The Role of Soil Organic

Matter in the Global Carbon

Cycle

R. Lal
Carbon Management and
Sequestration Center
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
The Carbon Civilization

World Primary Energy Consumption, 1970-2025

1 Quad = 1.06 EJ
Energy Release by Fossil Fuel
Combustion
C + O2 CO2 + 394 kJ/mole

The addiction of C civilization

 Price of Oil

2001 May 2008

Story, 2008
The March of Oil Price

Story, 2008
 The Energy Cost
Increase in oil price by $1/barrel means
additional $7.4 billion cost to the car-
driven culture of the U.S.
 World Population Growth and
CO2 Emissions
7 400
Global population

6 Atmospheric carbon dioxide

370
5

CO2 (ppm)
340
4
310
3

2 280

1 250
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Yea
Population growth and CO2
emissions in China
Population
CO2 Emission (Million metric ton, Tg/yr)

CO2
Emissions

Population (millions)
Years
Population growth and CO2
emissions in India
Population
CO2 Emission (Million metric

CO2
Emissions

Population
(millions)
ton, Tg/yr)

Years
Energy Use and CO2 Emission
a. 1 MWh of energy = 0.14-0.28 Mg C
b. Total emissions:
I. Between 1850 and 2000 = 300 Pg
II. Between 2000 and 2100 = 950-2195 Pg
c. Rate of emission:
I. 1990 = 5.5 Pg/yr
II. 2100 = 20-35 Pg/yr
Global Carbon Budget
Parameter 1980’s 1990’s 2000’s
-----------------Pg C/yr-------------------
I. Sources
•Fossil Fuel Combustion 5.5 6.3 7.6
•Land Use Conversion 1.6 1.6 1.8
TOTAL 7.1 7.9 9.4
II. Known Sinks
•Atmosphere 3.2 3.3 4.1
•Ocean 2.0 2.3 2.2
•Land 0.5 0.7 0.7
TOTAL 5.7 6.3 7.0
III. Fugitive CO2 1.4 1.6 2.4
IV. CO2 ppm 360s 370s 380s
 Fossil Fuel Combustion and
Atmospheric CO2
• 4 Pg of fossil C combustion = 1ppm of CO2 in
the atmosphere

• Stabilization of atmospheric CO2 at 580 ppm =

(580-380) x 4 = 800 Pg of C emission

• 1 Pg of SOC pool = 0.47ppm CO2 in the

atmosphere
 Biofuel offset?
MRT = 6Yr
1.6 + 0.8 Gt/yr
Deforestation
120 + 2.0 Gt/yr (photosynthesis) Atmosphere
7.5 Gt/yr
Biota Plant respiration 780 Gt Fossil fuel
560 Gt 60 + 1.6 Gt/yr +3.3 Gt/yr combustion
)
a t io n Fossil Fuels
p i r
MRT = 5Yr 60 Gt/yr i l res s ion 4,130 Gt
o o
/ y r (s o i l er sion) 92.3 Gt/yr (i) Coal: 3,510 Gt
0 Gt ted s (ero 90 Gt/yr (ii) Oil: 230 Gt
6 a r
ler
ce G t/y (iii) Gas: 140 Gt
Ac + 0.2 (iv) Other: 250 Gt
1.1
Soils
2,500 Gt Ocean
(i) SOC - 1,550 Gt
0.6+0.2 Gt/yr 38,400 Gt + 2.3 Gt/yr
(deposition)
(ii) SIC - 950 Gt (i) Surface layer: 670 Gt
(ii) Deep layer: 36,730 Gt
(iii) Total organic: 1,000 Gt
MRT = 25Yr

Mean Residence Time (MRT) = 400Yr

Biotic Pool = 600 Pg

SOC Pool = 1550 Pg

SIC Pool = 950 Pg

 Terrestrial and Geologic
Sequestration
Geologic Sequestration (EOR, CBM)

Geologic
Pool Fossil Fuel
Combustion
7.5 Pg/yr Atmospheric
Anthropogenic Enrichment
Emissions 4.1 Pg/yr
9.4 Pg/yr
Terrestrial Deforestation
Pool Soil Cultivation
1.9 Pg/yr

Terrestrial Sequestration
Uses of Crop/Agricultural Residues
Burning/
Biochar
Retention Incorp-
on orating
Soil
Mulching
(NT)
Manure
Manage-
Agricultural ment
Stall
Residues
Fodder Feeding

Grazing

Traditional
Fuel Co-
Fuel Modern Combustion
Fuel Cellulosic
Ethanol
 Managing Crop Residues for
Carbon Sequestration
Soil Humification
Application 10-15%

