Brown’s 12 Principles of Language

Learning and Teaching

H. Douglas Brown

H. Douglas Brown (born 1941) is a professor emeritus of English as a Second

Language at San Francisco State University. He was the president of International
TESOL from 1980 to 1981, and in 2001 he received TESOL’s James E. Alatis Award for
Distinguished Service.

12 Principles of Language Learning and Teaching

Native Language Effect

A learner’s native language creates both facilitating and interfering effects on

learning.(Linguistic Domain)

Communicative Competence

Fluency and use are just as important as accuracy and usage. Instruction must aim at
organizational, pragmatic and strategic competence as well as pronunciation, intonation and
stress. (Linguistic Domain)

Anticipation of Rewards

Learners are driven to perform by the promise of positive reinforcement, tangible or

intangible; long or short-term. (Cognitive Domain)

Language-Culture Connection

Learning a language also involves learning about cultural values and ways of thinking,
feeling or acting. (Socioaffective Domain)

Language Ego

Learning a new language involves developing a second identity with a new mode of thinking.
This new identity can be fragile and defensive. (Socioaffective Domain)

Meaningful Learning

Providing a realistic context to use language is thought to lead to better long term retention,
as opposed to rote learning. (Cognitive Domain)
Interlanguage

Second language learners generally follow a systematic process, during which they need
feedback (teacher, peer and self) to eliminate logic errors and achieve competence.(Linguistic
Domain)

Automaticity

Subconscious processing of language for fluency can only be achieved without overanalyzing
or too much attention to language forms. (Cognitive Domain)

Self-Confidence

Success in learning a language requires that the learners believe that they can learn it.
(Socioaffective Domain)

Strategic Investment

Success in learning is dependent on the time and effort learners spend in mastering the
language learning process according to their ability. (Cognitive Domain)

Risk-Taking

Taking a gamble and experimenting with language slightly “beyond” what is certain or
known promotes language development and growth. (Socioaffective Domain)

Intrinsic Motivation

The most potent learning “rewards” to enhance performance are those that come from the
needs, wants and desires within the learner. (Cognitive Domain)

Part of every language lesson

Foundation for good, strong pedagogy
Preliminary guides to inform your observations
#1 – Automaticity

 Efficient 2nd language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a few
language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language
forms.
 Automaticity – the road to fluency

#2 – Meaningful Learning

 Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning.
 Appeals to student interests
 Connects new info to old info (good schemata building)

Meaningful Learning – Don’ts

 Too much grammar explanation

 Abstract principles and theories
 Too many drills and memories
 Activities with unclear purposes
 Extraneous activities
 Distractions that take the focus off of meaning

#3 – The Anticipation of Reward

 Human beings are universally driven to act, or “behave,” by the anticipation of some sort
of reward – tangible or intangible, short term or long term – that will ensue as a result of
the behavior
 Anticipation of Reward
 Encourage for confidence, not an Oscar
 Encourage students to encourage students
 Be excited and enthusiastic!!
 It’s a long and winding road – keep an eye on the end rewards – get your students to look
there, too

#4 – Intrinsic Motivation Principle

 The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner.
 What is motivation?
o It is the extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the
effort you will devote to that pursuit
 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
o Intrinsic brings feeling of competence and self-determination
o Extrinsic is all about gaining an award or avoiding punishment

#5 – Strategic Investment

 Successful mastery of the 2nd language will be due to a large extent to a learner’s own
personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the 2nd language.
  Strategic Investment
 Strategic Investment
 Multiplicity of learning styles and strategies = multiplicity of techniques
 Group and individual; oral, written, bubbles, maps, graphics, etc
 Not everyone has to comfortable at every single moment of every lesson, so push people!

