CLASSROOM DISCOURSE AND TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Abstract

1. Introduction
2. Classroom discourse
a. Definition
Discourse, in very simple way, can be defined as ‘language in use’ (Cook, 1989: 6).
Nunan (Yu, 2009: 2) defines classrom discourse as distinctive type of discourse in
classroom. In another word classroom discourse is language that used in classroom as
communication between teacher and the students. In his eyes, special features of
classroom discourse include unequal power relationships which are marked by unequal
power opportunities for teachers and students to nominate topics, take turn at speaking
etc. Walsh (2011) states that ‘communication in the classroom is so important because it
underpins everything that goes on. It is the central to teaching, to learning, to managing
groups of people and the learning process, to organising the various tasks and activities
that make up classroom practices. Communication refers to the ways in which the
language is used to promote interactions.’ Walsh added that to become effective teacher, a
teacher need not only to understand classroom communication, but also to improve it.
The improvement that teacher can make to enrich communication and interaction is
through develop their ways and ability.

b. Pedagogical Discourse
Discussion about classroom discourse cannot be separated with the term pedagogical
discourse. In a simple definition, pedagogical discourse means a teacher-student
discourse. Mechan (cited in Yu, 2009: 2)
offered the three structural components of a pedagogical discourse as follows:
1. An opening phase where the participants inform each other that they are in fact
going to conduct a lesson as opposed to some other activities
2. An instructional phase where information is exchange between teacher and
students
3. Closing phase where participants are reminded of what went on in the core of
lesson (Ellis, 1990)
However, Mechan notes that not all language lessons follow the same structure in that
language classes may consist entirely of instructional phase.

c. Types of language use in EFL classroom discourse

Mctear (cited in Yu, 2009: 2) observed four types of language use in EFL classroom
discourse, as follows:

1. Mechanical (i.e. no exchange of meaning is involved)

 2. Meaningful (i.e. meaning is contextualized by there is still no new information to
be conveyed)
3. Pseudo-communication (i.e. new information is conveyed but in a manner that
would be unlikely to occur outside the classroom)
4. Real communication (i.e. spontaneous speech resulting form the exchange of
opinions, jokes, classroom management etc)

Pedagogic discourse is believed to result form real communication type of language use,
pseudo communication between two aspects (Ellis, 1990)

d. Dimension of Classroom Discourse

Ellis (cited in Yu, 2009: 2) views classroom discourse in terms of two dimension:

1. The interactive goal

Interactive goals is divided into three types as follows:
a. Core goals are revealed in the explicit pedagogical intentions of the
teacher. The goal can be medium-centered, message centered or activity centered.
b. Framework goals are defined as the interactive goals related with the
organization of clasroom activity.
c. Social goals occur when the participants interact on daily social matters.
2. ‘Adress’ and its related types: adress types are associated with one or four
identities which classroom participant can have: teacher, pupil, class member, or
group member and with the interactive role he possesses: speaker, adressee and
hearer

3. Classroom discourse and teacher development

Placing classroom discourse at the center of the process is the most beneficial way of
teacher to develop and enhance their professional practices. It can help teacher more
understanding the process of interaction and study their own language so that to improve the
quality of both teaching and learning in the classroom.
There are four key areas for teacher to development in classroom which is improving
questioning strategies, making the discourse more communicative, enhanced interactive
decision-making, and dealing with reticence. Each of them will be more discussing as follow;
Improving questioning strategies

This strategy is one of the most important strategies that used in the classroom to get
response from learners and also the most difficult skills to master even for the teacher who
consider having the most experienced of teaching. This is because teacher needs to be a
professional to ask the appropriate questions and emphasizes the complexity attached to good
question. There are three types of question that teacher can use in the classroom.
 1) Form, this is a categorization of grammar. It is include closed and open questions,
or more traditional, yes/no or wh-. The teacher can ask the closed questions first
because it is easier to answer than open one; in the form of a short answer and then
follow by an open wh- question. These questions are requiring more than one word
answers; the answers could come in the form of a list, a few sentences or something
longer so that to reach the learner’s contribution.
Examples of closed questions are:
 Have you already completed your homework?
 Is English your favorite subject?

Examples of open questions are:

 When do you finish your homework?

