Fundamentals of metalworking

Subjects • Introduction/objectives
of interest • Classification of metal processes
• Mechanics of metalworking
• Flow curves
• Effects of temperature on metalworking
- Hot working
- Cold working
• Effects of metallurgical structure on forming processes
• Effects of speed of deformation on forming processes
• Effects of friction and lubricant

 Forming process is one of the most important groups of

manufacturing processes
 Forming is a fabrication process for solid substances by
controlled plastic deformation in order to obtain alterations of:
• the form,
• the material properties and/or
• the surface properties,
whereby the mass and material continuum remain unchanged.
 This includes bulk deformation processes (Forging, rolling,
extrusion, as well as rod and wire drawing).
 It also includes sheet-forming processes (Bending, deep
drawing, ironing, spinning, and general pressworking).
 Objectives / Contents

This course provide fundamental knowledge about:

• The mechanical behaviour of materials
• Cold and hot working processes (differences between hot and cold
working will be highlighted )
• Comparison of yield criteria
• The different types of bulk deformation processes and their products
spectrum
• The mechanics of bulk forming process (mechanics of metal forming
will be outlined to understand stress criterion for plastic deformation)
• The parameters influencing the process (effects of deformation
speed and friction on metal working process will be included)
• Major types of defects
• Advantages and limitations of each forming process (advantages-
disadvantages of hot and cold working will be given)
• This chapter provides classification of metal forming processes
based on types of forces applied onto metals.

By the end of this course you should be able to:

 Understand the fundamentals of the mechanical behaviour of
materials
 Define the physical principles and the theories of plastic
deformation
 Differentiate the different forming processes
 Describe the equipments, practices, and defects of forming
processes
 Calculate force, work, and power of forming processes in a simple
form
 MALZEMELERE PLASTİK ŞEKİL VERME
Giriş METALLERİN ÖZELLİKLERİ METALLERİ ŞEKİLLENDİRME
• Mukavemet YÖNTEMLERİ
• Süneklik • Döküm
• Tokluk • Plastik şekillendirme
• Elektriksel iletkenlik • Talaşlı imalat
• Yüksek ısı iletimi • Kaynak
• Toz metalurjisi
DÖKÜM
Ergimiş metalin belirli bir şekle sahip bir kalıba dökülerek
şekillendirilmesidir.

Kum kalıba döküm

Metal kalıba (Kokil) döküm Basınçlı döküm.

Hassas dökümde balmumundan yapılmış taslak, seramik bir kabuk
ile kaplanır, balmumu ertilerek kalıptan boşaltılır ve kalıba ergimiş
metal dökülür.
 TALAŞLI İMALAT
Bir parçanın, genellikle bir kesici takım ile ve takım
tezgahları kullanılarak talaş kaldırma yöntemi ile
şekillendirilmesi.

Tornalama Planyalama

Matkapla Taşlama
Frezeleme delme
 TOZ METALURJİSİ
Metalik tozların üretilmesi ve bu tozların arzu
edilen şekle kalıplanarak getirilmesi.

Toz metalurjisi işleminin akış şeması. Ergimiş metal, asal

gaz püskürtülerek atomize edilir. Toz bir kalıba
doldurulur. Daha sonra toz basınç ile sıkıştırılır ve
sıkıştırılmış ara ürün sinterlenerek arzu edilen mamul
üretilir.
 KAYNAK
İki ya da daha fazla sayıda malzemeyi ısı, basıç veya her ikisini de uygulayarak;
doldu maddesi ile veya dolgu olmaksızın; bölgesel olarak birleştirme işlemidir.

(a) Gaz metal ark kaynağı

(b) Gaz tungsten ark kaynağı
(c) Plasma ark kaynağı

(a) Elektrod ark kaynağı

(b) Tozaltı kaynağı
(c) Elektrocüruf kaynağı
 PLASTİK ŞEKİL VERME

Dış kuvvetler kullanılarak metalleri deforme etme veya

şekillendirme işlemidir.
Deformasyon İşlemlerinin Yararları
1. Döküm yapısının bozularak yarı-mamul ürünlerin elde
edilmesi
2. Yarı-mamullerin bitmiş parça şekline getirilmesi

Deformasyon İşlemlerinin Sınıflandırılması

• Dövme
• Haddeleme
• Tel Çekme
• Ekstrüzyon
• Gererek Şekillendirme
• Eğme
• Kesme
 Classification of metal forming by subgroups

Metal forming

Combined tensile Forming by Forming by

Compressive Tensile
and compressive bending shearing
forming forming
forming
•Rolling •Pulling through a •Stretching •Bending with •Joggling
•Open die die •Expanding linear tool •Twisting
forming •Deep drawing •Recessing motion •Blanking
•Closed die •Flange forming •Bending with •Coining
forming •Spinning rotary tool
•Indenting •Upset bulging motion
•Pushing through
a die
Classification of Forming Processes
 Schedule
Introduction: definition of plastic deformation, classification of forming
processes, material failure under tension and compression, ductile, brittle and
fatigue fracture
Stress-Strain relationships: engineering stress-strain, true stress-strain, relations,
uniform strain, strain hardening, work of deformation, types of stress-strain
curves, effect of temperature, effect of strain rate, residual stresses.
Yield Criteria: maximum shear stress, distorsion energy theory, Hill criteria,
comparison of yield criteria
Forging processes: types, basic processes, products, die material, forgeability,
forgeability tests, lubrication, equipment, forging defects , ideal forces and work
of deformation, forging of rectangular & cylindrical specimens, slab method
analysis, sliding and sticking conditions, friction hill in upsetting.
Rolling processes: definition, rolling products, stand and equipment, flat rolling
practice, miscellaneous rolling operations, defects in rolling , mechanics of flat
rolling, roll force, torque & power, friction hill in rolling, neutral plane, rolling
parameters
Extrusion Processes: principles, types of extrusion, extrusion practice, hot & cold
extrusion, metal flow during extrusion, extrusion defects, mechanics of
extrusion, ideal deformation, friction effect, extrusion parameters, upper bound
technique
Rod & wire drawing : principle, drawing practices, mechanics of rod & wire
drawing, ideal deformation, deformation with friction, drawing forces, die
pressure, optimum die angle.
Formability of sheet materials: anisotropy, biaxial state of stress, Erichsen test,
formability limit diagrams
Deep drawing: principle, drawing practice, process parameters mechanics of
deep drawing, drawing ratio, force analysis
 Classification of Forming Processes
There are different classification methods:
Classification by State of Stress
• Uniaxial, Biaxial (plane strain, plane stress), Triaxial
• The basic modes of deformation include: Tension, Compression, and Shear
 Classification by Type of Raw Material
 Classification by Forming Temperature
• Cold forming, warm forming, hot forming
 Classification by Methods of Induction of Forces into the Work-Piece
• Tension, compression, shear, hydostatic pressure
Process General Characteristics
Forging  Production of discrete parts with a set of dies
 Some finishing operations are usually necessary
 Similar parts can be made by casting and powdermetallurgy
techniques
 Usually performed at elevated temperatures
 High equipment and dies costs
 Moderate to high labour costs
 Special operator skills
Rolling  Production of flat plate, sheet, and foil at high speeds, and with good
Flat surface finish, especially in cold rolling;
 High production rates
 Requires very high capital investment
 Low to moderate labour cost
Rolling Production of various structural shapes, such as I-beams and rails
Shape  Includes thread and ring rolling
 High speeds
 Requires expensive equipment and shaped rolls
 Low to moderate labour cost
 Moderate operator skill.
 Bulk Deformation Processes

