Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
by Randy Pryor
Copyright Notice
Copyright © 2005 Randy Pryor
All rights reserved.
Legal Notices
While all attempts have been made to verify information provided in this
publication, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility
for errors, omissions or contrary interpretation of the subject matter herein.
The Publisher wants to stress that the information contained herein may be
subject to varying state and/or local laws or regulations. All users are ad-
vised to retain competent counsel to determine what state and/or local laws
or regulations may apply to the user’s particular operation.
Introduction 11
Meet the Gang 14
CHAPTER 5 - ANTENNA 47
Antennas 47
The Basic Antenna 48
Energy Distribution on an Antenna 49
Radio Wave Modulation 49
Morse Code Modulation 49
Radiation of Electromagnetic Energy 50
Antenna Gain 51
Antenna Reciprocity 52
Radiation Resistance 52
Isotropic Radiation 52
Anisotropic Radiation 52
Antenna Loading 52
Antenna Positioning 53
Types of Different Antennas 54
! Half –wave Antennas! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 54
! Quarter –wave Antennas! ! ! ! ! ! ! 55
Horizontal Dipole 55
Inverted V 55
Folded Dipole 56
Directional Antennas 56
Parasitic Antenna 57
Yagi Antenna 57
One Antenna for Different Bands 58
Terminology Used in Array Antennas 59
Driven Element 59
Parasitic Element 59
Driven Array 59
Introduction
“The radio has no future.”
~ Lord Kelvin, British mathematician
1897
People’s interests range from the fun to the weird to the downright bizarre. Some jog,
others collect porcelain knickknacks, while still others investigate the paranormal. A
hobby is a reflection of a person’s character. Since humans are the most social of all
animals, there is an inherent desire to establish contact and maintain relationships with
others. When these two elements are joined together, they create the perfect hobby -
amateur radio.
What exactly explains the popular, cult-like following to ham radio? Perhaps it’s
the unique mix of fun entertainment, public service, and convenience. It could be the
satisfaction and accomplishment that arises when a person establishes contact with a
fellow human being on the other side of the world with a gadget that seems much less
The Internet has greatly impacted the world with a new level of technology, but
that does not take away the irresistible and timeless appeal of amateur radio. Perhaps
it’s the idea of something old-fashioned in a modern world of high tech or maybe it’s the
efficiency and simplicity that go hand in hand with the operation of amateur radio, but
the appeal certainly has stood the test of time and space.
Amateur radio is as old as the history of radio itself but the reason why amateur
radio operators are called “hams” is rather obscure. Hams are a very mixed bunch. The
two common things that hams share is the interest of what is happening in the world
around them and using a radio to reach out. Some people prefer Morse code on an old
brass telegraph via a low power transmitter, others opt for voice communication on a
hand-held radio, and still others get their kicks from computer messages transmitted
through satellites. These individuals come from all walks of life. They’re students, movie
stars, truck drivers, sailors, and every profession imaginable. Their ages and interests
are as varied as their careers.
If you’re wondering how hard is it to learn amateur radio, you may be relieved to
know that just about anyone can learn enough to acquire a license easily. Only basic
electronics and basic knowledge of radio operations are required.
Here is a sampling of the individuals involved with amateur radio. Although hams
usually consider it to be a hobby, amateur radio can be more than that – it can prove to
be a life altering experience.
This is Rose Robin; she was a witness to a motor accident along one of the na-
tional highways of our country. While driving to her parents’ home, she witnessed a hor-
rific scene. She watched another car lose control, break the barricade, and speed off a
cliff. Rose stopped her car and dashed to the scene of the accident. The car was over-
turned, its wheels spinning wildly. She raced to the car but found it impossible to yank
the doors open to rescue the hapless mother and child trapped inside. Both were bleed-
ing and unconscious. Rose’s quick thinking and critical desire to save a human life sent
her dashing back to her car where she picked up her pocket-sized hand-held radio and
radioed for help. Within minutes, police and an ambulance had arrived at the spot and
could rescue the victims.
Meet Josephine Williams, a lonely widow of 46. She lost her husband to cancer a
year ago, and since then she has been living a rather cloistered life. No friends, no visi-
tors, nothing. Mrs. Williams had not been very social when her husband was alive, but
lately her loneliness had been eating into the very vitals of her existence. Being lonely is
a thing of the past now, thanks to her radio. She has found two new friends who are fel-
low hams. One is a 23 year old martial arts student in Japan, and the other is an Indian
male nurse working in Canada.
Amateur radio has overcome many obstacles since its invention. Advances in
technology have never hindered its path. In fact, the system has learned to cope with
the technologies. A fine example is the contact made by two stations assisted by com-
puters. The commercialization that has overtaken many other fields has not affected the
hams. This is the sole reason why it is free for two hams to talk to each other, even
across the globe. Also, if a disaster like an earthquake occurs, hams can provide critical
help when most communication facilities are destroyed.
The attitude or the essence of the amateur radio is the grouping together of peo-
ple from different walks of life towards a common goal without any financial aims. This is
a very important aspect since most people will do just about anything for money.
We can state the purpose of ham radio in simple terms as to increase the num-
ber of trained radio operators and electronic experts by encouraging experimentation
and enhance international goodwill.
One with an interest in electronics and technology can really indulge in the
realms of technical wizardry. When opening the hood of a ham radio, there is basic and
there is innovative. The basic involves direct current electronics while the innovative
concerns cutting edge radio frequency techniques.
Voice and Morse code communication are still the most used routes, but
computer-based digital operation is gaining momentum. Today’s popular home station
configuration is a hybrid of the computer and radio. The communication can be done
between continents. This is one of the intriguing factors of ham radio.
Man’s desire to learn is another aspect, which facilitates the progression of this
hobby. Age is not a barrier since many familiarize themselves with antennas, propaga-
tion of radio waves, solar cycles, sunspots, and similar activities. Antennas have be-
come a real obsession for people who love to invent. New designs are created every
day and hams have contributed many new variations to the antenna designer's art. All
that is required is some wire, a feed line, and a soldering iron.
Hams are also helpful in supporting other areas such as radio control (R/C),
model rocketry, and meteorology. Miniature ham radio video transmitters are flown in
model aircraft, rockets, and balloons, beaming back pictures from heights of hundreds
and even thousands of feet. Ham radio data links also lend a helping hand in the fields
of astronomy, aviation, auto racing, and rallies.
If you can tune to a radio across the ham bands, you will understand the activi-
ties of hams. It can vary from a simple conversation to contesting.
Ragchews
Hams mostly engage in conversation. This is called “chewing the rag.” Contacts
are named ragchews. Ragchews can happen between continents or just across town.
“Nets” is an abbreviation for networks. They are the organized air meetings,
scheduled for hams with similar interests or purposes.
Traffic Nets
This is the system that passes text messages or traffic, through ham radio. Op-
erators exchange messages, which can range from the mundane to the most urgent.
When disaster strikes, hams who are trained for these purposes organize and
provide decisive communications into and out of the affected areas until normality is re-
stored.
ALE is the abbreviation for Automatic Link Establishment. Here a computer sys-
tem monitors a frequency all the time so that others can connect to it and send or re-
trieve messages.
Full duplex is a communication mode in which a radio can transmit and receive at
the same time by using two different frequencies.
Swap Nets
Like flea markets, a weekly swap net allows hams to list items for sale or things
they need. A net control station overlooks and moderates the process, and business is
generally conducted over the phone once the parties have been put in contact with each
other.
DX is short for distance. The thrill of making contacts at a very long distance from
home has lured many a ham. Competitions are organized for hams, in which they com-
pete to contact faraway stations and to log contacts with every country. Ham radio con-
tests are events in which one earns points for each contact made. Through these ex-
changes, hams often contact a specific area, use a certain band, find a special station
and try to communicate with as many stations as possible.
When two hams make contact, they usually confirm contact by using QSL cards.
A ham collects all of the QSL cards received from time to time. Those who make maxi-
mum numbers of contacts are given awards in the competitions.
Ham fests are often conducted by Amateur Radio Clubs. At a ham fest, one can
buy or sell radio equipment and meet people in person after having communicated with
them on the air.
Ordinary radio sets are designed to receive either Amplitude Modulated (AM) or
Frequency Modulated (FM) broadcast. Ham radio operators use Single Side Band
(SSB) transmission for their communication requirements. Ham radio stations use very
low power, less than 100 watts. But a broadcast station uses power in the kilowatts
range. Many broadcast band radio receivers cover some of the frequencies earmarked
for the ham radio stations. A four band radio set usually covers some popular ham radio
frequencies like 7 to 7.1 MHz (i.e. 7000 to 7100 kHz), 14 to 14.350 MHz (i.e. 14,000 to
14,350 kHz) and 21 to 21.450 MHz (i.e. 21,000 to 21,450 kHz). This kind of receiver can
be improvised to receive ham radio transmissions with very little effort. While hearing
ham radio stations in ordinary radio sets, the sound will resemble a duck quacking.
Transceiver
The term transceiver is used to identify the equipment. Both transmitters and re-
ceivers are assembled in one unit to perform two basic roles. The transmitter generates
a radio frequency signal of required power at the desired frequency. It should have
Transceiver
Cost of Equipment
An endearing factor for an aspiring ham is that the necessary equipment needed to
get started in this field should not cost an arm and a leg. Start up can begin with less
than $200. Depending on your pocketbook, you can select a wide range of equipment
which varies from $100 to $2,000. You can easily shop from e-shops on the Internet or
from some of the ham stores in town.
Though there are no special rules regarding the mode of equipment for starting, it’s
better to begin with the base station rather than going for mobile or handheld. This way,
you will have the opportunity to judge the niceties of a station operation.
To start the hobby, a simple short wave radio and a QRP transmitter are all that are
required. If everything is available, it will only take a few hours to get set up.
Initially, most ham operators begin with a simple station. An HF radio, microphone,
Morse code key, and a simple wire dipole antenna are all that are required for your
cruise on air. The step by step process is given below.
1. First, locate the place where you are going to keep the equipment. It is better to
keep the length of the coaxial cable to a minimum. Take special care while decid-
ing the location, in order to bring the coaxial and ground wire in easily.
2. A desk or computer credenza is a perfect place for the equipment.
3. Install an eight foot copper ground wire into the ground. Lay a heavy wire from
the ground rod to the grounding post on the ham radio.
4. Lay an antenna coax from the antenna to the radio shack.
5. Proper clearance should be kept on the rear side of the radio for air circulation.
6. Place an electrical surge protector between the equipment and outlet.
7. Place an antenna lead to a switch enabling the shunting circuit to ground.
8. Cover the radio to protect it from dust.
The transceiver is equipped with a function key. As you operate the function key,
you can select the desired bandwidth.
Once you decide to join this hobby, take full advantage of the opportunities it of-
fers. Meet as many people as possible in the nearest club. They will certainly help you.
Find a friend who is just like you, at the bottom of the learning curve. Meet them
on air and enjoy the proceedings together. If you do not have a club near you (to take
the test or meet an Elmer), contact the ARRL Development office at
www.arrl.org/development. They will have the information you need.
Internet forums are available. Just join the forum and you can get many valuable
tips. One such help group is http://groups.yahoo.com/group/hamradiohelpgroup/
Practice Courtesy
Accustom yourself with the practice of saying polite words like "Please,"
"Thanks," "Excuse me,” and "Sorry." This way you can earn the goodwill of your co-
operators.
Of course, it’s possible that, no one responds to your CQ (general call sent by
one station to any other station). Relax and try again. Also some technical hiccups can
occur. Through practice you will be able to rectify minor issues. You can almost always
get help from your buddies regarding these.
During radio operations, at times the signals may be weak. This makes it difficult
for the person to comprehend the words completely. This problem sometimes necessi-
tates hams to spell out certain words, for example, a name. If you try this using the Eng-
lish alphabet, it can cause greater confusion. If you try to spell your name using the let-
ters alone, a listener may misinterpret one letter for another. So instead of spelling out
with letters, use words known as phonetics, which have been chosen specially for serv-
ing our purpose.
The standard alphabet is: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel,
India, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango,
Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.
There are also some standards for the pronunciation of numbers and numerals.
In order to avoid confusion with numbers such as 50 and 15, you have to speak each
digit separately. According to standards, you should spell decimal to represent decimal
point. If you want to say 15.100 MHz, you should say the words, “one five decimal one
zero zero.”
This firmware is called PAD or packet assembler. This unit captures incoming
and outgoing data and encapsulates it into packets of data. This data can be sent to
and from a data radio or transceiver. The enter key of the keyboard can also function as
the push to talk facility in the normal ham radio operation.
Satellites
This is an area which excites many hams. There are many small satellites orbit-
ing the earth, which are made and operated by radio amateurs worldwide. AMSAT is the
global organization, which organizes satellite construction and lobbies for spare space
on commercial launch vehicles. Communication can be made by Morse code, voice, or
pocket radio over very large distances with the help of these satellites.