 Why English is your favorite subject?
2) Content, this type of question is focus on the question that relate to personal facts,
outside facts or opinions. The questions need to give the importance of personalizing
questions because the result is often increased learner investment in the discourse.
3) Purpose, there are two different questions between display question and the
question for communication.
A) Display question is the question that teachers already know the answer,
however the functions of display questions including; eliciting a response,
cheking understanding, guiding learners towards a particular response,
promoting involvment, concept checking.
B) Referential question is desiged to promote discussion and debate, engage
learners and produce longer, more complex responses. The result of this
question is more natural respones by learners, often longer and more
complicated, and resulting in a more conversational type of interaction. This
kind of question is often begin with a wh- question such as who, why, what,
etc (Walsh, 2011).

Making the discourse more communicative

The main idea of classroom discourse is concern with the communication and interaction
between teacher and learner. Many researchers are interested in comparing the communication
that takes place in classrooms with that of the ‘outside’ or ‘real’ world. The differences between
the class room and the real world are there are less of conversation in classroom while student
talk a lot in the outside room or real world. As a teacher, it is a crucial work that they have to
make more conversation and interaction between teacher and student in the class.

Walsh (2011) concluded the study of Scott Thombury that teachers can be stimulated to
making their classrooms more communicative through a more appropriate use of language and
interactional resources. In Thomson’s study (cited in Walsh, 2011)also commented on the fact
that getting students to work in group and pairs is not in itself ‘communicative’ and that learners
need to be helped and guide if they are to really join with L2 classroom discourse. Four features
of communicative classroom talk were identified as Referential questions, Content feedback,
Wait-time, and Student-initiated talk.

 Referential questions, which require greater effort and depth of processing

on the part of the teacher, one possible reason for language teachers’ preference for
display questions over referential questions.
 Content feedback, where the focus is on meaning, rather than language form.
This is quite rare in many second language classrooms. Most of the feedback from
teachers to students is form-focused and deals with language-related issues.
 Wait-time. This is the amount of time a teacher waits after asking a question
before getting a response. Typically, it is very short, even less than a second.
Thornbury found that even slight increases in wait-time result in an increase in the
quantity and quality of learner contributions and an increase in the number of learner
questions.
 Student-initiated talk. Requests for clarification and confirmation checks point
to ownership of the discourse and suggest that learning, through negotiated meaning, is
taking place. When learners are seeking clarification, asking questions or checking
their own understanding, they are more likely to be engaged with the learning process.

Enhanced interactive decision-making

Making a good decision is one of the key characteristic that effective on teaching. A
good teacher should make a good interactive decision; decision that are appropriate to the
moment, engage learners, seeking out the opportunities to teach, simplify leaning and learning
opportunity. The study of Kathy Bailey in 1996 has addressed the six principles of interactive
decision-making. These principles were concern to develop understandings of the decisions
teachers took to depart from their lesson plans. The principle will describe more as follow;

1) Serve the common good

 Where several learners are perceived by the teacher as having the same
problem (raised by one student’s question), there can be some justification for
dealing with the problem (linguistic or otherwise) at length, resulting in a
departure from what was planned.
2) Teach to the moment
 Lessons may be abandoned completely or partially when a “window of
opportunity” results in the teaching of something pertinent to the moment.
3) Further the lesson
 Decisions pertaining to the organization of learning may result in
changes to what was originally planned.
4) Accommodate learning styles
 Preference by learners about the way “things get done” in the classroom
 may result in departures from what was planned.
5) Promote students’ involvement
 Learners may be encouraged to develop a contribution that is felt to be
particularly valid or relevant to a specific “teaching moment”.
6) Distribute the wealth
 Ensuring fair and even turn-taking by encouraging more reticent learners
and “reining in” the more vocal ones.

Dealing with reticence

A common problem that happened in English as a Foreign Language in classroom is the

reticence. According to Keaten & Kelly (cited in Li & Liu 2011) reticence is “a communication
problem with cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions and is due to the belief that one is
better off remaining silent than risking appearing foolish”. It can be said that reticence student’s
behavior not to participate in classroom interaction and it can affects the participating of
learning and interaction in the class. The study of Amy Tsui in 1996 (cited in Walsh, 2011:37)
have shown the problem of reticence, there are a lack of self-confidence and willingness to take
risk; a fear of mistakes and derision; a fear of silence; an uneven distribution of turns, with
teacher bids going mainly to the brighter learners; incomprehensible input – teachers’
contributions were too vague or too difficult to understand. Similar to Li & Liu (2011) the
causes of reticence are;
1) Low self esteem
2) Fear of being ridiculed
3) Fear of success
4) Cultural differences
5) To avoid conflict
6) Communication apprehension
Conclusion
References