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2979-2988, 1997
Pergamon © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PIh S0043-1354(97)00161-9 0043-1354/97 $17.00 + 0.00
I. S H O L J I @* and N. M. K A Z I
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Studies,
The Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, Nottingham NG1 4BU, U.K.
Abstract--A mathematical model has been established to describe the kinetics of pneumatic flocculation
in terms of the process variables: energy of agitation, volume of turbid water, temperature, water viscosity,
amount of synthetic turbidity, flocculating time, amount of air flow, depth of water column and size of
orifice. The mathematical model tested for both normal and taper types of flocculation. The experimental
data vindicated the model relationship between the concentration ratio and the rate of air flow for the
air flow rate above 50 cm 3min -*. Accordingly, the developed mathematical model was then linearised.
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
Key words---Pneumatic flocculation, mathematical model, air bubble, turbidity concentration removal, air
flow rate
2979
2980 I. Sholji and N. M. Kazi
They also demonstrated that the rate of floccula- between N, particles of size d, and N2 . particles of
tion is directly proportional to the velocity gradient size d2. This equation is useful to study the speed with
at any point. The rate of flocculation is determinedby which small floc particles join to form larger floc
the number of contacts between floc particles (or particles. It can be used also to analyse the speed at
between suspended particles and floc particles) in unit which suspended particles in the raw water are
time and can be expressed by equation (2): entrapped by the floc particles.
Hudson (1965) developed a mathematical model
based on equations (1) and (2) describing the kinetics
J,2 = N = G / 6 N t N 2 ( d , + d2)3. (2) of flocculation as follows:
2
. OVBqR.OW U
3
WATER LEVIL
? . OV~RR.OW PIPE
4
AIR ~ , M ~ J N G PORT
C~'UNOER
• . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ~. . . . . AIR
<
R.OW. COkOmJkTINO
MErER9 R.OCCUl.kl'INO
CHAMBER
NR COMPRESBOR:
ANO
°1 RJgtNG
AIR 6UBW.E9
frORAGE TANK
I N R O~-.FUMON pAD
U ~ L U N G BOl~'W
BUPPL~I I
PUMP
Two assumptions were made in developing Hudson's From equation (3), it can be noted that the rate of
mathematical rood:el: entrapment of suspended matter in the floc is
dependent upon the volume of the floe, not the
(i) The size of the fine particles was considered
number or the size of the floc particles.
very small in comparison to the floc particles, based
Combining equations (I) and (3), one obtains
on the studies of Robeck (1963) and Riddick
(unpublished data). Therefore, the effect of d, on
equation (2) was c~msidered to be very small, and the
term was omitted with little error.
(ii) The floc particles were spherical in shape.
ln(~,) =-~$ v~,~-~)
{ p ,~,12 . (4)
3 A
& 'A
r - -
o o
2
o
Q ~
0 S 10 15 20 :IS
A~FtoW ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The above equation, describing the speed of floc Substituting the value of P from equation (5) into
formation, can be considered in the process of equation (4), one obtains
pneumatic flocculation. When air is diffused into
water from a compressed state, it normally expands ~" (~)m(p'InP'p+h)'/2] (Q°)''"
ln(~--~°,)=[~ (~w)'/2
isothermally. Based on isothermal conditions during
the process, Fair et al. (1968) stated that the
(6)
dissipated power due to the work done by the
expansion of the air bubbles from a compressed state Combining all the parameters in the first term of the
to a free state in water is given by equation (5): right hand side of equation (6) and designating this
as a single constant, K, it becomes:
O
2
O
¢I
0 ! ! 1 I I
0 S I0 ~[5 20 25
", [
Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation 2983
No and N, can be .'replaced by Co and C, to represent developed in equation (8). A pneumatic model treatment
the initial volumetric concentration and also the unit was designed and constructed as shown in Fig. 1, and
was used in this investigation. The details of the apparatus
volumetric concet~tration of any settled flocculated can be found elsewhere (Kazi, 1995).
suspension with a detention time of t. Thus, equation Four different diffusion pads were used, each having one
(7) c a n be rewritt~,m as: size of orifice; these were either 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 or 3.0 mm in
diameter, and each pad provided a uniform loading of air
per unit cross-sectional area of cylindrical column. The
velocity of a rising air bubble depends on the bubble
characteristics, the liquid properties surrounding
the swarm of air bubbles, the state of the attached and
detached air bubble and its subjected distance of the
EXPERIMENTAL unsteady motion from the centre line of orifice before it
becomes steady. The state of the flow, under which the
Experiments were conducted under various initial travelling air bubble is moving, influences the shape and the
conditions in order 1o verify the mathematical relationship path it follows.