The easiest satellites to use are the low orbit ones as they can be availed with
low power and modest antennas. Russian RS series and South Africa’s Sunsat (SO-35)
are low orbited satellites. As the sensitivity of these satellites is superior, even operation
from buses, trains and trams becomes possible! These low orbit satellites have short
pass-times and they are quite good for communication up to a few thousand kilometers
while the other satellites would require more powerful and bigger antennas. But they of-
fer worldwide communication.
Amateur radio is quite popular among the yachting and small boat community. It
is used to provide general communications and for receiving weather information. How-
ever certain restrictions may exist when operating within the territorial limits of another
country.
Here’s a quick glance at some of the terms used for propagation on a boat.
Pactor -- It is a mode that uses both upper and lower case characters and tele-
prints over radio with the help of a code. Pactor is a combination of amtor (amateur
teleprinting over radio) and packet. Common modes are Pactor I and Pactor II.
TNC -- TNC is the short form for terminal node controller. It is comparable to a
radio modem.
PTT -- PTT stands for push to talk. It is what makes your radio transmit.
www.hamradio.com
www.discountfamilyradios.com
www.unadilla.com
http://www.advancedspecialties.net
http://www.burnabyradio.com
http://www.comdac.com
http://www.hamtronics.com
‘Old is gold’ goes the saying. Many people prefer to go for old and used equip-
ment. The following web sites offer details of used ham radio equipment suppliers.
http://hometown.aol.co.uk/oldradioparts/front.htm
http://www.ac6v.com/components.htm
http://archives.radioattic.com/features/started.htm
Don Diers
4276 North 50 Street #SC3
Milwaukee, WI 53216-1313
DNF
6690 7 Mile Road
South Lyon, MI 48178
Lippert N61W
15889 Edgemont
Meno Fls, WI 53051
Steinmetz Electronics
7519 Maplewood Avenue,
Hammond, IN 46324
Tel: 219-931-9316
Michael C. Marx
SND Tube Sales
908 Caulks Hill Road
St. Charles, MO 63304
Phone 636-939-9190
24 Hour Fax 636-922-0601
E-mail: sndtubes@vacuumtubes.com
Statistics relating to the number of users in the U.S. can be found at:
http://www.users.crosspaths.net/wallio/LICENSE.html
Many free resources are available on the Net for those who want to experience
the thrill of making their own QRP rigs. One such site is:
http://www.geocities.com/pa2ohh/index.html, which gives a complete explanation for
making it very simple. Those who want to go mobile can have a look at
http://www.installer.com/pics/instpics.html for more information.
"The wireless music box has no imaginable commercial value. Who would pay for a
message sent to nobody in particular?" ~ David Sarnoff's associates in response to
his urgings for investment in the radio in the 1920s
The electromagnetic energy mainly takes two forms to reach a receiving an-
tenna. It either takes the shape of the ground waves or it navigates as sky waves.
Ground waves travel near the surface of the earth. Radio waves that are reflected back
to the earth’s surface from the ionosphere are known as sky waves. To put it simply, the
surface wave travels along the surface of the earth, while the space wave travels over
the surface. A surface wave is not affected by the shape of the land, thanks to the phe-
nomenon of diffraction. As described elsewhere, it takes a bend, when hindered by an
obstacle. The surface wave along its journey over the surface induces a voltage in the
earth. This causes a loss of energy of the wave. This loss of energy is reduced by polar-
izing the wave before transmission.
The space wave has two ways to reach its destination. The first route is through
the direct journey through the air from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
The second way is through the reflection from the ground to the receiving antenna. This
is demonstrated in the figure below. As the space wave takes two paths of different
lengths reaching the receiving site, there is a possibility that the signal will fade. If the
waves reach out of phase, the signal may also fade. On the other hand, if they reach in
phase, the signal will be a strong one.
These signals are reflected when they are obstructed by metal objects. Depend-
ing upon the area of the objecting surface, the amount of reflection also varies. Large
metal objects such as an aircraft or a large metal building reflect these waves signifi-
cantly. The property of these signals is considered an advantage in large cities, where
some other signals would have been blocked.
The region of atmosphere that extends from 30 miles to about 250 miles is rightly
called ionosphere due to the presence of electrically charged gas atoms called ions.
The ultraviolet rays from the sun collide with gas atoms and hurl an electron from the
atom. This gives the atom a positive charge and it then coexists with the negative
charged free electron in space. This process is known as ionization. The presence of
many such free ions and electrons leads to the formation of an ionized layer.
An exact reverse happens thereafter, which reinstates the old position again.
The positive ion and the electron collide with each other thus giving the old neutral
status to the positive ions. Depending upon the time of the day, these combination and
recombination processes compete against each other. Whenever the rate of ionization
exceeds the recombination process, the density of the ionized layers increases, greatly
affecting the radio waves.
The charged particles in the ionosphere create four distinct layers, within the
ionosphere. These groups are again classified into two categories. One is present when
the earth’s surface is bright and the other in darkness (when the earth’s surface is hid-
den from the sun).
The four layers are F1, F2, E and D. During the night, the two F layers combine
to form one layer. The E and D layers are absent during night hours.
Worldwide amateur radiations are possible, thanks to the F layer. As the radio
signal strikes this layer, it is bent back at an angle towards the earth without any signifi-
cant energy loss. The F layer splits into two layers, F1 and F2, during daytime. F1 is the
inner one and F2 is the outer one. Much of the refraction during daytime happens in F2
layer.
The E Layer
The E layer exists only during the daylight and is found between the F and D lay-
ers. At very high frequencies, some refraction occurs in the E layer. As this is sporadic
in nature, this phenomenon is known as sporadic-E.
This layer, which is closest to the earth, is found only during daytime. The main
characteristic of this layer is that it absorbs both medium and high frequency radio
waves instead of refracting them. Sometimes the level of absorption is too large and the
communication of radio waves may not happen for a short period.
The figure depicts the effect of ionization densities on refraction. An ionized layer
itself is divided into different regions according to densities. We will dissect the three
layers one by one.
As the wave enters the bottom layer, it is entering a region of high degree ioniza-
tion. The sudden change in the velocity of the upper part causes it to bend towards the
earth. At the center portion, as the density of ionization is uniform, the refraction effects
Critical Frequency
As the wave enters an ionospheric layer, there is a possibility for the wave to get
refracted or to get lost in space. For a given layer, there is a maximum frequency at
which the radio waves can be transmitted vertically and get returned to earth. This fre-
quency is termed as critical frequency.
The waves with higher frequencies than the critical frequency will be lost in
space. From the figure, we can observe that for lower frequencies the waves get re-
fracted more sharply. The highest frequency wave, which is of higher frequency than the
critical frequency of the ionized layer, gets lost in space.
Absorption
As the radio waves travel through the ionosphere, the current conditions greatly
influence the radio waves. The absorption causes a lot of energy drain and makes the
signal weak. Absorption occurs predominantly in the region of higher ionization density.
The radio waves entering into the ionosphere lose some of their energy to the free elec-
trons and ions. When these ions and free electrons collide with other particles much of
the energy is lost into the atmosphere.
Fading
Another factor that hinders the flow of radio waves is fading. This is due to many
conditions. One of them is refraction. Refraction causes polarization of the wave and
this in turn causes fading. Absorption of energy in the ionosphere is another reason.
If a radio wave along its passage gets reflected from the earth’s surface, then
some amount of energy may be lost. Factors such as frequency of the wave and ground
irregularities determine the extent of loss.
When waves are transmitted, the wave front starts spreading out. When the dis-
tance of travel increases, the spreading of the wave front also increases. This means
Electromagnetic Interference
Man made interference can happen from a variety of reasons. Some are related
to devices, which generate radio frequency energy. The extent of man made interfer-
ence may vary largely throughout the day and may be reduced at night. If a lot of de-
vices are used in areas such as industrial estates, the signals absorbed by a receiver at
that particular location may become very feeble.
Weather changes can affect the radio propagation to a certain extent by leading
to the weakening or attenuation of the radio waves. Raindrops are capable of absorbing
some power from the radio waves and this power is then scattered away in the form of
heat. Fog can also cause problems to the radio waves. Fog is suspended in the atmos-
phere. The amount of water per unit volume determines the quantum of hindrance
caused by the fog.
Ducting
Normally, warm air is found near the surface of the earth. As the altitude in-
creases, the air becomes cooler. Sometimes an abnormal situation occurs, as a layer of
Satellite
One can communicate with another station through a satellite, if both the stations
are in the view of the satellite at the same time. When the satellite is low to the horizon,
the required power will be higher as the distance to the satellite is very large.
Sunspots
The energy waves from the transmitter cannot be carried using the ordinary elec-
trical wire without energy loss. Transmission lines are used for this purpose. As the an-
tennas are normally located a distance from the instrument, the transmission lines are
necessary for carrying the energy from the radio room to the antenna.
The transmission line has two ends. The end connected to the transmitter or the
source is called the input end. The end connected to the antenna is called the output
end.
Transmission lines are mainly categorized into two types, balanced and unbal-
anced lines. Balanced lines consist of two parallel wires each capable of carrying radio
waves. The unbalanced lines have only one wire to carry the signals.
The advantage of the coaxial line is that it matches the impedance of most com-
mercially made ham radios. Also, there is no problem in placing the cables near metal
objects due to the presence of the shield around the wire.
Lumped Constants
But in practice, this is not the case. Transmission line constants are distributed.
The distributed constants in the transmission lines are spread along the entire
length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. Factors like the
length of the line, the size of the conducting wires, the spacing between the wires, and
the dielectric (air or insulating medium) between the wires determines the amount of in-
ductance, capacitance, and resistance in the line.
The flow of current through a wire induces some magnetic lines of force in the
wire. The change in the value of the amplitude of the current induces a change in the
field also. This produces a certain amount of inductance, which is expressed in micro
Henry per unit length.
Capacitance is also present in between the transmission line wires. The two par-
allel wires function as the plates of a capacitor and the air between them acts as a di-
electric. The electric field thus formed between the wires is similar to the field that exists
between the two plates of a capacitor.
As shown above, the transmission line has electrical resistance along its length.
This resistance is expressed in ohms per unit length.
The figure above explains how the things will change when an ac generator re-
places a battery. The instantaneous values of the generated voltage are propagated to
the other end, one after the other. Here the difference is that the applied voltage is sinu-
soidal, not a constant one.
Antennas
1) Transmitting equipment
2) Transmission line
3) Transmitting antenna
4) Medium
5) Receiving antenna
6) Receiving equipment
The two basic fields associated with every antenna are induction field and radia-
tion field. The induction field, which is the field related with the energy stored in the an-
tenna, has no hand in the transmission of electromagnetic energy, although radiation of
energy is not possible without the induction field.
Antennas are basically classified into two types. They are Hertz antennas and
Marconi antennas. Hertz antennas are generally located at a distance above the ground
and are capable of radiating vertically and horizontally. Marconi antennas are located
perpendicular to Earth, one end of it being grounded. While Hertz antennas are used for
frequencies above 2 MHz, Marconi antennas are used for frequencies below 2 MHz.
The main parts of an antenna are the coupling device, the feeder, and the antenna.
The transmitters and feeders are connected using the coupling device. The transmis-
sion line that caries the energy to the antenna is known as the feeder. The characteristic
Electromagnetic radiation is based on two laws. First, a moving electric field cre-
ates a magnetic field. The second is that a moving magnetic field creates an electric
field. At any moment, these two fields will be perpendicular to each other.
Morse code turns off and on an RF carrier in order to transmit a simple code al-
phabet. This is also known as continuous wave (CW).
The E field and the H field of an electromagnetic energy will be 90 degrees out of
phase with each other. As the energy wave traverses a greater distance, the energy
spreads out over a greater area and decreases as the distance traversed increases.
Most of the antennas are highly directional. This means that more energy is radi-
ated in certain directions compared to other directions.
Radiation Resistance
Radiated energy is lost in heating the antenna wire. Considering radiation, if the
assumed resistance is actually present, it would dissipate the same quantity of power
the antenna takes to radiate the energy. This assumed resistance is named as radiation
resistance.
Isotropic Radiation
Some of the antennas radiate equal amount of energy in all directions. This type
of radiation is known as isotropic radiation. This is often compared to the radiation pat-
tern from the sun. Sun radiates equal amounts of energy in all directions.
Anisotropic Radiation
Antenna Loading
The same antenna system can be used for transmitting and receiving signals
having different frequencies. For this to happen, the antenna should either be physically
Antenna Positioning
Special care should be taken to locate the antenna well above the ground keep-
ing it away from any tall buildings, trees, electrical power conductors, telephone and
telegraph wires, and other metal objects that will absorb the energy. Better results can
be obtained by hoisting it to the maximum possible height.