Process General Characteristics

Extrusion Production of long lengths of solid or hollow products with
constant cross-sections
Usually performed at elevated temperatures
Competitive to roll forming
Cold extrusion has similarities to forging and is used to make
discrete products
Moderate to high equipment costs
Low to moderate labour skill / cost
Wire  Production of long rod, wire, and tubing, with round or various
Drawing cross-sections
 Smaller cross-sections than extrusions
 Good surface finish
 Low to moderate die/equipment costs
 Low to moderate labour costs and operator skills
 Classification of metal forming processes
(based on the type of force applied on to the work piece as it is
formed into shape).
• Direct-compression-type processes
• Indirect-compression processes
• Tension type processes
• Bending processes
• Shearing processes
• Direct-compression type processes:
the applied force is normal to the direction of the metal
flow in compression, i.e., forging and rolling processes.

DÖVME:Genellikle sıcak olan metalin, kalıp kullanılarak veya

kullanılmaksızın plastik olarak deforme edilmesidir.

HADDELEME: Bir
malzemenin dönen
merdaneler arasından
geçirilerek kesit alanının
daraltılması ve kalınlığının
azaltılması işlemidir.
• Indirect-compression type processes:
the primary forces are frequently tensile, with indirect compressive
forces developed by the reaction of the work piece. The metal flow is
therefore under the combined stress state, i.e., extrusion, wiredrawing,
tube drawing.
Derin şekilli kapların,
sac metalin kalıplar
arasında akışını
sağlayan bir basınç
altında sacda aşırı
incelme olmaksızın
şekillendirilmesidir.

ESTRÜZYON
Bir ingot veya kütüğün basınç etkisiyle bir
kalıptan geçirilerek homojen kesite sahip
uzun mamül şeklinde üretilmesidir.

TEL ÇEKME
Bir telin kalıplar arasından geçirilerek
çapının daraltılma işlemidir.
• Tension type processes: the applied force is tensile,
i.e., stretching forming.
Derin şekilli ve dairesel simetriye sahip
parçaların üretim metodu

• Bending processes: the applied force involves

the application of bending moments to the sheet.

• Shearing processes: the applied force involves

the application of shearing forces of sufficient
magnitude to rupture the metal in the plane of shear.
 DEFORMASYON SICAKLIKLARI
SICAK İŞLEM
Metal ve alaşımların yeniden kristalleşme sıcaklığının üzerindeki
sıcaklıklarda kalıcı deformasyona tabi tutulması
SOĞUK İŞLEM
Metal ve alaşımların yeniden kristalleşme sıcaklığının altındaki
sıcaklıklarda kalıcı deformasyona tabi tutulması

DEFORMASYON İÇİN GEREKLİ KUVVETİ ETKİLEYEN PARAMETRELER

• Malzemenin mukavemeti
• Kalıp ve iş parçası arasındaki sürtünme katsayısı
• Geometrik etkenler

MALZEMENİN MUKAVEMETİNİ ETKİLEYEN PARAMETRELER

• Deformasyon sıcaklığı
• Deformasyon miktarı
• Deformasyon hızı
• Malzemenin yapısı
 Stress
• Stress is a measure of the intensity of the internal forces acting within a
deformable body.
• Mathematically, it is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface
within a the body on which internal forces act
• The SI unit for stress is Pascal (symbol Pa), which is equivalent to one Newton
(force) per square meter (unit area).
• Three types of stresses -> Tensile; Compressive; Shear

Mechanism of Stress (Tensile)

Axial stress in a prismatic bar axially loaded
 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
There are three principal ways in which forces may be applied during
deformation processing: namely, tension, compression, and shear
(Figures 1a, b, c). In engineering practice many loads are torsional
rather than pure shear; this type of loading is illustrated in Figure 1d.

Figure 1: Some Types

of Strains.

The degree of deformation to which the material is subjected is defined as

strain. In order to change the geometry of an element, forces must be applied
to them. The determination of these forces as function of the deformation
(strain) is very important. We have to know the forces in order to: design the
proper machine; Select tools and die materials for proper strength; and
determine weather metalworking operation can be accomplished on certain
equipment.
Thus the relation between a force and the deformation it produces is an
essential parameter in manufacturing.
 Strain
• Strain is deformation of a physical body under the action of applied
forces
• It is the geometrical measure of deformation representing the
relative displacement between particles in the material body
• Strain is a dimensionless quantity
• Strain accounts for elongation, shortening, or volume changes, or
angular distortion
• Normal stress causes normal strain (tensile or compressive)
• Shear strain is defined as the change in angle between two
originally orthogonal material lines

tensile load produces compressive load

an elongation and produces contraction
positive linear and a negative linear torsional
strain. strain. deformation
 Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine
One of the most common mechanical tests is performed in tension. The tension test
is used to ascertain several mechanical properties of materials that are important in
design. A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing
tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen.

(a) A standard
tensile-test
specimen before
and after pulling,
showing original
and final gage
lengths.
(b) A typical
tensile-testing
machine.

A standard tensile specimen is shown in Figure.2. Normally, the cross section is

circular, but rectangular specimens are also used. During testing, deformation is
confined to the narrow center region, which has a uniform cross section along its
length. The standard diameter is approximately 0.5 in. (12.8 mm), whereas the
reduced section length should be at least four times this diameter; 21 in. (60 mm)
is common. Gauge length is used in ductility computations the standard value is 2,0
in. (50 mm).

Figure 2. Standard Tensile-test Specimen.