#6 – Language Ego

 As human beings learn to use a 2nd language, they also develop a new mode of thinking,
feeling, and acting – a 2 nd identity.
 Language Ego – Student TLC
 Be supportive because adult learners often feel stupid!
 Be challenging but kind in activities
 Think about LEs in planning class logistics (who to call on, correct, “volunteer”, how to pair
or group etc)

#7 – Self-Confidence

 The eventual success that learners attain in a task is at least partially a factor of their belief
that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing the task.
 Self- Confidence
 Build/sequence activities to build confidence.
 Encourage students – let them know that you know they can do the work
 You should have it, too!

#8 -- Risk-Taking

 Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as vulnerable beings

yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to gamble.
o Ashima in The Namesake!
 Create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages students to try out language,
venture a response
 Provide reasonable challenges
 Return students’ risky attempts with positive affirmation

#9 -- The Language-Culture Connection

 Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs,
values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting.
 Discuss cultural differences without being judgmental
 Consciously connect culture and language
 Don’t be culturally offensive in the class – that’s so easy!
 Be ready to discuss your cultural blind spots and assumptions
 Pay attention to possible culture shock

#10 – The Native Language Effect

 The NL of learners will be a highly significant system on which learners will rely to predict
the target language system.
 Errors are windows to interlanguage; is it the native language?!?!
  Help students to hold onto the helpful aspects of their NL
 Stop translation in its tracks! Think in the target language!!!

#11 -- Interlanguage

 2nd language learners tend to go through a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental

process as they progress to full competence in the TL.
 Distinguish between interlanguage errors and all others
 Tolerate interlanguage forms that make sense and show learning
 Don’t make the Ss feel stupid
 Treat mistakes like an oil dipstick
 Encourage self-correction
 Don’t let your corrections make students afraid of speaking

#12 -- Communicative Competence

o Since CC is the goal of a language class, instruction needs to point toward all of its
components: organizational, pragmatic, and psychomotor.
o Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to:
 language use and not just usage
 fluency and not just accuracy
 authentic language and contexts
 students’ eventual need to apply classroom learning to unrehearsed
contexts in the real world
o Communicative Competence is:
o A combo plate of:
 Organizational competence = grammatical and discourse
 Pragmatic competence = functional and sociolinguistic
 Psychomotor skills (pronunciation, intonation

 Grammar is just one part of a lesson

 Functional & sociolinguistic aspects of language are fun, but don’t forget the psychomotor
skills
 Allow students to become fluent
 Be real – in your materials
 Help students become independent learners and users of language

Brown – Principles of Language Learning

and Teaching
COGNITIVE Principles

– Automaticity: Subconscious processing of language with peripheral attention to language

forms;

– Meaningful Learning: This can be contrasted to Rote Learning, and is thought to lead to
better long term retention;
– Anticipation of Rewards: Learners are driven to act by the anticipation of rewards,
tangible or intangible;

– Intrinsic Motivation: The most potent learning “rewards” are intrinsically motivated
within the learner;

– Strategic Investment: The time and learning strategies learners invest into the language
learning process.

AFFECTIVE Principles

– Language Ego: Learning a new language involves developing a new mode of thinking – a
new language “ego”;

– Self-Confidence: Success in learning something can be equated to the belief in learners that
they can learn it;

– Risk-Taking: Taking risks and experimenting “beyond” what is certain creates better long-
term retention;

– Language-Culture Connection: Learning a language also involves learning about cultural

values and thinking.

LINGUISTIC Principles

– Native Language Effect: A learner’s native language creates both facilitating and
interfering effects on learning;

– Interlanguage: At least some of the learner’s development in a new language can be seen
as systematic;

– Communicative Competence: Fluency and use are just as important as accuracy and usage
– instruction needs to be aimed at organizational, pragmatic and strategic competence as well
as psychomotor skills.
20 Principles of language teaching –
(Nation, Macalister)
Content and Sequencing

1. Frequency: A language course should provide the best possible coverage of

language in sue through the inclusion of items that occur frequently in the language.
2. Strategies and autonomy: A language course should train learners in how to learn a
language and how to monitor and be aware of their learning, so that they can become
effective and independent language learners.
3. Spaced retrieval: Learners should have increasingly spaced, repeated opportunities
to retrieve and give attention to wanted items in a variety of contexts.
4. Language system: The language focus of a course needs to be on
the generalizable features of the language.
5. Keep moving forward: A language course should progressively cover useful
language items, skills and strategies.
6. Teachability: The teaching of language items should take account of the
most favorable sequencing of these items and should take account of when
the learners are most ready to learn the.
 7. Learning burden: The course should help learners make the most effective use of
previous knowledge.
8. Interference: The items in a language course should be sequenced so that items
which are learned together have positive effect on each other for learning and so that
interference effects are avoided.

