Biochemistry

Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important questions answers

Subject : Biochemistry
Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
1. How does biochemistry describe life processes? - Answer (click here)
2. How did living things originate? - Answer (click here)
3. Chemical Foundations of Biochemistry - Answer (click here)
4. How and when did the Earth come to be? - Answer (click here)
5. How were biomolecules likely to have formed on the early Earth? -
Answer (click here)
6. Molecules to Cells: Which came first - the catalysts or the hereditary
molecules? - Answer (click here)
7. The Biggest Biological Distinction-Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - Answer
(click here)
8. How is prokaryotic DNA organized without a nucleus? - Answer (click
here)
9. Eukaryotic Cells - Answer (click here)
10. Five Kingdoms, Three Domains - Answer (click here)
11. Extremophiles: The Toast of the Industry - Answer (click here)
12. Common Ground for All Cells - Answer (click here)
13. Did eukaryotes develop from prokaryotes? - Answer (click here)
14. Did symbiosis play a role in the development of eukaryotes? - Answer
(click here)
15. Biochemical Energetics - Answer (click here)
16. Energy and Change: What kinds of energy changes take place in living
cells? - Answer (click here)
17. Spontaneity in Biochemical Reactions - Answer (click here)
18. Life and Thermodynamics - Answer (click here)
19. Predicting Reactions - Answer (click here)

Water The Solvent for Biochemical Reactions

1. Water and Polarity - Answer (click here)
 2. What is polarity? - Answer (click here)
3. Solvent Properties of Water - Answer (click here)
4. Hydrogen Bonds - Answer (click here)
5. Acids, Bases, and pH - Answer (click here)
6. Titration Curves - Answer (click here)
7. Buffers - Answer (click here)
8. How do buffers work? - Answer (click here)
9. How do we choose a buffer? - Answer (click here)
10. How do we make buffers in the laboratory? - Answer (click here)
11. Are naturally occurring pH buffers present in living organisms? - Answer
(click here)

Amino Acids and Peptides

1. Amino Acids Exist in a Three-Dimensional World - Answer (click here)
2. Individual Amino Acids:Their Structures and Properties - Answer (click
here)
3. Uncommon Amino Acids - Answer (click here)
4. Amino Acids to Calm Down and Pep Up - Answer (click here)
5. Amino Acids Can Act as Both Acids and Bases - Answer (click here)
6. The Peptide Bond - Answer (click here)
7. Small Peptides with Physiological Activity - Answer (click here)
8. Phenylketonuria-Little Molecules Have Big Effects - Answer (click here)
9. Peptide Hormones-More Small Molecules with Big Effects - Answer (click
here)
10. Amino Acids Go Many Different Places - Answer (click here)

The Three Dimensional Structure of Proteins

1. Protein Structure and Function - Answer (click here)
2. Primary Structure of Proteins - Answer (click here)
3. Secondary Structure of Proteins - Answer (click here)
4. Complete Proteins and Nutrition - Answer (click here)
5. Periodic Structures in Protein Backbones - Answer (click here)
6. Secondary Structure of Proteins: Irregularities in Regular Structures -
Answer (click here)
7. Supersecondary Structures and Domains of Proteins - Answer (click here)
8. The Collagen Triple Helix - Answer (click here)
9. Two Types of Protein Conformations: Fibrous and Globular - Answer
(click here)
10. Tertiary Structure of Proteins - Answer (click here)
11. Forces Involved in Tertiary Structures - Answer (click here)
 12. Myoglobin: An Example of Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
13. Denaturation and Refolding - Answer (click here)
14. Quaternary Structure of Proteins - Answer (click here)
15. Protein Folding Dynamics - Answer (click here)
16. Hydrophobic Interactions:A Case Study in Thermodynamics - Answer
(click here)
17. Protein Folding Dynamics: The Importance of Correct Folding - Answer
(click here)
18. Protein-Folding Chaperones - Answer (click here)
19. Prions and Disease - Answer (click here)

