Circuit Theory Part -2

Contents:

 Inductors
 RL,LC, RLC circuits

1) Inductors:

Inductors are simply coils which store energy in form of magnetic field. They are
denoted by L and are measured in Henry (H).

A current carrying coil/conductor produces magnetic field and if the current is a time
varying then it produces time varying magnetic field. The reason for this will be
studied in EMF tutorial. A time varying magnetic flux inside a coil induces an EMF
across it, according to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. And this change
created by induced voltage opposes the current that created it, according to Lenz’s
law.

The induced Emf or the voltage drop is given by

L = - V =

Thus if the current is constant, the voltage across an ideal inductor is expected to be
zero. But practically, every inductor always exhibits some resistance. Hence there’s
always some voltage drop across inductor even if the current is not varying. Inductor
coils can be observed in chokes, transformers etc.,

While solving problems, the equivalent inductance can be found similarly as done for
resistors.

The series and parallel combination of the inductors are resolved as given by the
above formulae.

Problem: solve the following circuit for equivalent inductance.

Leq = 10 + 100 +

Leq = 119 mH.

As discussed before, the change in magnetic flux inside a coil is responsible for
inducing the voltage across it. This magnetic flux could’ve been generated by current
flowing in that same coil itself (cause for self-inductance) or by another coil placed
near to it (mutual inductance).

1.1. Self-inductance:

It can be clearly observed in the above figure, how magnetic fields are produced
around a current carrying coil. Consider again a coil consisting of N turns and
carrying current I in the counterclockwise direction, as shown in Figure. If the current
is steady, then the magnetic flux through the loop will remain constant. However,
suppose the current I changes with time, then according to Faraday’s law, an induced
emf will arise to oppose the change. The direction of induced emf is opposite to the
direction of source emf. The induced current will flow clockwise if dI/dt 0, and
counterclockwise if dI/dt 0. The property of the coil in which its own magnetic field
opposes any change in current is called “self-inductance,” and the emf generated is
called the self-induced emf or back emf . All current carrying loops exhibit this
property.

L   ∯ 

And is related to the self-inductance L by
L L 

From the above two equations it can be derived that,

L=N
Problem: Find the inductance of a uniformly wound solenoid having N turns and
length L. Assume that L is much longer than the radius of the windings and the core
of the solenoid is air.

Assuming that the magnetic field is uniform ignoring edge effects,

B= = 

Where n=N/l is the number of turns per unit length. Here o as it is air cored.

The magnetic flux through each turn is

B= BA =

Where, A is the cross sectional area of the solenoid. Using this expression, we find
that

L=N = =
Where, V is the volume of the solenoid.

Problem: what would happen if a ferromagnetic material is placed inside the

solenoid?
ANS: The inductance would increase. For a given current, the magnetic flux is now
much greater because of the increase in the field originating from the magnetization
of the ferromagnetic material. For example, if the material has a magnetic
permeability of 500 o, the inductance would increase by a factor of 500.

Problem: Calculate the inductance of solenoid with a material of 100 o in its core. It
has 100 turns and the length of the solenoid is 50cm and its cross sectional area is
10sqcm.
Using the previously derived equation,
L
( ) ( )
= (100 4
L = 2.51mH
1.2 Energy stored in form Magnetic field in a coil:

As the inductor opposes any change in the current through it, work must be done by
an external source so as set up current in the inductor. Energy storage in inductor is
analogous to that of the capacitor but the form of energy stored is magnetic in
inductor and electrical in later.

The power, or rate at which an external emf ext works to overcome the self-induced
emf L and establish current I in the current is

PL= = I ext

If only the external emf and the inductor are present, then ext = - L which implies

PL= = I ext = IL

If the current is increasing with dI/dt > 0 then P>0, which means that the external
source is doing positive work to transfer energy to the inductor. Thus, the internal
energy U of the inductor is increased. On the other hand, if the current is decreasing
with dI/dt < 0, we have P<0. In this case, the external source takes energy away from
the inductor, causing its internal energy to go down. The total work done by the
external source to increase the current from zero to I is then

Wext = ∫ =∫

This is equal to the magnetic energy stored in the inductor.

UB =

This is analogous to the electric energy stored in capacitor UE =

Problem: A long solenoid with length l and a radius R consists of N turns of wire. A
current I passes through the coil. Find the energy stored in the system.

U= =

But we know that B =

Implies, I=
From the above expressions we get,

U= = = A
Because A is the volume of the solenoid, the energy stored per unit volume in the
magnetic field surrounding the inductor is

UB = = .

Although the above derived expression was for solenoid, it is valid for any region of
space in which magnetic field exists. Note that equation for magnetic field stored is
similar to the energy stored per unit volume stored in an electric field, U E = . In
both cases, the energy density is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the
field.

