ENSC3019/CHPR8503:

Week 6 Design of Packed Columns

Recommended reading:
McCabe et al., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, Chapter 21
Treybal, R. E. Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd Edn. McGraw-Hill 1955, Chapter 9
Coulson, J. M. and Richardson, J. F. Chemical Engineering, Volume 6: Particle
Technology and Separation Processes, 5th Edn. Butterworth-Heinemann 2002

Dr Kevin Li
Kevin.li@uwa.edu.au
1
Mass Transfer (MT) across phase interface: two-
resistance model see McCABE et al. p547; BENÍTEZ p165

distance
Bulk gas Gas film Liquid film Bulk liquid

yA,G xA,i

xA,L
yA,i

N A k y ( y A, g − y A,i=
= ) N A k x ( x A,i − x A,L )
∝ 1 ky
∝ 1 kx
Resistances to diffusion of A:
(i) in the gas phase film (ii) in the liquid phase film

At the interface: assume local equilibrium between yA and xA,

2 no resistance to MT across the interface
Mass-transfer coefficients:
an engineering concept that allows us to simplify complex
diffusion problems.

N A k y ( y − yi )
=

Flux
(mole/m2/s) = Coefficient × Driving force
(concentration
difference)

Since concentration could be defined in different ways,

a variety of coefficients can be defined:
• ky, kx, Ky, Kx ……
3
Summary of general forms of MT Rates for two-phase films
See McCabe et al. page 547-548. Or if you’re keen for more discussion look at Treybal’s Chapter 5..

N A k y ( y − yi )
=
ky is local MTC for gas phase
yi is mole fraction (of component A) in gas at the gas-
liquid interface , y is bulk vapour composition

N A k x ( xi − x )
=
kx is local MTC for liquid phase
xi is mole fraction (of component A) in liquid at the
gas-liquid interface, x is bulk liquid composition

NA Ky ( y − y
= )
* Ky is overall MTC for gas phase
y* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk liquid of composition x

N A Kx ( x − x)
= * Kx is overall MTC for liquid phase
x* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk vapour of composition y

MTC=mass transfer coefficient. Subscripts A, and G, L dropped here for simplicity.

1 1 m' m’ is local slope of equilibrium curve

= +
K y k y kx ( y* − yi ) ( x − xi )
i.e. m ' =
4
Tutorial 1 Equilibrium for component A between air and
water is described by Henry’s law y*=4x. The local mass
transfer coefficients are kx=2 mol m-2s-1 and ky=1 mol m-2s-1.

(1) What is the overall mass transfer coefficient for gas

phase?
(2) Evaluate the flux of A between phases at a point in a
column where bulk compositions are 0.08 mole fraction in
the gas and 0.01 mole fraction in the liquid.

5
 6.1 Packed columns for absorption

Dr Kevin Li Consultation hours

Kevin.li@uwa.edu.au 15:00-17:00Thursdays
2.49A in Civil & Mech Eng building

6
Equipment for gas-liquid absorption
Need intimate contact between the immiscible
phases to achieve mass transfer (MT) between
phases.
Flux NA
 rate of transfer per unit area of gas-liquid interface

Engineering MT equipment focuses on increasing

the interfacial area for transfer (a )
Main equipment types

Packed columns
Random (let to fall randomly into column during installation)
Structured (engineering for lower ΔP, higher cost )

Tray columns - liquid levels on each tray

Gas sparging tanks

Column internals
Packing material, plus

Liquid inlet systems

Liquid & vapour distributors
Liquid collecting devices
Packing supports

Good info at manufacturer

www.sulzechemtech.com

GREEN, D. W. & PERRY, R. H. (eds.) (2008).

Perry's chemical engineers' handbook, New
York: McGraw-Hill. 9
 Packed columns – random packings
Raschig rings see more images at
www.tower-packing.com
Metal pall rings

VSP Inner arc ring

10
Structured packings
www.sulzerchemtech.com
MellapakTM

www.sulzerchemtech.com
Grids
Tray columns

V-grid www.sulzerchem.com
Sieve tray
High performance trays
eg. Shell calming section tray

www.sulzerchem.com
Coulson and Richardson Vol 6. list some of the factors
which influence choice of trays or packing in a column:

1. Tray columns can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid and

gas flow rates. Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid
rates.
2. The efficiency and performance of a tray column can be more
accurately predicted.
3. Easier to make provisions for withdrawal side streams in plate
columns.
4. Fouling & cleaning: can install manholes on trays. However, may be
easier to replace packing when fouled.
Plate columns can be designed with more assurance - some doubt that
good liquid distribution can be maintained in a packed column.
It is easier to provided cooling or heating in a plate column – coils
directly on plates. 14
Trays/Plate columns vs. Packed
columns
5. For corrosive liquids a packed column will be cheaper
than a plate column (due to materials).
6. The liquid hold-up is lower in a packed column. Important
if amount toxic or flammable liquid needs to be keep low
for safety.
7. Packed columns are more suitable for foaming systems
8. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage can be lower for
packed columns.
9. Packing cheaper for small columns, d < 0.6 m

15
Column internals –
process design
Process design or process tech support to operation
needs to consider:
Type of contacting device
Number equilibrium stages
Height of packing required
Pressure drop
Fouling
Corrosion and other materials issues

16
MT Rate, rA, for absorption per unit volume of
packed column See McCabe et al. page 579

k y a ( y − yi )
kya is local MTC for gas phase on
rA unit volume basis
yi is mole fraction (of component A) in gas at the gas-
liquid interface , y is bulk vapour composition

k x a ( xi − x )
kxa is local MTC for liquid phase on
rA unit volume basis
xi is mole fraction (of component A) in liquid at the
gas-liquid interface, x is bulk liquid composition

K ya ( y − y )
Kya is overall MTC for gas phase on
*
rA unit volume basis
y* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk liquid of composition x

K xa ( x − x )
Kxa is overall MTC for liquid phase
*
rA on unit volume basis
x* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk vapour of composition y

Coefficient a is interfacial area per unit volume of packed column

17
Which MTC and rate equation?

Can use any of the four basic rate equations to

design an absorption column, but the gas-film
coefficients are often used.

We’ll follow McCabe et al. and use Kya here.

18
Calculation of packing height (dilute gas)
y2 L, x2

Mass balance on component A across differential

volume dz.
y+dy x+dx
Rate loss solute from gas = Rate gain solute by liquid
dz
y x Assume:
• dilute gas  change in molar flow V is neglected

= K y a ( y − y ) Adz
x1
V, y1
−Vdy *

a = interfacial area/unit volume of column

A = cross-sectional area column (m2)
ZT = total height of packed section

Let’s do a dimension analysis here.

How do we get this equation from NA? 19
Calculation of packing height
See McCabe et al. page 580-581

Rearranging and integration of the mass balance equation:

Then, substitute Zt
Let into above equation

We now have an equation to calculate the total height of packing, ZT,

based on concentration driving force (y-y*), gas flow rate and the gas
phase MTC:
2
V dy
Zt = ∫
K y aA 1 y − y *

20
ZT = (height transfer unit) x (number units)
See McCabe et al. page 580-581

2
V dy
Zt = ∫
K y aA 1 y − y *

Height of transfer unit

HOy change in gas conc.
Units of length. average driving force
The height of packing Number of transfer units
needed to achieve: NOy
change in gas conc. Subscript Oy shows based on overall
= driving force gas phase driving force.

for that section of packing. 21

Operation line and equilibrium line Graphic integration: 1/(Y – Y*) as a
function of Y
Four sets of HTUs and NTUs
See McCabe et al. page 583

dy
Gas film: Hy =
V/A Ny = ∫
k ya y − yi
L/ A dx
Liquid film: Hx = Nx = ∫
kxa xi − x
V/A dy
Overall gas: H Oy = N Oy = ∫
K ya y− y *

V/A dx
Overall liquid: H Ox = N Ox =∫ *
K xa x −x
23
ENSC3019

6.2 Determination of Column Height

24
Values of height of transfer
unit See McCabe et al. page 580-581

Values of HOy are system dependent.

Sometimes available for a particular system directly in the
literature, or could be measured in pilot-plant studies.
But, often need to estimate height of transfer units from
empirical correlations for individual MTCs or individual heights
of a transfer unit.
This estimation is a key element of Assignment 1.

25
 2
V dy Evaluating the
Zt = ∫
K y aA 1 y − y integral for NOy?
*

Simplest case - Straight operating & equilibrium lines.