Protein Purification and Characterization Techniques

1. Extracting Pure Proteins from Cells - Answer (click here)
2. Column Chromatography - Answer (click here)
3. What are the different types of chromatography? - Answer (click here)
4. Electrophoresis - Answer (click here)
5. Determining the Primary Structure of a Protein - Answer (click here)
6. Cleavage of the Protein into Peptides - Answer (click here)
7. Sequencing of Peptides: The Edman Method - Answer (click here)
8. Protein Purification: Pulling It All Together - Answer (click here)

The Behavior of Proteins Enzymes

1. Enzymes Are Effective Biological Catalysts - Answer (click here)
2. Kinetics versus Thermodynamics - Answer (click here)
3. Enzymes as Markers for Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Enzyme Kinetic Equations - Answer (click here)
5. Enzyme-Substrate Binding - Answer (click here)
6. Examples of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions - Answer (click here)
7. The Michaelis–Menten Approachto Enzyme Kinetics - Answer (click here)
8. Enzyme Inhibition - Answer (click here)
9. Practical Information from Kinetic Data - Answer (click here)
10. Enzyme Inhibition in the Treatment of AIDS - Answer (click here)

The Behavior of Proteins Enzymes Mechanisms and Control

1. The Behavior of Allosteric Enzymes - Answer (click here)
2. The Concerted and Sequential Models for Allosteric Enzymes - Answer
(click here)
3. Control of Enzyme Activity by Phosphorylation - Answer (click here)
4. Zymogens - Answer (click here)
 5. The Nature of the Active Site - Answer (click here)
6. Chemical Reactions Involved in Enzyme Mechanisms - Answer (click here)
7. The Active Site and Transition States - Answer (click here)
8. Families of Enzymes: Proteases - Answer (click here)
9. Coenzymes - Answer (click here)
10. Catalytic Antibodies against Cocaine - Answer (click here)
11. Catalysts for Green Chemistry - Answer (click here)

Lipids and Proteins Are Associated in Biological Membranes

1. The Definition of a Lipid - Answer (click here)
2. The Chemical Natures of the Lipid Types - Answer (click here)
3. What are fatty acids? - Answer (click here)
4. What are triacylglycerols? - Answer (click here)
5. What are phosphoacylglycerols? - Answer (click here)
6. What are waxes and sphingolipids? - Answer (click here)
7. What are glycolipids? - Answer (click here)
8. What are steroids? - Answer (click here)
9. Biological Membranes - Answer (click here)
10. What is the structure of lipid bilayers? - Answer (click here)
11. How does the composition of the bilayer affect its properties? - Answer
(click here)
12. Butter versus Margarine-Which Is Healthier? - Answer (click here)
13. The Kinds of Membrane Proteins - Answer (click here)
14. The Fluid-Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure - Answer (click here)
15. Membranes in Drug Delivery - Answer (click here)
16. The Functions of Biological Membranes - Answer (click here)
17. Lipid Droplets Are Not Just Great Balls of Fat - Answer (click here)
18. Lipid-Soluble Vitamins and Their Functions - Answer (click here)
19. Vision Has Great Chemistry - Answer (click here)
20. Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes - Answer (click here)
21. Why Should We Eat More Salmon? - Answer (click here)

Nucleic Acids How Structure Conveys Information

1. Levels of Structure in Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
2. The Covalent Structure of Polynucleotides - Answer (click here)
3. The DNA Family Tree - Answer (click here)
4. The Structure of DNA - Answer (click here)
5. What is the nature of the DNA double helix? - Answer (click here)
6. Are there other possible conformations of the double helix? - Answer (click
 here)
7. How does prokaryotic DNA supercoil into its tertiary structure? - Answer
(click here)
8. How does supercoiling take place in eukaryotic DNA? - Answer (click here)
9. What Makes a Triple Helix Useful in Drug Design? - Answer (click here)
10. Denaturation of DNA - Answer (click here)
11. The Principal Kinds of RNA and Their Structures - Answer (click here)
12. What kinds of RNA play a role in life processes? - Answer (click here)
13. What is the role of transfer RNA in protein synthesis? - Answer (click here)
14. How does ribosomal RNA combine with proteins to form the site of
protein synthesis? - Answer (click here)
15. The Human Genome Project: Treasure or Pandora’s Box? - Answer (click
here)
16. Why Identical Twins Are Not Identical - Answer (click here)

Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids Replication

1. The Flow of Genetic Information in the Cell - Answer (click here)
2. Replication of DNA - Answer (click here)
3. DNA Polymerase - Answer (click here)
4. Semidiscontinuous DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
5. DNA Polymerase from E. coli - Answer (click here)
6. Proteins Required for DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
7. Proofreading and Repair - Answer (click here)
8. Why Does DNA Contain Thymine and Not Uracil? - Answer (click here)
9. Eukaryotic DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
10. The SOS Response in E. coli - Answer (click here)
11. Telomerase and Cancer - Answer (click here)

Transcription of the Genetic Code The Biosynthesis of RNA

1. Transcription of the Genetic Code - Answer (click here)
2. Transcription in Prokaryotes - Answer (click here)
3. Transcription Regulation in Prokaryotes - Answer (click here)
4. Transcription in Eukaryotes - Answer (click here)
5. Transcription Regulation in Eukaryotes - Answer (click here)
6. Structural Motifs in DNA-Binding Proteins - Answer (click here)
7. Post transcriptional RNA Modification - Answer (click here)
8. Lupus: An Autoimmune Disease Involving RNA Processing - Answer
(click here)
9. Ribozymes - Answer (click here)
10. What are the characteristics of a ribozyme? - Answer (click here)
 11. Proofreading in Transcription? RNA Fills In Another Missing Piece -
Answer (click here)

Protein Synthesis Translation of the Genetic Message

1. Translating the Genetic Message - Answer (click here)
2. The Genetic Code - Answer (click here)
3. Codon–Anticodon Pairing and Wobble - Answer (click here)
4. Amino Acid Activation - Answer (click here)
5. Prokaryotic Translation - Answer (click here)
6. Eukaryotic Translation - Answer (click here)
7. Posttranslational Modification of Proteins - Answer (click here)
8. Protein Degradation - Answer (click here)
9. Chaperones: Preventing Unsuitable Associations - Answer (click here)
10. Silent Mutations Are Not Always Silent - Answer (click here)
11. How Do We Adapt to High Altitude? - Answer (click here)

Nucleic Acid Biotechnology

1. Purification and Detection of Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
2. Restriction Endonucleases - Answer (click here)
3. Cloning - Answer (click here)
4. What is cloning? - Answer (click here)
5. What are plasmids? - Answer (click here)
6. Genetic Engineering - Answer (click here)
7. Genetic Engineering in Agriculture - Answer (click here)
8. Human Proteins through Genetic Recombination Techniques - Answer
(click here)
9. Fusion Proteins and Fast Purifications - Answer (click here)
10. DNA Libraries - Answer (click here)
11. The Polymerase Chain Reaction - Answer (click here)
12. DNA Fingerprinting - Answer (click here)
13. CSI: Biochemistry - Forensic Uses of DNA Testing - Answer (click here)
14. Sequencing DNA - Answer (click here)
15. RNA Interference - The Newest Way to Study Genes - Answer (click here)
16. Genomics and Proteomics - Answer (click here)