1.3 Mutual Inductance:

Suppose two coils X, Y are placed near each other, as shown in Figure. The X coil has
N1turns and carries a current I1 which gives rise to a magnetic field. Since the two
coils are close to each other, some of the magnetic field lines through coil 1 will also
flow through coil2. Let 21 denote the magnetic flux per turn of coil 2 due to I1. Now,
by varying I1 with time, there will be an induced emf associated with the varying
magnetic flux in the second coil:

21   ∯ 

The time rate of change of magnetic flux 21 in coil 2 is proportional to the time rate
of change of the current in coil 1:

 21 

Where, the proportionality constant 21 is called the mutual inductance.

It can also be written as


21  
In the preceding discussion, we assumed that the I1 is in coil 1. Suppose a current I2 is
in coil 2 and If the current I2 varies with time, the emf induced by coil 2 in coil 1 is

12   ∯ 


The time rate of change of magnetic flux 21 in coil 2 is proportional to the time rate
of change of the current in coil 1:

  12

Where, the proportionality constant 21 is called the mutual inductance. It can also be
written as

12  

However, by reciprocity theorem it can be observed that M21 M12 


Problem: If the flux through a 200-turn coil changes steadily from 1 Wb to 4 Wb in
one second, what is the voltage induced?
Sol: The flux changes by 3 Wb in one second. Thus, its rate of change is 3 Wb/s.
E = N× rate of change of flux
=(200 turns)(3 Wb/s) = 600 volts

Problem: If the current through a 5-mH inductance changes at the rate of 1000 A/s,
what is the voltage induced?
Sol : VL = L x Rate of change of current
= (5 x H)(1000 A/s) = 5 volts

Problem: Find the Mutual Inductance of two single turn, concentric coplanar coils
shown below

Sol: from the above derived formulae, the magnetic field at the center of the rung due
to I1in the outer coil is given by

B1 =
Considering Rb<<Ra, we assume that the magnetic field through inner coil is uniform
and is equal to B1

ba= BaAb=

Thus, the mutual inductance is given by

M= ba /Ia =

The result shows that M depends only on the geometrical factors Ra and Rb and is
independent of current flowing Ia.

Problem: A long solenoid with length l and a cross-sectional area A consists of N1

turns of wire. Another solenoid of N2 turns is around it.
(1) Calculate the mutual inductance M, assuming that all the flux from the solenoid
passes through the outer coil.
(2) Relate the mutual inductance M to the self-inductances and of the solenoid and the
coil.

Solutions:

the magnetic flux through each turn of the outer coildue to the solenoid is

21= BA=
Where B = is considered as uniform magnetic field inside the solenoid. Thus,
the mutual inductance is
M = N2 21 / I1 =

2) We know that the self-inductance of the solenoid with N1 turns is given by

L1 = N2 11 / I1 =
Where 11 is the magnetic flux through one turn of the solenoid due to the magnetic
field produced by I1.
Similarly, we have L2= for the outer coil, in terms of L1 and L2 the mutual
inductance can be written as

M=√
More generally
M= √ 0
Where K is the coupling coefficient, In the above problem K=1 because all the
magnetic flux produced by the solenoid passes through the outer coil, and vice versa.

Problem: Consider a coil made of thin copper wire (radius ~ 0.25 mm) and has about
600 turns of average diameter 25 mm over a length of 25 mm. What approximately
should the resistance and inductance of the coil be? The resistivity of copper at room
temperature is around 20 nΩ-m. Note that your calculations can only be approximate
because this is not at all an ideal solenoid (where length >> diameter).

Sol) The resistance is given by

R= = = = 4.8Ω

The inductance of a solenoid is given by

L= =4 25mm = 9mH

Problem: calculate the mutual inductance of two solenoids in the above case if N1=
1500 turns, N2= 800 turns, A= 1sqcm, l = 0.02m
Sol:
M=

M = 7.5 mH
Dot convention: while solving problem you’ll come across this notation. In circuit
analysis, the dot convention is used to denote the voltage polarity of two mutually
inductive components. Fewer times delta can also be seen in place of dot. Both means
the same that the two inductive elements are coupled and indicates polarity.
The polarity of all dotted terminals will be the same at any particular time. The above
figure shows a transformer circuit with two vertical lines between the inductors
indicating a solid core.
Assuming an ideal transformer with no leakage inductance, when the current in a loop
enters the dot, then positive voltage is induced at the dot of the other loop.
Alternately, when current in a loop leaves the dot, negative voltage is induced at the
dot of the other loop. Similarly if two inductors are in series the dot convention can be
used in the same manner as in case of transformer.

Problem: find the total inductance of three series connected coupled coils shown in
the below figure.