 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
Typical results from a tension test are shown
in figure 4. The figure outline the relation
between engineering stress and engineering
strain (nominal stress-strain), also the figure
presents an outline of a tensile test sequence
showing different stages in the elongation of
the specimen.
The output of such a tensile test is recorded
on a strip chart as load or force versus
elongation. Engineering stress  is defined
by the relationship F

Ao
In which F is the instantaneous load applied Figure 4. Outline of a tensile-test sequence
perpendicular to the specimen cross section, showing different stages in the elongation
in units of pounds force (lbf) or Newtons (N), of the specimen.
and Ao is the original cross­sectional area
before any load is applied (in.2 or m2)
 In all material forming processes, the material is subjected to one or
more of the basic modes of deformation.
 The degree of deformation to which the material is subjected is defined
as strain. The engineering or nominal tensile or compressive strain is
defined as:
l  lO l
 In tension the strain is positive e  mm/mm
and in compression it is negative. lO lO
 The shear strain is defined as:
 Tensile Test
Used for determining UTS, yield strength, %age elongation, and
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
The ends of a test piece are fixed into grips. The specimen is
elongated by the moving crosshead; load cell and extensometer
measure, respectively, the magnitude of the applied load and the
elongation

Stress-Strain Relationship
Elastic Limit -> Maximum amount of stress up to
which the deformation is absolutely temporary
Proportionality Limit -> Maximum stress up to which
the relationship between stress & strain is linear.
 The usual practice is to define the yield stress as
the point on the curve that is offset by a strain of
usually 0.2% (0.002), and is generally called the 0.2%
proof stress

Beyond the yield point if the specimen is unloaded, the curve follows a straight
line downward and parallel to the original elastic slope.
Hooke’s Law -> Within elastic limit, the strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress applied.
σ=Eε
The maximum stress is known as the tensile strength or the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) and represents a practical measure of the overall strength of the
material.
 When the specimen is loaded beyond its UTS, it begins to neck and the
elongation is no longer uniform.
 The final stress level is known as the breaking or fracture stress.
Young’s Modulus of elasticity -> the ratio of the
uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of
stress in which Hooke's Law holds
Elasticity -> the tendency of a body to return to its
original shape after it has been stretched or
compressed
Yield Point -> the stress at which a material begins to
deform plastically
Plasticity -> the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of
shape in response to applied forces
Ultimate Strength -> It is the maxima of the stress-strain curve. It is the point at
which necking will start. The strain up to UTS is known as uniform strain.
Necking -> A mode of tensile deformation where relatively large amounts of strain
localize disproportionately in a small region of the material
Fracture Point->The stress calculated immediately before the fracture.
Ductility -> The amount of strain a material can endure before failure. The
strain at fracture is a measure of ductility. Ductility is measured by percentage
elongation or area reduction. The elongation at fracture is known as the total
elongation. Two quantities are commonly used to define ductility in a tension
test:

• Elongation • Reduction of area

l l   A  Af 
% EL   f O  x100 Reduction of Area   O  x100
 lO   AO 
A knowledge of ductility is important
for two reasons:
1. It indicates to a designer the
degree to which a structure will
deform plastically before fracture.
2. It specifies the degree of allowable
deformation during fabrication

Engineering stress–
strain behavior for
Iron at three
temperatures
 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
Stress-Strain Diagram Tension: The tension test is the most
common test for determining the strength-
deformation characteristics of materials.
The specimen has an original length lo and
an original cross-sectional area Ao. The
original length is the distance between gage
marks on the specimen (generally 50mm).

The engineering (nominal) stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the original
area:

 When the load is first applied, the specimen elongates proportionately to the load
up to the proportional limit; this is known as the linear elastic behaviour.
 The material will continue to deform elastically up to the yield point Y. If the load
is removed before the yield point is reached, the specimen will return to its original
length.
 The modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus), E, is defined as:
 This linear relationship between stress and strain is known as Hooke’s law.
Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are characteristically higher than
for metals; for polymers, they are lower. These differences are a direct consequence of
the different types of atomic bonding in the materials types. Furthermore, with increasing
temperature, the modulus of elasticity diminishes.

There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron and concrete) for which this initial elastic
portion of the stress-strain curve is not linear; hence, it is not possible to determine a
modulus of elasticity as described above. For this nonlinear behavior, either tangent or
secant modulus is normally used.
 Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it
is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this
energy recovered
Modulus of Resilience (Ur) is the strain energy per unit volume
required to stress a material from an unloaded state up to the
point of yielding.

•Assuming a linear elastic region

The area under the stress-strain curve up to the yield point Y of

a material is known as the modulus of resilience:
Y=EeO
 This area has units of energy per unit volume and indicates the specific energy that
the material can store elastically.

•For SI units, this is joules per cubic meter (J/m3, equivalent to Pa)

Thus, resilient materials are those having high yield strengths and low moduli of
elasticity; such alloys would be used in spring applications
 With increasing load, the specimen begins to yield; that is it begins to undergo
plastic (permanent) deformation and the relationship between stress and strain is
no longer linear.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.1
A piece of copper originally 305mm (12 in.) long is pulled in tension
with a stress of 276MPa (40,000psi). If the deformation is entirely
elastic, what will be the resultant elongation?

Magnitude of E for copper from Table 6.1 is 110GPa

 Poisson’s Ratio
When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen, an elastic elongation
and accompanying strain z result in the direction of the applied stress
(arbitrarily taken to be the z direction), as indicated in Figure 8. As a result of
this elongation, there will be constrictions in the lateral (x and y) directions
perpendicular to the applied stress; from these contractions, the compressive
strains x and y may be determined. If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in
the z direction), then x=y parameter termed Poisson's ratio is defined as the
ratio of the lateral and axial strains, or
•Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of the
lateral and axial strains
x y
v 
z z
The negative sign is included in the
expression so that v will always be
positive, since and will always be of
opposite sign. Theoretically, Poisson's
ratio for isotropic materials should be
1/4; furthermore, the maximum value for
v (or that value for which there is no net
volume change) is 0.50.
For isotropic materials, shear and elastic
moduli are related
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.2
•A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical
brass rod that has a diameter of 10mm. Determine the magnitude of
the load required to produce a 0.0025mm change in diameter if the
deformation is entirely elastic.
For the strain in the x direction:
 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation
•Upon release of the load during the
course of a stress–strain test, some
fraction of the total deformation is
recovered as elastic strain
•During the unloading cycle, the curve
traces a near straight-line path from the
point of unloading (point D), and its slope
is virtually parallel to the initial elastic
portion of the curve
•The magnitude of this elastic strain,
which is regained during unloading,
corresponds to the strain recovery
 TOUGHNESS
•It is a property of material by virtue of which it resists against
impact loads.
•Toughness is the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed
•Mathematically, it is defined as the amount of energy per volume
that a material can absorb before rupturing
•Toughness can be determined by measuring the area (i.e., by
taking the integral) underneath the stress-strain curve
Toughness =  f

