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2.1 General
Flood is considered as unusually high stage of the river. It is perhaps better
described as that stage at which the stream channel gets filled and above which it
overflows its bank. An annual peakflow is known as the largest instantaneous
flow in any given year. Flow adopted for the design purposes is defined as desiga
flow. It may be a corresponding to some desired frequency of occurrence
depending upon the standard of security that should be provided against failure of
a structure.
Several methods are currently available for the estimation of peakflow rate,
but many of these have different kind of limitations in practice according to their
nature. In Engineering, the most widely used method for estimating a peak flood
of a certain probability is the rational formula.. But it is not clear whether She imit
hydrograph or whether any variations of regional flood frequency occupies
second place (Linsley, 1986). Other than those methods the Curve Number
method is also common in practice. Statistical methods are applicable where there
are long period of historical flows. Regional flood transposition is a method by
which the estimation of peak floods and design floods can be made in ungauged
watersheds by extrapolation.
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time and contain relatively few events. The analysis with such data is not
representative of long term behaviour.
The first two distributions involve only two parameters, and special graph
papers have been derived for them, so that any distribution of that type plots as a
straight line on the graph paper for that distribution.
The regional flood frequency analysis is adopted for the catchments where
streamflow data are not available or the length of records is too short. The
regional flood frequency analysis makes use of the available data of streams in
statistical homogeneous regions. In such a region, the point data analyses are
averaged to represent the frequency characteristics of the entire region. In the
Analysis, mean annual flood which corresponds to a recurrence interval of 2.33
years is used for developing basic dimensionless frequency curve. Also tile
variation of mean flood, Q m with drainage area and variation Qr/Qm w&n
recurrence interval T are plotted. The combination of mean annual flood w i t h t h e
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basic frequency curve which is in terms o f the mean annual flood give a
frequency for any section.
When the regional flood frequency curves are employed for assessing flood o f
an ungauged catchment, a correlation is established graphically by plotting mean
annual floods against respective catchment areas o f all gauged stations in the area
o f logarithmic paper. This relation is then used to obtain the mean annual flood
for ungauged catchment. The flood for ungauged catchment for a given frequency
is determined by computing the corresponding flood ratio from the regional
frequency curve for region and multiplying it by the mean annual flood o f the
ungauged catchment (Sharma and Sharma 1976, W M O 1 9 8 9 ) .
2 . 2 . 3 Envelop curves
Envelop curves are based on the theory that ths maximum flood per hectare
experienced in one basin is quite likely to be experienced in a nearby b a s k in the
same region and possessing similar characteristics.
In this method the available flood peak data from a large number o f
catchments which do not significantly differ from each other in terms o f
meteorological and topographical characteristics are collected. The data are then
plotted on a log-log paper as flood peak V s catchment area. This would result in a
plot in which the data would be scattered. If an enveloping curve mat would
encompasses all the plotted data is drawn, it can be used to obtain maximum peak
discharges for any given area. These curves are useful in getting quick but rough
estimations o f peak values (Subramanya 1984). Sharma and Sharma (1976), cites
two different kinds of envelope curves developed by (1) Justin, Creager and
Hinds and ( 2 ) Bird and Mailluraith. Both relate the discharge fo the drainage area
using exponents obtained empirically. The first one is derived for basins with
comparable drainage characteristics, and the second one is called the worid
enveloping flood.
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There are vast numbers of formulae of this kind proposed for various parts of
the world; Several types of empirical relationships have been established based on
the catchment properties mainly the basin area but in some cases rainfall
characteristics, basin characteristics and flood frequency. Since these formulae
refer invariably to particular physical and climatic conditions these are safely
applicable to the areas or regions where the same were developed. A summary o f
various empirical formulae in literature is as follows. The most widely used
formulae in South India are the R y v e ' s formula and the Dicken's formula.
