exploitation
and the citizens working in the industry comprise the majority of the population. While in the
later period of the cycle, with problems such as single industrial structure, resource running
out day by day, rising development costs and the emergence of low competitive ability, the
financial income of the resource based town begins to decline thereby also impacting the rate
of development that slows down. On the whole, the attraction of the region is declining
gradually and environment problems are beginning to worsen. In an adverse financial
situation, clearing up becomes difficult and consequently the environmental benefits reduce.
Characteristics of a resource based town, its evolution and development decide whether
towns remain sustainable or not.
3. Urban life cycle models
Urban geographers including Lucas, Bradbury and St. Martins have focused their attention on
a life cycle model to analyze resource towns [2]. Most phases are based on decisions made by
the company that undertakes mining activity. The main element of analysis focuses on
changes in the population size of resource towns over the span of their existence. Changes in
population size of resource centers provide a surrogate measure for resource production and
other related economic activities plus a variety of public activities, such as education and
health care services. Two factors stand out for utilizing a single measure namely population
size.
Population size provides an overall measure of economic and employment changes
occurring in a resource town due to a very close relationship between resource operation and
the number of workers.
The second reason is that this variable is available for all resources towns at different time
periods, thereby facilitating a longitudinal approach.
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T. S. SAGAR
3.1. Lucas’s interpretation

Lucas’s interpretation has four phases of growth in a resource based town, in which, he
describes that the town is constructed and not perceived over time. This indicates that most of
the mining towns are evolved out of the resource which is present in the region though the
living environment is not present. The second phase is the administration of the town which
will be carried out by the company harnessing the resource, as the company will be the major
stake holder of the area also providing employment for the people of the town. The later
phase is when the administration becomes hectic as the town grows rapidly and
administrative responsibility is handed over to the municipality. The fourth and the last phase
is the out migration of the next generation for employment as there is no opportunity found in
the town.
This interpretation is made considering that the resource is available for many generations
together. When the resource exhausts, the condition will be very different which was not
added in the interpretation [3]. This model gives us clues as to the condition that the town
could attain if the resource extracting company and the town are developed and sustained at
its peak (Figure 2).
Fig.2.Lucas interpretation of life cycle of a resource based town

Source: Author.
3.2. Bradbury and St. Martin’s interpretation

This interpretation includes a fifth phase, where the condition of decline in the town is
explained when the resource is exhausted. This interpretation takes two factors into
consideration, namely, the resource and the people of the town (Table1).
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Table 1.Five phases in the life cycle model

Phase Population characteristics Associated events
1. Uninhabited site Company announces plans to built a resource
town
2. Sharp increase in population size With the completion of the construction of a
company town ,workers and their families arrive
3. Population size stable Resources production reaches its peak and the
demand for additional worker ceases
4. Sharp decrease in population size Company decides to close its operations:
workers and their families depart
5. Population size returns to zero Company closes its mine and the town is
abandoned
Source: Author.
4. Classification of mining towns
The classification of mining towns is done according to the economic resources available in
the town along with the mining activity [3]. If it is a mono centric industrial town, the
conditions are different which are also considered in this classification.
4.1. Boom bust towns

Classic boom bust towns refer to those single industry mining towns that have completed
their population life cycle. Kolar Gold Fields, in the state of Karnataka in south India is a
town under this category where mining activity was carried since two centuries and now the
mining operation has been stopped due to exhaustion of resources. This has resulted in the
decay of the whole town with unmanageable social unrest, economic crisis and environmental
degradation.
4.2. Towns of uncertainty

Towns of uncertainty are single industry mining towns in the early phase of their population
life cycle. They still have an opportunity to broaden their economic base. If successful, such
centers could take on another economic life after the ore body is exhausted. Kudremukh, a
small town situated near the mountains, about 48 kilometers from Karkala, also in Karnataka,
is a good example. Kudremukh is primarily an iron ore mining town where the government
run public sector company, Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Ltd. (KIOCL) operated.
Presently, the mine is closed due to various reasons and the town is on the verge of becoming
a ghost town.
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T. S. SAGAR
4.3. Diversified towns

These towns have gained a second economic function, thereby adding another dimension to
their labour force, resulting in an increase in their population size. The example of such an
urban settlement is Dhanbad, a city in the state of Jharkhand that is also known as the Coal
Capital of India. According to the 2001 census, Dhanbad is among the top 35 cities of India
with a population of more than one million. Tata Steel, BCCL, ECL and IISCO are some
companies that have coal mines in the district. Coal mining, coal washing and coke making
are the main coal related industries in the city.
4.4. Sustainable towns

Unlike mining towns, communities based on renewable resources do not face the inevitable
exhaustion of their natural wealth. This difference between renewable and non renewable
resources represents a fundamental division among resource towns. With a sustainable
resource management strategy, single industry communities based on a renewable resource
can avoid the relatively short life cycle associated with most mining towns.
5. Urban structure of mining towns
Mining town structures can be characterized in three ways [4]:
5.1. Fly-in-fly-out towns

This is where mine workers are transported from the town where they reside to the mine.
Usually employees will spend a period of time working and living in single quarters (e.g. 7
days) then be transported home (e.g. 4 days off) as per the work roster. As the employees’
work days are almost entirely taken up by working, sleeping and eating, there is little need for
any recreation facilities at the work site. Generally, fly-in-fly-out work sites use temporary
structures as typically there is no long term commitment to the work site. On the negative
side, fly-in-fly-out employment can put stress on family relationships and may stifle regional
development.
5.2. Closed towns