Viruses Cancer and Immunology

1. Viruses - Answer (click here)
2. What is the structure of a virus? - Answer (click here)
3. Families of Viruses - Answer (click here)
 4. Virus Life Cycles - Answer (click here)
5. Why are viruses important? - Answer (click here)
6. Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
7. Why are retroviruses important? - Answer (click here)
8. Viruses are Used for Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
9. The Immune System - Answer (click here)
10. Innate Immunity-The Front Lines of Defense - Answer (click here)
11. Acquired Immunity: Cellular Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. T-Cell Functions - Answer (click here)
13. T-Cell Memory - Answer (click here)
14. The Immune System: Molecular Aspects - Answer (click here)
15. The Immune System: Distinguishing Self from Nonself - Answer (click
here)
16. Viral RNAs Outwit the Immune System - Answer (click here)
17. Cancer - Answer (click here)
18. Oncogenes - Answer (click here)
19. Tumor Suppressors - Answer (click here)
20. Viruses and Cancer - Answer (click here)
21. Viruses Helping Cure Cancer - Answer (click here)
22. Attacking the Symptoms instead of the Disease? - Answer (click here)

The Importance of Energy Changes and Electron Transfer in

Metabolism
1. Standard States for Free-Energy Changes - Answer (click here)
2. A Modified Standard State for Biochemical Applications - Answer (click
here)
3. Living Things Need Energy-How Do They Use It? - Answer (click here)
4. The Nature of Metabolism - Answer (click here)
5. Living Things Are Unique Thermodynamic Systems - Answer (click here)
6. The Role of Oxidation and Reduction in Metabolism - Answer (click here)
7. Coenzymes in Biologically Important Oxidation-Reduction Reactions -
Answer (click here)
8. Coupling of Production and Use of Energy - Answer (click here)
9. Coenzyme A in Activation of Metabolic Pathways - Answer (click here)

Carbohydrates
1. Sugars: Their Structures and Stereochemistry - Answer (click here)
2. What is unique about the structures of sugars? - Answer (click here)
3. What happens if a sugar forms a cyclic molecule? - Answer (click here)
 4. Reactions of Monosaccharides - Answer (click here)
5. Vitamin C Is Related to Sugars - Answer (click here)
6. Some Important Oligosaccharides - Answer (click here)
7. Fruits, Flowers, Striking Colors, and Medicinal Uses Too - Answer (click
here)
8. Lactose Intolerance: Why Do So Many People Not Want to Drink Milk?
- Answer (click here)
9. Structures and Functions of Polysaccharides - Answer (click here)
10. Why Is Dietary Fiber So Good for You? - Answer (click here)
11. Glycoproteins - Answer (click here)
12. Low-Carbohydrate Diets - Answer (click here)
13. Glycoproteins and Blood Transfusions - Answer (click here)

Glycolysis
1. The Overall Pathway of Glycolysis - Answer (click here)
2. Biofuels from Fermentation - Answer (click here)
3. Conversion of Six-Carbon Glucose toThree-Carbon Glyceraldehyde-3-
Phosphate - Answer (click here)
4. Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Is Converted to Pyruvate - Answer (click here)
5. Anaerobic Metabolism of Pyruvate - Answer (click here)
6. What Is the Connection between Anaerobic Metabolism and Dental
Plaque? - Answer (click here)
7. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - Answer (click here)
8. Energy Production in Glycolysis - Answer (click here)

Storage Mechanisms and Control in Carbohydrate Metabolism

1. How Glycogen Is Produced and Degraded - Answer (click here)
2. How does the breakdown of glycogen take place? - Answer (click here)
3. How is glycogen formed from glucose? - Answer (click here)
4. How is glycogen metabolism controlled? - Answer (click here)
5. Why Do Athletes Go In for Glycogen Loading? - Answer (click here)
6. Gluconeogenesis Produces Glucose from Pyruvate - Answer (click here)
7. Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism - Answer (click here)
8. Glucose Is Sometimes Diverted throughthe Pentose Phosphate Pathway -
Answer (click here)
9. The Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Hemolytic Anemia - Answer (click
here)