. . . . . l ;)
CI 0
0
(3
g 2
0
,m
0 ~ -'2 .~
O ~
o s lo 15 20
(Qa)~ C3o In(C,/Cja) Cso In(C, COO C9o In(Co~CoO Cj~o In(Co/Cs~
In brief, accounting for the gas-liquid interface of 1400kgm -3. The Lycopodium particles are cells of a
the moving bubble, the observed shapes of the air dead fungus with very uniform sizes of around 35/~m
bubbles were oblate ellipsoidal cap and sinusoidal, with a density of 1180 kg m -3. The three types of turbidity
within the depth of water column under steady motion. The used were at a constant concentration of 200 mg I-L
path of the oscillating and rocking air bubbles was Calibration curves were produced for each type
rectilinear. of synthetic turbidity, correlating the FTU vs. concentration
During the course of this investigation, 284 experimental in mg I-L A homogeniser with a speed of 8000-24,000 rpm
runs were conducted, and each run repeated three times was used to disperse the synthetic turbidity material
for a reproducibility check. The used air flow was discretely, without adding any dispersing agent. All the
between 50and 1000 cm 3 min-L Three synthetic turbidities sizes of the different types of suspension were verified
were used: kaolin, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and Ly- under the electronic scanning microscope. Two chemical
copodium. coagulants were used, aluminium sulphate and ferric
The kaolin particles of size 253/~m (2/~m 80% and up to sulphate.
53#m 20%) were irregular in shape with a density of Experiments were conducted on both types of normal
2600 kg m -3. The polyvinyl chloride (PVC) particles of size and taper (step-down) flocculation, and the characterised
0.5-1.5#m were spherical in shape with a density of dimensionless values Gt (Camp number) and the
4 4
41
o .o
---y o
o o
~-~ .2
O
m
o! J t t I I
0 5 10 15 20 2s
il
400 20.00 26.77
i , i
2,0,11
,,,i]l i
9.33
•
3~0(iT5 6:25i i
3.465 i i ,,
3J59
,, ,
3.992
Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation 2985
Vv x G x t Ives criterion (1978 and 1968) were standardised The laboratory tap water analyses of the used water over
at 20°C for comparison under the two types of the length of the research period matched those data
flocculation. provided by Severn Trent Water Limited for the same
The assimilation of the optimum chemical dose of district.
any of the coagulants used was determined by the The coagulating, flocculating and settling chamber was
jar test. Laboratory tap water was used for the preparation normally filled with tap water to the pre-determined level
of turbid water, and the amount of dissolved oxygen, and the purging of air from the diffuser system preceded
pH, temperature, nitrate nitrogen, aluminium and the addition of the homogenised prepared synthetic
alkalinity were mea:;ured at the initial and final stages suspension.
of each run, as well as other essential data. The iron and The coagulation process was achieved over a 2-run
nitrate nitrogen concentrations were measured after each detention time using rapid pneumatic agitation at a constant
stage of the treatment (coagulation, flocculation and rate of air flow of 38,000 cm3min -~ across all experiments.
settling). The slow pneumatic agitation followed for a further 20 min
0
,A,
2
0
P_
m
(] ! i
0 5 10 15 20 25
for both normal and taper flocculation. The range of applied that of the settling basin employed in water treatment
air flow rates for the slow agitation was between 50 and industries. In addition, therefore, the poorly flocculated
1000 cm 3min -~. portion of turbidity in settled water is considered to be
The Lycopodium powder, when coagulated with alum, negligible.
exhibited unique isoconcentration curves (removal et~ciency
at various times vs. settling depth) owing to the light
mass density of the formed floc. This phenomena was
attributed to the flotation of the light Lycopodium alum floc
and their attachment to micro air bubbles as a result of ANALYSIS
pneumatic flocculation and the carbon dioxide gas
generated from the chemical reaction of both natural The verification of the mathematical model was
alkalinity and the added alum. Some of this type of floc based on the results of the most efficient size of
started to float. orifice that produced the best calculated equivalent
At the end of the pneumatic flocculation process and
before the start of the settling process, the settling column bubble diameter, and generated the most effective
demonstrated three distinctive layers (Kazi, 1995). temporal mean velocity gradient G for both types
One layer, at the middle depth at equilibrium and at of pneumatic flocculation. The majority o f the
stand still, trapping the descending Lycopodium-alum experimental results revealed that the 1.5-mm orifice
floe particles from the upper layer and preventing the produced the most efficient flocculation and removal.
ascending lightweight formed floc from the lower layer
from reaching the top water level. As a result of this The average observed major and minor lengths of
phenomenon, post-flocculation started to advance at air bubble were 10 and 5 m m , respectively.