Toughness =    d
•Where 0
•ε is strain
•εf is the strain upon failure
•σ is stress
•The Area covered under stress strain curve is called toughness
•Toughness is measured in units of joules per cubic meter (J/m3) in
the SI system
•Toughness and Strength -> A material may be strong and tough if
it ruptures under high forces, exhibiting high strains
•Brittle materials may be strong but with limited strain values, so
that they are not tough
•Generally, strength indicates how much force the material can
support, while toughness indicates how much energy a material
can absorb before rupture
 2. ANELASTICITY OR VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOR.
• In most engineering materials, there also exists a time-dependent elastic strain
component. That is, elastic deformation will continue after the stress application,
and upon load release some finite time is required for complete recovery.
• This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity and it is due to
time-dependent microscopic and atomistic processes that are attendant to the
deformation.
• For metals the anelastic component is normally small and is often neglected
• For some polymeric materials its magnitude is significant; in this case it is termed
viscoelastic behavior
 Summary

Hooke's Law : Stress is proportional to strain up to the PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

This means that any increase in stress will bring about a proportional increase in
strain up to the proportional limit. Written mathematically, the formula of
Hooke's Law is: E=σε E is Young's Modulus
σ is stress (MPa)
ε is strain
Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity: Young's Modulus is a measure of the
stiffness of a material. It is also known as the Modulus of Stiffness/Elasticity.
This is the constant that is represented in Hooke's Law (see above)
Proportional Limit : This is when an increase in stress no longer has a linear
relationship with an increase in strain. This is known as the elastic limit.
Resilience : This is the ability of a material to retain its shape after being deformed.
It can be found through the area under the curve up to the proportional limit.

Yield Stress : This is the Stress Value at the Progressive Yield Point (3). This is when
there is no relationship between an increase in stress and an increase in strain.
This is a useful value as the UTS point occurs after some deformation where this
only begins to deform.
Proof Stress : An approximation for the Yield point/Elastic limit for materials that
don't have a definite one due to their structure.
To find the approximation, a tangent is produced from the Proportional Limit.
The points of intersection between the graph and the tangent defines the
Proof Stress of the material.
The line may be moved slightly to accommodate for certain materials.
Examples are 0.1%/0.2% Proof Stress, where the tangent is produced from a
point slightly (0.001) to the right of the Proportional Limit.
Toughness : "A material's ability to absorb energy“. This is sometimes known as
impact strength. This can be found by finding the Area under the ENTIRE curve.
 True Stress and Strain
•The decline in the stress necessary to continue deformation past the
point M, indicates that the metal is becoming weaker.
•Material is increasing in strength.
•True stress σT is defined as the load F divided by the instantaneous
cross-sectional area Ai over which deformation is occurring
•True strain ЄT is defined as:

•If no volume change occurs during deformation—that is, if

Aili = A0l0
•Then true and engineering stress and strain are related
according to

•The equations are valid only to the onset of necking; beyond this
point true stress and strain should be computed from actual load,
cross-sectional area, and gauge length measurements
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.4
•A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of
12.8mm is tensile tested to fracture and found to have an
engineering fracture strength σf of 460MPa. If its cross-sectional
diameter at fracture is 10.7mm, determine:
(a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
(b) The true stress at fracture
Ductility is computed as

True stress is defined by Equation

where the area is taken as the fracture area Af

However, the load at fracture must first be computed from

the fracture strength as

And the true stress is calculated as

 Mechanics of metal working
• Metal working occurs due to plastic deformation which is associated with analysis of
complex stress distribution. → require simplification.
Only (large) plastic strain is considered while elastic strain is very small and
can be neglected.
Strain hardening is often neglected.
Metal is considered to be isotropic and homogeneous.
Normally plastic deformation is not uniform and also have frictions, but we need
to simplify the stress analysis in order to determine the force required to produce
a given amount of deformation to obtain a product in a required geometry.
• Required theory of plasticity, and for plastic deformation →
a constant-volume relationship is required.
Eq. 1

•In metalworking, compressive stress and strain are predominated.

If a block of initial height ho is compressed to h1, the axial
compressive strain will be:

For true strain Eq. 2

l
dl l 
For conventional strain Eq. 3     ln 
lO
l  lO 
Note: the calculated strain is negative → compressive strains.
• However the convention is reversed in metalworking problems so that compressive
stresses and strains are defined as positive..
Note: c and ec is used as strain in Eq. 4
deformation process.
And the fractional reduction (reduction of area) in metal working deformation is
given by
Eq. 5

From the constant-volume relation

Eq. 6

l 
2
A  D  D 
  ln   ln O   ln O   2 ln O 
 lO   A  D  D

Example: Determine the engineering strain, true strain, and reduction for (a) a bar
which is doubled in length and (b) a bar which is halved in length.

(a) For a bar which is double in length, (b) For a bar which is halved in length,
L2 = 2L1 L2 = L1/2
 True Stress and True strain
> The true stress is defined as:

where Ai is the instantaneous

real area (hence true)
supporting the load.

> The true strain is defined

as:

> The logarithmic true strain is a measure of

the permanent plastic deformation

> The relation between engineering and true

values of stress and strain can now be used to
construct true-stress-true-strain curves.

> These curves can be typically

approximated by the equation:

where
n is known as the strain-hardening exponent
K is known as the strength coefficient.
* Note that K is the true stress at a true strain of unity. ** (refer to Fig. 2.5a)
 True Stress-Strain Curve: Numerical Example
The following data are taken from a stainless steel tension test
specimen with A0 = 36.128 mm2, A1=10.322 mm2, l0 = 50.8 mm
Load, (kg) Extension, Al (mm)
727 0.002
1136 0.05
1364 0.20
1636 0.51
1909 1.02
2045 1.52
2091 (max.) 2.18
1500 (fracture) 2.44
Draw the true-stress-true-strain curve for this material.
Instability in Simple Tension
> The onset of necking in a tension test corresponds to the ultimate tensile
strength, UTS, of the material.
> The onset of necking corresponds to the termination of uniform elongation
> The slope of the load-elongation curve at this point is zero (or dP=0), and it
is here that the instability begins; that is the specimen begins to neck and
cannot support the load because the neck is becoming smaller in cross-
sectional area.
 Strain hardening
> The true strain at the onset of necking is numerically equal to
the strain-hardening exponent n.
(proof in Chapter
2 on page 36)
> The higher the value of n,
the greater the strain to
which a piece of material
can be stretched before
necking begins.

Typical “n” and “K” Values

K (MPa) n
Aluminum 1100-0 180 0.20
2024-T4 690 0.16
6061-0 205 0.20
6061-T6 410 0.05
7075-0 400 0.17
Brass 70-30, annealed 900 0.49
85-15, cold-rolled 580 0.34
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated 2070 0.50
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Steel Low-C annealed 530 0.26
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 640 0.15
3 04 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
 Yielding Criteria
> The stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced
during the application of external forces and the consequent deformation of
the body.
> The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering
and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform
plastically.
> In the three-dimensional space of the principal stresses (σ1, σ2, σ3), an
infinite number of yield points form together a yield surface.

Yield criteria and stress-strain relations

• Yielding in unidirectional tension test takes Eq. 7
place when the stress σ = F/A reaches the
critical value.
Uniaxial stress

• Yielding in multiaxial stress

states is not dependent on a
single stress but on a
combination of all stresses.