273 3/4
i. Ryve's Formulae, Q = C A and Dicken's formula, Q = C A , when Q is
the maximum flood discharge in cumecs, A is the catchment area in km2
and C is a coefficient varying from place to place depending upon the
rainfall pattern of the zones in which the catchment is situated (Murthi,
1977)
There are some other formulae which are involving not only basin area but
also the other basin characteristics. The Rational formula, discussed
earlier, is one such formula dealing with intensity o f rainfall, slope o f the
catchment and land use etc. T w o other formulae found in literature
involving some other catchment characteristics with drainage area are as
follows, the first one is involved with the length of the catchment and the
next is related to the altitude of the catchment and percentage area o f the
reservoirs.
( 2 / 3 )
vi. Q = CA / L (Sharma and Sharma, 1976)
Where C: Constant, L: Average length o f the area and A: Drainage area
124 0 9 5 1 7
.vii. Q = ( . 0 0 0 0 3 6 h + 124) A / r (Subramanya, 1984)
Where h: median altitude o f the basin in ft above the outlet, r: percentage
of lake, pond and reservoir area
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2.2/5 Unit H y d r o g r a p h M e t h o d s
2.2.5.2 S C S Dimensionless H y d r o g r a p h
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2.2.5.3 Instantaneous Unit H y d r o g r a p h
2.2.4* Curve N u m b e r M e t h o d ( S C S M e t h o d )
For a drainage basin where no runoff has been measured, the curve number
method can be used to estimate the depth o f direct runoff from the rainfall depth,
given an index describing runoff response characteristics. Runoff (Q)
computations are carried out by using SCS formulae and a curve number. Curve
number depends on the antecedent wetness o f the watershed, soil, land cover and
the hydrologic conditions. The antecedent moisture condition refers to three
classes o f antecedent moisture conditions ( A M C ) namely dry, average, and w e t
Hydrologic conditions are related to whether vegetation is dense and in good
condition, and also whether soil is rich in organic matter and has a well
aggregated structure. The hydrologic condition identifies the watershed capacity
to result in high infiltration and l o w runoff.
The Curve Number method was originally developed by the Soil Conservation
Service in 1 9 6 4 for conditions prevailing in the United States. Since then it has
been adopted to conditions in other parts o f the world. Although some regional
research centres have developed additional criteria, the basic concept is still
widely used all over the world.
2.2.7 Rational F o r m u l a
The relationship between rainfall and peak runoff has been represented b y
many empirical or semi-empirical formulae. The Rational formula is one such
formula, which is considered as one o f the most common hydrologic methods for
computing peak discharge. Although this formula is based o n a number o f
assumptions, which cannot be readily satisfied under actual circumstances, it is
very popular because o f its simplicity. Generally the formula can be written as Q
= RCIA. The parameter relates the peak flow to the Rainfall Intensity, Return
period, Runoff coefficient o f the watershed and the watershed area (JEA, 1977).
The coefficient o f runoff has been related to the catchment slope and coefficient
of runoff o f Sri Lankan catchments are in Table 2.1 (Ponrajah, 1984).
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Table 2 . 1 : Catchment Slopes and Corresponding R u n o f f Coefficients in
Rational M e t h o d
Time o f concentration for small watersheds and irrigation works are given by
Ponrajah (1984). In his work he has computed time o f concentration as a factor o f
travel length, average velocity and inlet time. Table 2.2 shows some typical
values (ID, 1984).
All such formulae include basin area as a factor and most contain some index
o f rainfall intensity and frequency, in addition to differing measures o f several
morphometric characteristics. Chorley (1985) cited following examples for
regression equations.