The antenna and the output stage of the transmitter have certain impedance in
them. Maximum possible energy transfer from a source to the load is possible only
when the impedance is matched. That means that the output impedance of the transmit-
ter should match the input impedance of the antenna. A co-axial cable is used by most
amateurs because of its properties of maximum efficiency and minimum loss of energy.
RG-59/U is a small co-axial cable having an impedance of 73 Ohms.
Most of us have a misconception that if the length of antenna is more, than the
energy radiated by it will also be on the higher. But this is not the case. Antenna should
have specific dimensions for effective operation. The basic Hertz antenna has a length
of half its wavelength. This is also called as a dipole or a doublet. The basic Marconi an-
tenna has a length one-fourth its wavelength.
Half–wave Antennas
Quarter–wave Antennas
Horizontal Dipole
The length in feet is calculated using the formula, 468/f MHz. An insula-
tor is used in the center after cutting it into two halves. The maximum radiation
is in the broadside of the axis and least along the axis line. The materials of the
dipole are easily available. Dipole can be used for both local as well as Dx.
Inverted V
The difference between the inverted V and the dipole is that the center is raised
to a height comparing with the ends. The length of the inverted V in feet can be calcu-
lated using the formula, 464/f MHz. The angle between two halves must be between 90
and 120 degrees.
The radiating part of a vertical antenna is called the radiator. Normally copper
wire or aluminum tubing is used for the radiator.
Folded Dipole
A folded dipole is similar to an ordinary half-wave antenna with one or more addi-
tional conductors connected across its ends. Additional conductors are placed at a dis-
tance which will be equal to a fraction of its wavelength. The spacings are materialized
using standard feed-line spreaders. The folded dipole is used over a wider frequency
range than that of a simple dipole.
Directional Antennas
Parasitic Antenna
The parasitic antennas are defined as the antennas, in which the radio energy is
obtained in some elements by the induction or radiation from the driven element. Direc-
tional antennas are example of the parasitic antenna. Yagi and quad fall under this
category.
Yagi Antenna
Yagi antenna consists of many dipoles, one shorter from the other. Refer to the
figure given below. Reflectors, radiators, and directors are the parts of a yagi antenna.
The elements are not placed uniformly thus causing an uneven spacing between the
elements. The reflector and director are usually found welded to a conducting tube. The
radiations from different elements will be in phase in the forward direction, but may not
be in phase in other directions. A higher number of parasitic elements guarantees more
gain, but may lead to a narrow frequency response.
You can make an antenna for different bands. Those who are interested in mak-
ing antennas for all bands can locate resources on the web.
• To build a sturba curtain antenna for all bands, visit this page:
http://www.hamuniverse.com/sturba.html
• The following url contains a detailed study to use a patch array for different
bandwidths with varied patch lengths and a low loss PCB material:
http://www.itn.liu.se/~shago/Publications/UWB_antenna.pdf
Driven Element
Parasitic Element
A parasitic element is placed near the driven element, from which it derives the
power. When a parasitic element produces maximum energy radiation in a direction
away from itself but towards a parasitic element, it is called a reflector.
Driven Array
When all the elements in an array are driven, it is referred to as a driven array.
Bi-directional Array
A bi-directional array directs in the opposite directions along the line of maximum
radiation.
Unidirectional Array
FCC
The FCC regulates amateur radio under the jurisdiction of the United States of
America. This agency can impose fines or even take away licenses if someone is not
following the rules. Licenses are required due to many security aspects involved in radio
communications.
Control Operator
An amateur station is the place where a station facilitated for the amateur radio
transmissions is located. A licensed amateur who is completely responsible for the sta-
tion transmissions is called a control operator.
Any individual who intends to operate a ham radio station in the U.S, should hold
a license from the FCC, prior to his or her initiation to the world of ham radio. The li-
cense is renewed every 10 years. Where can you find the information you’d need to
study for the test? Most of the information is right here in this book.
License Classes
Just as there is no one driver’s license, amateur radio also has different types of
licenses. The FCC has three license classes. One should begin with a technician class
A license is valid for 10 years. After the 10 years, a further two years are allowed
for renewal although the amateur radio privileges cease to exist during this period. After
the renewal of the license, one can operate a station. According to the FCC, it is best to
renew the license 90 days prior to the expiration date.
The FCC made changes based on three aspects. The number of operator li-
censes was reduced from six to three. The number of telegraphy examination elements
was reduced from three to one. The number of elements in the written examination was
reduced from five to three. There will be only one Morse code examination at a speed of
five words-per-minute (wpm). RACES station licenses were eliminated.
The Tech Plus operators can have their licenses renewed under Technician, but
they retain the exam credit indefinitely for the five words-per-minute Morse code. Gen-
erally speaking, all previous Novice operators and Technician Class operators (licensed
before February 14, 1991), even those with long-expired licenses, retain credit for the
five wpm Morse code exam. The importance of Morse code is greatly reduced. The top
speed in ham radio becomes five wpm.
None of the amateur license classes receive any additional frequency privileges
and no one lost privileges. The only exception is that Technician Class radio amateurs
licensed before March 21, 1987 could become General Class licensees after April 15,
2000 without further examination. A time may come soon, where Morse code is consid-
ered obsolete.
Expired License
If the time duration after the expiry of the license is less than two years, the li-
cense only needs to be renewed. The name, address and call sign of every amateur
remains in the FCC's database for a two year "grace period" beyond expiration. In case
the two year "grace period" is up, one must start all over again. There are two excep-
tions to this rule that apply only to Technical Class operators. These exceptions are:
One can retain credit for the Element 1 (5 wpm) telegraphy and Element 3 (gen-
eral written) examination if he/she has an expired FCC issued Technician Class opera-
tor license granted before March 21, 1987. That means, even though the license has
expired 10 years ago, the person still gets credit for Element 1 and 3. He or she would
merely have to pass Element 2 (Technician) and submit the expired Technician license
granted before March 21, 1987 (or other evidence) to the VE team to become a General
Class operator.
But one question remains unanswered. What is the necessity of a license at all? CB
radio operators are not required to have one. The simple answer is that ham operators
can work at a power level of almost 375 times than that of a CB operator. Also, ham op-
erators can transmit across state and international barriers. This makes it mandatory to
understand the international rules and regulations.
VHF/UHF Bands
“If it weren’t for Philo T. Farnsworth, inventor of television, we’d still be eating frozen
radio dinners.” ~ Johnny Carson, comedian
The bandwidth assigned to a ham may differ in some respects from one country
to another. This is done by the concerned body of the particular country (like FCC for
the U.S.) by going through a lot of aspects. This makes it impossible to have a common
frequency allotment in the international level. A technician with no Morse code license
can operate on allowed frequency segments above 30 MHz. Most of the activity pertain-
ing to this segment will be limited to local areas. The amateur bands that can be used
by a no code technician are given below. Note that the 13 cm band is divided into two
segments.
VHF Bands
Image Transmissions
Image transmissions are the transmissions of still images or that of video images.
Fax and slow and fast scan television are some of the image transmission modes.
Hams often involve themselves in sharing their personal videos.
Station Licensee
If an individual is licensed and owns a radio, then he/she is the control operator
when he/she is using the radio. The location where the control operator functions is
called the control point. It is possible that the station licensee and the control operator
are two separate individuals. A control operator can be anyone who the station licensee
designates.
Call sign is a sequence of letters and numbers the FCC provides for identifying a
station. This will be provided as soon as one is licensed. Call sign is a must for ham ra-
dio operation. It is mandatory for an operator to identify his or her station every 10 min-
utes or at the end of the operation.
As implied by the name, third party communications are the communications sent
between two amateur stations on the behalf of someone. A third party is the one who
has sent the message through two amateur stations. The policy of the FCC states that
an amateur should never be paid for third party communications. When one allows a
third party to use his/her station, then he/she must closely monitor the transmission.
Third party messages to a foreign country can only be made if the U.S. has a
third party agreement with that government.
Frequency Sharing
Sometimes, it is possible that there are others in the same band. At certain in-
stances, the amateur radio operators share the band with other radio services. When
amateurs are the secondary users of a band, one must not interfere with the primary
users of the band. This rule stands good for the fellow operators as well.
Power Limits
FCC has specified maximum possible power levels. The term coined for this pur-
pose is Peak Envelope Power or PEP. The maximum power output for technician grade
is 1500 watts PEP. Maximum power output allowed to a technician with Morse code is
200 watts PEP.
One should always use the minimum required power. For example, if only a cer-
tain amount of power is required for transmitting to a particular area, then do not use
more than the required power, because it is unnecessary wastage.
Beacons
Beacons are special transmitters that work 24 hours a day to give information on
radio conditions and propagation characteristics. One must tune to a beacon frequency
and check whether a beacon signal is present. The presence of the signal confirms the
existence of a radio communication path between the location and the beacon.
Distress
Whenever there is a distress call on the radio, contact the person and the proper
authorities. It does not matter if the frequency is outside your license privileges.
MAYDAY and SOS are the words transmitted in case of an emergency. This
should be used for life or property threatening emergencies.
Repeaters
The main rules pertaining to the amateur radio transmission are given below. Not know-
ing the rules is no excuse.
“My father hated radio and could not wait for television to be invented so that he could
hate that, too.”
~ Peter De Vries, novelist
The person having physical control of the station apparatus must have been
granted a station license (detailed below) or hold an unexpired document (detailed be-
low) before the station may transmit on any amateur service frequency from any place
that is:
• Within 50 km of the Earth's surface and at a place where the amateur service is
regulated by the FCC.
• Within 50 km of the Earth's surface and aboard any vessel or craft that is
documented or registered in the United States.
• More than 50 km above the Earth's surface aboard any craft that is docu-
mented or registered in the United States.
• A RACES station license. A RACES station license is granted only to the per-
son who is the license custodian designated by the official responsible for the
governmental agency served by that civil defense organization. The custodian
must be the civil defense official responsible for coordination of all civil defense
activities in the area concerned. The custodian must not be a representative of
a foreign government. The custodian need not have been granted an amateur
operator license. The RACES station license document is printed on FCC Form
660.
• A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL) issued to the
person by the FCC.
• A person who has been granted a station license of the type listed above or
who holds an unexpired document of the type listed above is authorized to use,
When transmitting, each amateur station must have a control operator. The con-
trol operator must be a person who has been granted an amateur operator/primary sta-
tion license, or who holds an unexpired document of the following types:
• A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL) issued to the
person by the FCC.
A person who has been granted an operator license of Novice, Technician, Tech-
nician Plus, General, or Advanced class and who has properly submitted to the adminis-
tering VEs an application document, FCC Form 610, for an operator license of a higher
class, and who holds a CSCE indicating that the person has completed the necessary
examinations within the previous 365 days, is authorized to exercise the rights and privi-
leges of the higher operator class until final disposition of the application or until 365
days following the passing of the examination, whichever comes first.
The station must be separate from and independent of all other radio apparatus
installed on the ship or aircraft, except a common antenna may be shared with a volun-
tary ship radio installation. The station's transmissions must not cause interference to
any other apparatus installed on the ship or aircraft.
The station must not constitute a hazard to the safety of life or property. For a
station aboard an aircraft, the apparatus shall not be operated while the aircraft is oper-
ating under Instrument Flight Rules, as defined by the FAA, unless the station has been
found to comply with all applicable FAA Rules.
A station within 1600 m (1 mile) of an FCC monitoring facility must protect that
facility from harmful interference. Failure to do so could result in imposition of operating
restrictions upon the amateur station by an EIC pursuant to S 97.121 of this Part. Geo-
graphical coordinates of the facilities that require protection are listed in Section
0.121(c) of the FCC Rules.
Unless the amateur station licensee has received prior approval from the FCC,
no antenna structure, including the radiating elements, tower, supports, and all appurte-
nances, may be higher than 61 m (200 feet) above ground level at its site.
Unless the amateur station licensee has received prior approval from the FCC,
no antenna structure, at an airport or heliport that is available for public use and is listed
in the airport directory of the current Airman's Information Manual or in either the Alaska
• One meter above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest runway
longer than 1 km within 6.1 km of the antenna structure.
• Two meters above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest runway
shorter than 1 km within 3.1 km of the antenna structure.
• Four meters above the airport elevation for each 100 m from the nearest landing
pad within 1.5 km of the antenna structure.
An amateur station antenna structure no higher than 6.1 m (20 feet) above ground
level at its site or no higher than 6.1 m above any natural object or existing manmade
structure, other than an antenna structure, is exempt from the requirements of this sec-
tion.
(b) Each application for a new amateur service license must be made on the proper
document:
• FCC Form 610-A for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee.
• FCC Form 610-B for a new amateur service club or military recreation station li-
cense.
(c) Each application for a new operator/primary station license must be submitted to
the VEs administering the qualifying examination.
(d) Any eligible person may apply for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee. The
application document, FCC Form 610-A, must be submitted to the FCC, 1270 Fairfield
Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245.