Let us assume that current through circuit is I and voltage across two terminals is v,
then the voltage quation can be obtained using dot conventions. Let the equivalent
inductance be Leq.
Then V = Leq
Applying KVL,

-5
Comparing both the equations we get,

V= =5

Problem:
At node 1, (60 – v1)/4 = i1 + (v1 – v3)/8 (1)

At node 2, [(v1 - v3)/8]+ [(v2 - v3)/2] = v3/8  (2)

At the transformer terminals, v2 = -2v1 and i2 = -i1/2

But i2 = (v2 – v3) /2 = -i1/2 which leads to i1 = (v3-v2)/1 = v3+2v1

Substituting all of this into (1) and (2) leads to

(60 – v1)/4 = v3+ 2v1 + (v1+v3)/8 which leads 120 = 19v1+7v3

[(v1-v3)/8] + [(-2v1-v3)/2] = v3/8 which leads to v3= -7v1/6

From (4) and (5), 120 = 10.833 v1 or v1 = 11.077V

V3 = -7v1/6 = -12.923, v0 = v1-v3 = 24 V

2.1 RL Circuits
If a circuit contains a coil, say solenoid, the self-inductance of the coil prevents the
current in the circuit from varying (increasing or decreasing) instantaneously.

Consider the circuit shown above, suppose that the switch is closed at t=0. The current
in the circuit begins to increase, and a back emf opposing the increase in current is
induced in the inductor. The back emf is given by
L = -V = -

Because the current is increasing, dI/dt is positive. Thus L is negative. The negative
value reflects the drop in voltage when moving across the inductor. Hence, it is to be
noted that while traversed across an inductor in the direction of current, the potential
change is and if traversed in the direction opposite to the current voltage change
is . Now applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage rule,

 -IR - =0
Where, IR is the voltage drop across the resistor.
The above circuit can be assumed as below. The inductor is replaced by a voltage
source which is equal to its back emf induced in it.

The above equation can be rewritten as

=  (1)

let us assume k = –I

Integrating over both sides of equation (1)

ln = t

Where k0 is the value of K at time t=0. And by imposing the condition that I=0 at t=0
we get integrating constant to be –lnko

Taking the antilogarithm of the above result, we get

K = K0

Implies that,

–I=

I= ( )

Where is the time constant of the RL circuit.

Note that after a sufficiently long time, the current reaches its equilibrium value
The time constant is a measure of rate at which it is approaching the equilibrium
state. So, larger the value of L, longer time it takes to build up the current.
Decaying of Inductor:

After current reaching the equilibrium value , if we remove the voltage source, then
the inductor starts decaying. The magnetic field energy stored inside the inductor
decays by giving out a current. Consider at t=0 voltage source is removed and the
switch is closed. The decaying current is given by

L –IR = – IR = 0
This can be rewritten as,
=

Integrating both sides and solving it, we get

I(t) =
Where is the same time constant even in case of decaying.

Problem: An inductor has a negligible resistance and an inductance of 200mH and is

connected is series with a 1KΩ resistor to a 24V, d.c supply. Determine the time
constant of the circuit and the steady-state value of the current flowing in the circuit.
Find a) the current flowing in the circuit at a time equal to one time constant b) the
voltage drop across the inductor at a time equal to two time constants and c) the
voltage drop across the resistor after a time equal to a three time constants.

Sol) the time constant, = = = 0.2ms

The steady state current I = = 24mA

a) The transient current, i= I( ) and t=1

i ( ) = 24( ) = 2 x(1- 0.368) = 15.17 mA

b) The voltage drop across the inductor, VL= V

When t=2 , VL= 24 = 24 = 3.248V

c) The voltage drop across the resistor , VR = V ( )

 When t= 3 , VR = V ( ) = 24 ( ) = 22.81 V

Problem: In a series R-L circuit, the application of a direct voltage results in a steady
state current of 0.632 I in 1 second. I being the final steady state value of the current.
However, after the current has reached it final value, a sudden short circuit is applied
against the source. What would be the value of the current after one second?
Sol)
The charging current in the RL circuit is given by i= I(1- )
Here, in the first case,
0.632I = I(1- )

0.632 = (1- )

= 1- 0.632 = 0.368

As soon as short circuit is applied in steady state, current will start decaying from I.
the decay current I’ is given by

I’ = I

After a decay for 1 sec,

i= I = I 0.368 = 0.368I.

Therefore the value of the decay current after 1sec of application of short circuit is
0.368I

Problem: Find the current in a series RL circuit having R=2 and L=10 while a dc
voltage of 100V is applied. What is the value of this current after 5sec of switching on
?
Sol) Time constant = L/R = 10/2 = 5sec
Charging current is given by i= I(1- )

I, being the steady state current.

I = 100/2 (1- ) = 50 (1- )

Therefore Isteady state = 50A and Itransient state = -50

After t=5sec, itransient = -50 = -50/e = -18.518A

Thus i(after 5sec) = Isteady state + Itransient state = 50 – 18.518 = 31.482A.