This structure is becoming increasingly uncommon, and is one where the town is run like a
company subsidiary. All residents are attached to mine employment (employees or their
family), all services are provided by the mine, and the company controls participation of
private sector and government. Bharat Gold Mines Limited (BGML), Kolar Gold Field,
Karnataka became a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) under the Department of Mines in
1972. It is primarily engaged in mining in its captive mines in KGF and production of gold
(Figure 3).
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Fig.3.Aerial view of planned part of BGML township

Source: Author
5.3. Open mining towns

These towns gained popularity in the 1970s through a process of normalization and are those
towns that transfer the management of the township to town administrative bodies and where
partnerships with the private sector and government are sought for the provision and
maintenance of infrastructure.
6. Urban issues in mining towns
The urban issues in mining settlements are very different from those affecting other
settlements for all the reasons discussed above. Some issues that affect mining settlements are
discussed below:
6.1. Exhaustion of resources

Mining towns are conceptualized and grow based on exploiting resource. Continuous
exploitation leads to resource exhaustion and that is an area of concern.
6.2. Environmental damage

The mining industry is a major polluter of the environment leading to its degradation. Gold
mining, coal mining, petrochemical refining and processing, iron and nonferrous metals
mining and processing are industries that leave a detrimental impact on the urban landscape,
atmosphere, water quality, biological reproduction and life of mankind. Harm to ecology
during the course of resource development and its use is a serious obstacle that deprives many
towns to follow the agenda of sustainable urban development.
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T. S. SAGAR
6.3. Mono centric industrial structure

The most important feature of the economic structure of mining towns is their mono centric
industrial structure where the proportion of agriculture is small and of heavy industry is large.
Mining industries are leading industries that form a close link with other related industries.
Single industrial structure leads to economic structural imbalances. Since the proportion of
secondary industry is very large, and the proportions of primary and tertiary industry are
small, this severely restricts mining towns’ comprehensive development. Over reliance on
extractive industries results in recession once the resources deplete.
6.4. Lack of technological upgradation

Mining towns lack high tech industry. In the early stage of mining towns construction, the
industry is generally based on resource extraction and the demand for technical skills is not
high, so the proportion of low technological skills is larger in the culture structure of the town
workers. In the personnel structure, the mining industry often lacks the strength as found in
other industries that are depended on technology. This situation continues into the late stage
of their evolution with the town unable to sustain the diversity of talent which is needed for
urban transformation. The development of high tech industry needs a set of conditions,
mainly various production elements of social and cultural resources, such as personnel,
capital, technology, knowledge, information, culture and image. Mining cities lack social and
qualified human resource which is an important reason why high tech industries struggle to
find their feet.
6.5. Extensive urban development but inadequate transformation finance

Mining towns’ economic structure is mono centric which makes the economic structure
unstable. On the one hand, with the resources drying up, the core industries are in a state of
recession and the town’s economy is in trouble; on the other hand, the efficiency of resource
use is low, while energy consumption per unit of output is large. The extensive mode of
resource use, for example in the exploitation of mineral resources that entails excessive
digging, mining the rich resource and abandoning the one that is poor, undoubtedly
exacerbates further the depletion of resources and encourages waste.
7. Indicators of urban decay in mining towns
The above discussed issues will have their impact on the social, economic and ecological
layers of the town which will be reflected in the degradation of the physical environment
(Figure 4).
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Fig.4.Chart listing indicators of urban decay in mining settlements

Source: Author.
8. Strategies for sustainable redevelopment
The redevelopment of resource based, mining town should be holistic and approached at
different scales from the precinct to the regional level as the problems are stringed at various
levels causing decay in the town. The redevelopment of such towns should be based on
renewable resource exploitation, extended industrial chain, and development of alternative
industries. Some of the main feasible paths towards sustainable redevelopment are discussed
below.
8.1. Increasing available resources through open source and throttle

The so called open source and throttle is through strengthening resource exploration, using
the advanced and applicable mining technology, techniques and equipment, improving the
rate of mine recovery and ore dressing and smelting recovery, increasing the total available
use resources. Increasing the resources is not only the solid material base of industrial
transformation, but also can prolong the mining resources production period of industrial
transformation. The mining towns should make energy conservation plans and allocate funds
for research and development, adopt energy saving technology and slowly discard backward
technology and equipment that is more resource consuming.
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T. S. SAGAR
8.2. Extend industrial chain and promote industrial type conversion

Chain extension is the important way of the mining town to develop successor industries. It is
based on resource exploitation, using the resources to advantage, developing and processing
industrial chain resources, increasing the depth of product process through the expansion of
industrial chain, improving the output value of resources, thus facilitating regional industrial
transformation. Chain extensions can strengthen urban transformation of the city in a
sustainable manner by attracting outside investment to participate in its natural resources.
8.3. Finding a reasonable way of industrial upgradation