Can evaluate NOy by: change in gas conc.
N Oy =
log mean driving force

y2 − y1
y2
dy
=N Oy ∫=
y1 ( − ) ( − )
* *
y y y y
lm
For details on the integration above, see
Coulson & Richardson Vol2.
Log mean driving force
( y − y ) −(y − y )
* *

(y− y ) = y− y
* 1 2
lm

ln
( ) *
1
Example H2S scurbber problem
& solution provided at end of
(y− y ) *
these set of slides.
26
2
Challenges and discussions

What if gas is not dilute?

Where do I get values of Mass Transfer Coefficients?

Affects of temperature and pressure?

What if there’s a chemical reaction as well as absorption?

E.g. amine absorption for acid gas removal?

27
Example 13.1 H2S scrubber

Gas from a petroleum distillation column has its H2S concentration

reduced from 0.03 kmol H2S /kmol inert hydrocarbon to 1 % of this
value by scrubbing with triethanolamine-water solvent in a
countercurrent tower, operating at atmospheric pressure and 300 K.
The equilibrium relation for the solution is described by Ye=2X.
Solvent enters the tower free of H2S and leaves containing 0.013
kmol H2S /kmol solvent. If the flow of inert gas is 0.015 kmol/s.m2 of
tower cross-section, calculate:
(a)Height of absorber required
(b)Number of transfer units NOG (or Noy)required

The overall coefficient for absorption KYa is 0.04 kmol/s.m3 (unit

mole fraction driving force).
28
Example 13.1 solution (1)
Data:
Y2 Ls, X2 1) Equilibrium expression
Ye=2X

2) Top of column conditions

absorber Y2 = 0.03 x 0.01 = 0.0003
X2 = 0  Y2e = 0
Driving force = Y2-Y2e = 0.0003
3) Bottom of column conditions
X1 Y1 = 0.03
Vs, Y1 X1 = 0.013  Y1e=0.026
Driving force = Y1-Y1e = 0.004
29
 Example 13.1 solution (2)

Logarithmic mean driving force:

0.004 − 0.0003
( Y − Ye ) lm =
 0.004 
ln  
 0.0003 
0.0037
= = 0.00143
2.59

Mass balance on H2S in gas film:

(rate moles lost from gas) = (rate mass transfer)

Vs (Y1 − Y2 )=
S KG aP (Y − Ye )lm SZ
Where S is the cross section area KG is the pressure dependent MTC
(which is also termed as A) KG P = Ky
Example 13.1 solution (3)

And we can rewrite in terms of lumped overall coefficient:

KG a P = KY a = 0.04 kmol/s m3
Then:

Vs (Y1 - Y2) = KY a (Y - Ye)lm Z

0.015 (0.03 – 0.0003) = 0.04 (0.00143) Z

Solve for Z: Z = 7.8 m

31
 Example 13.1 solution (4)

Now calculate height of transfer unit:

Which is another
expression of HOy
For dilute systems, Vs ≈ V

Number of transfer units:

Z
=
N OG = 20.7
H OG
NOG = 21
Which is another expression of32
NOy
Example 13.1 alternatives solutions

If your love calculus you could solve analytically:

Y2
dY
N OG =∫ NOG = 21.1
Y −Y
Y1 e

Calculate HOG as before. Then calculate Z.

Z = 7.91 m
33
Example 13.1 alternatives solutions

Could do a graphical-numerical solution (eg.

trapezoidal rule or Simpson rule to find the NOG)
This will be illustrated later with Tutorial Example 2

34
Looking forward:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
• Coulson and Richardson Vol 6. suggest the following
advantages/disadvantages for Plate vs Packed:
• Plate columns can be designed to handle wider range of
liquid and gas flow rates
• Packed columns not suitable for very low liquid rates
• The efficiency and performance of a plate column can
be more accurately predicted

35
Looking forward:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
• Plate columns can be designed with more assurance -
some doubt that good liquid distribution can be
maintained in a packed column.
• It is easier to provided cooling or heating in a plate
column – coils directly on plates.
• Easier to make provisions for withdrawal side streams in
plate columns.
• Fouling by solids – can easily install manholes on plates –
small columns however – may be easier to replace
packing when fouled.