Q* 10
-_ a„ Aj
A 0 . 1 7 TT-0.55 T> 0 9 3 o 0.45
T P S
(Region: Allegheny-Cumberland Plateau)
7 2 4 2 0 2 9
qV^bV-'V ? - ^- -
(Region: Appalachian Plateau)
0 7 7 2 9 2 0 8 1
Q . =dA ' R ' D '
2 3 3
Where
Q 10 = peak discharge (cusec/acre) for a ten year recurrence interval
Q2.33 = peak discharge (cusec) m the mean annual Hood
Ai ~ basin area (acres)
P = rainfall intensity factor
T = topography factor
S - rainfall frequency factor
t - topography factor
A = basin area
S = main channel slope (ft/mile)
R = mean annual daily maximum rainfall (in)
D = drainage density (miles/ square mile)
University College, Gaiway (1985) cited a case study done for 57 catchments and
computed regressions for the region and also for urban watersheds. ( C u r a r e ,
1985). Regression equations cited is
0 94 0 28 0 1 6 1 2 1 103 0 6 0 4 7
Qmean - c A ' STEMFEQ ' SI Soil R LAKE" '* URBAN
Where
2
A = area in k m
STKMFQ = stream frequency
SI - overland slope
Soil = index for Soil/ Geology
R ='- average annual rainfall
LAKE = i&dex for catchment storage
Since these multiple regressions are done usually for return period based floods or
rnei». annual peak floods this method may s o t be &at advantageous to transpose
peak floods to obtain return period floods for design purposes.
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2.3 Accuracy of Peakflow Estimation Using Different Methods
When hydrologists are asked about the accuracy of their estimated flood
peaks, the most frequent response is that they lie within 20%. However a few
optimists will say that the accuracy is 10% and the pessimists may say 30%.
Almost all responses indicate that such errors are "acceptable" (Linsley, 1986).
i. The method chosen for the determination of the time of concentration is vital,
and has considerable effects on the design flood.
ii. Estimated design floods from Snyder's techniques tends to give higher values
than those obtained by statistical methods.
iii. US Soil Conservation Service method usually gives higher or the highest
values for the design floods as the catchment area increases. Even for small
catchments generally the estimated floods are considerably higher than the
values obtain by statistical methods.
This study provides the peak flow estimates from different methods for
comparison.
The peak flow of a basin is affected by many factors. All these factors are
mostly related to one another. There are difficulties in quantifying some of the
factors such as vegetation and land use, while in many cases measurement of
others such as infiltration rates, rain fall intensities are simply not available.
Often only other materials that can be obtained, other than river flow records are
those such as slopes, area etc that can be derived from maps. The factors affecting
flood peaks can be grouped mainly in two categories as climatic factors and
catchment characteristics.
2.4.1 Climatic Factors
The main effect o f climate on peak flow is in rainfall intensity and duration.
Rainfall intensity has a direct bearing on runoff because when the infiltration
capacity is exceeded all the excess rain flows to the surface watercourses. Since
intensity represents rainfall over a particular time, it cannot be considered
separately from duration.
Rainfall intensity influences both the rate and the volume o f runoff. An
intense storm exceeds the infiltration capacity by a greater margin man a gentle
rain, thus the total volume o f runoff is greater for the intense storm than a gentle
storm even though total precipitation for the two rains is the same. Rainfall
intensity is one o f the major considerations when calculating peak flow using
rational formula and unit hydrograph method. Estimation o f rainfall intensity is
usually done using rainfall intensity-frequency-duration curves for specified
recurrence interval and duration.
Total runoff from a storm is clearly related to the duration for a given
intensity. A storm o f short duration may produce lower runoff, whereas a storm o f
the same intensity but o f long duration will result in higher runoff. Uniform -
intensity storm causes the hydrograph of stream rise. Such storms may be defined
as covering the whole catchment area, over which the depth o f rainfall is
reasonably constant and delivered at a constant rate. After a certain time, T c (time
o f concentration), the rate o f runoff becomes constant. The runoff at this point is
the peak flow and to obtain the peak for a particular basin the duration o f rainfall
should not be less than the time o f concentration.
Rate and volume o f runoff are influenced by the distribution o f rainfall and its
intensity over the watershed. Generally maximum rate and volume o f runoff
occurs when the entire watershed contributes. However, an intense storm on one
portion o f the catchment may result in greater runoff than a moderate storm over
the entire watershed. Therefore the distribution of rainfall would also influence
the peak flow from a watershed.