Industrial upgradation entails choosing the right new industry, supporting existing non
dominant industry into a new leading industry, or implanting directly the new leading
industries in the mining towns, thus creating greater change in mining towns on their existing
strengths, dependence, while promoting the establishment of a new urban industrial system.
Just as the industry is upgraded so must the town be driven by market oriented and business
oriented approach to strive to foster the development of industries, while continuing to seek a
practical and distinctive pattern of development.
For a town where the exploitation of resources is stable, it should formulate a reasonable
plan to exploit the use of new technology, new process, and improve resource recovery,
develop the downstream industries, extend the industrial chain, improve resource utilization
efficiency, and convert resource advantage into economic advantage while nurturing new
industries.
For a town where the exploitation of resources begin to decay, it should strengthen the
resource evaluation, develop and utilize all sorts of associated resources to tap local resources
potential, expand resource development, emphasis on development and utilization of outside,
foreign resources for local resource based companies looking for backup base, and at the
same time, cultivate the substitution industry that will ensure continuity of competitiveness
and development.
For a town where resources have been depleted or are in a state of near depletion, it should
opt for the path of industrial transformation; focus on using hightech, advance applicable
technology to transform traditional industries, according to local conditions, as soon as
possible to form new leading industries. When the related departments plan the layout of
major industrial projects, it should grant an appropriate tilt to the resource exhausted towns
and help them accelerate the development of new economic growth point [5].
8.4. Attracting foreign capital actively, promoting industrial upgradation and

transformation
In the transition process, developed mining towns have more emphasis on attracting
investment, both because of the use of foreign capital to make up for insufficient funds in
transition, and also for the introduction of technology and development of new industries. In
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order to attract foreign investment, the government needs to develop a series of preferential
policies for domestic and foreign enterprises to provide quality and efficient services.
8.5. Promoting scientific and technological innovation actively and improving the
industrial grade and level
Technological innovation facilitates the promotion of labour productivity and capital
utilization, resulting in the rise of new industries. The growth of technological innovation
input and output can speed up the economic growth, mode of transformation of mining
towns, change the industrial type from resources promoted (extensive) to branch operation
guided (intensive); scientific and technological innovation promote the change and
adjustment of competitive industries, promote resource advantages to the new nonresource
industries and bring together a new structural adjustment and upgrade, create benefits that
encourage industrial upgrade of resource allocation, nurture new economic growth point and
the new nonresource oriented industries, and promote complete transformation of the town.
8.6. Increase the skilled human resource development

The human resource development is an important factor which determines the resources of
urban transformation and development. As general practitioners in the mining industries are
generally simple personnel with manual and single skills, low levels of literacy and learning
ability it is difficult for these employees to adapt to the emerging industry needs. Since
mining towns generally lack a high quality human resource, therefore increasing their human
resource development becomes very important. The development of human resources focuses
on two aspects: first, to train industrial workers on the existing resources to enable them to
master new technologies that meet the needs of the industrial restructure; second, to increase
much needed new industry category management and technology talents and enable them to
undertake the important task of redeveloping the mining town.
8.7. Creating social and ecological balance

Mining towns tend to be socially unstable in most cases. There has to be proper planning to
mitigate social insecurity and create good living conditions in the town in order to promote
social harmony and abet community participation in the future development processes. The
existing potential resources of the town should be analyzed and promoted so as to be more
context specific and give the people of the town what they really want. Ecologically, updating
technology to minimize environmental threats of mining activity would give a greener city to
live in. The concept of open mines can be incorporated to design an area where like the other
activities in the town mining will also be an activity but not alienated from the pattern of the
town structure.
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T. S. SAGAR
9. Conclusion
Natural resource based mining towns are majorly dependent on mining activities and hence
the settlement pattern is guided by the ownership and the nature of mining activity. A natural
decline of such a town is inevitable. To sustain the development of such a town, increasing its
life cycle and allowing positive transformations and economic diversification is necessary
along with integrated network of spaces and activities. The interventions proposed should be
at various levels, at a regional level, to look at the network of resources and opportunities. At
the city level, the network of the major activities namely, mining, market, residential areas
and others have to be planned in such a way that they do not leave room for any social
imbalance and strengthen the cultural networks existing in the city. At the precinct level,
various zones can be analyzed to determine the extent of physical decay attained and suitable
design proposals for rejuvenation of such zones have to be proposed. Sometimes adaptive
reuse techniques and tourism strategies can also be adopted as tools for redeveloping these
areas. Since each mining town is unique, context specific approaches yield successful
development.
References
1. Bone, R. M. (1998). Resource Towns in the Mackenzie Basin, Cahiers de géographie du Québec.
42 (116): 249-259. http://www.erudit.org/revue/cgq/1998/v42/n116/022739ar.pdf
2. Sheppard, E. & Barnes, T. J. (2002). A Companion to Economic Geography. Wiley-Blackwell.
3. Bowles, R. T. (1992). Single-industry Resource Communities in Canada's North. In D. Hay & G.
S. Basran, Rural Sociology in Canada. Don Mills, Oxford University Press, 63-83.
4. Scheltens, M. & Morris, Y. (2006). Homelessness in high income mining towns and the
opportunity for big business to play a part. 4th National Homelessness Conference, Sydney.
5. Lang, T. (2005). Insights in the British debate about Urban Decline and Urban regeneration.
Leibniz-Institute for Regional Development and Structural Planning (IRS). http://www.irs-
net.de/download/wp_insights.pdf.
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Green Highways: A Step Towards Sustainable Development
SATPAL
satpal2025@gmail.com
Abstract. The concepts of Sustainability and Sustainable Development are receiving a lot of
attention as the causes of global warming and climate change are debated. Highways have a
large negative impact on the surrounding ecosystem and overall environmental quality. The
highway infrastructure’s advancement needs to include practices that reduce their impact on
the natural environment, increase capacity, and benefit society beyond their current ability.
This can be achieved by instituting a system of Green Highways. Green highways are
highways that are environmentally responsible and sustainable in all respects, including
design, construction and maintenance. Their construction entails more sustainable practices
than modern construction techniques, and comprises maximizing the lifetime of a highway.
Green highway construction techniques include the use of recycled materials, ecosystem
management, energy reduction, increasing the water quality of storm water runoff besides
maximizing overall societal benefits.
1. Introduction
Highways form the economic backbone of any country. The state of development of any
country can be judged based on how sound and developed its highways are. Development of
highway projects creates an adverse impact on the surrounding environment. The
environmental impact of highway projects includes damage to sensitive eco-systems, soil
erosion, changes in drainage pattern and thereby ground water, interference with wild life
movement, loss of productive agricultural lands, change in settlement pattern, demographic
changes and accelerated urbanization. Highway development and operation should therefore,
be planned with careful consideration of the environmental impact. To minimize these
adverse effects the concept of green highways started worldwide.
Green highways aims to mitigate the negative impact on the environment to a level past
minimum standards. They include more sustainable practices than modern construction
SATPAL
techniques and aim towards maximizing the lifetime of a highway. The construction
techniques involved are environmental friendly that include the use of recycled materials,
ecosystem management, energy reduction, increase in the water quality of storm water runoff
besides maximizing overall societal benefits. In India, highways and roads are usually filled
with fresh earth dug from the nearby areas and are topped with a bituminous surface [1].
Green highway development includes designing the highways in such a manner that it
improves the quality of the nation’s infrastructure. For instance, lifecycle energy reduction
sets a standard that the highway will have a long term life that will accommodate traffic flows
with minimal congestion. Designing a highway in such a manner not only reduces the cost of
energy and maintenance, but also increases the capacity of the highway and reduces
emissions caused by vehicles stuck in congestion. In towns and cities, highways should aim
to aesthetically pleasing while in rural areas they should be a part of the natural environment
with more plant life growing along the shoulder and more trees planted as wild life buffers.
Every modern highway design must incorporate advanced planning, intelligent construction
and efficient maintenance techniques. A green highway can be defined by the following five
attributes: (Figure 1).
• Conservation and ecosystem management
• Storm water management
• Life cycle energy and emissions reduction
• Improvement in recycle, reuse and renewable ability
• Overall societal benefits
•
Fig.1.Five key attributes of green highways [1]
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GREEN HIGHWAYS: A STEP TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
2. Initiatives in India
The environment plays a vital role in the overall development of the country. Recognizing the
importance of environmental protection and sustainable development, the Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF), Government of India, has formulated policies and
procedures governing highways and other developmental activities to prevent indiscriminate
exploitation of natural resources and to promote integration of environmental concerns in
developmental projects.
The MoEF has prepared an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidance Manual for
development of highways. Environmental Impact Notification S.O.1533 (E), of 14th
September 2006 as amended in 2009 has made it mandatory to obtain an environmental
clearance for scheduled development projects. This helps the regulatory authority while
reviewing the report besides creating public awareness about related environmental issues.
The EIA Manual accordingly addresses the related environmental concerns for highways [2].
Fig.2.Green wheel [3]