The Citric Acid Cycle

 1. The Central Role of the Citric Acid Cycle in Metabolism - Answer (click
here)
2. The Overall Pathway of the Citric Acid Cycle - Answer (click here)
3. How Pyruvate Is Converted to Acetyl-CoA - Answer (click here)
4. The Individual Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle - Answer (click here)
5. Plant Poisons and the Citric Acid Cycle - Answer (click here)
6. Energetics and Control of the Citric Acid Cycle - Answer (click here)
7. The Glyoxylate Cycle: A Related Pathway - Answer (click here)
8. The Citric Acid Cycle in Catabolism - Answer (click here)
9. The Citric Acid Cycle in Anabolism - Answer (click here)
10. Why Can’t Animals Use All the Same Energy Sources as Plants and
Bacteria? - Answer (click here)
11. The Link to Oxygen - Answer (click here)
12. Why Is It So Hard to Lose Weight? - Answer (click here)

Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation

1. The Role of Electron Transport in Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Reduction Potentials in the Electron Transport Chain - Answer (click here)
3. Organization of Electron Transport Complexes - Answer (click here)
4. The Connection between Electron Transportand Phosphorylation -
Answer (click here)
5. The Mechanism of Coupling in Oxidative Phosphorylation - Answer (click
here)
6. Respiratory Inhibitors Can Be Usedto Study Electron Transport - Answer
(click here)
7. Shuttle Mechanisms - Answer (click here)
8. What Does Brown Adipose Tissue Have to Do with Obesity? - Answer
(click here)
9. The ATP Yield from Complete Oxidation of Glucose - Answer (click here)
10. Sports and Metabolism - Answer (click here)
11. The Darker Side of Sports - Answer (click here)

Lipid Metabolism
1. Catabolism of Lipids - Answer (click here)
2. The Energy Yield from the Oxidationof Fatty Acids - Answer (click here)
3. Catabolism of Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Odd-Carbon Fatty Acids -
Answer (click here)
4. Ketone Bodies - Answer (click here)
5. Fatty-Acid Biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
6. Ketone Bodies and Effective Weight Loss - Answer (click here)
 7. Synthesis of Acylglycerols and Compound Lipids - Answer (click here)
8. A Gene for Obesity - Answer (click here)
9. Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase-A New Target in the Fight against Obesity? -
Answer (click here)
10. Cholesterol Biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
11. Atherosclerosis - Answer (click here)

Photosynthesis
1. Chloroplasts Are the Site of Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
2. The Relationship between Wavelength and Energy of Light - Answer
(click here)
3. Photosystems I and II and the Light Reactions of Photosynthesis - Answer
(click here)
4. Cyclic Electron Transport in Photosystem I - Answer (click here)
5. Photosynthesis and ATP Production - Answer (click here)
6. Killing Weeds by Inhibiting Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
7. Evolutionary Implications of Photosynthesis with and without Oxygen -
Answer (click here)
8. Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis Fix CO2 - Answer (click here)
9. Chloroplast Genes - Answer (click here)
10. CO2 Fixation in Tropical Plants - Answer (click here)

The Metabolism of Nitrogen

1. Nitrogen Metabolism: An Overview - Answer (click here)
2. Nitrogen Fixation - Answer (click here)
3. Why Is the Nitrogen Content of Fertilizers So Important? - Answer (click
here)
4. Feedback Inhibition in Nitrogen Metabolism - Answer (click here)
5. Amino Acid Biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
6. Essential Amino Acids - Answer (click here)
7. Amino Acid Catabolism - Answer (click here)
8. Water and the Disposal of Nitrogen Wastes - Answer (click here)
9. Chemotherapy and Antibiotics - Taking Advantage of the Need for Folic
Acid - Answer (click here)
10. Purine Biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
11. Purine Catabolism - Answer (click here)
12. Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome - Answer (click here)
13. Pyrimidine Biosynthesis and Catabolism - Answer (click here)
14. Conversion of Ribonucleotides to Deoxyribonucleotides - Answer (click
here)
 15. Conversion of dUTP to dTTP - Answer (click here)