Carbon
Sequestration Off-Setting
With Crop Biofuel Emissions
Residue
Management
Burial •Energy Cost
Under of Transport
Ocean •Erosion
•Loss of
Nutrients
 CO2 Utilization and Recycling
Rather than treating it as a waste (garbage) to
be disposed of underground or under the
ocean, industrially emitted CO2 is a resource
and an important raw material for:
(i) chemical and biological products
(bio-economy)
(ii) Photosynthetic products
(terrestrial/marine biosphere)
Residence Time in Soil
Atmospheric
C pool =
760 Pg
(+ 3.5 Pg yr-1)

Link between
terrestrial and
atmospheric C pool
Terrestrial C Pool
= 2860 Pg
+ 2-4 Pg C/yr
SOC = 1550 Pg
SIC = 750 Pg
Biotic Pool = 560 Pg
(-1.6 Pg yr–1)
 Adverse Impacts of Depletion of Soil Organic Matter on
Soil Quality and Ancillary Ecosystem Services

Depletion of Soil Organic Matter

Decline in Disruption in Decline in Productivity

Soil Structure Elemental Cycling of Aquatic Ecosystems

Reduction in Soil Decline in Biomass

Fauna & Flora Input into Soil

Crusting Depletion of Soil Reduction in Increase in Nonpoint

Decline in Microbial
Source Pollution
Compaction Processes Fertility NPP and Hypoxiaa

Loss of Soil Elemental Adverse Effects on Decline in Quantity

Runoff and
and Quality of
Erosion Biodiversity Imbalance Plant Growth Water Resources

Soil Physical Degradation

Soil Biological Degradation Decline in Soil Quality
Soil Chemical Degradation
 Ecosystem Services
•Air Quality
Management Soil Quality •Water Quality
•Conservation Tillage •SOC •Productivity
•Prescribed Grazing Land Use •Soil Organisms •Fewer Pollutants
•Integrated Nutrient •Water Holding •Less Dust
Management Change Capacity •Less Sediment
•High Biomass Rotations •Infiltration Rate •Drought and Disease
(Bioenergy Plantations) •Soil Structure Resistance
•Mitigation of climate
change

Managing soil organic matter as the key to soil, air, and water quality
(Redrawn from Andrews et al., 2006)
 Estimates of Global and
Regional Potential of Soil C
Sequestration
1. World: 0.6 - 1.2 Pg C yr-1
2. USA: 144 - 432 Tg C yr-1
3. India: 40 - 50 Tg C yr-1
4. Iceland: 1.2 - 1.6 Tg C yr-1
5. Brazil: 40 - 60 Tg C yr-1
6. Western Europe: 70 - 190 Tg C
yr-1
 Terrestrial Carbon Sink
Capacity
Prehistoric C loss = 320 Pg (Ruddiman, 2003)
Loss since 1850 = 136 Pg (IPCC, 2000)
Total loss = 456 Pg = 114 ppm CO2
(Boeckert, 2007)
Assuming recovery of 40-50% = 45-55 ppm
(50 ppm)
 Soil C Dynamics
Innovative
land use technology II
conversion
subsistence Innovative
farming, adoption of technology I
none or low new
100 equilibrium RMPs
off-farm
input, soil Maximum

soil C sink
Relative Magnitude of SOC Pool

capacity
degradation potential
80

Rate ∆Y Attainable
potential
60
∆X

40 Accelerated erosion

20

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (Yrs)

Fig. 3 A schematic of the soil C dynamics upon conversion from a natural to agricultural
ecosystem, and subsequent adoption of recommended management practices
(RMPs). In most cases, the maximum potential equals the magnitude of historic C
loss. Only in some soil-specific situations, the adoption of RMPs can increase SOC
pool above that of the natural system. An example of this is acid savanna soils of
South America (Llanos, Cerrados) where alleviation of soil-related constraints can
drastically enhance the SOC pool.
Production Agriculture:
A Success Story

Agronomic
Pedosphere Biosphere

Production
 Linked Cycles in the Soil-Plant-
Atmosphere Continuum

Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle

Atmosphere

Soil
Water Cycle

KEY PROCESSES

Photosynthesis Precipitation Fixation

Respiration Evapotranspiration Mineralization
Biomass Decompositions Infiltration Decomposition
Humus Formation Runoff Leaching Loss

