Phy Lecture27 2 18

Waves, Oscillations, Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 1

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 2

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 2

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 2

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Sound
s
B
Speed of sound in a medium is given by, v=
ρ
B is bulk modulus, ρ is density of the medium.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Sound
s
B
ρ
s
elastic property
Essentially v =
intertial property
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Sound
s
B
ρ
s
elastic property
Essentially v =
intertial property
r
TC
Speed of sound in air, v = (331m/s) 1+
273o C
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Sound
s
B
ρ
s
elastic property
Essentially v =
intertial property
r
TC
273o C
Eg: Speed of sound in aluminium metal with Y = 7 × 1010 N/m2
and ρ = 2.7 × 103 kg/m3 .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Sound
s
B
ρ
s
elastic property
Essentially v =
intertial property
r
TC
273o C
and ρ = 2.7 × 103 kg/m3 .
r
7.0 × 1010
=⇒ vAl = = 5.1 km/s.
2.7 × 10 3
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3
Sound
s
B
ρ
s
elastic property
Essentially v =
intertial property
r
TC
273o C
and ρ = 2.7 × 103 kg/m3 .
r
7.0 × 1010
=⇒ vAl = = 5.1 km/s.
2.7 × 10 3
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3
Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 4

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 4

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 4

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound
Sound propagation through a gas can be written as
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound

s(x, t) = smax cos(kx − ωt)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound

s is the displacement of a small volume of gas from its equilibrium
position.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound

position. The change in pressure by the displacement is given
by,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound

by, ∆P = ∆Pmax sin(kx − ωt).
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound

by, ∆P = ∆Pmax sin(kx − ωt).
∆Pmax is the maximum change in pressure.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound
In terms of bulk modulus B,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound

∆V
∆P = −B
Vi
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound

∆V
∆P = −B If ∆x is the change in position, and ∆s is
Vi
change in position of volume,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound

∆V
Vi
A∆s
∆P = −B
A∆x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound

∆V
Vi
A∆s
∆P = −B
A∆x
∂s
= −B
∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound

∆V
Vi
A∆s
∆P = −B
A∆x
∂s
= −B
∂x
= −Bksmax sin(kx − ωt)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Sound
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Sound
But B = ρv 2 .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Sound
But B = ρv 2 .
=⇒ ∆P = ρv 2 ksmax sin(kx − ωt)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Sound
But B = ρv 2 .
= ρvωsmax sin(kx − ωt)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Sound
But B = ρv 2 .
=⇒ ∆P = ∆Pmax sin(kx − ωt)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Sound
But B = ρv 2 .
=⇒ ∆P = ∆Pmax sin(kx − ωt)
where ∆Pmax = ρvωsmax .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

One dimensional Wave Equation
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8


P is the pressure,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8


P is the pressure, ρ is the density.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8


Let P0 and ρ0 be pressures at equilibrium.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8



P0 = f (ρ0 )
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8



P0 = f (ρ0 )
Pressure change Pe due to sound is generally very small in air.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8



P0 = f (ρ0 )
Pressure change Pe due to sound is generally very small in air.
Pe ≪ P0 . ρe ≪ ρ0 .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9

For pressure P due to sound we can write,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe ,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
P0 + Pe
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
P0 + Pe = f (ρ0 + ρe )
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
P0 + Pe = f (ρ0 + ρe ) = f (ρ0 ) + ρe f ′ (ρ0 )
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
P0 + Pe = f (ρ0 + ρe ) = f (ρ0 ) + ρe f ′ (ρ0 )
Pe = κρe
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
P0 + Pe = f (ρ0 + ρe ) = f (ρ0 ) + ρe f ′ (ρ0 )
Pe = κρe where κ = f ′ (ρ0 )
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9


P = P0 + Pe , ρ = ρ0 + ρe
Then,
P0 + Pe = f (ρ0 + ρe ) = f (ρ0 ) + ρe f ′ (ρ0 )

dP
Pe = κρe where κ = f (ρ0 ) =
′
dρ 0
Above expression relates changes in density to changes in

pressure.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 9

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10

We consider waves in one dimension.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10

All positions we consider are very far from source.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10

Wavefronts then will be almost planar.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10

Displacement due to sound χ is only function of x and t.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10


χ ≡ χ(x, t)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10


χ ≡ χ(x, t)
χ ≫ mean free path for gas molecules in air.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10


χ ≡ χ(x, t)
χ ≫ mean free path for gas molecules in air.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 10