Integration of Metabolism Cellular Signaling

1. Connections between Metabolic Pathways - Answer (click here)
2. Biochemistry and Nutrition - Answer (click here)
3. What are required nutrients? - Answer (click here)
4. Why do we need vitamins? - Answer (click here)
5. What are minerals? - Answer (click here)
6. The Food Pyramid - Answer (click here)
7. What is obesity? - Answer (click here)
8. Alcohol Consumption and Addiction - Answer (click here)
9. Iron: An Example of a Mineral Requirement - Answer (click here)
10. Hormones and Second Messengers - Answer (click here)
11. What are hormones? - Answer (click here)
12. How do second messengers work? Cyclic AMP and G Proteins - Answer
(click here)
13. Calcium Ion as a Second Messenger - Answer (click here)
14. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases - Answer (click here)
15. Hormones and the Control of Metabolism - Answer (click here)
16. Insulin and Its Effects - Answer (click here)
17. Insulin and Low-Carbohydrate Diets - Answer (click here)
18. A Workout a Day Keeps Diabetes Away? - Answer (click here)
19. The Search for Longevity - Answer (click here)

Living Cell
1. Living Cell - Answer (click here)
2. Types of Living cells - Answer (click here)
3. Sub cellular Organelles - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Membrane and its Functions - Answer (click here)
5. Cell Wall and its Functions - Answer (click here)
6. Nucleus and its Functions - Answer (click here)
7. Mitochondria and its Functions - Answer (click here)
8. Endoplasmic reticulum and its Functions - Answer (click here)
9. Golgi apparatus and its Functions - Answer (click here)
10. Ribosomes and its Functions - Answer (click here)
11. Lysosomes and its Functions - Answer (click here)
12. Peroxisomes and its Functions - Answer (click here)
13. Cytoplasm and its Functions - Answer (click here)
14. Chloroplasts and its Functions - Answer (click here)
 15. Cell Vacuoles - Answer (click here)
16. Blood: Composition and Functions - Answer (click here)
17. Formation of blood - Answer (click here)
18. Body Fluids - Answer (click here)
19. Buffers - Answer (click here)
20. Uses of buffer - Answer (click here)
21. Buffers of blood - Answer (click here)
22. Acids and bases - Answer (click here)

Biomolecules
1. Biomolecule: Carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
2. Classification and Functions of Carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
3. Proteins: Definition, Classification, Functions - Answer (click here)
4. Lipids: Definition, Classification, Functions - Answer (click here)
5. Nucleic acids: Definition, Classification, Functions - Answer (click here)

Enzymes
1. Enzymes - Answer (click here)
2. Chemical nature of enzymes - Answer (click here)
3. Naming of enzymes - Answer (click here)
4. Classification of enzymes - Answer (click here)
5. Factors influencing enzyme activity - Answer (click here)
6. Types of enzyme inhibition - Answer (click here)
7. Iso enzymes - Answer (click here)
8. Importance of enzymes - Answer (click here)

Carbohydrates
1. Functions of carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
2. Classification of carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
3. Monosaccharides - Answer (click here)
4. Physical properties of monosaccharides - Answer (click here)
5. Chemical properties of glucose - Answer (click here)
6. Haworth projection formula of glucose and fructose - Answer (click here)
7. Disaccharides - Answer (click here)
8. Poly saccharides - Answer (click here)

Proteins
1. Proteins and Sources of protein - Answer (click here)
 2. Amino acids - Answer (click here)
3. Properties of amino acids - Answer (click here)
4. Classification of amino acids - Answer (click here)
5. Physical and Chemical Properties of proteins - Answer (click here)
6. Protein structure - Answer (click here)
7. Biologically important proteins - Answer (click here)