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2.4.1.4 Direction of Storm M o v e m e n t
The prevailing winds and storm movement usually have a particular seasonal
pattern. The direction in which the storm centre moves across a basin with
respect to the direction o f flow o f the drainage system has pronounced effect on
the peak flow and the period of surface runoff. A storm moving in the direction o f
a stream produces higer peaks in a shorter period than a storm moving upstream.
2.4.2.1 Basin A r e a
Larger the size o f the basin, the greater the amount o f rain it intercepts and
higher the peak discharge it results. This rather obvious conclusion has been the
basis for a large number o f flood formula in general form:
n
Q = CA
Where
Q = peak discharge;
A = basin area,
C = a constant that varies according to the land use or topography of the basin;
n = a constant that has a range from 0.2 to 0.9, depending on climate to some
extent (Chorley et al, 1969).
It should be noted that the effects o f other factors are considered insignificant in
these types of equations.
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2 . 4 . 2 . 2 B a s i n Shape
The shape o f the catchment influences the runoff pattern o f the stream. Thus
for a semicircular catchment, the hydrograph is high and narrow, and for a long
narrow rectangular catchment it is broad and shallow. Long narrow watersheds
are likely to have lower runoff rates than compact watersheds o f the same size.
Because the runoff from the former does not concentrate as quickly as it does
from the compact areas and long watersheds are less likely to be covered
uniformly by intense storm.
The form factor is an index expressing the relation o f average width to the axial
length o f the basin, to measure shape characteristics. Axial length is the length
from outlet to the remotest point in the basin and the average width is the average
width obtained perpendicular to the axial length. (Sharma and Sharma, 1977)
2 . 4 . 2 . 3 Basin Elevation
The altitudinal extent of the basin above the gauging station exercise direct
and indirect control over the magnitude of the flood peak. With the slope and
several additional factors, it determines the proportion o f runoff, and indirectly it
influences a number o f other important controls, such as precipitation,
temperature, vegetation, and soil type. Though it is difficult to compute a single
term which gives a meaningful measure of basin elevation, several studies have
shown it has no significant relation to the size o f the flood peak (Chorley et al,
1973).
2 . 4 . 2 . 4 Drainage Density
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developed net work of short steep streams. Conversely, a minimal response to
intense rain usually reflects an incipient channel system.
Linear aspects of the channel system are expressed in terms o f stream order,
bifurcation ratio and stream length, other than the longest length o f the stream
channel, none o f these measures, by m e m selves have been shown to exercise
control over the flood peak. On the other hand their inclusion with other factors
has reduced the error o f estimate o f peak flow, and this also applies to areal
relationships and channel gradients (Chorley et al, 1973). According to the
literature cited, for a study o f England floods ninety-three slope factors were
computed and main channel slope was found as the most significant variable, hi
this study peak flow showed no relation to drainage density, once channel slope
has been taken in to account.
The factor slope is used in different formula for peak flow estimation. In
rational formula Irrigation Department guidelines recommended to select the
coefficient ' C according to the catchment slope (ID, 1988). Slope is a factor
determining time o f concentration in Kirpich equation and Bransby William
equation. There are five classes o f slopes introduced to determine Curve Number
in SCS method for peak flow estimation.
Vegetation and forests increase the infiltration and storage capacities o f the
soils, they cause considerable retardant to overland flow. Thus the vegetal cover
reduces the peak flow..This effect is usually very pronounced in small catchments
2
o f area less man 150km . Further, the effect o f the vegetal cover is prominent in
small storms (Chorely et al, 1969).
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This is a factor for selecting the Curve Number in the SCS method o f peak
flow estimation. In some instances the land use cover is employed as a factor
determining the coefficient o f runoff in rational formula (IE A. 1977).
2-14