(1) The person must be a citizen of a country with which the United States has ar-
rangements to grant reciprocal operating permits to visiting alien amateur operators is
eligible to apply for reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee.
(2) The person must be a citizen of the same country that issued the amateur service
license.
(3) No person who is a citizen of the United States, regardless of any other citizenship
also held, is eligible for a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee.
(4) No person who has been granted an amateur operator license is eligible for a recip-
rocal permit for alien amateur licensee.
(e) No person shall obtain or attempt to obtain, or assist another person to obtain or
attempt to obtain, an amateur service license or reciprocal permit for alien amateur
licensee by fraudulent means.
(f) One unique call sign will be shown on the license of each new primary station. The
call sign will be selected by the sequential call sign system.
“Television enables you to be entertained in your home by people you wouldn’t have in
your home. ~ David Frost, talk show host
(a) A person who has been granted an amateur station license that has not expired:
(1) Must apply for a modification of the license as necessary to show the correct mail-
ing address, licensee name, club name, license trustee name, or license custodian
name. The application document must be submitted to: FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road,
Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245. For an operator/primary station license, the application
must be made on FCC Form 610. For a club, military recreation, or RACES station li-
cense, the application must be made on FCC Form 610-B.
(2) May apply for a modification of the license to show a higher operator class. The
application must be made on FCC Form 610 and must be submitted to the VEs ad-
ministering the qualifying examination.
(3) May apply for renewal of the license for another term. (The FCC may mail to the
licensee a FCC Form 610-R that may be used for this purpose.) The application may
be made on the FCC Form 610-R if it is received from the FCC. If the Form 610-R is
not received from the FCC at least 30 days before the expiration of the license, for an
operator/primary station license, the application may be made on FCC Form 610. For
a club, military recreation, or RACES station license, the application may be made on
FCC Form 610-B. The application must be submitted no more than 90 days before its
expiration to: FCC, 1270 Fairfield Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245. When the appli-
cation for renewal of the license has been received by the FCC at 1270 Fairfield Road,
Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 prior to the license expiration date, the license operating
authority is continued until the final disposition of the application.
(4) May apply for a modification of the license to show a different call sign selected by
the sequential call sign system. The application document must be submitted to: FCC,
(b) A person who had been granted an amateur station license, but the license has
expired, may apply for renewal of the license for another term during a two year filing
grace period. The application document must be received by the FCC at 1270 Fairfield
Road, Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245 prior to the end of the grace period. For an
operator/primary station license, the application must be made on FCC Form 610. For
a club, military recreation, or RACES station license, the application must be made on
FCC Form 610-B. Unless and until the license is renewed, no privileges in the Part are
conferred.
(c) Each application for a modified or renewed amateur service license must be ac-
companied by a photocopy (or the original) of the license document unless an applica-
tion for renewal using FCC Form 610-R is being made, or unless the original docu-
ment has been lost, mutilated or destroyed.
(d) Unless the holder of a station license requests a change in call sign, the same call
sign will be assigned to the station upon renewal or modification of a station license.
(e) A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee cannot be renewed. A new reciprocal
permit for alien amateur licensee may be issued upon proper application.
(a) Each application for a license and each application for a reciprocal permit for alien
amateur licensee must show a mailing address in an area where the amateur service
is regulated by the FCC and where the licensee or permittee can receive mail delivery
by the United States Postal Service. Each application for a reciprocal permit for alien
amateur licensee must also show the permittee's mailing address in the country of
citizenship.
(b) When there is a change in the mailing address for a person who has been granted
an amateur operator/primary station license, the person must file a timely application
(c) When a person who has been granted a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licen-
see changes the mailing address where he or she can receive mail delivery by the
United States Postal Service, the person must file an application for a new permit.
Cancellation of the reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee may result when cor-
respondence from the FCC is returned as undeliverable because the permittee failed
to provide the correct mailing address.
(b) A reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee is normally granted for a 1-year term.
(a) The FCC may modify a station license, either for a limited time or for the duration
of the term thereof, if it determines:
(1) That such action will promote the public interest, convenience, and necessity; or
(2) That such action will promote fuller compliance with the provisions of the Commu-
nications Act of 1934, as amended, or of any treaty ratified by the United States.
(b) When the FCC makes such a determination, it will issue an order of modification.
The order will not become final until the licensee is notified in writing of the proposed
action and the grounds and reasons therefore. The licensee will be given reasonable
opportunity of no less than 30 days to protest the modification; except that, where
safety of life or property is involved, a shorter period of notice may be provided. Any
protest by a licensee of an FCC order of modification will be handled in accordance
with the provisions of 47 U.S.C. S 316.
Each person who has been granted an amateur station license or reciprocal
permit for alien amateur licensee whose original license document or permit document
is lost, mutilated or destroyed must request a replacement. A statement of how the
document was lost, mutilated, or destroyed must be attached to the request. A replace-
ment document must bear the same expiration date as the document that it replaces.
(a) In all respects not specifically covered by FCC Rules, each amateur station must
be operated in accordance with good engineering and good amateur practice.
(b) Each station licensee and each control operator must cooperate in selecting
transmitting channels and in making the most effective use of the amateur service fre-
quencies. No frequency will be assigned for the exclusive use of any station.
(c) At all times and on all frequencies, each control operator must give priority to sta-
tions providing emergency communications, except to stations transmitting communi-
cations for training drills and tests in RACES.
(d) No amateur operator shall willfully or maliciously interfere with or cause interfer-
ence to any radio communication or signal.
(a) The station licensee is responsible for the proper operation of the station in accor-
dance with the FCC Rules. When the control operator is a different amateur operator
than the station licensee, both persons are equally responsible for proper operation of
the station.
(b) The station licensee must designate the station control operator. The FCC will pre-
sume that the station licensee is also the control operator, unless documentation to
the contrary is in the station records.
“I have not failed. I have just found 10,000 ways that won’t work.”
~ Thomas Edison, inventor
(a) The control operator must ensure the immediate proper operation of the station,
regardless of the type of control.
(b) A station may only be operated in the manner and to the extent permitted by the
privileges authorized for the class of operator license held by the control operator.
(a) The privileges available to a control operator holding an amateur service license
issued by the Government of Canada are:
(1) The terms of the convention between the United States and Canada (TIAS no.
2508) relating to the operation by citizens of either country of certain radio equipment
or stations in the other country;
(2) The operating terms and conditions of the amateur service license issued by the
Government of Canada; and
(3) The applicable provisions of the FCC Rules, but not to exceed the control operator
privileges of an FCC-issued Amateur Extra Class operator license.
(2) The operating terms and conditions of the amateur service license issued by the
alien's government;
(3) The applicable provisions of the FCC Rules, but not to exceed the control operator
privileges of an FCC-issued Amateur Extra Class operator license; and
(4) None, if the holder of the reciprocal permit has obtained an FCC-issued operator/
primary station license.
(c) At any time the FCC may, in its discretion, modify, suspend, or cancel the amateur
service privileges within or over any area where radio services are regulated by the
FCC of any Canadian amateur service licensee or alien reciprocal permittee.
(a) Each amateur station must have at least one control point.
(b) When a station is being locally controlled, the control operator must be at the con-
trol point. Any station may be locally controlled.
(c) When a station is being remotely controlled, the control operator must be at the
control point. Any station may be remotely controlled.
(d) When a station is being automatically controlled, the control operator need not be
at the control point. Only stations transmitting RTTY or data emissions on the 6 m or
shorter wavelength bands, and stations specifically designated elsewhere in this Part
may be automatically controlled. Automatic control must cease upon notification by an
EIC that the station is transmitting improperly or causing harmful interference to other
stations. Automatic control must not be resumed without prior approval of the EIC.
(e) No station may be automatically controlled while transmitting third- party communi-
cations, except a station participating as a forwarding station in a message forwarding
system.
(a) An amateur station may transmit the following types of two-way communications:
(1) Transmissions necessary to exchange messages with other stations in the ama-
teur service, except those in any country whose administration has given notice that it
objects to such communications. The FCC will issue public notices of current ar-
rangements for international communications;
(3) Telecommand;
(2) Communications for hire or for material compensation, direct or indirect, paid or
promised, except as otherwise provided in these rules;
(3) Communications in which the station licensee or control operator has a pecuniary
interest, including communications on behalf of an employer. Amateur operators may,
however, notify other amateur operators of the availability for sale or trade of appara-
tus normally used in an amateur station, provided that such activity is not conducted
on a regular basis;
(4) Music using a phone emission except as specifically provided elsewhere in this
Section; communications intended to facilitate a criminal act; messages in codes or
ciphers intended to obscure the meaning thereof, except as otherwise provided
herein; obscene or indecent words or language; or false or deceptive messages, sig-
nals or identification;
(b) An amateur station shall not engage in any form of broadcasting, nor may an ama-
teur station transmit one-way communications except as specifically provided in these
rules; nor shall an amateur station engage in any activity related to program produc-
tion or news gathering for broadcasting purposes, except that communications directly
related to the immediate safety of human life or the protection of property may be pro-
vided by amateur stations to broadcasters for dissemination to the public where no
other means of communication is reasonably available before or at the time of the
event.
(e) No station shall retransmit programs or signals emanating from any type of radio
station other than an amateur station, except propagation and weather forecast infor-
mation intended for use by the general public and originated from United States Gov-
ernment stations and communications, including incidental music, originating on
United States Government frequencies between a space shuttle and its associated
Earth stations. Prior approval for shuttle retransmissions must be obtained from the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Such retransmissions must be for the
exclusive use of amateur operators. Propagation, weather forecasts, and shuttle re-
transmissions may not be conducted on a regular basis, but only occasionally, as an
incident of normal amateur radio communications.
(f) No amateur station, except an auxiliary, repeater or space station, may automati-
cally retransmit the radio signals of other amateur stations.
(a) An amateur station may transmit messages for a third party to:
(2) Any station within the jurisdiction of any foreign government whose administration
has made arrangements with the United States to allow amateur stations to be used
(b) The third party may participate in stating the message where:
(1) The control operator is present at the control point and is continuously monitoring
and supervising the third party's participation; and
(2) The third party is not a prior amateur service licensee whose license was revoked;
suspended for less than the balance of the license term and the suspension is still in
effect; suspended for the balance of the license term and relicensing has not taken
place; or surrendered for cancellation following notice of revocation, suspension or
monetary forfeiture proceedings. The third party may not be the subject of a cease
and desist order which relates to amateur service operation and which is still in effect.
(c) At the end of an exchange of international third party communications, the station
must also transmit in the station identification procedure the call sign of the station
with which a third party message was exchanged.
(a) Each amateur station, except a space station or telecommand station, must trans-
mit its assigned call sign on its transmitting channel at the end of each communication,
and at least every 10 minutes during a communication, for the purpose of clearly mak-
ing the source of the transmissions from the station known to those receiving the
transmissions. No station may transmit unidentified communications or signals, or
transmit as the station call sign, any call sign not authorized to the station.
(b) The call sign must be transmitted with an emission authorized for the transmitting
channel in one of the following ways:
(1) By a CW emission. When keyed by an automatic device used only for identifica-
tion, the speed must not exceed 20 words per minute;
(2) By a phone emission in the English language. Use of a standard phonetic alphabet
as an aid for correct station identification is encouraged;
(3) By RTTY emission using a specified digital code when all or part of the communi-
cations is transmitted by RTTY or data emission;
(c) An indicator may be included with the call sign. It must be separated from the call
sign by the slant mark or by any suitable word that denotes the slant mark. If the indi-
cator is self-assigned it must be included after the call sign and must not conflict with
any other indicator specified by the FCC rules or with any prefix assigned to another
country.
(e) When the control operator who is exercising the rights and privileges authorized by
S 97.9(b) of this part, an indicator must be included after the call sign as follows:
(1) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice to
Technician Class: KT;
(2) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice or
Technician Class to General Class: AG;
(3) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice,
Technician, or General Class operator to Advanced Class: AA; or
(4) For a control operator who has requested a license modification from Novice,
Technician, General, or Advanced Class operator to Amateur Extra Class: AE.
(f) When the station is transmitting under the authority of a reciprocal permit for alien
amateur licensee, an indicator consisting of the appropriate letter-numeral designating
the station location must be included before the call sign issued to the station by the
licensing country. When the station is transmitting under the authority of an amateur
service license issued by the Government of Canada, a station location indicator must
be included after the call sign. At least once during each intercommunication, the iden-
tification announcement must include the geographical location as nearly as possible
by city and state, commonwealth or possession.
(a) If the operation of an amateur station causes general interference to the reception
of transmissions from stations operating in the domestic broadcast service when re-
ceivers of good engineering design, including adequate selectivity characteristics, are
used to receive such transmissions, and this fact is made known to the amateur sta-
tion licensee, the amateur station shall not be operated during the hours from 8 PM to
(b) An auxiliary station may transmit only on the 1.25 m and shorter wavelength fre-
quency bands, except the 222.00-222.15 MHz, 431-433 MHz and 435-438 MHz seg-
ments.