36
Looking forward:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
• For corrosive liquids a packed column will be cheaper
than a plate column (due to materials).
• The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed
column – important if amount toxic or flammable liquid
needs to be keep low for safety
• Packed columns are more suitable for foaming systems
• The pressure drop per equilibrium stage can be lower
for packed columns – impt. vacuum distillation
• Packing cheaper for small columns, d < 0.6 m

37
6. 3 Height Equivalent of an Ideal Stage
Review:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
• Coulson and Richardson Vol 6. suggest the following
advantages/disadvantages for Plate vs Packed:
• Plate columns can be designed to handle wider range of
liquid and gas flow rates
• Packed columns not suitable for very low liquid rates
• The efficiency and performance of a plate column can
be more accurately predicted

39
 Plate column easy to think of in # of stages,
what about packed?
V n+1
y n+1
n +1
L n+1 Vn
x n+1 yn
n
Ln
V n-1
xn
y n-1
n -1
L n-1
x n-1

“Ideal stage” N actual =

N ideal

?
stage-by-stage η
determination 40
 Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate
(HETP)
Column height is determined from # of theoretical plates
and the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP)
= N ideal × HETP
H packed
1
α=4 If the HETP is 0.5 m then...
7 stages

3.5 m
0
xB xD
0 1
Example: 7 Theoretical Stages 41
How to determine an HETP
• Typically determined through empirical data
• General values for random packing
– 0.3 to 0.6 m
• Smaller packing can have lower values but also less
capacity
• Structured packing can have much improved HETP
– 0.1 to 0.2 m
• Typically no fundamental prediction for HETP

42
Random and Structured Packing
Random - larger HETP

Plastic Tripak Metal Tripak

(Jaeger Products Co.) (Jaeger Products Co.)

Structured packing elements

for small colums with wall
wipers at the periphery
Section of expanded Sections of expanded metal packings placed
metal packing altenatively at right angles (Denholme Co.)

Structured - smaller HETP

(better separation with smaller column height)

43
Example: HETP for iso-octane/toluene with
Intalox packing
• HETP given in terms
of a flow capacity
factor
• #25, 40 50 refer to
packing sizes of 1,
1.5, 2 inches
Recommended design
velocity: 20% less than
when HETP rises rapidly
superficial velocity

44
Wetted area key to good separation
• The better the wetted area the lower the HETP
– Thus structured packing typically better than random

• Areas of high liquid flow tend to have low vapour flow

and vice versa
• Liquid will also tend toward the outside
• Also means redistribution can be important
– Recommended design practice of redistribution every 3 to
4m

45
Liquid distributors/redistributors

• Liquid distributor – distribute liquid evenly over column

(feed and reflux from condenser)
• Redistributors - collect liquid that has migrated to the
walls and redistribute it evenly over packing or even out
any other maldistribution

Weir Liquid distributor Wall wiper redistributor

46
Recommended examples from textbooks
read, understand, try to do the problems yourself

McCABE et al:
Examples: 21.1, 21.2, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6, 21.7

BENÍTEZ, J. (2009):
Examples 6.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8

SEADER, J. D. & HENLEY, E. J. (2006).

Example 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.6

Treybal, R. E. (1981); illustration 9.10

Try problems from the end of these chapters as well.

47
Not presented

6.4 DETERMINATION OF
COLUMN DIAMETER
-- APPLICABLE TO BOTH DISTILLATION AND
ABSORPTION COLUMNS
REFERENCE FOR
ASSIGNMENT 1
48
Determination of Column Diameter
• Column diameter D is a function of the volumetric flow
rate V and velocity u of the gas entering the column

4𝑉𝑉
• 𝐷𝐷 = 𝜋𝜋𝑢𝑢

• For a given task, gas flow rate V is known, and then

unknown parameter is velocity u.
• Gas velocity is often determined by the viable pressure
drop in the column (which is related to operation cost).
• Larger velocity  higher pressure drop  higher
operation cost
• Smaller velocity  lower pressure drop  larger
column diameter and higher capital cost
 For packed column
Design considerations: Pressure drop and flooding

G’x G
∆P x

dry

log Gy
Loading point

Flooding point

G – mass flow per unit area (Gy-gas, Gx-liquid)

Centre for Energy - “energy for today and tomorrow”

 For packed column
Design considerations: Pressure drop and flooding
Gas outlet

Liquid inlet Some flooding description

•A visual build-up of liquid on the upper

surface of the packed bed

• A rapid increase in liquid hold-up with

increasing gas rate

• Formation of a continuous liquid phase above

the packing support plate

• A considerable entrainment of liquid in

the outlet vapour
Liquid outlet Gas inlet
• Filling of the voids in the packed bed with liquid

www.see.ed.ac.uk
Centre for Energy - “energy for today and tomorrow”
Design considerations: Pressure drop and flooding