(SSSA, 1992)
Linked Cycles in the Soil-
Plant-Atmosphere
Continuum

Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle

Atmosphere

Soil
Water Cycle

KEY PROCESSES

Photosynthesis Precipitation Fixation

Respiration Evapotranspiration Mineralization
Biomass Decompositions Infiltration Decomposition
Humus Formation Runoff Leaching Loss

(SSSA, 1992)
 Strategies for Soil C Sequestration

Baseline Mulch Soil Carbon

Farming Sequestration

Soil
Aggregation
No-till
NPP
Residence
Analysis

Root INM
Turnover
Microbial
Processes
Life Cycle
Analysis
Water/Soil
Humification Conservation
Nutrient
Cycling
Depth
Distribution Cover
Cropping
Illuviation Soil
Quality

Complex
Coupled
Systems
Cycling

Measurement Processes Practices Impact

& Monitoring
 Recommended Agricultural
Practices and Soil Carbon
Recommended practices C sequestration
potential (Mg C/ha/yr)
Conservation tillage 0.10-0.40
Winter cover crop 0.05-0.20
Soil fertility management 0.05-0.10
Elimination of summer fallow 0.05-0.20
Forages based rotation 0.05-0.20
Use of improved varieties 0.05-0.10
Organic amendments 0.20-0.30
Water table management/irrigation 0.05-0.10
Lal et al., 1998 CCX=500 lbs CO2/acre/yr
 Rates of Soil C Sequestration
in Ohio
• No-Till Farming = 300-500 kgC/ha/yr
• NT + Cover Cropping = 500-800 kgC/ha/yr
• NT+CC+Manure = 800-1200 kgC/ha/yr
U. S. Millennium Goals (2015)
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child health
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
 Food s us Fuel
Ver
Converting corn grains and soybeans
into biofuel is creating competition between
1 billion hungry stomachs and car tanks
 Crop yield and productivity
effects of SOC pool
Fertilized

Unfertilized
Crop Yield

∆ Yield
SOC Pool SOC Pool
 U.S. and Global Energy
Needs
• 1 Quad = 1015 BTU
• Current U.S. Energy Consumption = 100 Quads/yr
• Projected Increase in Demand = 1.5%/yr in the
U.S.
• World Energy Consumption = 400 Quads/yr
• Projected Increase in Demand = 2.5%/yr
 Biofuels From Crop Residue
• Modern agriculture can generate = 10 Mg/ha of biomass
• Biomass energy value = 16x106BTU/Mg
• Tal cereal residue produced in the U.S. = 350 Tg/yr
• Gross biofuel energy value of residues = 6 Quads/yr
• Net energy value = 3 Quads/yr
• Energy Value of 33% of the residue = 1 Quad/yr

Energy conservation can save upto 30% of energy use

 One Billion Ton Cellulosic
Feedstock

• The goal is to produce 1 billion ton of

lignocellulosic feedstock

• 2030 vision: 30% biofuel by 2030

Rates of Corn Stover Retention and
Soil Properties at Coshocton, OH
Soil Regression R2
Property/yield equation

Middens (#/m2) Y= 1.7x + 2.6 0.97

Hydraulic conductivity Y= -0.06 x2 + 0.9x - 0.02 0.92
(mm/h)
Bulk density (g/cm3) Y= 0.003x2 - 0.05x + 1.42 0.92
Organic Carbon (Mg/ha) Y= -0.11x2 - 1.57x + 15.14 0.71
Corn Height (cm) Y= -0.81x2 + 14.4x + 235 0.97
Grain yield (t/ha) Y= -0.06x2 + 0.9x + 9.6 0.93

Blanco-Canqui, Lal and Owen

(2006).
Biofuel From Industrial CO2
and SOC Sequestration
Bioenergy
Bioreactors

Algae
Algae
Ethanol
Nutrient-
Biodiesel Residues Enriched &
Biochar/
Biochemicals Compost