(c) Where an auxiliary station causes harmful interference to another auxiliary station,
the licensees are equally and fully responsible for resolving the interference unless
one station's operation is recommended by a frequency coordinator and the other sta-
tion's is not. In that case, the licensee of the non-coordinated auxiliary station has pri-
mary responsibility to resolve the interference.
“The object of war is not to die for your country but to make the other bastard die for
his.” ~ General, George Patton, army general
(b) A beacon must not concurrently transmit on more than one channel in the same
amateur service frequency band, from the same station location.
(e) Before establishing an automatically controlled beacon in the National Radio Quiet
Zone or before changing the transmitting frequency, transmitter power, antenna height
or directivity, the station licensee must give written notification thereof to the Interfer-
ence Office, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, P.O. Box 2, Green Bank, WV
24944.
(1) The notification must include the geographical coordinates of the antenna, antenna
ground elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), antenna center of radiation above
ground level (AGL), antenna directivity, proposed frequency, type of emission, and
transmitter power.
(2) If an objection to the proposed operation is received by the FCC from the National
Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, Pocahontas County, WV, for itself or on
behalf of the Naval Research Laboratory at Sugar Grove, Pendleton County, WV,
within 20 days from the date of notification, the FCC will consider all aspects of the
problem and take whatever action is deemed appropriate.
(f) A beacon must cease transmissions upon notification by an EIC that the station is
operating improperly or causing undue interference to other operations. The beacon
may not resume transmitting without prior approval of the EIC.
(b) A repeater may receive and retransmit only on the 10 m and shorter wavelength
frequency bands except the 28.0-29.5 MHz, 50.0-51.0 MHz, 144.0- 144.5 MHz,
145.5-146.0 MHz, 222.00-222.15 MHz, 431.0-433.0 MHz and 435.0- 438.0 MHz seg-
ments.
(c) Where the transmissions of a repeater cause harmful interference to another re-
peater, the two station licensees are equally and fully responsible for resolving the in-
terference unless the operation of one station is recommended by a frequency coordi-
nator and the operation of the other station is not. In that case, the licensee of the
noncoordinated repeater has primary responsibility to resolve the interference.
(e) Ancillary functions of a repeater that are available to users on the input channel are
not considered remotely controlled functions of the station. Limiting the use of a re-
peater to only certain user stations is permissible.
(f) Before establishing a repeater in the National Radio Quiet Zone or before changing
the transmitting frequency, transmitter power, antenna height or directivity, or the loca-
tion of an existing repeater, the station licensee must give written notification thereof to
the Interference Office, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, P.O. Box 2, Green
Bank, WV 24944.
(1) The notification must include the geographical coordinates of the station antenna,
antenna ground elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), antenna center of radiation
above ground level (AGL), antenna directivity, proposed frequency, type of emission,
and transmitter power.
(a) Any amateur station may be a space station. A holder of any class operator license
may be the control operator of a space station, subject to the privileges of the class of
operator license held by the control operator.
(c) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to space stations:
(2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz
and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.83-5.85 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and
24.00-24.05 GHz segments.
(d) A space station may automatically retransmit the radio signals of Earth stations and
other space stations.
(f) Space telemetry transmissions may consist of specially coded messages intended
to facilitate communications or related to the function of the spacecraft.
(g) The licensee of each space station must give two written, pre-space station notifi-
cations to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554. Each notification
must be in accord with the provisions of Articles 11 and 13 of the Radio Regulations.
(2) The second notification is required no less than five months prior to initiating space
station transmissions and must specify the information required by Appendix 3 and
Resolution No. 642 of the Radio Regulations.
(h) The licensee of each space station must give a written, in-space station notification
to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554, no later than seven days
following initiation of space station transmissions. The notification must update the in-
formation contained in the pre-space notification.
(i) The licensee of each space station must give a written, post-space station notifica-
tion to the Private Radio Bureau, FCC, Washington, DC 20554, no later than three
months after termination of the space station transmissions. When the termination is
ordered by the FCC, notification is required no later than 24 hours after termination.
“You can get more with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone.”
~ Al Capone, gangster
(a) Any amateur station may be an Earth station. A holder of any class operator li-
cense may be the control operator of an Earth station, subject to the privileges of the
class of operator license held by the control operator.
(b) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to Earth stations:
(2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz
and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.65-5.67 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and
24.00-24.05 GHz segments.
(a) Any amateur station designated by the licensee of a space station is eligible to
transmit as a telecommand station for that space station, subject to the privileges of
the class of operator license held by the control operator.
(b) A telecommand station may transmit special codes intended to obscure the mean-
ing of telecommand messages to the station in space operation.
(c) The following frequency bands and segments are authorized to telecommand sta-
tions:
(2) The 7.0-7.1 MHz, 14.00-14.25 MHz, 144-146 MHz, 435-438 MHz, 1260- 1270 MHz
and 2400-2450 MHz, 3.40-3.41 GHz, 5.65-5.67 GHz, 10.45-10.50 GHz and
24.00-24.05 GHz segments.
(a) There is a radio or wireline control link between the control point and the station
sufficient for the control operator to perform his/her duties. If radio, the control link
must use an auxiliary station. A control link using a fiber optic cable or another tele-
communication service is considered wireline.
(a) The station identification procedure is not required for transmissions directed only
to the model craft, provided that a label indicating the station call sign and the station
licensee's name and address is affixed to the station transmitter.
(b) The control signals are not considered codes or ciphers intended to obscure the
meaning of the communication.
S 97.217 Telemetry
(a) Any amateur station may participate in a message forwarding system, subject to
the privileges of the class of operator license held.
(b) For stations participating in a message forwarding system, the control operator of
the station originating a message is primarily accountable for any violation of the rules
in this Part contained in the message.
(c) Except as noted in paragraph (d) of this section, for stations participating in a mes-
sage forwarding system, the control operators of forwarding stations that retransmit
(d) For stations participating in a message forwarding system, the control operator of
the first forwarding station must:
(1) Authenticate the identity of the station from which it accepts communication on be-
half of the system; or
(2) Accept accountability for any violation of the rules in this Part contained in mes-
sages it retransmits to the system.
(b) No amateur station transmitting in the 1900-2000 kHz segment, the 70 cm band,
the 33 cm band, the 13 cm band, the 9 cm band, the 5 cm band, the 3 cm band, the
24.05-24.25 GHz segment, the 76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and
(c) No amateur station transmitting in the 1900-2000 kHz segment, the 3 cm band, the
76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and the 241-248 GHz segment shall
cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation
of, stations in the non-Government radiolocation service.
(d) No amateur station transmitting in the 30 meter band shall cause harmful interfer-
ence to stations authorized by other nations in the fixed service. The licensee of the
amateur station must make all necessary adjustments, including termination of trans-
missions, if harmful interference is caused.
(e) Reserved
(1) No amateur station shall transmit from north of Line A in the 420- 430 MHz seg-
ment.
(2) The 420-430 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service in the United States
on a secondary basis, and is allocated in the fixed and mobile (except aeronautical
mobile) services in the International Table of allocations on a primary basis. No ama-
teur station transmitting in this band shall cause harmful interference to, nor is pro-
tected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in
the fixed and mobile (except aeronautical mobile) services.
(3) The 430-440 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary ba-
sis in ITU Regions 2 and 3. No amateur station transmitting in this band in ITU Re-
gions 2 and 3 shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference
due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the radiolocation serv-
ice. In ITU Region 1, the 430-440 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur service on
a co-primary basis with the radio-location service. As between these two services in
this band in ITU Region 1, the basic principle that applies is the equality of right to op-
erate. Amateur stations authorized by the United States and radiolocation stations
(4) No amateur station transmitting in the 449.75-450.25 MHz segment shall cause
interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of stations in,
the space operation service and the space research service or Government or non-
Government stations for space telecommand.
(1) No amateur station shall transmit from within the States of Colorado and Wyoming,
bounded on the south by latitude 39 N, on the north by latitude 42 N, on the east by
longitude 105 W, and on the west by longitude 180 W.1 This band is allocated on a
secondary basis to the amateur service subject to not causing harmful interference to,
and not receiving protection from any interference due to the operation of, industrial,
scientific and medical devices, automatic vehicle monitoring systems or Government
stations authorized in this band.
(2) No amateur station shall transmit from those portions of the States of Texas and
New Mexico bounded on the south by latitude 31 41' N, on the north by latitude 34 30'
N, on the east by longitude 104 11' W, and on the west by longitude 107 30' W.
(h) No amateur station transmitting in the 23 cm band, the 3 cm band, the 24.05-24.25
GHz segment, the 76-81 GHz segment, the 144-149 GHz segment and the 241-248
GHz segment shall cause harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference
due to the operation of, stations authorized by other nations in the radiolocation serv-
ice.
(i) In the 1240-1260 MHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interfer-
ence to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations in the radio
navigation-satellite service, the aeronautical radio navigation service, or the radioloca-
tion service.
(1) The amateur service is allocated on a secondary basis in all ITU Regions. In ITU
Region 1, no amateur station shall cause harmful interference to, and is not protected
(2) In the United States, the 2300-2310 MHz segment is allocated to the amateur serv-
ice on a co-secondary basis with the Government fixed and mobile services. In this
segment, the fixed and mobile services must not cause harmful interference to the
amateur service. No amateur station transmitting in the 2400-2450 MHz segment is
protected from interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical
devices on 2450 MHz.
(k) No amateur station transmitting in the 3.332-3.339 GHz and 3.3458- 3525 GHz
segments, the 2.5 mm band, the 144.68-144.98 GHz, 145.45-145.75 GHz and
146.82-147.12 GHz segments and the 343-348 GHz segment shall cause harmful in-
terference to stations in the radio astronomy service. No amateur station transmitting
in the 300-302 GHz, 324-326 GHz, 345-347 GHz, 363-365 GHz and 379-381 GHz
segments shall cause harmful interference to stations in the space research service
(passive) or Earth exploration-satellite service (passive).
(1) In ITU Regions 2 and 3, the band is allocated to the amateur service on a secon-
dary basis.
(2) In the United States, the band is allocated to the amateur service on a co-
secondary basis with the non-Government radiolocation service.
(3) In the 3.3-3.4 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interference
to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by
other nations in the fixed and fixed-satellite service.
(4) In the 3.4-3.5 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interference
to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by
other nations in the fixed and fixed-satellite service.
(2) In the 5.725-5.850 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in all ITU Re-
gions on a secondary basis. No amateur station shall cause harmful interference to,
nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other
nations in the fixed-satellite service in ITU Region 1.
(3) No amateur station transmitting in the 5.725-5.875 GHz segment is protected from
interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical devices operating
on 5.8 GHz.
(4) In the 5.650-5.850 GHz segment, no amateur station shall cause harmful interfer-
ence to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized
by other nations in the radiolocation service.
(5) In the 5.850-5.925 GHz segment, the amateur service is allocated in ITU Region 2
on a co-secondary basis with the radiolocation service. In the United States, the seg-
ment is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis to the non-Government
fixed-satellite service. No amateur station shall cause harmful interference to, nor is
protected from interference due to the operation of, stations authorized by other na-
tions in the fixed, fixed-satellite and mobile services. No amateur station shall cause
harmful interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, sta-
tions in the non-Government fixed-satellite service.
(1) In the United States, the 3 cm band is allocated to the amateur service on a co-
secondary basis with the non-government radiolocation service.
(2) In the 10.00-10.45 GHz segment in ITU Regions 1 and 3, no amateur station shall
cause interference to, nor is protected from interference due to the operation of, sta-
tions authorized by other nations in the fixed and mobile services.
(o) No amateur station transmitting in the 1.2 cm band is protected from interference
due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical devices on 24.125 GHz. In the
United States, the 24.05-24.25 GHz segment is allocated to the amateur service on a
(p) The 2.5 mm band is allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis. No
amateur station transmitting in this band shall cause harmful interference to, nor is
protected from interference due to the operation of, stations in the fixed, inter-satellite
and mobile services.
(q) No amateur station transmitting in the 244-246 GHz segment of the 1 mm band is
protected from interference due to the operation of industrial, scientific and medical
devices on 245 GHz.
(a) No amateur station transmission shall occupy more bandwidth than necessary for
the information rate and emission type being transmitted, in accordance with good
amateur practice.
(b) Emissions resulting from modulation must be confined to the band or segment
available to the control operator. Emissions outside the necessary bandwidth must not
cause splatter or key click interference to operations on adjacent frequencies.
(c) All spurious emissions from a station transmitter must be reduced to the greatest
extent practicable. If any spurious emission, including chassis or power line radiation,
causes harmful interference to the reception of another radio station, the licensee of
the interfering amateur station is required to take steps to eliminate the interference, in
accordance with good engineering practice.