Format and Presentation

1. Motivation: Learners should be interested and excited about learning the language
and they should come to value their learning.
2. Four strands:
1. Meaning – focused input
2. Meaning – focused output
3. Language – focused learning
4. Fluency activities.
3. Comprehensible input: There should be substantial quantities of interesting
comprehensible receptive activity in both listening and reading.
4. Fluency: The language course should provide activities aimed at increasing
the fluency with which learners can use the language they already know, both
receptively and productively.
5. Output: The learners should be pushed to produce the language in both speaking and
writing over a range of discourse types.
6. Deliberate learning: The course should include language – focused learning on the
sound system, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse areas.
7. Time on task: As much time as possible should be spent using and focusing on the
second language.
8. Depth of processing: Learners should process the items to be learned as deeply and
as thoughtfully as possible.
9. Integrative motivation: A course should be presented so that the learners have the
most favorable attitudes to the language, to users of the language, to the teacher’s skill
in teaching the language, and to their chance of success in learning the language.
10. Learning style: There should be opportunity for learners to work with the learning
material in ways that most suit their individual learn style.

Monitoring and Assessment

1. Ongoing needs and environment analysis: The selection, ordering, presentation,

and assessment of the material in a language course should be based on a continuing
careful consideration of the learners and their needs, the teaching conditions, and the
time and resources available.
2. Feedback: Learners should reeive helpful feedback which will allow them to
improve the quality of their language use.
Teaching by principles
Posted on January 1, 2017

With some extra time on my hands, I’ve been re-reading a publication I once needed for my
MA studies called Teaching by Principles by Douglas Brown (3rd edition), which, as the
blurb states, offers a comprehensive survey of practical language teaching options.

In Chapter 4 of his book, Brown investigates 12 foundational teaching principles, or

elements, which he considers to be at the core of language pedagogy. As I write, I’ll try to
make occasional references to my previous post, i.e. to Ellis’s Principles of Instructed
Language Learning, because I’d like to see how much (if at all) these two systems overlap.
And, as you read, you can determine the extent to which the principles are applied in your
own teaching.

Cognitive principles:

Principle 1: Automaticity

According to Brown, it is clear that small children learn languages without thinking about
them – they learn them automatically. Thus overanalyzing an L2 and thinking too much
about its forms is not the best way of learning it. To the contrary, this approach tends to
impede the process of graduation to automaticity in an L2 classroom.

I associate this principle with Ellis’s Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly

directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit
knowledge. Implicit knowledge is procedural, is held unconsciously and develops naturally
out of meaning-focused communication.

Principle 2: Meaningful learning

Brown maintains that rote-learning, i.e. taking in isolated bits and pieces of information that
are not connected with existing cognitive structures, has little chance of creating long-term
retention. Thus, when in the classroom, it is necessary to make meaningful associations
between existing knowledge and new material.

As I see it, this is in compliance with Ellis’s Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that
learners focus predominantly on meaning. I also see a connection with Principle 4 (see
above).

Principle 3: The anticipation of reward

Brown argues that human beings are universally driven to act by the anticipation of some sort
of tangible or intangible reward. Thus an optimal degree of praise and encouragement or
appropriate grades and scores are desirable.

Principle 4: Intrinsic motivation

However, the most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the
learner. Brown adds that if all learners were intrinsically motivated to perform all classroom
tasks, we might not even need teachers.
Principle 5: Strategic investment

Teaching methods, textbooks, and grammatical paradigms are no longer in the center of
attention. It is the methods that the learner employs to internalize and to perform in the
language that are important too. After all, successful mastery of L2 will be due to a learner’s
own personal investment of time, effort, and attention to L2.