Green highway construction incorporates several technical elements including the
following (Figure 2):
2.1. Recycle, reuse and renew materials

Use of recycled materials in highway design reduces the amount of material for landfills
besides also reducing the number of fresh material pits in highway construction. It has been
found that the use of fly ash can solve the problem of land cutting as filling material.
According to the Central Electricity Authority of India, there are around 83 major coal fired
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thermal power plants. In India, fly ash generation is around 160 million tons per year and is
set to continue to remain high in the future [4]. Presently, a major amount of the coal ash
generated is being handled in wet form and is being disposed off in ash ponds, which are
harmful for the environment with the ash remaining unutilized for any gainful application.
Fly ash has a vast potential for use in high volume fly ash concrete especially due to its
physical and chemical properties as revealed by research carried out across the world and in
the country. Ash has been used in concrete roads and roller compacted concrete roads which
are not only durable, but also have long service of 30-35 years without much maintenance in
comparison to Water Bound Macadam (WBM) and Bituminous Macadam (BM) roads.
2.2. Storm water management

Storm water management is significant in reducing the storm water runoff from a highway as
well as treating the runoff. It is one of the major focuses of green highway construction.
Storm water management practices are incorporated into many expressways/highways design
in India namely Yamuna Expressway, Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway.
2.3. Sustainable practice in pavement design

Green highways can realize significant economic and environmental benefits with concrete
pavements. Concrete’s low pavement deflection reduces the vehicles’ fuel consumption rates
in comparison to asphalt surfaces (Figure 3). Because of its long life, concrete is a cost-
effective pavement solution that consumes minimal materials, energy and other resources for
construction, maintenance and rehabilitation activities over its lifetime. Beyond longevity,
other features of a concrete pavement further enhance its sustainability.
Fig.3.Truck tire rolling on asphalt (left) and concrete (right) [5]

The Yamuna Expressway, a stretch of 165 km from Noida to Agra, in north India, has a
pavement of rigid concrete along the entire route. Properly constructed and textured concrete
pavements have reduced pavement deflection, which reduces the vehicle fuel consumption.
Optimized concrete pavement surface texture produces quieter pavements over longer periods
of time, reducing noise pollution. Concrete pavements designed with pervious concrete
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shoulders minimize surface water discharge and help replenish groundwater aquifers. They
also exhibit a lower energy footprint associated with their production, delivery, and
maintenance than asphalt pavements do over a predetermined time.
Fig.4.Concrete pavements require 24 percent less lighting poles leading to energy cost reduction by 24
percent as compared to asphalt [5]
Concrete pavement itself is renewable and 100 percent recyclable. It requires less sub base
aggregate materials for structural support than asphalt pavements. Furthermore, its lighter
colour and increased reflectivity improves night time visibility, reducing the amount of power
needed to illuminate roads at night besides helping in the mitigation of urban heat island
effect and smog generation (Figure 4). The construction of concrete pavements consumes less
fuel (particularly diesel) during material production, transportation and placement as
compared to the construction of asphalt pavements. Concrete pavement mixtures incorporate
industrial byproducts (i.e., fly ash and slag cement), which lower the disposal needs, reduce
demand on virgin materials and conserve natural resources.
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2.4. Use of industrial by products