(d) The mean power of any spurious emission from a station transmitter or external RF
power amplifier transmitting on a frequency below 30 MHz must not exceed 50 mW
and must be at least 40 dB below the mean power of the fundamental emission. For a
(e) The mean power of any spurious emission from a station transmitter or external RF
power amplifier transmitting on a frequency between 30-225 MHz must be at least 60
dB below the mean power of the fundamental. For a transmitter having a mean power
of 25 W or less, the mean power of any spurious emission supplied to the antenna
transmission line must not exceed 25 uW and must be at least 40 dB below the mean
power of the fundamental emission, but need not be reduced below the power of 10
uW. A transmitter built before April 15, 1977, or first marketed before January 1, 1978,
is exempt from this requirement.
(f) The following standards and limitations apply to transmissions on the frequencies
specified in S 97.305(c) of this Part.
(1) No angle-modulated emission may have a modulation index greater than 1 at the
highest modulation frequency.
(3) Only a RTTY or data emission using a specified digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of
this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 300 bauds, or for
frequency-shift keying, the frequency shift between mark and space must not exceed
1 kHz.
(4) Only a RTTY or data emission using a specified digital code listed in S 97.309(a) of
this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 1200 bauds. For
frequency-shift keying, the frequency shift between mark and space must not exceed
1 kHz.
(5) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in S
97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 19.6 kilo-
(6) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in S
97.309(a) of this Part may be transmitted. The symbol rate must not exceed 56 kilo-
bauds. A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using an unspecified digital code under
the limitations listed in S 97.309(b) of this Part also may be transmitted. The author-
ized bandwidth is 100 kHz.
(7) A RTTY, data or multiplexed emission using a specified digital code listed in S
97.309(a) of this Part or an unspecified digital code under the limitations listed in S
97.309(b) of this Part may be transmitted.
(9) A station having a control operator holding a Novice or Technician Class operator
license may only transmit a CW emission using the international Morse code.
(10) A station having a control operator holding a Novice or Technician Class operator
license may only transmit a CW emission using the international Morse code or phone
emissions J3E and R3E.
(11) Phone and image emissions may be transmitted only by stations located in ITU
Regions 1 and 3, and by stations located within ITU Region 2 that are west of 130
West longitude or south of 20 North latitude.
(a) Where authorized by S 97.305(c) and 97.307(f) of this Part, an amateur station
may transmit a RTTY or data emission using the following specified digital codes:
(1) The 5-unit, start-stop, International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2, code defined in In-
ternational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee Recommendation F.1,
Division C (commonly known as Baudot).
(2) The 7-unit code, specified in International Radio Consultative Committee Recom-
mendation CCIR 476-2 (1978), 476-3 (1982), 476-4 (1986) or 625 (1986) (commonly
known as AMTOR).
(3) The 7-unit code defined in American National Standards Institute X3.4-1977 or In-
ternational Alphabet No. 5 defined in International Telegraph and Telephone Consulta-
tive Committee Recommendation T.50 or in International Organization for Standardi-
zation, International Standard ISO 646 (1983), and extensions as provided for in
CCITT Recommendation T.61 (Malaga-Torremolinos, 1984) (commonly known as AS-
CII).
(b) Where authorized by S S 97.305(c) and 97.307(f) of this Part, a station may trans-
mit a RTTY or data emission using an unspecified digital code, except to a station in a
country with which the United States does not have an agreement permitting the code
to be used. RTTY and data emissions using unspecified digital codes must not be
transmitted for the purpose of obscuring the meaning of any communication. When
deemed necessary by an EIC to assure compliance with the FCC Rules, a station
must:
(3) Maintain a record, convertible to the original information, of all digital communica-
tions transmitted.
“I went to a restaurant that serves breakfast ‘at any time.’ So I ordered French toast
during the Renaissance.” ~ Steven Wright, comedian
(a) SS emission transmissions by an amateur station are authorized only for commu-
nications between points within areas where the amateur service is regulated by the
FCC. SS emission transmissions must not be used for the purpose of obscuring the
meaning of any communication.
(b) Stations transmitting SS emission must not cause harmful interference to stations
employing other authorized emissions, and must accept all interference caused by
stations employing other authorized emissions. For the purposes of this paragraph,
unintended triggering of carrier operated repeaters is not considered to be harmful in-
terference.
(c) Only the following types of SS emission transmissions are authorized (hybrid SS
emission transmissions involving both spreading techniques are prohibited):
(1) Frequency hopping where the carrier of the transmitted signal is modulated with
unciphered information and changes frequency at fixed intervals under the direction of
a high speed code sequence.
(2) Direct sequence where the information is modulo-2 added to a high speed code
sequence. The combined information and code are then used to modulate the RF car-
rier. The high speed code sequence dominates the modulation function, and is the di-
rect cause of the wide spreading of the transmitted signal.
(d) The only spreading sequences that are authorized are from the output of one bi-
nary linear feedback shift register (which may be implemented in hardware or soft-
ware).
(3) The output of the last stage of the binary linear feedback shift register must be
used as follows:
(i) For frequency hopping transmissions using x frequencies, n consecutive bits from
the shift register must be used to select the next frequency from a list of frequencies
sorted in ascending order. Each consecutive frequency must be selected by a con-
secutive block of n bits. (Where n is the smallest integer greater than log2X.)
(ii) For direct sequence transmissions using m-ary modulation, consecutive blocks of
log2 m bits from the shift register must be used to select the transmitted signal during
each interval.
(e) The station records must document all SS emission transmissions and must be re-
tained for a period of one year following the last entry. The station records must in-
clude sufficient information to enable the FCC, using the information contained
therein, to demodulate all transmissions. The station records must contain at least the
following:
(2) Pertinent parameters describing the transmitted signal including the frequency or
frequencies of operation and, where applicable, the chip rate, the code rate, the
spreading function, the transmission protocol(s) including the method of achieving
synchronization, and the modulation type;
(3) A general description of the type of information being conveyed (voice, text, mem-
ory dump, facsimile, television, etc.);
(4) The method and, if applicable, the frequency or frequencies used for station identi-
fication; and
(5) The date of beginning and the date of ending use of each type of transmitted sig-
nal.
(3) Maintain a record, convertible to the original information (voice, text, image, etc.) of
all spread spectrum communications transmitted.
(a) An amateur station must use the minimum transmitter power necessary to carry
out the desired communications.
(b) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 1.5 kW PEP.
(c) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 200 W PEP on:
(1) The 3.675-3.725 MHz, 7.10-7.15 MHz, 10.10-10.15 MHz and 21.1-21.2 MHz seg-
ments;
(2) The 28.1-28.5 MHz segment when the control operator is a Novice or Technician
operator; or
(3) The 7.050-7.075 MHz segment when the station is within ITU Regions 1 or 3.
(d) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 25 W PEP on the VHF
1.25 m band when the control operator is a Novice operator.
(e) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 5 W PEP on the UHF
23 cm band when the control operator is a Novice operator.
(f) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 50 W PEP on the UHF
70 cm band from an area specified in footnote US7 to S 2.106 of the FCC Rules, un-
less expressly authorized by the FCC after mutual agreement, on a case-by-case ba-
sis, between the EIC of the applicable field facility and the military area frequency co-
ordinator at the applicable military base. An Earth station or telecommand station,
(g) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 50 watts PEP on the
33 cm band from within 241 km of the boundaries of the White Sands Missile Range.
Its boundaries are those portions of Texas and New Mexico bounded on the south by
latitude 31 41' North, on the east by longitude 104 11' West, on the north by latitude 34
30' North, and on the west by longitude 107 30' West.
“We had gay burglars the other night. They broke in and rearranged the furniture.”
~ Robin Williams
(a) No more than one unit of one model of an external RF power amplifier capable of
operation below 144 MHz may be constructed or modified during any calendar year by
an amateur operator for use at a station without a grant of type acceptance. No ampli-
fier capable of operation below 144 MHz may be constructed or modified by a non-
amateur operator without a grant of type acceptance from the FCC.
(b) Any external RF power amplifier or external RF power amplifier kit (see S 2.815 of
the FCC Rules), manufactured, imported or modified for use in a station or attached at
any station must be type accepted for use in the amateur service in accordance with
Subpart J of Part 2 of the FCC Rules. This requirement does not apply if one or more
of the following conditions are met:
(1) The amplifier is not capable of operation on frequencies below 144 MHz. For the
purpose of this part, an amplifier will be deemed to be incapable of operation below
144 MHz if it is not capable of being easily modified to increase its amplification char-
acteristics below 120 MHz and either:
(ii) The amplifier is not capable of amplifying signals below 120 MHz even for brief pe-
riods without sustaining permanent damage to its amplification circuitry.
(2) The amplifier was manufactured before April 28, 1978, and has been issued a
marketing waiver by the FCC, or the amplifier was purchased before April 28, 1978, by
an amateur operator for use at that amateur operator's station.
(i) Constructed by the licensee, not from an external RF power amplifier kit, for use at
the licensee's station; or
(5) The amplifier is purchased in used condition by an equipment dealer from an ama-
teur operator and the amplifier is further sold to another amateur operator for use at
that operator's station.
(c) A list of type accepted equipment may be inspected at FCC headquarters in Wash-
ington, DC or at any FCC field location. Any external RF power amplifier appearing on
this list as type accepted for use in the amateur service may be marketed for use in
the amateur service.
(a) To receive a grant of type acceptance, the amplifier must satisfy the spurious
emission standards of S 97.307(d) or (e) of this Part, as applicable, when the amplifier
is:
(2) Placed in the "standby" or "off" positions, but still connected to the transmitter; and
(b) To receive a grant of type acceptance, the amplifier must not be capable of opera-
tion on any frequency or frequencies between 24 MHz and 35 MHz. The amplifier will
be deemed incapable of such operation if it:
(1) Exhibits no more than 6 dB gain between 24 MHz and 26 MHz and between 28
MHz and 35 MHz. (This gain will be determined by the ratio of the input RF driving
signal (mean power measurement) to the mean RF output power of the amplifier); and
(c) Type acceptance may be denied when denial would prevent the use of these am-
plifiers in services other than the amateur service. The following features will result in
dismissal or denial of an application for the type acceptance:
(1) Any accessible wiring which, when altered, would permit operation of the amplifier
in a manner contrary to the FCC rules;
(2) Circuit boards or similar circuitry to facilitate the addition of components to change
the amplifier's operating characteristics in a manner contrary to the FCC rules;
(4) Any internal or external controls or adjustments to facilitate operation of the ampli-
fier in a manner contrary to the FCC rules;
(5) Any internal RF sensing circuitry or any external switch, the purpose of which is to
place the amplifier in the transmit mode;
(6) The incorporation of more gain in the amplifier than is necessary to operate in the
amateur service; for purposes of this paragraph, the amplifier must:
(i) Not be capable of achieving designed output power when driven with less than 40
W mean RF input power;
(ii) Not be capable of amplifying the input RF driving signal by more than 15 dB, un-
less the amplifier has a designed transmitter power of less than 1.5 kW (in such a
(iii) Not exhibit more gain than permitted by paragraph (c)(6)(ii) of this Section when
driven by an RF input signal of less than 50 W mean power; and
(7) Any attenuation in the input of the amplifier which, when removed or modified,
would permit the amplifier to function at its designed transmitter power when driven by
an RF frequency input signal of less than 50 W mean power; or
Safety
"I'm always amazed to hear of air crash victims so badly mutilated that they have to be
identified by their dental records. What I can't understand is if they don't know who you
are, how do they know who your dentist is?" ~ Paul Merton, comedian
Lightning Damage
It is always advisable to ground the antenna when not in use. If there is a possibility
of a storm, all the station equipment can be turned off. The antenna’s cables can be dis-
connected and hooked to the ground.
Grounding
All the station equipment should be grounded to prevent any electrical shock.
What is a Ground?
A ground is a low-impedance electrical connection to earth. All transmitting an-
tenna systems need an excellent ground system to provide proper operator safety and
optimum radiation of the maximum amount of RF energy into the air.
It is the ground found at the power box on home's electrical service connection. It
provides overall electrical safety for the building and property.
This is a strap or wire placed from radio equipment to a convenient cold water
pipe or ground rod to eliminate the hazard of electrical shock. In case of a mobile con-
RF Ground
High voltage power supply deals with very high voltages. The manufacturers of
such equipment are bound to use interlock switches in the power supply. This facilitates
the disconnection of AC power to the supply, while the cabinet is opened for repairs.
This is done to avoid electrical shocks.
Antenna Safety
When someone is on the antenna for repair activities, it is best to wear a helmet.
Those on the ground should also wear a helmet.