To my mind, principles 3, 4 and 5 to some extent overlap with Ellis’s Principle 9: Instruction
needs to take account of individual differences in learners.

Principle 6: Autonomy

Successful mastery of L2 will depend on learner’s autonomous ability to continue their

journey to success beyond the classroom and the teacher.

This principle to a large extent links to Ellis’s Principle 6: Successful instructed language
learning requires extensive L2 input. As I wrote in my previous post, it’s virtually impossible
to provide L2 learners with a sufficient amount of input in the classroom so students’
autonomy seems to be the only way leading to ultimate success.

Socioaffective principles:

Principle 7: Language ego

As human beings learn to use an L2, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and
acting – a second identity. Their new ‘language ego’ can feel fragile, silly and sometimes
humiliated when lacking words or suitable grammar structures. Thus it is necessary to overtly
display a supportive attitude to your students.

I’d link this principle to Ellis’s Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the
learner’s ‘built-in syllabus’. I personally try to achieve this by tolerating the learners’
temporary ‘flaws’ and by giving them plenty of opportunities to succeed. Also, there’s
a similarity to Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in
learners.

Principle 8: Willingness to communicate

Successful learners are willing to communicate, which results in the generation of both output
(from the learner) and input (to the learner).

What immediately comes to mind is Ellis’s Principle 7: Successful instructed language

learning also requires opportunities for output. As you aren’t likely to get output from
stressed students, for example, you should make sure that the learning conditions and
atmosphere in the classroom are favorable to spontaneous communication. Brown’s
Principle 8 may also relate to Ellis’s Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is
central to developing L2 proficiency and Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of
individual differences in learners.

Principle 9: The language-culture connection

Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs,
values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. This can be a source of valuable language
input and a powerful tool for adjustment in new cultures. However, Brown advises us to be
sensitive if some students appear discouraged.

Again, here I can sense a connection with Ellis’s Principle 6: Successful instructed
language learning requires extensive L2 input. I’d add that culture is inherently present in
any language and you can’t separate language from culture if you want to communicate in
the target language successfully. I think I clearly demonstrated this in one of my previous
posts, where I contrasted phrases ‘I’m good’ and ‘I’m fine’.

Linguistic principles:

Principle 10: The Native language effect

The native language of learners strongly influences the acquisition of the target language
system. Brown advises teachers to regard errors as important windows to their underlying
system and provide appropriate feedback on them. What also helps students to minimalize
interference errors is thinking in the L2 instead of resorting to translation as they comprehend
and produce language.

Here I see a connection with Ellis’s Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of
individual differences in learners. If you teach a mixed nationality class, you’ll probably
have to treat diverse types of errors. I wrote about the native language effect here and here
on my blog.

Principle 11: Interlanguage

Just as children develop their native language in gradual, systematic stages, L2 learners, go
through a systematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in L2. This
means, for example, that at some point, a good deal of what an L2 learner says or
comprehend may be logically correct, but from the point of view of the native speaker’s
competence, it’s incorrect. Teachers should allow learners to progress through such
systematic stages of acquisition. Also, when giving feedback, the teacher needs to distinguish
between systematic interlanguage errors (these can be tolerated to some extent) and other
errors.

Principle 11 seems to overlap with Ellis’s Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into
account the learner’s ‘built-in syllabus’. As a teacher, one can’t simply skip or hasten
certain stages of the learner’s development, or eliminate systematic interlanguage errors
completely.

Principle 12: Communicative competence

Given that communicative competence is the goal of an L2 classroom, teachers should give
attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy. Give grammar
some attention, but don’t neglect the other important components. Make sure that your
students have opportunities to gain some fluency in English without having to be constantly
wary of little mistakes.
This seems to encompass at leat five of Ellis’s principles: Principle 1: Instruction needs to
ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-
based competence, Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus
predominantly on meaning, Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also
focus on form, Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing
implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge and Principle 8: The
opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency.