Traditional concrete requires a vast number of resources and emits large amounts of waste.
Moreover, highways constructed from traditional concrete leak toxins into the adjoining
ecosystems. Green highways use recycled industrial byproducts that significantly reduce
concrete production waste and resources. For example, coal combustion products and slag
cement.
Using fly ash in concrete pavement has several environmental benefits. First, the utilization
of the power plant waste byproducts avoids the use of virgin materials needed for cement
manufacturing. Secondly, it reduces the amount disposed in landfills. While Portland cement
is an essential ingredient in concrete, its production requires significant energy use and
generates greenhouse gases.
2.5. Life cycle energy and emissions reduction

Energy is a foremost economic concern. A significant amount of energy goes into producing
materials for the road as well as constructing and maintaining it. A poorly designed road
contributes to rise in energy consumption due to vehicles halting on it during a congested
traffic scenario. To counteract the amount of energy embodied in concrete, research has been
conducted on materials such as fly ash and slag as a replacement for a large portion of
cement. The use of one ton (0.9 metric ton) of fly ash as a substitute for one ton (0.9 metric
ton) of cement in concrete can have a total primary energy reduction of 1318.5 kWh (4,695
Mega joules) or the equivalent of the energy used in burning 39 gallons (147 liters) of
gasoline. Given that cement production is estimated to reach 202 million tons (183 million
metric tons) in the year 2020 substituting 50 percent fly ash for cement could save the
equivalent energy of 6.4 billion gallons (24 billion liters) of gas annually.
2.6. Wild life crossing

Millions of birds, reptiles, mammals and amphibians are killed each year by vehicles on
highways. Thousands of motorists are injured and killed in animal vehicle collisions every
year. Highways often pass through wild life habitats disrupting animal populations and
ecosystems. Green highway design will ensure that the crossings are planned to match the
natural animal movement paths thereby minimizing habitat disruption and fragmentation.
Furthermore, green highway design also has provision for building escape structures to allow
animals trapped on the highway to exit via a diversion fence. The construction of bridges,
culverts, tunnels and barriers is undertaken to redirect animals over, under, or around the
highways to reduce the risk of vehicular collisions (Figure 5) [6].
438
Fig.5.Example of wild life crossings for highways [6]
2.7. Overall societal benefits

A sustainable transport system shall facilitate basic access and development needs of
individuals, companies and societies to meet safety standards in a manner consistent with
human and ecosystem health. It should limit emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to
absorb them. A holistic approach to sustainable construction, must take into account overall
societal benefits. Furthermore, highways have an important impact on local economies.
2.8. Current green highway rating systems worldwide

Green Roads is a rating system that was developed by researchers in Washington State in
2007. It is based on assigning point values to a road much like the United States Green
Building Council’s (USGBC) LEED rating system. Green Roads system was modeled closely
after the LEED green building rating system TM 2.0. Table 1 shows the system points model
for the Green Roads rating system and it has been found that the system can be implemented
with promising outcomes.
Green Highway Association India (GHAI) has undertaken studies of green highways to
formulate the general characteristics suitable to the Indian environment and to promote the
use of green aspects of highways wherever possible. This association and its branches work at
the project, Taluka (sub-district), district, state, and national levels to promote the concept of
green highways after formulating the characteristics and rating methodology for green
highways. A rating system must be designed for each region of India to evaluate regional
needs and then assign a point scale accordingly. It is important to address the need for
separate rating scales for multiple regions because a single scale rating system will not cater
to every region of India.
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Table 1.Green Roads rating system points model [1]

Category Description Credits Total available
available credits
Sustainable Design SD-1: Alignment Selection 1
SD SD-2: Context Sensitive Design 1
SD-3: Traffic Flow Improvement 1
10
SD-4: Safety Improvement 2
SD-5: Long Life Pavement Design 3
SD-6: Public Input 2
Material & Resources MR-1: Construction Waste 1
MR MR-2: Reuse of Pavement 2
MR-3: Recycled Content 4 11
MR-4: Pavement Life Cycle 3
A
MR-5: Regionally Provided Material 1
Storm Water SM-1: Stormwater Management 2
Management SM SM-2: Runoff Treatment 1
8
SM-3: Permeable Area 3
SM-4: Innovative Stormwater 2
Energy & h l
EE-1: Cool Pavement 1
Environment EE EE-2: Quiet Pavement 3
EE-3: Light Pollution 1
EE-4: Lighting Efficiency 1
EE-5: Eco-Connectivity 1 12
EE-6: Visual Quality 1
EE-7: Pedestrian Access 1
EE-8: Bicycle Access 1
EE-9: Environmental Management 2
Construction Activity S
CA-1: Reduce Diesel Emissions 1
CA CA-2: Reduce Fossil Fuel 1
d
CA-3: Temporary Stormwater 1
C l
CA-4: Noise Mitigation Planning 1 9
CA-5: Paving Emissions 1
CA-6: Construction Quality 2
CA-7: Quality Process 2
Innovation IN IN-1: Innovation 4 4
Total Credits = 54; Certified = 19; Silver = 26; Gold = 32; Evergreen = 38+
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3. Conclusion
Finally, fuel savings and reduced emissions translate into real opportunities for greening our
highway infrastructure. There will be three outcomes of green highways:
• Economic outcomes: ease of access, operation costs, efficiency, cost-benefits, smart
growth and transport diversity.
• Social outcomes: accessibility, affordability, safety, security, health & fitness, community
livability.
• Environmental outcomes: resource conservation, ecological intrusion, emission to air,
soil and water, habitat protection, land use impact.
References
1. Bryce, J. M. (2008). Developing Sustainable Transportation Infrastructure: Exploring the