Lipids
1. Lipids - Answer (click here)
2. Classification of Fatty acids - Answer (click here)
3. Essential fatty acid (EFA): Structure, Functions - Answer (click here)
4. Structure of triacyl glycerol - Answer (click here)
5. Physical and Chemical Properties of triacyl glycerol - Answer (click here)
6. Phospholipids - Answer (click here)
7. Classification of Phospholipids - Answer (click here)
8. Properties of glycero phospholipids and sphingo phospholipids - Answer
(click here)
9. Importance of phospholipids - Answer (click here)
10. Sterols - Answer (click here)
11. Cholesterol: Structure, Properties - Answer (click here)

Nucleic Acids
1. Structure and Properties of pyrimidine bases - Answer (click here)
2. Purine bases: Structure and Properties - Answer (click here)
3. Nucleic acids - Answer (click here)
4. Nucleic acids: Nucleosides and Nucleotides - Answer (click here)
5. Structure of DNA - Answer (click here)
6. Functions of DNA - Answer (click here)
7. Structure and types of RNA - Answer (click here)

Vitamins
1. Vitamins - Answer (click here)
2. Fat soluble vitamins - Answer (click here)
3. Water soluble vitamins - Answer (click here)
4. Vitamin - A - Answer (click here)
5. Vitamin D - Answer (click here)
6. Vitamin E - Answer (click here)
7. Vitamin K - Answer (click here)
8. Thiamine (B1) - Answer (click here)
 9. Riboflavin (B2) - Answer (click here)
10. Niacin (B3) - Answer (click here)
11. Pyridoxine (B6) - Answer (click here)
12. Folic acid - Answer (click here)
13. Vitamin B12 - Answer (click here)
14. Pantothenic acid (B5) - Answer (click here)
15. Biotin - Answer (click here)
16. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) - Answer (click here)

Minerals
1. Minerals Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Calcium - Answer (click here)
3. Phosphorus - Answer (click here)
4. Sodium - Answer (click here)
5. Potassium - Answer (click here)
6. Chlorine - Answer (click here)
7. Magnesium - Answer (click here)
8. Sulphur - Answer (click here)
9. Iron - Answer (click here)
10. Copper - Answer (click here)
11. Iodine - Answer (click here)
12. Fluorine - Answer (click here)
13. Zinc - Answer (click here)
14. Cobalt - Answer (click here)
15. Manganese - Answer (click here)
16. Chromium - Answer (click here)
17. Molybdenum - Answer (click here)
18. Selenium - Answer (click here)

Biochemical Techniques
1. Chromatography - Answer (click here)
2. Types of chromatography - Answer (click here)
3. Column chromatography: Types, Principle - Answer (click here)
4. Thin Layer chromatography - Answer (click here)
5. Paper chromatography - Answer (click here)
6. Applications of chromatography - Answer (click here)
7. Electrophoresis: principle, Types - Answer (click here)
8. Centrifugation techniques: Principle, Types, Uses - Answer (click here)
9. Differential centrifugation technique - Answer (click here)
 10. Spectrophotometry - Answer (click here)
11. The photoelectric colorimeter - Answer (click here)
12. Applications of spectrophotometry - Answer (click here)

Cell Membrane
1. Cell Membrane: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Cell Membrane: Chemical Composition - Answer (click here)
3. Models proposed for the plasma membrane - Answer (click here)
4. Membrane Transport - Answer (click here)
5. Cell Membrane: Viscosity - Answer (click here)
6. Surface tension - Answer (click here)
7. Osmosis and Biological Significance - Answer (click here)
8. Buffers - Answer (click here)

Digestion
1. Biochemistry: Digestion - Answer (click here)
2. Carbohydrates in Digestion - Answer (click here)
3. Digestion of Proteins - Answer (click here)
4. Digestion of Lipids - Answer (click here)
5. Digestion of Nucleic acids - Answer (click here)

Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. Biochemistry: Carbohydrate Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Carbohydrate as a source of energy - Answer (click here)
3. Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) - Answer (click here)
4. HMP shunt pathway - Answer (click here)
5. Glycogen - Answer (click here)
6. Glycogen biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
7. Degradation of glycogen (Glycogenolysis) - Answer (click here)
8. Gluconeogenesis - Answer (click here)
9. Diabetes Mellitus - Answer (click here)