V Gx

Gy

(McCabe, Smith, Harriott)

Centre for Energy - “energy for today and tomorrow”

 Design considerations: Diameter of packed towers
Pressure drop analysis: Eckert graph

Pressure drop in
inH2O/ft of packing
(brackets: mm H2O/
m of packing) Flooding line

Normally
* Moderate to high pressure
distillation =
Gy : 0.4 to 0.75 in water / ft
packing
Mass flow of = 32 to 63 mm water / m
packing
gas per
unit area * Vacuum Distillation =
0.1 to 0.2 in water / ft packing
Gy = u ρv = 8 to 16 mm water / m
packing

* Absorbers and Strippers =

McCabe, Smith, Harriott 0.2 to 0.6 in water / ft packing
= 16 to 48 mm water / m
packing
Centre for Energy - “energy for today and tomorrow”
Eckert graph in IS units

𝑢𝑢2 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉

𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿 0.2
𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿

In a flooding line,
u becomes umax

u, dry column velocity (m/s);

umax, flooding point velocity
(m/s); g, acceleration of
gravity (m/s2); φ, packing
factor (1/m); ψ, liquid density
correction coefficient, i.e.
density of water versus density
of the liquid ψ = ρH2O/ρL; μL,
viscosity of liquid (mPa s), wL
and wV, liquid and vapor mass
flowrate (kg/s). 0.5
𝑤𝑤𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉
Centre for Energy - “energy for today and tomorrow”
𝑤𝑤𝑉𝑉 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿
Design considerations: Diameter of packed towers
Other different graphs

Given L, V (mass flow rates)

Select pressure drop

determine u

select packing

Double check pressure drop

Sinnott

Centre for Energy - “energy for today and tomorrow”

ENSC3019/CHPR8503
Topic 3 Solid-fluid separations
Recommended reading:
H. Pierson & B. Perlmutter, Settle Down (Part 1). The Chemical Engineer (TCE), 2010, June pp48-50.
H. Pierson & B. Perlmutter, The solution is clear (Part 2). TCE, 2010, July/August pp53-55.

Chapters 28 & 29 of McCabe et al., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th Edn. McGraw Hill 2005
Sections 18 & 21 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edn. McGraw-Hill

Dr Kevin Li
Kevin.li@uwa.edu.au

56
We will look at:

Sedimentation & Settling processes

Important solid handling processes we won’t

study here:
• Filtration & screening processes
• Size reduction
• Solids mixing
• Hopper and storage vessel designs
57
Examples of solid-fluid separations

Oil and gas industry  hydrocyclones

Separate sand and other solids
from water or other liquids

Separate oil droplets from water

58
Examples of solid-fluid separations

Coal-fired power station (filter-bags)

– Particulates from flue gases

59
Gravity classifiers
Separate particles of the same density but different
particle sizes.

Feed
Liquid + fine particles
overflow

Coarse particles sink, picked up by

screw 60
Image from http://www.zoneding.com/Product-23.html
Examples of solid-fluid separations

Food and beverage industry (filter)

– Separate curd (solids)
– from whey (liquid)

61
Properties and handling of particulate solids

Size
Shape
Density

62
Size and shape of particles
For regular shaped particles we can easily define size and shape.

Cube Volume = l 3
l
Area = 6l 2

Sphere 4 d 
3

Volume = π  
3 2
2
d 
Area = 4π  
63 2 
Relative sizes of particulate matter

Examples of real particles

Shape of irregular particles
Sphericity

6 dp 1 for a sphere
φs = 1 for cube as dp=l
S p Vp

Eq. 28.1 McCabe et al. p 967

dp = nominal diameter of one particle
Vp = volume of one particle
Sp = surface area of one particle

65
Sphericity of some materials
Material Φ Material Φ

Spheres, cubes,
short cylinders 1.0 Ottawa sand 0.95
(L=dp)

Raschig rings 0.33-

Coal dust 0.73
(L=dp) 0.58

Berl saddle
0.3 Crushed glass 0.65
(L=dp)