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11

Consider two positions x and x + ∆x.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11


x → x + χ(x, t)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11


x → x + χ(x, t)
Position of x changes to x + χ(x, t) at time t.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11


x → x + χ(x, t)
Similarly,
x + ∆x → (x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x).
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11


x → x + χ(x, t)
Similarly,
x + ∆x → (x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x).
Amount of air between x and x + ∆x is ρ0 ∆x.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11


x → x + χ(x, t)
Similarly,
x + ∆x → (x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x).
After displacement it lies between
x + χ(x, t) and (x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x).
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11


x → x + χ(x, t)
Similarly,
x + ∆x → (x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x).
After displacement it lies between
x + χ(x, t) and (x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x).
If ρ is the new density,
ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 11
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]

= ρ[{χ(x + ∆x) − χ(x, t)} + {(x + ∆x) − x}]
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]

= ρ[{χ(x + ∆x) − χ(x, t)} + {(x + ∆x) − x}]

∂χ
ρ0 ∆x = ρ ∆x + ∆x
∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]

= ρ[{χ(x + ∆x) − χ(x, t)} + {(x + ∆x) − x}]

∂χ
ρ0 ∆x = ρ ∆x + ∆x
∂x
∂χ
ρ0 = (ρ0 + ρe ) + ρ0 + ρe
∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]

= ρ[{χ(x + ∆x) − χ(x, t)} + {(x + ∆x) − x}]

∂χ
ρ0 ∆x = ρ ∆x + ∆x
∂x
∂χ
ρ0 = (ρ0 + ρe ) + ρ0 + ρe
∂x
∂χ ∂χ
ρe = −ρe ) − ρ0
∂x ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]

= ρ[{χ(x + ∆x) − χ(x, t)} + {(x + ∆x) − x}]

∂χ
ρ0 ∆x = ρ ∆x + ∆x
∂x
∂χ
ρ0 = (ρ0 + ρe ) + ρ0 + ρe
∂x
∂χ ∂χ
ρe = −ρe ) − ρ0
∂x ∂x
∂χ
= −ρ0
∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

ρ0 ∆x = ρ[{(x + ∆x) + χ(x + ∆x)} − {x + χ(x, t)}]

= ρ[{χ(x + ∆x) − χ(x, t)} + {(x + ∆x) − x}]

∂χ
ρ0 ∆x = ρ ∆x + ∆x
∂x
∂χ
ρ0 = (ρ0 + ρe ) + ρ0 + ρe
∂x
∂χ ∂χ
ρe = −ρe ) − ρ0
∂x ∂x
∂χ
= −ρ0 neglecting term with ρe .
∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 12

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13

The mass of air between x and x + ∆x is = ρ0 ∆x.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13


∂ 2χ
The force per unit area perpendicular to x is = ρ0 ∆x 2
∂t
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13


∂ 2χ
∂t
In terms of pressure, force per unit area at x is,
P (x, t)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13


∂ 2χ
∂t
P (x, t)
force per unit area at x + ∆x is,
−P (x + ∆x, t)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13


∂ 2χ
∂t
P (x, t)
−P (x + ∆x, t)
Then,
P (x, t) − P (x + ∆x, t)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13


∂ 2χ
∂t
P (x, t)
−P (x + ∆x, t)
Then,
∂P
P (x, t) − P (x + ∆x, t) = − ∆x
∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13


∂ 2χ
∂t
P (x, t)
−P (x + ∆x, t)
Then,
∂P ∂Pe
P (x, t) − P (x + ∆x, t) = − ∆x = − ∆x
∂x ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 13

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 ∆x 2 = − ∆x
∂t ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 ∆x 2 = − ∆x
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 2 = −
∂t ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 ∆x 2 = − ∆x
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 2 = −
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ρe
ρ0 2 = −κ
∂t ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 ∆x 2 = − ∆x
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 2 = −
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ρe
ρ0 2 = −κ
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ 2 χe
ρ0 2 = −κρ0 2
∂t ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 ∆x 2 = − ∆x
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 2 = −
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ρe
ρ0 2 = −κ
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ 2 χe
ρ0 2 = −κρ0 2
∂t ∂x
∂2χ ∂ 2 χe
2
= −κ 2
∂t ∂x
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14

Then,
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 ∆x 2 = − ∆x
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂Pe
ρ0 2 = −
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ρe
ρ0 2 = −κ
∂t ∂x
∂ 2χ ∂ 2 χe
ρ0 2 = −κρ0 2
∂t ∂x
∂2χ ∂ 2 χe
2
= −κ 2
∂t ∂x
Wave equation for Sound waves.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 14
Acoustics
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 15

Acoustics
Intensity of sound, I ∝ P 2
where P is the pressure amplitude.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 15

Acoustics
Pressure of faintest sound heard by human ear is 3 × 10−5 Pa.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 15

Acoustics
Corresponding intensity is 10−12 W/m2 .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 15