•Von Mises yield criterion

Triaxial stresses
(Distortion energy criterion)
• Tresca yield criterion (maximum
shear stress)
 Principal Stresses
> At every point in a stressed body there are at least three planes, called
principal planes, with normal principal directions, where the
corresponding stress is perpendicular to the plane, and where there are no
shear stresses.
> The three stresses normal to these principal planes are called principal
stresses.

Yield Criteria
> There are several different yield criteria known in engineering, and those
most popular are listed below:
■ Maximum Principal Stress Theory
■ Maximum Principal Strain Theory
■ Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca Yield Theory)
■ Total Strain Energy Theory
■ Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises Yield Theory)
 Maximum Principal Stress Theory
> Yield occurs when the largest principal stress exceeds the uniaxial tensile
yield strength.
> Although this criterion allows for a quick and easy comparison with
experimental data it is rarely suitable for design purposes.

Maximum Principal Strain Theory

> Yield occurs when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain
corresponding to the yield point during a simple tensile test y.

> In terms of the principal stresses this is determined by the equation:

Total Strain Energy Theory

> This theory assumes that the stored energy associated with elastic
deformation at the point of yield is independent of the specific stress.
> Thus yield occurs when the strain energy per unit volume is greater than
the strain energy at the elastic limit in simple tension.
> For a 3-dimensional stress state this is given by:
 Tresca yield criterion
Yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress τmax reaches the value
of the shear stress in the uniaxial-tension test, τo .
Where σ1 is the algebraically largest and σ3 is the
Eq.17 algebraically smallest principal stress.

For uniaxial tension, σ1 = σo, σ2 = σ3 = 0,

Eq.12
and the shearing yield stress τo = σo/2.
Therefore the maximum - shear
stress criterion is given by Eq.13

In pure shear, σ1 = -σ3 = k , σ2 = 0, → τmax = τy Eq.14

***

Mohr’s Circle
> It is a two-dimensional graphical
representation of the state of stress at a
point.
> It can present normal as well as shear
stresses acting on a plane
> Mohr's circle can help in providing
graphical solution to Tresca shear theory.
> In case of tensile test the material
yields at 1= y and 3=0:

>In case of pure shear (only τ is applied), the material yields at

 Maximum Shear Stress Theory

> Generally:
 Distortion Energy Theory
> This is generally referred to as Von Mises yield criterion.
> This theory proposes that the total strain energy can be separated into two
components: the volumetric (hydrostatic) strain energy and the shape
(distortion or shear) strain energy.
> It is proposed that yield occurs when the distortion component exceeds that
at the yield point for a simple tensile test y.
> For general 3D stress state this is given by:

Yielding occurs when the second invariant of the stress deviator J2 > critical value k2.

Eq. 8
In uniaxial tension, to evaluate the constant k, note σ1 =σo, σ2 =σ3 =0(or σ2-σ3=0),
where σo is the yield stress;
Therefore Eq. 9

Substituting k
from Eq.9 in Eq.8 Eq. 10
In pure shear, to evaluate the constant k, note σ1 = - σ3 = τy , σ2 = 0,
where σo is the yield stress; when yields: τy2+τy2+4τy2 = 6k2 then k = τy
By comparing with Eq 9 we then have *** Eq. 11

> How can von Mises criterion describe:

> The case of tensile test?
> The case of pure shear?
Equal tri-axial stresses
(hydrostatic stress state)?
Therefore, from von Mises and Tresca yield criteria we have
Von Mises yield criterion τy = 0.577σo ***
Tresca yield criterion τy = 0.5σo ***
• The differences in the maximum shear stress prediction from both
criteria lie between 0-15%.
• However experiments confirmed that the von Mises criterion is
more accurate to describe the actual situations.
• Once the metal has reached its yield point, the metal starts to flow
under the influence of stress state. This is in the plastic regime
where stress is not directly proportional to strain.
• The manner of flow or deformation is dependent on the stress state.
 Comparison of Tresca and von Mises

Maximum deviation is 15% at pure shear condition

 FEM analysis

• Finite element method (FEM) is used

in metalworking plasticity where
stresses are complex.

• FEM is a very powerful technique

for determining stress-strain
distributions in plane strain or plane
stress conditions.

Distortion of FEM grid in forging of a

compressor disk.
 Failure of Materials under Compression
a) Buckling of ductile materials with large
length to cross section ratio;
b) fracture of brittle materials;
c) cracking on the barreled surface of
ductile materials.

Failure of Materials under Tensile Loading

a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals;
b) shear fracture in ductile sheet materials;
c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline
metals;
d) complete ductile fracture with 100% reduction of
area
(only in very soft polycrystalline metals and polymers)
Sequence of events in necking and fracture

1. early stage of necking;

2. Small voids begin to form within the necked region;
3. Voids coalesce, producing an internal crack;
4. The rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery by shearing;
5. The final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone-
(bottom surface) fracture.
 Ductile fracture
 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel showing dimples.
 Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids
(microporosity) in the metal.
 On the macro scale, the fracture surface is rough and fibrous.

Magnification: 200X.

Intergranular fracture
 Grains and grain boundaries are clearly visible in this micrograph.
 The fracture path is along the grain boundaries.
 On the macro scale, the fracture surface is rough and dull.

Magnification: left, 100X; right, 500X.

 Brittle fracture
 Fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner.
 The fracture path is transgranular (through the grains).
 On the macro scale, the fracture surface is smooth and bright.

Magnification: 200X.

Fatigue fracture
 Typical fatigue-fracture surface on metals, showing beach marks. Centres of marks
showing away from the origin of failure.
 Most of the fracture surface is fine and smooth (fatigue cracked area) and a
relatively narrow rough zone (rupture area).

Magnification: left, 500X; right, 1000X.

 Types of Stress-Strain Curves

1. perfect elastic material

2. rigid-perfect plastic material
3. elastic-perfect plastic material
4. rigid-strain hardening material
5. elastic-strain hardening material

Material Modelling
1. perfect elastic material die design (forging, deep drawing)
2. rigid-perfect plastic material hot forming operations
3. elastic-perfect plastic material sheets during hot forming
operation
4. rigid-strain hardening material conventional deep drawing
5. elastic-strain hardening material accurate forming of sheets
including elastic effects like
spring-back
 Types of Stress-Strain Curves
1. perfect elastic material
2. rigid-perfect plastic material
3. elastic-perfect plastic material
4. rigid-strain hardening material
5. elastic-strain hardening material

> (1) A perfectly elastic material:

behaves like a spring with stiffness E. Brittle materials such as glass,
ceramics and some cast iron may be represented by such a curve.
Permanent deformation is negligible.
> (2) A rigid perfectly plastic material:
infinite value of E, once the stress reaches the yield stress Y, it continues to
undergo deformation at the same stress level. When the load is removed,
the material has undergone permanent deformation with no elastic
recovery.
> (3) An elastic perfectly plastic material: a combination of the first two having
a finite elastic modulus and undergoing elastic recovery when the load is
released.
> (4) A rigid, linearly strain-hardening material: it requires an increasing stress
level to undergo further strain. Thus its flow stress increases with increasing
strain. It has no elastic recovery upon loading.
> (5) An elastic, linearly strain-hardening material: It is an
approximation of the behaviour of most engineering materials, with the
modification that the plastic portion of the curve has a decreasing slope with
increasing strain.
 Flow curves
• Flow curve indicates whether metal is readily deformed at given
conditions, i.e., strain rate, temperature.
• Flow curve is strongly dependent on strain rate and temperature.