Mica flakes 0.28

66
McCabe et al, p164 Table 7.1
Description of populations of
particles
• In practice, size distribution is a histogram
• Distribution curve by mass, number and surface can
differ dramatically
• Which distribution we would use is dependent on the
end use of the information
Differential VS cumulative
distribution
2 basic principles of
separation
To separate liquid from solids, or solids from
liquids there are only 2 mechanisms available:
(1) Use a screen or porous medium that retains
one component and allows others to pass
(2) Use differences in sedimentation rates as
particles (or drops) move through a gas or
liquid

69
Separation by
Gravity
Settling / sedimentation
Centrifugal force
Heavy media

Flotation

Magnetic force

Screens

Screen / filter
Gravity
Filters Pressure
Vacuum
Expression
Crossflow eg. membranes
70
Gravity sedimentation processes

Three broad functional operations

(1) Classifier
Separate solids into two fractions
(2) Clarification
Remove a relatively small quantity of suspended
particles to produce a clear effluent
(3) Thickening
To increase concentration of solids in a feed
stream

71
Selecting a separation method

1. Define the problem

– Is liquid or solid the valuable product?

– How clear does liquid need to be?

2. Establish process conditions

– Particle size, concentrations, flowrates

– How long do particles take to settle?

3. Make a short list of appropriate equipment types

72
Clarifiers and thickeners
Convert dilute slurry of fine particles into a clarified
liquid and a concentrated suspension.
Often performed in large open tanks.

Cessnock Wastewater Treatment Works

http://www.epco.com.au

73
Batch sedimentation process
Time

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

A A
A A
B
B B

C
C
C D D
D D
74
Rate of separation

Clear
liquid
interface
height

Settling time, hours

75
Flocculation
particles < few microns dp settle slowly

Agglomerate particles  faster separation

Videos

Flocculation for waste water treatment

How flocculation works?

https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=5uuQ77vAV_U

76
Equipment - thickeners

http://www.filtration-and-separation.com/ 77
 Motion of a particle in air
Eq(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

ρ: density of particulate or fluid, kg·m-3

Fd: drag force, kg·m·s-2
The forces acting on a particle in a fluid
ma: sum of the forces acting on the particle
a: downward acceleration of the particle, m·s-2
The drag force increases as the velocity of
the particle increases, until it reaches the
terminal settling velocity, the sum of force (5)
become zero, ma = 0
Stokes’ Law
 The relationship between velocity and drag
force:
(6)
where, μ is the fluid viscosity, Pa·s or kg·m-1·s-1
Substitute eq (6) into eq (5):

(7)

Which is commonly referred to as Stocks’ Law.

George Gabriel Stokes
In class tutorial 1
 Compute the terminal settling velocity in air of a spherical particle with
diameter of 1 μ and 10 μ, respectively. Density of the particle is 2000
kg·m-3, air density 1.2 kg·m-3, viscosity 1.8 x 10-5 kg·m-1·s-1.

 V = 9.81 · (10-6) 2 · (2000-1.2)/ (18 · 1.8 x 10-5 ) = 6.05 x 10-5 m/s

 V = 9.81 · (10-5) 2 · (2000-1.2)/ (18 · 1.8 x 10-5 ) = 6.05 x 10-3 m/s

 Estimate how long will it take for the particle to settle down to the
ground level, if it falls from a 3000 m altitude. Assume no convection,
no rainfall.
 About 19 months for the 1 μ particle and, 5.7 days for the 10 μ particle.
 Terminal settling velocity for spherical particles with specific gravity =
2, in standard air.
 Gravity Settler
 A gravity settler is simply
a long chamber through
which the contaminated
gas passes slowly,
allowing time for the
particles to settle by
gravity to the bottom.
 Very effective for very
dirty gases with heavy
particles (metallurgical).

The average velocity equals volumetric

flow rate divided by cross sectional area:
Vavg = Q / (WH)
Physical Model
 Easy mathematical analysis and typical model for devices
using similar devices, i.e. cyclones and electrostatic
precipitators.