Although the authors complement one another, Brown’s perspective seems to me more
general and encompasses a slightly larger spectrum of (language) pedagogy. The connections
I made between the two sets of principles were based solely on intuition and others may see it
differently.
Assalamualaikum Wr. Wb.

Good morning Ladies and Gentlemen.

Honorable ones; the principle of SDN Gondrong 1, all Teachers and administration staff of
SDN Gondrong 1, parents of students grade 6th and all my friends in grade 6th.

First of all, let us praise to the Almighty Allah SWT, because of His Blessing we are able to
gather here, to attend a farewell ceremony for the students of SDN Gondrong 1, 6th grade in
academic year 2017–2018. Secondly, may shalawat and salam be upon the Prophet
Muhammad SAW who has guided us from the darkness into the brightness.

My friends, in this good opportunity, I stand here to represent all the students of SDN Gondrong
1 grade 6th to give a valedictory speech.

On the behalf of all students grade 6th.

There are so many things that I want to say here to express how thankful we are. I can't find a
word to express these tears of joy of remembering all memories that we have been through
during this past six years. All we want to say is we are proud to belong here, to study here and
to meet all great teachers that we have ever met.

We would like to say thank you very much for all the teachers of SDN 1 Gondrong who have
taught, educated, and guided us so that we can pass the national exam (UN) successfully. Thank
you very much for your dedication. We know that your advice, guidance, and motivations have
made us better not only in thinking but also in attitudes. My teacher, we realize that we cannot
give you any reward. It seems that there is no single reward that can represent our thankfulness
for your kindness. We can only give you gratitude and pray. May Allah repay your kindness.
May Allah always bless you all.

We would also like to apologize to all of the teachers, administration staffs and all the elements
of SDN 1 Gondrong. Please, forgive our mistakes, forgive all the bad things that we have done,
forgive all stupid things that make you angry and hopefully we can make our attitudes better
than before. Not to forget, we also say our great thanks to our beloved parents who are attending
on this occasion. Our parents always give their love and motivation to us so that we all will be
graduated.
We know, this is the top point of all six years journey together here. There are a lot of laugh,
cries, smile, beautiful things that we have experienced. I hope, we will always remember
those days forever. And make them as beautiful memories in our life.

Ladies and Gentlemen

I think that’s all my valedictory speech. I am really sorry for all mistakes. The last, on the
behalf of students grade 6th, once again, I would like to say: thank you, forgive us, and
remember us. Thank you very much.
Assalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.

Yang saya hormati; kepala sekolah SDN 1 Gondrong, bapak dan Ibu guru SDN 1 Gondrong
dan staff tata usaha, orang tua murid kelas 6 SDN Gondrong 1 danteman-temanku di kelas 6.

Pertama-tama marilah kita penjatkan puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT, karena rahmat dan
hidayatnya kita bisa berada di sini, untuk menghadiri upacara perpisahan siswa SDN 1
Gondrong kelas 6 di tahun akademik 2017–2018. Yang kedua, solawat serta salam untuk
nabi besar Muhammad SAW yang telah menuntun kita dari kegelapan ke keterang-benerang.

Teman-teman ku, di kesempatan yang baik ini, saya berdiri di sini mewakili seluruh siswa
SDN 1 Gondorng kelas 6 untuk memberikan sebuah pidato perpisahaan.

Atas nama seluruh siswa kelas 6.

Ada begitu banyak hal yang ingin saya katakan di sini untuk mengungkapkan betapa
bersyukurnya kami. Saya tidak dapat menemukan kata-kata untuk mengungkapkan air mata
kebahagiaan ini ketika mengingat semua kenangan yang kita telah melalui selama ini tiga
tahun terakhir. Kami hanya ingin mengatakan bahwa kami bangga berada di sini, belajar di
sini dan bahagia bertemu guru-guru hebat yang pernah kita temui.