The U.S. occupational hazard standard for the people who work with amateur
radio is 10 m Watts/square cm. Many studies have revealed that for 99 percent of the
population, the total exposure is less than .001 m Watts per square cm. This is very low
compared to the current U.S. standard. But the situation changes when close to an op-
erating antenna. This will be much more than the standard value.
Since 30 volts is enough to kill a person, one must take the necessary precautions while
working on high voltage. An electric current as feeble as 1/10th of an ampere can be fa-
tal. The body part most affected by an electric shock is the heart. That is why shocks
sometimes cause death.
The standing wave ratio provides the information on the mismatch between the
antenna and the radio. A mismatch occurs when some of the power sent to the antenna
returns to the radio. This ratio between the voltage sent to the antenna and the voltage
reflected gives the SWR reading. If there is a mismatch, then the performance level of
the radio will be affected.
1:1 – This is the best ratio. (The best impedance match has been attained.)
1.5:1 – Excellent SWR match.
2:1-- A good SWR reading.
2.5:1 - An okay SWR reading.
3:1 - Poor SWR reading.
4:1 - Bad SWR reading.
5:1 - Very bad SWR reading. It is time to fix the antenna.
Lengthening
If the SWR reading at the low end (frequency) of the band is 5:1 and at the
higher end is 2 5, then the antenna needs to be lengthened.
If the SWR reading of the lower end is 2.5:1 and at the higher end is 5:1, then the
length of the antenna must be shortened.
“Some people see things that are and ask, Why? Some people dream of things that
never were and ask, Why not? Some people have to go to work and don't have time for
all that.” ~ George Carlin, comedian
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit. Ammeter shows the current
flowing in amperes through the circuit. The ammeter is placed in series with the circuit.
Multimeter
RF Wattmeter
This device measures the quantity of radio frequency energy flowing out of the
radio. It is measured in Watts; hence the name Wattmeter. It generally operates at 50
ohms line impedance.
This Wattmeter measures forward and reflected power. When a mismatch oc-
curs, this can be used to detect the power going in the direction towards the antenna
and the power going towards the radio.
The peak energy emitted by a station is measured using a peak reading wattme-
ter to ensure that one station is in compliance with the power output permitted as per
the license.
Oscilloscope
This electronic test instrument is used to observe wave forms and voltages on a
cathode-ray tube. It displays time on the X-axis and amplitude on the Y-axis and the in-
tensity of the CRT spot along the Z axis. Different types of oscilloscopes are available
at http://eham.net/.
Morse code turns off and on an RF carrier in order to transmit a simple code alphabet.
This is also called continuous wave (CW).
“Smoking kills. If you’re killed, you’ve lost a very important part of your life.”
~ Brooke Shields, actress
It is always best to start small. One of my uncles who introduced me to the great
hobby of amateur radio used to say that it’s the basics that make a man.
Have you ever analyzed a flashlight? This is the best way to begin. A bulb is
connected across two cells in a series. The metal switch contacts of a sliding switch
make the command for the bulb to start its duty. This tiny thing can sometimes ruin the
flashlight.
Two cells of 1.5 volts are connected to a lamp with a switch in between. The lines
in this schematic diagram represent the metal conductors which connect the system to-
gether.
Points to Remember
A circuit is a closed conducting path. In the case of a flashlight, if the switch is not
closed, then the circuit is not complete. When the metal parts of the switch fail to make
contact, the circuit becomes incomplete.
The current in the circuit should flow to make the lamp glow. How does this hap-
pen in a flashlight? The voltage or potential difference V pushes the current to flow. Two
A single cell may provide some current for a long time. If you connect the cells in
series, it may increase the voltage, but will not have any effect on its life. A parallel con-
nection guarantees a longer life.
As evident from the figure, the battery or cell has two terminals, one is positive
while the other is negative. Conventionally, the current is considered to flow from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal. Conventional current is often used to desig-
nate this current. The arrows in the circuit diagrams always point in this direction. This
is the direction of flow of positive charged particles. When the charge carriers are nega-
tively charged electrons, the flow direction will be opposite to the direction of conven-
tional current. In electronic systems, charge carriers can be both positive and negative
materials. The holes and electrons found in the transistors are examples of the co-
existence of both positive and negative charge carriers in the same system.
If two bodies are connected through a conducting wire, electrons will flow from
the negatively charged body to the positively charged one. This flow of electrons is
called electric current. The electric current will continue to flow as long as the ‘excess’
and ‘deficit’ of electrons exist in the bodies.
The electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. The elec-
trons in the inner orbits are tightly bound to the nucleus. As they move away from the
nucleus, this binding goes on decreasing so that electrons in the last orbit (called va-
lence electrons) are quite loosely bound to the nucleus. In certain substances, espe-
cially metals, the valence electrons are so weakly attached to their nuclei that they can
be easily removed or detached. These electrons are called free electrons. The free elec-
trons move at random from one atom to another in the material. Since a small piece of
metal has billions of atoms, there are a large number of free electrons present.
"Imagine if every Thursday your shoes exploded if you tied them in the usual way. This
happens all the time with computers, and nobody thinks of complaining."
~ Jeff Raskin
1. The actual direction of current is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
through the part of the circuit external to the cell. However prior to the electron theory, it
was assumed that current flowed from positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
cell via the circuit. This convention is so firmly established that it is still in use. This as-
sumed direction is called conventional current.
2. Those substances, which have a large number of free electrons, will permit current
flow easily. Such substances are called conductors (i.e. copper, silver, aluminum, etc).
On the other hand, atoms of some substances have valence electrons that are tightly
Conductors
Any material that permits an electrical current to flow through it without difficulty is
called a conductor. The most effective conductors in electric systems are those with a
high degree of free electrons. As a result, metals are excellent conductors of electricity,
while glass and wood are not. Materials used as conductors fall into one of four types:
metallic conductors, ionic conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.
• Metallic conductors have a large number of free electrons, which facilitate the ef-
ficient transfer of electric current.
• A solution that is highly ionic, or has a large number of free ions, is called an
ionic conductor. It is a good conductor of electric current, like metal in its liquid or
molten form. Salt water is an excellent example of an ionic conductor.
• An insulator has a lesser number of free electrons and is a poor conductor. Insu-
lators do not permit electric current to flow through them, and for this reason,
they often surround conductors. Rubber, glass, and plastic are good examples of
insulators.
(a) Donor atoms: If an impurity atom is added to a pure semiconductor like germanium/
silicon atoms, these impurity atoms dislodge some of the germanium/silicon atoms.
Each impurity atom donates a free electron and is therefore called donor atom. The
doped semiconductor containing donor atoms is called donor type semiconductor or N-
type semiconductor, because its conductivity is mostly due to electron current. However,
the crystal as a whole remains electrically neutral.
The mobile electrons so donated are far in excess of the conduction electrons re-
leased by thermal breaking of covalent bonds and they are therefore called excess elec-
trons. Hence, the conductivity of N-type semiconductor is fairly constant over a large
temperature range (unlike a pure semiconductor).
In N-type semiconductor, electron-hole pairs are formed as in the pure crystal. But,
because of the more numerous excess electrons, recombination is rapid and only fewer
holes than in pure crystal are present. In an N-type crystal, holes are called the minority
carriers and the electrons are called the majority carriers. The doped semiconductor
behaves like a resistor (called bulk resistance) with enhanced conductivity due to dop-
ing.
(b) Acceptors and P-type semiconductors: If a trivalent impurity like indium, boron and
gallium is used for doping germanium, this results in the production of holes. Since the
Holes are the majority carriers and the electrons are the minority carriers in P-
type semiconductors. At room temperature, almost all acceptor atoms get ionized and
the number of mobile holes equals the number of acceptor atoms.
Pn Junction Diodes
Pn Junctions
The pn junction is of great importance because it is the control element for semi-
conductor devices. A thorough knowledge of the formation and properties of pn junction
can enable you to understand the semiconductor devices.
Formation of Pn Junction
As the process goes on, the remaining molten mixture becomes increasingly rich
in indium. When all germanium has been re-deposited, the remaining material appears
as indium button, which is frozen on to the outer surface of the crystallized portion. This
button serves as a suitable base for soldering on leads.
Properties of Pn Junction
If both are made to form a junction, which is a perfect joint, (on atomic state) then
n-type material has a high concentration of free electrons while p- type material has a
high concentration of holes. Therefore, at the junction, there is a tendency for the free
electrons to diffuse over to the p-side and holes to the n-side. This process is called dif-
fusion. As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, positive
donor ions are uncovered and are robbed of free electrons. Hence, a positive charge is
built on the n-side of the junction. At the same time, the free holes cross the junction
and uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore, a net negative
charge is established on the p-side of the junction. When a sufficient number of donor
and acceptor ions are uncovered, further diffusion is prevented. It is because now posi-
tive charge on n-side repels holes to cross from p-type to n-type and negative charge on
p-side repels free electrons to enter from n-type to p-type. Thus a barrier is set up
against further movement of charge carriers (holes and electrons). This is called poten-
tial barrier or junction barrier Vo. This field sets up a drift of charge carriers, which op-
poses the diffusion of holes or electron current. The net charge flow across the open
circuited junction is zero. Thus the positive ions and negative ions are not neutralized
over a region. Since this region is depleted of mobile charges, this region is called the
depletion region.
Emitter and collector layers -- These two are on the opposite sides on the B layer and
are of the same type. An ohmic or non-rectifying contact is made to each of the layers.
The junction between the base and emitter is called the emitter junction and the junction
between the base and collector is called the collector junction. The device is classified
into two main types – PNP or NPN depending on whether the base material is N or P.
Vacuum Tubes
In vacuum tubes, the electrons shift from the cathode (K), the negative electrode,
to the anode or plate (P), the positive electrode. But, conventional current flows in the
opposite direction. At the cathode, the electrons are liberated either by heat (thermionic
emission) or by the bombardment of positive ions. This causes emission of electrons.
As a result, some gas molecules may become ionized by collision with speedy elec-
trons.
When an electron is knocked off, a positive ion is left off. The positive ions move
in the opposite direction of the electrons. However, their current is in the same direction,
since they have opposite charges. Due to the usage of a very high vacuum, the effect of
“Now they show you how detergents take out bloodstains, a pretty violent image there. I
think if you've got a T-shirt with a bloodstain all over it, maybe laundry isn't your biggest
problem. Maybe you should get rid of the body before you do the wash.”
~ Jerry Seinfeld, comedian
Electric Potential
When a body is charged, work has been done. This work is stored in the body in
the form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving
other charges either by attraction or repulsion. This ability of the charged body to do
work is called electric potential.
Potential Difference
The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called the potential dif-
ference between them. Current will flow if potential difference exists. No potential differ-
ence means there is no current flow. It may be noted that potential difference is some-
times called voltage. The potential difference between two points is 1 volt.
Resistance
The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called re-
sistance. Since current is the flow of electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by
the substance to the flow of free electrons. This opposition occurs because the atoms
and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these electrons. It may be noted
that resistance is electric friction offered by the substance and causes the production of
heat with the flow of electric current. The unit of resistance is ohm.
Capacitors can simply be defined as the circuit element, which stores electrons.
Mostly they are used as rechargeable batteries to provide stable voltage. Other than
this function, capacitors have many other uses in an electrical circuit. Capacitors are
comprised of aluminum electrolytic, ceramic disk, tantalum electrolytic, ceramic disc,
mica, and polypropylene.
Ideally a capacitor should have only capacitance. But practically all conductors
will have some resistance. All conductors contribute a certain amount of resistance can
be represented by a resistor in series with the capacitor. Capacitors of higher ESR val-
ues will allow only a lesser quantity of current to pass to the external circuit. Similarly
equivalent series inductance (ESL) is the value of inductance connected in series with
the capacitor. As the electrolytic capacitors consist of a large coil of flat wire, it will have
some inductance.
“I want to have children, but my friends scare me. One of my friends told me she was in
labor for 36 hours. I don't even want to do anything that feels good for 36 hours.”
~ Rita Rudner, comedian
Film Capacitors
Capacitors less than one microfarad usually contain a plastic type of insulator.
They can also be metallized material bonded on to the plastic material. Film capacitors
are illustrated below.
Electrolytic capacitors are used for capacitance values higher then 0.47 micro
farad. They consist of a paper material between two layers of aluminum foil. The below
figure illustrates an electrolytic capacitor.
A capacitor may have a surge voltage and a working voltage. Working voltage
provides the value of the voltage the capacitor can withstand over time. A surge voltage
depicts the value, which it can withstand for a shorter duration of time. Application of too
much voltage can fail a capacitor.
An electrically charged object induces a force field around it, which can be de-
tected and measured. These electric charges are capable of moving the electric
charges in the field. An electrically charged object will have either a greater or smaller
concentration of electrons than normal. This guarantees the existence of a difference of
potential between a charged object and an uncharged object. This difference of poten-
tial produces an electric field. This field of force is normally represented by lines, which
depict the paths along which the force acts. A large concentration of lines demonstrates
a large electric force. Similarly lesser number of lines indicates a weak force.