Vavg

Vt

Chamber floor escaped

L
captured captured
Deriving the model
 Assumptions for plug flow
a) The horizontal velocity of the gas in the chamber is
equal to Vavg everywhere and constant
b) The vertical component of the velocity of the
particle is equal to the terminal settling velocity due to
gravity, Vt
c) If a particle settles to the floor, it stays there and is
not-entrained
d) Particle size distribution is uniform, no interaction
with each other
 Traverse time of particle in the flow direction is
t = L / Vavg
 Vertical settling distance =
t·Vt = Vt·L / Vavg
 So all the particles with vertically settling distance smaller than H will
settle on the floor.
 The fraction of particles that will be captured, is
Fractional collection efficiency =
η = Vt·L / (Vavg·H) (8)
 To compute the efficiency-particle diameter relationship, we replace
the terminal settling velocity in eq (8) with the gravity–settling
relations described by Stock’s law, finding

Block flow/plug flow (9)

for Mixed flow (practical)
 Assumption
Gas flow is totally mixed in the z direction but not in
the x direction, as most real gas flows are turbulent.
 Collection efficiency

(10) or,

(11)
In class tutorial 2
 Compute the efficiency-diameter relation for a gravity settler that has
H =2m, L = 10m, and Vavg = 1 m/s for both the plug and mixed flow
models, assume Stocks Density of the particle is 2000 kg·m-3, air
density 1.2 kg·m-3, viscosity 1.8 x 10-5 kg·m-1·s-1.’ law.
 A: We can get the result using only one computation and then using
ratios. For a 1 micron particle in plug flow:

Mixed flow
 Calculation results

Particle diameter, μ η plug flow η mixed flow

1 0.000303 0.000303
10 0.03 0.03
30 0.27 0.24
50 0.76 0.53
57.45 1.00 0.63
80 1.94 0.86
100 3.03 0.95
120 4.36 0.99

57.45 μ
 Plug flow settling VS mixed flow
Dust gas in Clean gas out

Plug flow gravity settler

Dust gas in Clean gas out

Mixed flow gravity settler

Limitation of gravity settler
 Only effective for particles with diameter >100 micron
(fine sand, mineral particle) but not for particles of air
pollution (PM10)

To increase the collection efficiency substantially and practically,

by substituting some other force for the gravity in driving the
particles from the gas stream to the collecting surface
Centrifugal force
 If a body moves in a circular
path with radius r and
velocity Vc along the path,
then it has angular velocity
ω =Vc/ r
 Centrifuge force = (12)

acceleration, substitution of g
Example
 A particle is travelling in a gas stream with velocity of
18 m/s and radius of 0.3 m. What is the ratio of
centrifugal force to the gravity force acting on it?
 A: (18 x 18/0.3)/9.8 = 110.2
Centrifugal Separator (Cyclone)
 Substituting the centrifugal acceleration of the
gravitational one into Stocks’ law, eq (7), and drop the
buoyancy term, we find:

(13)

 This is the settling velocity under centrifuge

Structure of cyclones tangentially

 Similar to gravity settlers, in

the form of two concentric
helices.
 Only the outer helix
contributes to collection
 Particles get into the inner
helix escape uncollected
 Dimensions are typically
based on the diameter D0 of
outer helix. Taken as ratios
to D0. Gas inlet width, Wi =
0.25
Model details
 During the outer spiral of the gas, the particles are driven
to the wall by centrifugal force, where they collect, attach
to each other, and form larger agglomerates and slide down
the wall by gravity and collect in the dust hopper in the
bottom.
 The inlet stream has a height Wi in the radial direction,
equivalent to the height H of pure gravity settler
 The length of the flow path is NπD0, where N is the
number of turns that gas traverse the outer helix (normally
set as N = 5), analogues to the length of gravity settler L.
Collection efficiency of cyclones
 Substitute H =Wi and L = NπD0 into gravity settler
equation (9) & eq (11), finding:

plug flow (14)

mixed flow (15)

 Further substituting the centrifugal Stokes’ law eq (13) into

above equations, finding:

plug flow (16) mixed flow (17)

In class tutorial 3
 Compute the efficiency-diameter relation for a cyclone separator that
has Wi = 0.15 m, Vc = 18 m/s, and N =5, for both block and mixed flow
assumptions, assuming Stocks’ law.

Particle diameter, μ η plug flow η mixed flow

1
10
30
50
57.45
80
100
120
For very small particles < 5 micron

diytrade.com

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An industrial multiclone dust collector
B&W's Multiclone dust collector
made of a number of parallel small
cyclone
Cut diameter
 Measure of the size of the particles caught and the size
passed for a particular particle collector.
 Cut diameter is the diameter of a particel for which the
efficiency curve has the value of 0.5, i.e. 50%
 Substitute η = 0.5 into Stocks’ law plug flow model,
finding:

plug flow (18)

Other dust collectors
 Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)Venturi scrubber
 Bag filter
 Venturi scrubber