Flow curves of some metals at room temperature

 Determination of flow curve
Stress-strain curve
σ = Kεn
σ is ture stress ε is true strain
K is constant
n is work hardening exponent
(this is valid from the beginning of plastic
flow to the maximum load at which the
specimen begins to neck down.)

Ture stress-strain curve of a ductile

metal under uniaxial tensile loading.

• Hook’s law is followed up to the yield point, σo.

• Beyond σo, metal deforms plastically (strain hardening).
• Unloading from A immediately decreases the strain from ε1 to ε2 = σ/E the
strain decrease ε1-ε2 is the recoverable elastic strain.

E=/(1-2)
 Flow curve

Flow curve constructed from stress- strain Method of using average flow stress
curves after different amounts of reduction. to compensate for strain hardening.

Temperature Flow stress

•Strain hardening occurred when an iron wire had been drawn to a specific true strain.

True stress-strain
curve for iron wire
deformed by
wiredrawing at room
temperature.
 Effect of Temperature on Flow Curve
> İncreasing temperature usually increases ductility and toughness and lowers
the modulus of elasticity, yield stress and UTS.

> Temperature also affects the strain-hardening exponent n of most metals, in

that n decreases with increasing temperature.

> Depending on the type of material, its composition and level of impurities
elevated temperatures can have other significant effects.
> Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the
ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness (area under the curve) of
materials.
 Effect of strain rate
> The deformation rate may
be defined as the speed at which a
tension test is being carried out,
while the strain rate is a function of
the geometry of the specimen.
> There are considerable differences
in the magnitudes of the forming
speed depending on the used
machinery.
> Because of the wide speed range,
strain rates are quoted in orders of
magnitudes, such as 102 s-1, 104 s-1. Process True strain Deformation rate
(m/s)

Cold working
> Depending on the particular Forging, rolling 0.1-0.5 0.1-100
manufacturing operation and Wire and tube drawing 0.05-0.5 0.1-100
equipment, a piece of material may Explosive forming 0.05-0.2 10-100
be formed at low or high speeds. Hot working and warm
> In performing a tension test, the working
specimen can be strained at different Forging, rolling 0.1-0.5 0.1-30
rates to simulate the actual Extrusion 2-5 0.1-1
deformation process. Machining 1-10 0.1-100
Sheet-metal forming 0.1-0.5 0.05-2
Superplastic forming 0.2-3 10-4-10-2

> The relations of both engineering and true strain rates are given by:

> where v is the linear

deformation speed or the
machine ram speed
 Effects of speed of deformation
High deformation speed • High flow stress.
(high strain rate) • Increased the temperature of the workpiece.
• improved lubrication at the tool-metal interface.

Flow stress dependence on

strain rate and temperature

Note: • If the speed of deformation is too high, metal cracking is possible.

• Can cause plastic instability in cold working
• Can cause hot shortness in hot working
 Strength vs. strain rate
> İncreasing the strain rate
increases the strength.
> The sensitivity of strength
to the strain rate increases
with increasing the
temperature
> The effect of strain rate
on strength also depends
on the particular level of
strain; it increases with
strain.

> The strain rate also affects the strain hardening exponent n, because n
decreases as the strain rate increases. The effect of strain rate on the
strength of materials is generally expressed as:

where C is the strength coefficient similar to K and m is the strain-rate

sensitivity exponent of the material.
> The general ranges of m :
• Up to 0.05 for cold working,
• 0.05 to 0.4 for hot working and
• 0.3 to 0.85 for superplastic materials.
 Effects of strain rate and temperature

Flow stress of aluminium as a function Flow curves of Cu Zn28

of strain at different temperature

Temp Flow stress Strain rate Flow stress

Effects of grain size on properties

• Small grains make dislocations more difficult to move

• More slip plane, therefore, greater ductility
 Effect of Temperature on Properties
•Generally speaking, materials
are lower in strength and higher
in ductility, at elevated
temperatures

Hot Hardness
A property used to characterize strength and
hardness at elevated temperatures is Hot
Hardness
It is the ability of a material to retain its
hardness at elevated temperatures
 Working processes
• The methods used to mechanically shape metals into other product forms are called
Working Processes.
Hot working T ~ 0.6−0.8Tm
Working processes
Cold working T ≤ 0.3Tm
Hot working (0.6-0.8Tm)
Definition : deformation under conditions of temperature and strain
rate such that recrystallisation process take place simultaneously with
the deformation.
Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion
Cold working (< 0.3Tm)
Definition : deformation carried out under conditions where recovery
processes are not effective.
Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion, wire/tube drawing,
• The products resulting from the working of metals are called Wrought Products. such
as sheet, plate, bar, forging.
• Plastic working processes can also divided into:
Primary mechanical working process
Designed to reduce an ingot or billet to a
standard mill product of simple shape, i.e.,
sheet, plate, bar. Magnesium bars
Steel plates
Secondary mechanical working process
Primary sheets, plates or bars are
formed into final finished shapes,
i.e., wire & tube drawing, sheet
metal forming operation. Drawn wires
 Hot working
• Hot working involves deformation at temperatures where recrystallisation can
occur (0.6-0.8 Tm).
Examples of hot working temperatures for each metal
Metal Melting point Recrystallisation Hot working
(oC) temperature (oC) range (oC)

Iron 1535 450 900-1200

Copper 1083 200 650-900
Aluminium (alloys) 660 150 350-500

Zinc 420 20 110-170

Effects of temperature on metal forming

processes

Annealing mechanisms in cold worked metals

 Recovery
• Recovery is a thermally activated process, which results in lower density of
dislocations or rearrangement of dislocation structure (as a consequence of strain
hardening during deformation process).
• Recovery process includes annihilation of
dislocation, polygonization of dislocation,
dislocation climb.
• Certain amount of
stored energy is released
during annealing without
an obvious change in
optical microstructure.

Recovery of 38% cold-rolled aluminium

Polygonization showing different sizes of subgrains.
Effect of recovery annealing on stress-strain diagram
• Recovery process depends strongly on temperature.
• Increasing temperature (T ≥ 0.5Tm) during step tensile tests fig. (b) reduces the
yield stress, due to the rearrangement and reactions of dislocations during recovery.