“Charlie Brown is the one person I identify with. C.B. is such a loser. He wasn't even the
star of his own Halloween special.”
~ Chris Rock
Alternating Current
One complete cycle of the signal occupies 360 degrees irrespective of the ampli-
tude. The number of cycles-per-second is the frequency of the signal. This cycle is de-
picted using a sine wave. A signal may start at zero degrees and then reach its most
positive value at 90 degrees, then come back to zero value at 180 degrees and con-
tinue to its most negative value at 270 degrees. It can then return to zero again at 360
degrees. This is one complete cycle.
Magnetism
Types of Magnets
Any mass that produces an external magnetic field is called a magnet. A mag-
net’s force affects other magnets, electric currents and materials exhibiting magnetic
properties. Magnets occur mainly in two varieties: permanent and excited.
A permanent magnet is one in which the magnetic field is always on, and the
possessing material is always magnetized. Permanent magnets are often made of fer-
romagnetic material; ferro refers to iron, which is a material that responds strongly to
magnetism and is easily magnetized. However, not all ferromagnetic materials are iron.
All magnets have two poles, which is where the majority of their magnetic force
is. Like electric charges, there are positive and negative poles, and similar poles repel
one another while dissimilar poles attract one another. The north or north-seeking pole
of a magnet is called so because it is attracted to the Earth’s North Pole. A magnet’s
south or south-seeking pole is attracted to the South Pole. The Earth is itself a large,
permanent magnet resulting from the molten iron core that creates an electric current
with its movement. Because the Earth is a magnet, it is possible to detect its magnetic
field using a compass, or a thin, rotating magnet. The compass magnet will rotate so
that its poles are aligned in the opposite direction of the Earth’s, as similar poles repel
one another.
Magnetic Fields
Like electric charges, magnets create a field of magnetic force around their
poles. These magnetic fields contain the kinetic energy of the poles’ charges that can
be applied to other objects as they approach the magnet and enter its magnetic field.
A magnetic field follows a path around the magnet according to certain lines of
force, called lines of induction. The lines of induction appear similar to the electric field
The left hand rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic line of force.
When one holds the conductor in the left hand as shown in the figure, the fingers will
point in the direction of magnetic line of force.
A magnetic field is not easily measured quantitatively. The easiest way to identify
a magnetic field is to observe whether certain metals are attracted to a particular object
or medium. However, a weak magnetic field may not be visible this way. One way to
identify even a weak magnetic field involves iron filings, a sheet of paper and the object
believed to be a magnet. If the iron filings are spread on the paper and a magnet is
placed underneath the paper, the filings will arrange themselves in a pattern that out-
lines the magnet’s lines of induction.
Types of Circuits
Most circuits occur as series or parallel circuits. Series circuits connect all com-
ponents using a single length of wire, and are of the simplest circuit construction. In a
series circuit, the power source and load follow one another in a series, so that the elec-
tric current must travel through the first component before it can be passed on to the
second and successive components. The string of Christmas tree lights that refuses to
work if one bulb fails is an example of a series circuit. This demonstrates one of the pit-
falls of a series circuit: that the circuit as a whole will not function if a single component
fails. Another problem is that resistance increases as the number of components on the
circuit increases. In a parallel circuit, the components are connected individually to the
power source by lengths of wire that mirror one another, or are parallel to one another.
Each component in a parallel circuit receives the same amount of voltage independent
of the other components. The disadvantages of series circuits reflect the advantages of
parallel circuits. Parallel circuits do not fail as a whole if a single component in the circuit
fails, and the amount of resistance on a parallel circuit does not increase as compo-
nents are added.
Circuit Components
Circuits can contain many different components besides the essential power
source, wires and load. If a circuit’s power source is a direct current, a battery will be a
major component.
• Switch -- A circuit must be closed in order for its electric current to flow; to exer-
cise control over the electric current, a switch may be introduced into the circuit.
A switch is an opening in the circuit that can be opened to prevent a flow of elec-
tricity, or closed to enable an electric flow. Switches are useful in conservation of
energy, since they permit the flow to be broken, preventing unnecessary energy
use.
"Adults are always asking kids what they want to be when they grow up because they
are looking for ideas.”
~ Paula Poundstone, comedian
Sometimes, a power source in a circuit provides more energy than the load requires.
To decrease the amount of electrical current, a resistor may be added to the circuit.
The duty of the resistor is to limit the flow of current. Normally a resistor is
connected in a series with a light emitting diode.
A light dependent resistor together with its circuit symbol is demonstrated below.
Capacitor
We have already dealt with capacitors in detail. Here is a brief explanation of the
capacitor.
Consequently, a diode is often used to convert alternating current into direct cur-
rent. Light-emitting diodes (LED) produce light when an electrical current is flowing in
the right direction. The light of an LED is used for entertainment, but also provides a
useful source of information about circuits.
Microphone
A microphone is also termed as sound sensor. The figure given below shows a
cermet microphone. Cermet is a combination of both ceramic and metal. The sound
sensitive part is produced using a mixture of these materials.
The pull down resistor makes the output voltage, Vout, to be of a low value, ex-
cept when the switch functions. When the switch is pressed, a high voltage is delivered.
The pull up resistor makes the output voltage of a high value, except when the
switch functions. When the switch is pressed, a low voltage is delivered.
"Outside of the killings, Washington has one of the lowest crime rates in the country."
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ammeter is used to measure current in a circuit. Ammeter shows the current
flowing in amperes through the circuit. The ammeter is placed in series with the circuit.
Multimeter
amplifier battery
d c supply diode
earth fuse
mic motor
! ! !
Circuit Equations
Ohm’s law explains the relationship between a current, its voltage, and resis-
tance, stating that a circuit’s current is directly proportional to its voltage and inversely
proportional to its resistance. This relationship can be described with the following
equation:
E = (I) R
Joule’s law explains the relationship between heat and electricity as one converts
to the other. It states that the amount of heat created by an electrical conductor holding
a current is directly proportional to the amount of the conductor’s resistance, multiplied
by the square of the current itself, illustrated by the following equation:
P = I2 (R)
Where P is equivalent to the amount of heat, I represents the circuit’s current and
R is the amount of resistance.
Transmission of Electricity
"I tell you, that Michael Jackson is unbelievable! Isn't he? He's just unbelievable. Three
plays in twenty seconds."
~ Al Gore, former vice president, commenting on Michael Jordan
Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are the main
components of an electric power system. Generating stations and a distribution system
are connected through transmission lines, which also links one power system (grid
area) to another. A distribution system connects all the loads in a particular area to the
transmission lines.
For very long distances (over 400 miles), it is economical to transmit bulk power
by DC transmission. It also offers obvious technical problems associated with very long
distance AC transmission. The DC voltages used are 400 KV and above, and the line is
connected to the AC systems at the two ends through a transformer and converting/
inverting equipment (silicon controlled rectifiers are employed for this purpose). Several
DC transmission lines have been constructed in Europe and the U.S.
Distribution
Today, all production of power is AC power, and nearly all DC power is obtained
from large AC power systems by using converting machinery like synchronous or rotary
converters, solid-state converters and motor-generator sets. There are many sound
reasons for producing power in the form of alternating current rather than direct current.
Electromagnetic Waves
When referring to the wave in the figure, one complete cycle of the wave is rep-
resented by points ABCDE. As evident from the figure, this wave has maximum points
on both sides of the reference line. The combination of the area covered by the portion
above the reference line (ABC), and one portion below the reference line (CDE), com-
pletes one cycle of the wave. The peak of the positive part is sometimes called the top
or the crest. The peak of the negative part is the bottom or the trough.
Wavelength
The altitude of the peak above the reference line is known as the amplitude of
the wave. It is possible for two waves to have the same wavelength, but different ampli-
tudes.
Frequency
The number of cycles of a wave train in a unit of time is called the frequency of
the wave train. The unit of frequency is cycles/second or hertz. Consider that 10 waves
pass a point in one second. The frequency of the wave is 10 cycles/second.
If we know the velocity and frequency of a wave, we can determine the wave-
length of the wave using the following equation: = v/ f, where is the wavelength, v the
velocity of propagation and f the frequency of the wave.
Radio Waves
Units of Frequency
Frequencies of the amateur radio are always expressed in kilo (thousand), mega
(million) or giga (billion) hertz.
Bandwidth explains how much space a specific signal takes up. The unit used for
measuring bandwidth is kilohertz. A large bandwidth denotes that it contains more in-
formation and occupies more room in an amateur radio band. The frequency band is
tabulated below.
The time required for one complete cycle is known as the period of a radio wave.
For a sine wave of frequency of four hertz, each cycle has a period of one-fourth of a
second. The frequency of a radio wave is inversely proportional to the period. A wave-
length is horizontal distance transposed by one full cycle of a radio wave at any given
instant. The velocity of a radio wave is equivalent to the speed of light (186,000 miles
per second). The speed of the radio wave is independent of the frequency. A two mega-
hertz wave travels through the space with the same velocity as a six megahertz wave.
Depending upon the obstructing object, the radio waves can be reflected to a dif-
ferent extent. The earth’s surface is an excellent reflector of radio waves. Metals with
good electrical conductivity are excellent reflectors.
When the radio waves move from one medium to another, with differing velocity
of propagation, the bending of this wave occurs. This is known as refraction. When a
radio wave enters a highly charged area of the atmosphere, refraction will take place.
The part of the wave that enters first will travel at a greater speed than that which has
not yet entered. This sudden change of velocity causes the wave to bend towards the
earth, which is called refraction.
The characteristic of the medium in between the transmitting antenna and the
receiving antenna often affects the propagation of radio waves in one way or another.
The atmospheric condition varies with height, changes in geographic locations, and with
the changes with respect to day/night and seasons. The information on basic division of
the earth’s atmosphere is always helpful for an amateur radio enthusiast.
What Is Atmosphere?
We live at the bottom of an ocean – an ocean of air. All around us this ocean,
called the atmosphere, presses in upon us and affects us in everything we do. We
breathe its gases and they keep us alive. We communicate by speech. Fuels burn
through vibrations. Particular layers shield us from harmful radiations from the sun.
Even at heights of tens of kilometers, it is thick enough to arrest the flight of meteorites
and cause them to burn up before reaching the earth’s surface. It is colorless, tasteless
and odorless, but it enables us to exist. This vast ocean reaches several hundred kilo-
meters above our heads, but on a world scale, it is like a thin envelope.
Troposphere.
The troposphere, the region in contact with the earth’s surface and where
weather occurs, is characterized by a decrease of temperature with increasing altitude.
The troposphere extends from the surface of the earth to a height of about 3.7 miles (6
km) at the North Pole or the South Pole and 11.2 miles (18 km) at the equator. It is the
layer in which we live and function. It contains more than 75 percent of the earth’s at-
mosphere. Nearly all of the earth’s weather conditions – including most clouds, rain, and
snow – occur in this layer. Thus scientists forecast the most aerosols and water vapor in
the air. Jet streams blow in the upper part of the troposphere. The temperature of the
troposphere decreases about 6.5 0C for every kilometer of increase in altitude.
Stratosphere
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The troposphere and the stratosphere
show distinct circulating systems. Whereas vertical motions prevail in the former, mo-
tions in the latter are largely confined to the horizontal. Very little moisture enters the
stratosphere and clouds are rare. Airline pilots prefer to fly in the stratosphere to stay
above the weather disturbances that occur in the troposphere. The stratosphere usually
has a lower layer of nearly steady temperature and an upper layer in which the tem-
perature increases with altitude. The upper layer contains most of the atmosphere’s
ozone. The ozone heats the air thereby absorbing ultraviolet rays from the sun. The
temperature throughout this region is almost constant and there is little water vapor pre-
sent. The stratosphere has relatively little effect on radio waves because it is a relatively
calm region with little or no temperature changes.
Ionosphere
The ionosphere extends upward from about 31.1 miles (50 km) to a height of
about 250 miles (402 km). The air in the ionosphere is extremely thin. More than 99.99
percent of the atmosphere lies below it. The chemical composition of the thermosphere
differs from that of the other atmospheric layers. In the lower regions of the thermo-
sphere, many of the oxygen molecules in the air are broken into oxygen atoms. The
outer layer of the thermosphere consists chiefly of hydrogen and helium. Ionosphere is
completely exposed to the sun’s radiation, which heats the thin air to extremely high
temperatures – attaining a maximum value of more than 1,000 degree Celsius at about
250 miles. This usually happens during solar storms when more radiation and particles
strike the atmosphere. When this happens, the radiation ionizes some of the molecules
and atoms of the air. This is why this region is known as ionosphere. The ionosphere
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This concludes Ham Radio In Plain English. I hope you found the information helpful
and I wish you many hours of happy broadcasting!
Randy Pryor