Protein Metabolism
1. Protein Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Protein biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
3. Protein Metabolism Translation - Answer (click here)
4. Metabolism of Proteins - Answer (click here)
5. Urea Cycle - Answer (click here)
 6. Formation of Niacin - Answer (click here)
7. Formation of Melanin - Answer (click here)
8. Formation of thyroid hormone - Answer (click here)
9. Formation of catecholamines - Answer (click here)

Lipid Metabolism
1. Lipid Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Biological functions of Lipids - Answer (click here)
3. Fatty acids - Answer (click here)
4. Biosynthesis of fatty acids - Answer (click here)
5. Oxidation of Fatty Acids - Answer (click here)
6. Cholesterol Biosynthesis - Answer (click here)
7. Biosynthesis of cholesterol - Answer (click here)
8. Important products derived from cholesterol - Answer (click here)
9. Biosynthesis of phospholipids - Answer (click here)
10. Cephalin - Answer (click here)
11. Atherosclerosis - Answer (click here)

Nucleic Acid Metabolism

1. Nucleic Acid Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Biosynthesis of DNA - Answer (click here)
3. Replication and Models of Replication - Answer (click here)
4. Sequential Process of Replication Initiation of DNA replication - Answer
(click here)
5. Catabolism of DNA by Deoxyribonucleases - Answer (click here)
6. Biosynthesis of RNA (Transcription) - Answer (click here)
7. Processing of mRNA molecules - Answer (click here)
8. mRNA Processing of tRNA Molecules - Answer (click here)
9. Role of tRNA in protein synthesis - Answer (click here)

Inborn Errors of Metabolism

1. Inborn Errors of Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Galactosemia: Causes, Symptoms - Answer (click here)
3. Von - Gierke’s Disease : Cause, Symptoms - Answer (click here)
4. Hemophilia: Causes, Symptoms - Answer (click here)
5. Albinism - Answer (click here)
6. Alkaptonuria: Causes, Symptoms - Answer (click here)
7. Taysach’s Disease: Causes, Symptoms - Answer (click here)
8. Neoplasm - Answer (click here)
Biological Oxidation
1. Biological Oxidation - Answer (click here)
2. Redox Couple - Answer (click here)
3. Electron transport chain - Answer (click here)
4. Oxidative phosphorylation - Answer (click here)
5. High energy compounds - Answer (click here)

Enzyme Kinetics
1. Enzyme Kinetics - Answer (click here)
2. Derivation of M - M Equation - Answer (click here)
3. Enzyme Action - Answer (click here)
4. Enzyme Inhibitor - Concepts - Answer (click here)

Immunology
1. Immunology - Answer (click here)
2. Infections - Answer (click here)
3. Immunity - Answer (click here)
4. Natural Immunity - Answer (click here)
5. Acquired immunity - Answer (click here)
6. Humoral immunity - Answer (click here)
7. Cell mediated immunity - Answer (click here)
8. Antigens - Answer (click here)
9. Structure and Types of Antigens - Answer (click here)
10. Factors influencing the antigenicity of antigens - Answer (click here)
11. Antibodies - Answer (click here)
12. Antibody Structure - Answer (click here)
13. Immunoglobulin and their functions, Types - Answer (click here)
14. Antigen antibody reactions - Answer (click here)
15. Blood groups - Answer (click here)

Practicals
1. Collection of Blood - Answer (click here)
2. Preparation of Starch From Potatoes - Answer (click here)
3. Preparation of Casein From Milk - Answer (click here)
4. Estimation of Protein (Biuret Method) - Colorimetric Estimation - Answer
(click here)
5. Estimation of Glucose (Orthotoluidine method) - Answer (click here)
6. Estimation of Calcium (Titrimetric Method) - Answer (click here)
7. Determination of Blood Grouping - Answer (click here)