Development and Implementation of a Green Highway Rating System. ASTM International.
University of Missouri. http://www.wise-intern.org/journal/2008/JamesBryceFinal.pdf
2. MEF (2010). Environmental Impact Assessment Guidance Manual for Highways. Ministry of
Environment & Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, Administrative Staff College of India.
3. Donald, G. A. (2008). Green Building Conference. Silk Tree International. http://www.sesam-
uae.com/Green/seminar0608/press/Silk%20Tree%20International.pdf
4. CII (2005). High volume fly ash concrete technology, summary report of the HVFAC project,
supported by Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), partners the International
Centre for Sustainable Development of Cement and Concrete (ICON), Canada Centre for Mineral
and Energy Technology, Natural Resources Canada, and Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
http://www.hvfacprojectindia.com/Summary_Report.pdf.
5. (2007). Green Highways: Environmentally and Economically Sustainable Concrete Pavements.
Concrete pavement research and technology special report, publication No. SR385P. American
Concrete Pavement Association. www.pavements4life.com/QDs/SR385P.pdf
6. Mendis, M. (2008). The Green Highways Program, an Icon of Sustainable Design. Project 2:
Green Highways Program. http://www.greendesignetc.net/Buildings_08_(pdf)/Mendis_Mayosha-
Green_Highways(paper).pdf
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INVITED SPEAKERS: SHORT BIOGRAPHY
Shashank Bhargava
Reinhard Doleschal
Krishna Rao Jaisim

Jaisim Fountainhead, Bangalore, India
Anil Laul
Ulrich Nether
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe (HS OWL), Detmold, Germany
Yatin Pandya
FOOTPRINTS E.A.R.T.H. (Environment Architecture Research
Technology Housing), Ahmedabad, India
Uta Pottgiesser
Sanjay Prakash
SHiFt: Studio for Habitat Futures, Ghaziabad, India
Sangeet Sharma

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BHARGAVA Shashank
Mr. Shashank Bhargava is an architect and urban planner and the Managing
Director of M/s. Bhargava & Associates Pvt. Ltd with over 21 years of
professional experience. He graduated from School of Planning and
Architecture, Delhi in 1989 and post graduated from University of
California, Los Angeles, USA in 1991. He has been the recipient of several
awards and scholarships. He was also associated with the TVB School of
Habitat Studies, Delhi as visiting faculty in Design from 1994-1998. He has
extensive international and national professional experience and his work has been published
in architectural magazines like Architecture + Design and Sound Synthesis. He has also won a
number of several architectural design competitions notably related to institutional
infrastructure that have been designed using green building technology. He has also been
involved in developing townships for Coal India Limited, tourism plan for Orissa and
riverfront development Kolkata, to name a few.
DOLESCHAL Reinhard
Reinhard Doleschal is Head of Institute of Management Skills (KOM) –

East-Westphalia-Lippe University of Applied Sciences since 2002 and Head
of the Business School OWL since 2008. He studied Industrial Relations,
Psychology and Business Administration at the University of Hanover and
the University of Paderborn, where he received his doctoral degree on
Foreign Investments in the Automotive Industry in Brazil, supported by
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). He has a long term research
experience on Work Organisation, Business Administration and Teamwork
at the Institute of Work and Technology (IAT) in Gelsenkirchen. From 1994
to 2002 he worked as a Managing Director for a consulting company in Lower Saxony. In 2007
he became a DAAD Visiting Professor at the Indian Institute of Science, Department of
Management Studies, Bangalore, India. He has authored more than a 100 books, articles and
papers on redesign of Work Organisation, Management, Business Process Reengineering, and
Global Business Leadership and is also the co-author of the Handbook of Team Building.
445
JAISIM Krishna Rao
Jaisim Fountainhead, Bangalore, India
Krishna Rao Jaisim has a professional practice that spans over 50 years.
Encouraged by Sheila Tribe, his Design Professor at School of Architecture
and Planning, Chennai; inspired by great architects of the past; idolizing
Ayn Rand’s Fountainhead, Jaisim interned under architect Srikrishna
Chitale and his incurable romanticism led to the birth of his practice, Jaisim
Fountainhead in 1970. He has designed a wide spectrum of projects; written
over a 100 papers and articles, made several presentations and has served on
several boards and councils. He also takes great interest in interacting with
architecture students. His iconoclastic views and individualistic endeavors are the hallmarks of
his creativity and he continues to pursue the adventures of the built and un-built environment,
searching and researching beyond the boundaries of time and space. In September 2011, he
received the JK-AYA Chairman’s Award for Outstanding Contribution to Architecture, the
most recent addition to a vast spectrum of accolades.
LAUL Anil
Anil Laul has been involved with pioneering work in the field of appropriate
technologies for three decades and has been the recipient of several national
and international accolades. He has been at the fore front of the Building
Centre Program in India and has established an Entrepreneur Building
Centre addressing issues that begin right from the brick as a basic element in
building and its appropriateness to high end technology structures such as
space frames and geodesic domes. The recent developmental breakthrough
of the Centre has been on interlocking blocks for earthquake resistant structures that were listed
as one of the six best products for the year 2001 by the Design Sense Museum, London and also
nominated as “Stockholm Partners” for the year 2002 for Earthquake Resistant Housing. The
structures built in Gujarat post earthquake received a Certificate of Commendation from the
President of India. The Centre has also developed structural systems and building systems such
as A-frames, Cube-on-vertex, Funicular shells that are earthquake resistant besides being
cost-effective. In 2005, Anangpur Building Centre received an award for “Excellence in Built
Environment” for an Exposition Centre in Bangalore.
446
NETHER Ulrich
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Detmold, Germany
Ulrich Nether is the Professor of Product Design and Ergonomics at