Effect of recovery annealing on stress-strain diagram

 Recrystallisation during hot working

Deformed in
direction of work

Nuclei form at grain boundaries at

points of max stress

Nuclei grow into new grains

• The minimum temperature at which reformation of the crystals occurs is called

Recrystallisation Temperature.
• Above the recrystallisation temperature the kinetic energy of atoms increases and
therefore they are able to attach themselves to the newly formed nuclei which in turn
begin to grow into crystals. This process continues until all the distorted crystals have
been transformed.
• Hot working results in grain refining.
 Recrystallisation
• Recrystallisation takes place at higher temperatures than recovery which leads to
a new formation of grains.
• The process includes 1) primary recystallisation and 2) secondary recrystallisation
and grain growth.

Recrystallised grain with annealing twins surrounded

by deformed matrix with high density of dislocations.

Primary recrystallisation

- Primary recrystallisation occurs at the beginning of the new grain formation

process.
- Recrystallisation temperature does not depend on the metal alone, but on a
whole number of variables temperature, strain and minimum dislocation density
available (amount of deformation)
- Small impurities in pure metals can considerably increase the recrystallisation
temperature.
 Recrystallised grain size and prior plastic strain

The greater the driving force (greater prior plastic deformation), the greater the
number of nuclei that will form and the finer will be the final grain size.

Effects of grain size and strain on recrystallisation temperature

Schematic of recrystallisation diagram

 Secondary recrystallisation and grain growth

• At higher temperature and longer annealing time, further grain growth processes
take place in the primary recrystallisation structure.
• The driving force energy from the energy gained by lowering the ratio of the grain
boundary area to the enclosed volume.

Mechanical
Only individual grains grow
property
Secondary preferentially, resulting in very
deterioration
recrystallisation large grains present near the
primarily recystallised grains.
Ductility
Grain growth Result in an increase in average
grain diameter. Formability
Static and dynamic changes of structure during hot forming
• During plastic deformation, new dislocations and vacancies are produced
continuously, which leads to a new state of equilibrium through dynamic
recrystallisation and dynamic recovery.
• These two processes take place in the forming zone during plastic deformation at
corresponding stresses and strain rates.

Note:

• During forming, structure changes through dynamic recrystallisation and

dynamic recovery.
• During cooling or heating, structure changes through static recrystallisation and
static recovery.
Static and dynamic changes of structure during hot forming
• Dynamic and static recovery are strongly encouraged in metals with high stacking
fault energy (easy for climb and cross slip) such as aluminium , α –Fe, ferritic
alloys.
• Hot flow curve with a constant or slightly drop of yield stress are typical for
dynamic recovery.
• On the contrary, the flow curves with dynamic recrystallisation (after initial
hardening) show a sudden drop in yield stress.

Schematic form of hot flow curves by

(a) dynamic recovery alone
(b) both dynamic recovery and recrystallisation.
 Advantages and disadvantages of hot working

Advantages
• Higher ductility – more deformation without cracking.
• Lower flow stress – less mechanical energy required for deformation.
• Pores seal up.
• Smaller grain size.
• Microsegregation is much reduced or removed due to atomic diffusion, which
is higher at high temperatures.
• Stronger, tougher and more ductile than as-cast metals due to breaking
down and refinement of coarse columnar grains in the cast ingot.

Disdvantages
• Surface reactions between the metal and the furnace atmosphere, i.e.,
oxidation (oxide scales), decaburisation in steels.
• Hot shortness, when the working temperature exceeds the melting
temperature of constituent at grain boundaries such as FeS.
• Dimension tolerance is poor due to thermal expansion at high temperatures.
• Handling is more difficult (from furnace to machine).
 Cold working
• Normally performed at room temperature but in general < 0.3Tm, where recovery
is limited and recrystallisation does not occur.
• Work hardening occurs (strength and hardness increase but ductility decreases).
• The extent of deformation is rather limited if cracks are to be avoid, therefore
intermediate anneals that enable recrystallisation are frequently used afterwards.
• The materials suitable for cold working should have a relatively low yield stress and
a relatively high work hardening rate (determined primarily by its tensile properties).

Advantages and disadvantages of cold working

Advantages
• Provide work hardening, materials are stronger.
• Provide fine grain size and good surface finish.
• Dimension tolerance is better than in hot working.
• Easier handling (low operating temperatures).

Disdvantages
• Use high amount of deformation due to low operating temperatures, therefore,
require soft materials.
• Equipment (rolls, dies, presses) is big and expensive.
• Reduced ductility, therefore, require subsequent annealing treatments.
 Properties of steels (C10) after hot-cold working
Mechanical properties Hot rolled Cold rolled

Ultimate tensile strength, σTS (MPa) 427 558

Yield stress, σy (MPa) 220 345

Brinell hardness (HB) 94 174

Effects of metallurgical structure on working processes

Schematic representation of shear

Fibrous texture in rolled
band formation in compression of a
plate.
cylinder.
•The presence of preferred orientation causes anisotropy of mechanical
properties, especially in rolled sheets.
• The development of texture is the formation of deformation bands or shear
bands, which are regions of distortion where a portion of grains have rotated
towards another orientation to accommodate the applied strain.
 Example: Plastic working in two-phase alloys
The plastic working characteristics of two-phase alloys depends on
the microscopic distribution of the two phases.
• A high Vf of hard uniformly dispersed particles increases the flow
stress and makes working difficult.
• Hard and massive particles tend to fracture on deformation with
softer matrix.
• Second phase particles or inclusions will be distorted in the principal
working direction (fibrous structure)- affect mechanical properties.
• Precipitation hardening during hot working results in high flow
stress and lowered ductility.

Working direction

Cracked particle in softer Alignment of second

matrix. phase particles along the
principal working
direction.
 Effect of principal stresses in metal working
• When there is no shear stresses
acting on the planes -7 giving the
maximum normal stress acting on the
planes.
• These planes are called the principal
planes, and stresses normal to these
planes are the principal stresses σ1, σ2
and σ3 which in general do not coincide
with the cartesian-
coordinate axes x, y, z. Directions of
principal stresses are 1, 2 and 3.

Biaxial-plane stress
condition
• Two principal stresses, σ1
and σ2.

Triaxial-plane strain
condition
• Three principal stresses,
σ1 , σ2 and σ3 ,
where σ1 > σ2 > σ3.
 Effects of friction and lubrication

Friction at tool-workpiece interface depends on geometry of the

tooling and the geometry of the deformation, temperature, nature of
metal, speed of deformation.