the middle layer at the middle depth, causing a The calculated mean equivalent diameter of the air
sludge blanket to become denser and this layer started bubble at the steady stage was 6.22mm, based
to move downward sweeping and trapping the flocs below
it. The resulting experienced settling time, under the on Bhaga and Weber's drag coefficient relation-
behaviour explained, took a longer time and was nearly ship(Bhaga and Weber, 1981) for Reynolds number
doubled to 240 min, thus producing the desired rate of greater than 100 and as shown in the following
removal. equation:
The main aims of this investigation were:
(a) to check the viability of pneumatic flocculation; (b)
to investigate the verification of the mathematical CD = [ (2.67) 0.9 + (_~)o.9],.,,,. (9)
model;
(c) to evaluate the optimum air loading;
(d) to find the most effective size(s) of orifice to
generate the most effective mean equivalent The initial values of R were based on the solid-
bubble size and to give the least economical input liquid interface evaluation to give some idea o f
power; the state of hydraulic flow, calculating the CD
(e) to evaluate the efficiency of removal; value from equation (9) and the general settling
(f) to access the economical viability of the pneumatic or rising velocity. The generally accepted
process.
approximation, that the general rising velocity of the
Samples were collected from a depth of 200 mm in bubble under the solid-liquid interface equals
the coagulation-flocculation and settling chamber
one and a half times the rising velocity o f the
and at intervals of 30 min over a settling period of
120 min. bubble under that of the air-liquid interface, was
In this analysis, the turbidity of settled water was applied.
considered as representing the particles that escaped When plotting equation (8) for In(Co~C,) vs. Q~a,
flocculation. The settled water might include poorly the curve should pass through the origin theoretically
flocculated small flocs that have a settling velocity of less
than 200/30 = 6.7 (for 30 minutes' settling) to 200/ at zero air flow rate [i.e. In(Co~C,) = 0 or Co~C,= 1].
120 = 1.6 mm min -I (for 120 minutes' settling). However, However, experimental data indicated an intercep-
these settling velocities are extremely low in comparison to tion on the ln(C0/C,) axis, even at zero air flow rate.
Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation 2987
Experimental curves were found not to pass through average was 88%. The amount of iron removed was
the origin. The 2 min of rapid pneumatic agitation between 80 and 92%, with a weighted average of
could be too long with a possibility of the formation 87%.
of micro flocs, although not substantiated, and this is The calculated power input required, based
worth future inw:stigation. The practicability of on the minimum optimum amount of air
collecting samples for a period less than 5 min is loading, was 4-30 times lower than the calculated
impossible. power input for itsrival, the slow mechanical
The graphs for In(Co~C,) vs. Q~12 show a mixing,with an overall weighted average of 16 times
semi-logarithmic relationship. The curves lower.
become linear after a value of Q]/2 of about 7 The pneumatic flocculation process demonstrated
(cm 3 min-~)~t2, producing the following mathematical its effectiveness and to a considerable degree of
model: removal, tested with different characteristics of
synthetic turbidities and types of pneumatic floccula-
tion (normal and taper).
l n ~ ! = K, + K(Q.) 't:. (10) The most effective orifice sizes over the range tested
under pneumatic flocculation were the 1.5 and
2.00 mm sizes.
The plotted curves, as shown in Figs 2-6, are found
There were insignificant differences in the rate of
to be almost parallel to each other. This indicates
removal between the performances of pneumatic
that the lines are of constant slope, which is
normal and taper flocculation. The former demands
foundto be 0.01 (cra 3 min-~) -~/2 on average, irrespec-
a lesser degree of skill with its application in a hot
tive of the type of synthetic turbidity, coagulant, size
climate for both developing and under-developed
of orifice and type of flocculation (normal and taper)
countries.
used. As the concentration of the suspension
decreases with inc:reasing settling time, the value of
the interception on In(Co~C,) axis of these curves
increases. The average value for each of these
interceptions is found to be 1.9, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.3, Acknowledgements--Both authors wish to record their
corresponding to the settling times of 30, 60, 90 and thanks to Emeritus Professor K. J. Ives, University
120min, respectively. These values are shown in College, London, for his advice, encouragement and
direction in this investigation and in his capacity as
Table 1. External Supervisor for this research work. The
Close examination of Figs 2-6 relating In(Co~C,) generosity of both the Overseas Development Adminis-
vs. Q]/2 reveals that, at the rate of applied air flow tration of the U.K. Government and The Nottingham Trent
between 0 and 100 cm ~min -t, a rapid promotion of University for funding the project is acknowledged with
appreciation.
flocculation is taking place, with steep curves for
various times. For higher rates of over 100 cm ~min -~,
the flocculation process reached its climax and
showed a steady gentle linear relationship. It
was evident that the increase in the rate of applied
air did not produce any significant improvement in
REFERENCES
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