Detmolder Schule für Architektur und Innenarchitektur, Hochschule
Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Detmold, Germany. He graduated as an engineer in
Interior Architecture at Peter Behrens School of Architecture in Düsseldorf
and collaborated with Professor Karsten Krebs on the Design and Project
Management Pavilion of the European Community, Expo’92, Sevilla,
Spain. Since 1992, he has worked independently as an interior architect and
designer in partnership with Jeanette Faust in Düsseldorf and developed the
product design brand Hadi Teherani. He has been honoured with national and international
awards, including Design Award of the FRG (Gold) 2004, Neocon Gold Award, several
Red-Dot and IF-Awards for product design and the IF-Communication Award. He is a member
of Deutscher Werkbund Foundation and Speaker of the research institute, Perception Lab at the
University of Applied Sciences in Detmold.
PANDYA Yatin
FOOTPRINTS E.A.R.T.H. (Environment Architecture Research Technology Housing),
Ahmedabad, India
Yatin Pandya is an author, activist, academician, researcher as well as a

practicing architect. He graduated from CEPT University, Ahmedabad and
post graduated from McGill University, Montreal, Canada. He has been
involved with city planning, urban design, mass housing, architecture,
interior design, product design as well as conservation projects. Pandya has
written over 200 articles in national and international journals, has authored
several books on architecture notably Concepts of Space in Traditional
Indian Architecture and Elements of Space Making, besides making over 30
video documentaries on architecture. He is visiting faculty at National Institute of Design and
CEPT University, Ahmedabad and has also lectured internationally. He is the recipient of over
25 national and international awards for architectural design, research as well as dissemination.
447
POTTGIESSER Uta
Uta Pottgiesser has been the Chairperson, of Building Construction and

Materials at Detmolder Schule für Architektur und Innenarchitektur at
Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe, Germany, since 2004. She earned her
doctoral degree on multilayered glass constructions in 2002 from
Technische Universität Dresden and she holds a Diploma in Architecture
from Technische Universität Berlin. She was Vice President for Research,
Development and Internationalization of HS OWL from 2006-2011. She is
the co-founder and Speaker of Construction Lab and is a member of
Perception Lab while being responsible for several research projects in
cooperation with industry partners. Since 2005 she has been organizing the annual conference,
“Facades200x” and the English spoken Masters course on International Facade Design and
Construction (IFDC) at HS OWL. She is co-founder of the European Façade Network (EFN) –
a network of HS OWL, TU Delft, HS Luzern, Universidad del Pais Vasco, St. Sebastian and
University of Bath. Since 2010 she has been a member of Docomomo International Scientific
Committee of Technology (ISCT). In Docomomo Germany and Docomomo International she
is involved in the protection of the heritage of Modern Movement. She also works as a
practising architect – especially for office and administration buildings - and as a jury member
in architectural competitions.
PRAKASH Sanjay
SHiFt: Studio for Habitat Futures, Ghaziabad, India
Sanjay Prakash is an architect with a commitment to energy conscious

architecture, eco-friendly design, people’s participation in planning, music
and production design. Over the years, he has integrated all his work with
the practice of new urbanism and sustainability in his professional and
personal life. He is the Principal Consultant of his design firm, SHiFt:
Studio for Habitat Futures Architects and Engineers Pvt. Ltd. and was a
partner of DAAT and Studio Plus, firms that predate his current firm. His
name and work is mentioned in the 20th edition of one of the main reference
works on architectural history, A History of Architecture by Sir Bannister Fletcher.
448
SHARMA Sangeet
Sangeet Sharma practices as a partner in SD Sharma & Associates, a well

know firm of the region founded by his father Ar. S. D. Sharma, an eminent
architect who worked with Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret on the
Chandigarh project. Sangeet Sharma has to his credit many reputed projects,
such as TIMEX factory at Baddi, which won an award from Indian Building
Congress for the year 2009 and “Best Industrial Architecture” 2009 by IAD
Awards and award for “Excellence in Built Environment.” KMGIT Towers
at Mohali, was awarded the “Outstanding Concrete Structure” of 2009 by Indian Congress
Institute. He has also won the “Best Sustainable Building” award by Archi Design in 2010. He
has authored notable books, Architecture, Life and Me, Corb’s Capitol: a journey through
Chandigarh’s Architecture, Architectural Aesthetics and L’Esthetique Architecturale, Step by
step Hospital Designing and Planning. He established A3 Foundation to promote sustainable
architecture by holding seminars, conferences, group discussions and competitions.
VARANASHI Sathya Prakash