Die-workpiece interface (a) on the macroscale, (b) on the

microscale.
 Effects of friction and lubrication
When two surfaces are brought into contact, the high spot (asperities)
will come into contact.
(a) Contact at asperities (b)
overlap of deformation zones to
produce subsurface shear zone.
• As we increase the load,
the metal at the asperities
deform plastically and
produce sub-shear zone.
• The coefficient of friction is
given by
Eq.15
Where
µ = frictional coefficient
τ = the shearing stress at the
interface
P = the load normal to the
interface
F = the shearing force
Ar= summation of asperity
areas in contact
p = the stress normal to the
interface
 Example : homogeneous compression of a flat circular disk
Assumption: no barrelling and small thickness, then the frictional conditions on
the top and bottom faces of the disk are described by a constant coefficient of
Coulomb friction;

Deformation pressure in compression as a function of

 and a/h

Where
µ = frictional coefficient
τ = the shearing stress at the interface
p = the stress normal to the interface
 Example: friction in forging

Functions of a metal working lubricant

- Reduces deformation load
- Increases limit of deformation before fracture
- Controls surface finish
- Minimises metal pickup on tools
- Minimises tool wear
- Thermally insulates the workpiece and the tools
- Cools the workpiece and/or tools
 Effect of residual stresses
• Residual stresses is generated by non-uniform plastic deformation when external
stresses are removed.
> Residual stresses are stresses that remain within a part due to
inhomogeneous deformation after it has been deformed and all
external forces have been removed.
> Residual stresses may be also disturbed by relaxation of stresses
over a period of time, which results in instability of the dimensions and
shape of the component.
> Residual stresses may be also caused by phase changes in metals
during or after processing because of density differences between
phases (e.g. between ferrite and martensite in steels).
 Residual stresses can be also caused by temperature gradients within
a body as during the cooling cycle of a casting.
• Ex: in rolling process, the surface grains in the sheet are deformed and
tend to elongate, while the grain in the centre are unaffected.
• Due to continuity of the sheet,
the central fibres tend to restrain
the surface fibres from elongating
while the surface fibres tend to
stretch the central fibres.

• Residual stress pattern

consisting of high compressive
(a) Inhomogeneous deformation in rolling of
stress at the surface and tensile
sheet, (b) resulting distribution of longitudinal
stress in the centre.
residual stress over thickness of sheet.
 Residual Stresses
Examples of residual stresses

Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting

(a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing
or pipe.
• Residual stresses are only elastic stresses. The maximum
value which a residual stress can reach is the yield stress of
the material.
• Residual stresses can be considered the same as ordinary
applied stresses.
• Compressive residual stress can effectively subtracts from
the applied tensile stresses.
• Metals containing residual stresses can be stress relieved
by heating to a temperature where the yield strength of the
material is the same or lower than the value of the residual
stress such that the material can deform and release stress.
• However slow cooling is required otherwise residual stress
can again develop during cooling.
 Effects of Residual Stresses

> The phenomenon of residual stresses is important in

warm and hot working and in heat treatment following
cold working.
> Tensile residual stresses on the surface of a part
lower the fatigue life & fracture strength of the part. This
is particularly true for relatively brittle materials, where
fracture takes place with little or no plastic deformation.
> Tensile residual stresses can also lead to stress-
cracking or stress-corrosion cracking.
> Compressive residual stresses on a surface are
generally desirable in order to increase fatigue life of
components. Compressive residual stresses are
imparted on surfaces by techniques such as shot
peening and surface rolling.
 Workability
• Workability is concerned with the extent to which a material can be
deformed in a specific metal working process without the formation
of cracks.
• Cracks which occur in metal working processes can be grouped into
three broad categories:
1. Cracks at a free surface
2. Cracks that develop in a surface where interface
friction is high
3. Internal cracks.

Dependence of forming limit
of mean normal stress σm.
Examples of cracks in
metalworking (a) free
surface crack (b) surface
crack from heavy die
friction in extrusion, (c)
centre burst or chevron
cracks in a drawn rod.
 Hardness
•Hardness is the property of material by virtue of which it resists
against surface indentation and scratches.
•Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong
intermolecular bonds
•Hardness is dependent upon strength and ductility
•Common examples of hard matter are diamond, ceramics, concrete,
certain metals, and superhard materials (PcBN, PcD, etc)
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
•Used for testing metals and nonmetals of low to medium hardness
•The Brinell scale characterizes the indentation hardness of materials
through the scale of penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material
test-piece
•A hardened steel (or cemented carbide) ball of 10mm diameter is
pressed into the surface of a specimen using load of 500, 1500, or
3000 kg.

•where:
•P = applied force (kgf)
•D = diameter of indenter (mm)
•d = diameter of indentation (mm)
•The resulting BHN has units of kg/mm2, but the
units are usually omitted in expressing the numbers
 Rockwell Hardness Test
•Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of
penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the
penetration made by a preload
•A cone shaped indenter or small diameter ball (D = 1.6 or 3.2mm)
is pressed into a specimen using a minor load of 10kg
•Then, a major load of 150kg is applied
•The additional penetration distance d is converted to a Rockwell
hardness reading by the testing machine.
 Vickers Hardness Test
•Uses a pyramid shaped indenter made of diamond.
•It is based on the principle that impressions made by this indenter
are geometrically similar regardless of load.
•The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness, is
to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic
deformation from a standard source.
•Accordingly, loads of various sizes are applied, depending on the
hardness of the material to be measured

Where:
F = applied load (kg)
D = Diagonal of the impression made
the indenter (mm)
•The hardness number is determined
by the load over the surface area of
the indentation and not the area
normal to the force
 Knoop Hardness Test
•It is a microhardness test - a test for mechanical hardness used
particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets
•A pyramidal diamond point is pressed into the polished surface of
the test material with a known force, for a specified dwell time,
and the resulting indentation is measured using a microscope
•Length-to-width ratio of the pyramid is 7:1

•The indenter shape facilitates reading

the impressions at lighter loads

HK = Knoop hardness value;

F = load (kg);
D = long diagonal of the impression (mm)
Hardness of Metals and Ceramics

Hardness of Polymers
8. Questions
Q1. Consider the engineering stress-strain curve, the curve after necking goes down
and the engineering stress decreases with the increase of engineering strain. Explain
why?
Q2. Discuss the effects of; temperature; strain rate; and deformation rate on the shape
of the true stress- true strain curve.
Q3. The true strain can be expressed as:
 1 
 =ln 
 1 r 
Where r is the percentage reduction of area. Prove this relation.

References
• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition, McGraw-Hill,
ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials, 1990,
Butterworth Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.
• Lange, K., Handbook of metal forming, 1985, R.R Donnelly & Sons Company,
ISBN 0-07-036285-8.
• Lecture notes, Birmingham, UK, 2003
• Metal forming processes, Prof Manus

Reference
Kalpakjian, S., Schmid, S.,
“Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials”, 4th ed. Prentice Hall, 2003.