Kami ingin mengucapkan banyak terimakasih untuk semua guru SDN 1 Gondrong yang telah
mengajarkan, medidik, dan menuntun kami sehingga kita bisa melalui ujian nasional (UN)
dengan sukses. Terimakasih banyak untuk dedikasinya. Kita tahu bahwa saran, petunjuk, dan
motivasi kalian telah membuat kita lebih baik tidak hanya dalam pemikiran tetapi juga pada
sikap kami. Guru-guruku kita menyadari bahwa kita tidak bisa memberi kalian balasan yang
pantas. Tidak ada hadiah yang pantas untuk membalas segla jasa kalian. Kita hanya bisa
bersyukur dan berdoa. Semoga Allah membalas kebaikan kalian. Semoga Allah memberkati
kalian semua.

Kami juga ingin meminta maaf kepada seluruh guru, staf TU semua unsur pendukung SDN 1
Gondrong. Tolong maafkanlah kami, maafkanlah semua kelakuan buruk kami yang telah
kami perbuat, ampunilah segala hal bodoh yang membuat kalian marah dan kami berharap
sikap kami lebih baik dari sebelumnya. Tidak lupa, kami juga mengucapkan sangat terima
kasih kepada orang tua tercinta yang sudah hadir dalam kesempatan kali ini. Orang tua yang
selalu memberikan kasih sayang dan motivasi kepada kami sehingga kami akan segera lulus.

We know, this is the top point of all six years journey together here. There are a lot of laugh,
cries, smile, beautiful things that we have experienced. I hope, we will always remember
those days forever. And make them as beautiful memories in our life.

Kita tahu ini adalah puncak perjalnan selama enam tahun Bersama disini. Ada banyak tawa,
tangis, senyum, dan hal menyenangkan yang kita dapat jadikan pengalaman. Saya harap kita
akan selalu mengingat hari-hari tersebut. Dan mmebuatnya sebagai memori indah dalam
hidup.
Hadirin sekalian
Mungkin sampai sini pidato perpisahan dari saya. Saya minta maaf untuk semua kesalahan.
Yang terakhir, atas nama siswa kelas 6, sekali lagi, saya ingin mengucapkan: terima kasih,
maafkanlah kami dan ingatkanlah kami. Terimakasih banyak.

Wassalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb
Remember us as the students you have ever taught someday.
Not to forget, we also say our great thanks to our beloved parents who are attending on this
occasion. Our parents always give their love and motivation to us so that we all can graduate
and celebrate it today.

With all due the respect to the honorable Mr. Principal, to the honorable Mr. and Mrs. Teachers,
to the honorable parents of student grade VI, and to all my dearest friends.
First of all, let’s say our praise and gratitude to Allah SWT because of His grace and blessing
upon us, we are given the best condition of our health to gather here altogether today. Today,
we gather up in order to have a farewell ceremony and also graduation celebration day for
students grade VI.
To all the teachers and students, time really passed so fast. It has been 6 years since our first
time to study and take many lessons at this school. There are lots of knowledge and lessons we
had. All of them are really helpful for us.
Now, the graduation has finally come. After this 6 years we had learnt so many things from
you all my teachers, on the behalf of my friends grade VI, I say our great thanks for all of you
our dearest teachers. Every lesson and advice you gave will always we remember.
We also say our deepest apology for all of our mistakes and mischief we have ever made during
our study at this school. Remember us as the students you have ever taught someday.
Not to forget, we also say our great thanks to our beloved parents who are attending on this
occasion. Our parents always give their love and motivation to us so that we all can graduate
and celebrate it today.
To all my friends, all the happenings we had and experienced at this school; sadness, happiness,
and bliss will always remind us to this beloved school. After graduation, I wish we all can
always be encouraged to stay determined in studying to reach for the goals.
Last words, on the behalf of friends grade VI, I would like to say goodbye to our beloved
school. We will everlastingly remember this school. That’s all I can say. I say my deepest
apology for all the mistakes on my words. Thank you for the attention.