Acoustics

1
Intensity varies with distance, I ∝ 2
r
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 15

Acoustics

1
Intensity varies with distance, I ∝ 2
r
Ratio of intensity at distances r1 and r2 from source of sound is,
I1 r22
=⇒ = 2
I2 r1
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 15

Acoustics
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics
Range of variation of intensity of sound is large.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics
Loudness of sound is proportional to Intensity I.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics

For two intensities I and I0 (lowest hearable)
L1 ∝ log I, L0 ∝ log I0
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics

I
Difference in loudness may be written as, L ∝ log
I0
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics

I
I0
I
Taking proportionality constant as 1, we get, L = bels
I0
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics

I
I0
I
I0
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics

I
I0
I
I0
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 16

Acoustics
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
1
1 decibel = bel.
10
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
1
1 decibel = bel.
10
I
=⇒ L = 10 log dB.
I0
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
1
1 decibel = bel.
10
I
=⇒ L = 10 log dB.
I0
I0 = 10−16 W/cm2 .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
1
1 decibel = bel.
10
I
=⇒ L = 10 log dB.
I0
I0 = 10−16 W/cm2 .
I0 means 0 dB,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
1
1 decibel = bel.
10
I
=⇒ L = 10 log dB.
I0
I0 = 10−16 W/cm2 .
I0 means 0 dB,
I = 100I0 → L = 20 dB.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
1
1 decibel = bel.
10
I
=⇒ L = 10 log dB.
I0
I0 = 10−16 W/cm2 .
I0 means 0 dB,
I = 100I0 → L = 20 dB.
I = 1000I0 → L = 30 dB.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 17

Acoustics
Reflection of Sound:
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 18

Acoustics
Sound is longitudinal, requires elastic medium for

propagation.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 18

Acoustics

propagation.
No polorization.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 18

Acoustics

propagation.
No polorization.
Obeys laws of reflection when obstacle very large compared

to wavelength.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 18

Acoustics
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 19

Acoustics
Defects due to reflected sound:
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 19

Acoustics
Occurs if time between original and reflected

Echo:
sound when heard are very different.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 19

Acoustics

Echo:
Reverberation:Sound heard for some time due to

reflections from surfaces in closed enclosures.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 19

Acoustics

Echo:

Absorption of sound is important to remove

reverberation.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 19

Acoustics

Echo:

Absorption of sound is important to remove

reverberation.
Coefficient of absorption a is defined as,

Sound energy absorbed by surface
a=
Total sound energy incident Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 19
Sabine’s formula
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 20

Sabine’s formula
Analyzing reverberations in various enclosures Sabine concluded

that reverberation time T ,
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 20

Sabine’s formula

Increases Good reflecting surfaces.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 20

Sabine’s formula

Increases with volume V .
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 20

Sabine’s formula

Depends on absorption coefficienc a of surfaces.
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 20

Sabine’s formula

Depends on absorption coefficienc a of surfaces.
Depends on frequency of sound (Absorption increases with

frequency.)
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 20

Acoustics
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 21

Acoustics
Volume of enclosureV
Reverberation time T ∝ .
AbsorptionA
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 21

Acoustics
AbsorptionA
V
=⇒ T = k The constant, k = 0.161
A
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 21

Acoustics
AbsorptionA
n
V X
=⇒ T = k The constant, k = 0.161 If A = ai Si (ai is
A i=1
absorption coefficient of ith surface of area Si ),
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 21

Acoustics
AbsorptionA
n
V X
=⇒ T = k The constant, k = 0.161 If A = ai Si (ai is
A i=1
absorption coefficient of ith surface of area Si ),

V
T = 0.161 n
X
ai Si
i=1
Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 21

Phy Lecture27 2 18

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Waves, Oscillations, Sound

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 1

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 2

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 2

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 2

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 3

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 4

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 4

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 4

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound propagation through a gas can be written as

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound propagation through a gas can be written as

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound propagation through a gas can be written as

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound propagation through a gas can be written as

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound propagation through a gas can be written as

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Sound propagation through a gas can be written as

∆Pmax is the maximum change in pressure.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 5

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

In terms of bulk modulus B,

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

In terms of bulk modulus B,

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

In terms of bulk modulus B,

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

In terms of bulk modulus B,

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

In terms of bulk modulus B,

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

In terms of bulk modulus B,

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 6

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 7

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.

Let P0 and ρ0 be pressures at equilibrium.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.

Let P0 and ρ0 be pressures at equilibrium.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.

Let P0 and ρ0 be pressures at equilibrium.

Feb. 27, 2018 – p. 8

For a gas we assume P = f (ρ) at some arbitrary position.