Sathya Prakash Varanashi studied Architecture at Bangalore, Urban Design

at Delhi and Heritage Conservation at UK. He spent many years with
architect A. G. K. Menon at Delhi, handling architecture and Indian
National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) conservation
projects in different parts of India. Presently, he has his own consultancy in
Bangalore that focuses on eco friendly designs, writes a weekly column in
The Hindu called Green Sense and lectures in public forums. The eco
designs of his firm are influenced by Baker, Kanade, Jaisim, Jagadish and
such others. A visiting faculty of architecture, Sathya is involved in academics, events,
networking, committees, writing and many collective groups like INTACH, IUDI, NIASA,
UDBHAVA and such others.
449
The year from Autumn 2011 to Autumn 2012 is themed as “Germany and India: Infinite
Opportunities” to mark the 60th Anniversary of diplomatic relations between the
Federal Republic of Germany and the Republic of India. This endeavour focuses on
“City Spaces” and a travelling exhibition “Mobile Metro Space City Tour” to discuss
the challenges of India’s rapid urbanisation centered on seeking new energy and
cost efficient solutions for the built environment. In this context, the Project, Climate
Related Energy Efficient Design – Product Solutions (CREED-PS) is one of the thirteen
binational projects between science and industry in the field of architecture, design,
interior architecture and urbanism. The Project partners are Hochschule Ostwestfalen-
Lippe (HSOWL), Detmold, Germany; Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science
and Technology (DCRUST), Murthal, India; National Institute of Design (NID),
Ahmedabad, India and industry partner, Bayer Material Science, India.
The National Conference on Energy Efficient Design of Buildings organized by
Department of Architecture, DCRUST, Murthal is part and the starting point of the
Project. The Conference addresses the quest for passive and low energy architecture
through cost effective solutions at the building and urban scales facilitating
international research interactions among students, research scholars, academicians,
scientists, professionals including architects, planners, project managers and
stakeholders from the building industry and policy makers in the following areas:
• architectural science and building technology
• transformative effects in building practices
• building regulations and policy
• sustainable urban development
This book contains papers covering the entire spectrum of sustainability issues of the
built environment ranging from building elements and products to buildings to cities
presenting a holistic picture of scholarship. Energy efficient design is addressed both at
the tangible level of technological input and at the more abstract social dimension. The
papers while addressing the more immediate and pressing concerns, also suggest the
roadmap for future research in the field. The papers are collated under the following
themes:
• Innovation in Design
• Community Sensitization
• Energy Rating Systems
• Energy Efficient Design Principles
• Energy Efficient Design Exemplars
• Sustainable Cities

Complete Proceedings of Energy Efficient Deenbandhu

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Complete Proceedings of Energy Efficient Deenbandhu

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Proceedings of National Conference on Energy Efficient Design of Buildings held

DCRUST - Murthal, INDIA & HSOWL - Detmold, GERMANY

Proceedings of the National Conference on

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal, INDIA

Building Construction and Materials

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

Printed by Media Graphic Prints, 127, HSIIDC Rai, Sonepat,

Chitrarekha Kabre (Ph.D. University of Queensland, Australia)

Uta Pottgiesser (Ph.D. Technische Universität Dresden, Germany)

Jyoti Pandey Sharma (Ph.D. De Montfort University Leicester UK)

Conference Chair Prof. Dr. Uta Pottgiesser

Local Organising Committee

Conference Secretariat Ar. Ravi Vaish

Aslihan Tavil Istanbul Technical University, Taksim, Turkey

Energy Rating Systems 111

Energy Efficient Design Principles 165

Energy Efficient Design Exemplars 261

Sustainable Cities 341

Sustainable Urban Design: Lessons from the Chandigarh Neighbourhood 391

Invited Speakers: Short Biography 443

Jyoti Pandey Sharma

Towards More Energy Efficient Commercial Buildings

The Wonder that will be India

Short Biography. Dr. Ajay Mathur is Director General of the Bureau of

Short Biography. Dr. Prem C. Jain, Chairman and Founder of Spectral

“The Joy of Less” – Being Human in the Minimum

Short Biography. Karan Grover and Associates is 26 years old. After

Short Biography. Sanjay Mohe graduated from the Sir J. J. School of

Innovations in Architecture into Innovation Architecture

Cost Effective, Energy Efficient, Economic, Eco and

Redefining Greys of the Green

Masonry Dome in the Form of an Ellipsoid

Energy Savings and Cost Effectiveness of Residential

2. Forms and fields of innovation

2.2. Examples of product innovation

2.3. Examples of process innovation

2.4. Examples of market innovation

3.1. Public initiatives

3.2. Private initiatives

4. Innovations for India

5. Recommendations for innovation

The Innovation loop describes the continuous process of innovation (AIIE).

• Visibility and distinctiveness as competitive advantages for the companies besides

I DO - the Jaisim residence and the Jaisim-Fountainhead office

Cool meeting space at I DO

CR Simha’s Guhe Chaplin supports

3. Context and content

Office space Interplay of light through the vaulted roof

4. Design and detail

Concept sketch to realised space

5. Expression and delivery

’Sankalp’- a residence for Kalpana and Sampath

Green elements Guptas’ residence

Presto restaurant, Bangalore

3. Environmental sanitation institute, Sughad

Environmental sanitation institute is a combination of solar passive as well as solar active

4. Manavsadhna activity centre, Ahmedabad

Manavsadhna activity centre is a very different interpretation of sustainability. A community

DESHPANDE Avinash, JAGADISH K. S., MANJUNATH, S.

2. General equation of prolate spheroid

Fig.1.Sectional views and coordinate axes in a prolate spheroid

Fig.2a.Details of an ellipse Fig.2b.Placing of brick by the help

Fig.2c.Steel hook with counter weight for the support of brick.

Fig.2d.Side view of ellipsoidal dome along major axis (elliptical section).