Application on Ag. Soils

Cynobacteria
Cynobacteria

Soil Carbon Sequestration

Ecological Footprints of Crop Residues Removal for
Biofuel Production

Cellulosic ethanol

CO2 evolution
Decomposition of lignin and cellulose

Microbial Processes
Sugar Fermentation

Conversion of starch to sugar

Grain-based
ethanol
Energy Efficiency vs. Residue
Removal
• Meeting 1% of energy needs can
seriously jeopardize nations/world soil
and water resources
• Improving energy use efficiency can
reduce demand by 20-30%
Carbon Debt Upon Conversion of Native Ecosystems to
Biofuel Plantations (Fargione et al., 2008)
Former Biofuel Carbon Debt Debt Annual Time to
Ecosystem (Mg C/ha) Allocated to Payment Repay C
Biofuel (Mg C/ha/yr) Debt (yr)
Soil Biomass Total (%)
Tropical Palm Biodiesel 55 135 190 87 1.9 86
Rainforest
Peatland Palm Biodiesel 218 135 353 87 1.9 423
Rainforest
Tropical Soybean Biodiesel 65 135 200 39 0.25 319
Rainforest
Cerrado Sugarcane 31 14 45 100 2.7 17
Wooded Ethanol
Cerrado Soybean Biodiesel 22 1 23 39 0.25 37
Woodland
Central Corn Ethanol 34 3 37 83 0.33 93
Grassland
Abandoned Corn Ethanol 18 1 19 83 0.33 48
Cropland
Abandoned Corn Ethanol 2 - 2 100 1.2 1
Cropland
Marginal Prairie Biomass 0 0 0 100 2.1 No debt
Cropland Ethanol
 The Economist $ food index
1845-50-100
2000
1500
1000
500
100
0
1850 1900 50 2007

Economist, 2007
Estimates of Under-Nourished People
(FAO, 2006)
Region Population % of Total
(106)
India 212 24.8
Sub-Saharan Africa 206 24.1
Asia/Pacific 162 19.0
China 150 17.6
Latin America/Caribbean 52 6.1
Near East/North Africa 38 4.4
Transition Countries 9 1.1
Industrialized Countries 9 1.1
TOTAL 854 100
Developing Countries 820 96.1
Estimates of Under-Nourished
People (FAO, 2006)
1%
1% India
4%
SSA
6%
26%
Asia/Pacific

18% China

Latin
America/Caribbean
Near East/North
Africa
25% Transition Countries
19%

Industrialized
Countries
Mean Crop Yield in India, Kenya and
Developed Countries (FAO, 2005)
Crop Yield (kg/ha)
Ethiopia India Developed
Countries
Rice 1872 3284 6810
Wheat 1469 2601 3110
Maize 2006 1907 8340
Sorghum 1455 797 3910
Cowpea 730 332 1790
Chickpea 1026 814 7980
 Areas where
current population
exceeds potential
agricultural capacity
Economics of Residue Removal for Biofuel
Estimated Increase in Food Production
in Africa by Increase in SOC Pool by
1 Mg C/ha/yr (Lal, 2006)
Total Annual Increase
Type
(106 Mg/yr)

Grains 3.3 - 5.4

Roots and
3.0 - 6.2
Tubers

Total 6.3 - 11.6

 Commodification of soil C

How can soil C be made a commodity

that can be traded like any other
farm product?
 The value of soil carbon

• Value to farmer: for soil quality

enhancement
• Value to society: for ecosystem services
Societal value of soil carbon

• Reduction in erosion and

sedimentation of water bodies.
• Improvement in water quality.
• Biodegradation of pollutants.
• Mitigation of climate change.
 On-farm value of soil carbon

• The quantity of NPK, Zn, Cu etc. and H2O

retention in humus.
• Improvements in soil structure and tilth.
• Decrease in losses due to runoff, leaching and
erosion.
~ $200/ton
Need for determining a just value of
soil carbon

• Under valuing a resource can lead to

its abuse.
• It is important to identify criteria for
determining the societal value of
soil C, and using it for trading
purposes.
 Trading C Credits
The C market may reach $ trillion by
2020. We need to make this market
accessible to land managers.
Trading Carbon
Tragedy of Crop Removal

Indiscriminate removal
of crop residue is taking soil
for granted and treating it as
dirt.

Why is this so?

 Taking Soils for Granted
Is it because:
• We are seduced by the short-term economic
gains?
• Our knowledge of soil processes is fragmentary
and distorted?
• We forget history (e.g., The Dust Bowl)?
• We are desperate about the energy needs? and
• We are not cognizant of the basic laws of
ecology?
 Four Laws of Ecology
1. Everything is connected to
everything else.
2. Everything must go somewhere.
3. Nature knows best.
4. There is no such thing as a free
lunch.
. . . Barry Commoner
(1971)
 Soil and Survival
“Upon this handful of soil our
survival depends. Husband it and
it will grow our food, our fuel, and
our shelter and surround us with
beauty. Abuse it and the soil will
collapse and die, taking humanity
with it”.

From Vedas
Sanskrit Scripture 1500 BC
 The Balancing Act
“We may utilize the gifts of Nature just
as we choose, but in Her books, the
debits are always equal to the credits.”
…M.K. Gandhi