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Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

Materiales de construcción modernos, estructuras y técnicas, MBMST 2016

Concreto ecológico de alto Rendimiento

Wojciech Kubissaa,* , Tamás Simonb, Roman Jaskulskia, Pavel Reitermanc,
Marcin Superaa
a
Universidad Tecnológica de Varsovia, Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Mecánica y Petroquímica (Plock)
b
Universidad de Tecnología y Economía de Budapest, Departamento de Materiales y Tecnologías de la
Construcción Universidad Técnica Checa en Praga, Facultad de Ingeniería Civil, Centro Experimental

Resumen
En este documento, los autores presentan la posibilidad de utilizar dos materiales de desecho para producir concreto de alto rendimiento (HPC).
Para preparar las mezclas, se usaron Agregados de Concreto Reciclado (RCA) de una fracción de 4 a 16 mm y cenizas volantes de Clase F (de
la planta de energía que quema carbón). Los hormigones con RCA se mezclaron con 300 kg / m3 de diferentes tipos de cementos y materiales
de cemento suplementarios (SCM). Las muestras de muestra de concreto se probaron para propiedades mecánicas y para algunas propiedades
que están relacionadas con la durabilidad. Después de 28 días, la resistencia a la compresión alcanzó valores de hasta 59.5 MPa y después de 90
días se lograron 71.8 MPa. Además, obtuvimos buenos valores con respecto a esas propiedades, que influyen significativamente en la
durabilidad del hormigón armado estructuras.

© 2017 Los autores. Publicado por Elsevier Ltd. Este es un artículo de acceso abierto bajo la licencia CC
‹ 2016 7KH $XWhors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
BY-NC-ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016.
Revisión por pares bajo la responsabilidad del comité organizador de MBMST 2016
Palabras clave: Concreto, durabilidad, agregado reciclado, utilización de desechos, RCA, concreto de alto rendimiento.

1. Introducción

Para reducir la emisión de gases de efecto invernadero, la gestión de recursos naturales frugal y el reciclaje de
materiales de desecho se hizo necesario. Al aumentar el uso del agregado de concreto reciclado (RCA) y los materiales
cementicios suplementarios (SCM) en la industria del concreto, es posible mejorar considerablemente la
compatibilidad ambiental de la producción de concreto.
La disponibilidad cada vez más limitada de los recursos de los áridos naturales, que representa aproximadamente
entre el 60% y el 70% del volumen del hormigón, es cada vez más importante debido a las restricciones en las
operaciones de canteras y las distancias de entrega más largas. La eliminación de concreto residual fuera de la
demolición de la estructura al mismo tiempo es un problema a resolver.

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +0048-24-2626254; fax. +0048-24-3672225
Email address: wkubissa@pw.plock.pl (Wojciech Kubissa)

1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.186
596 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

Dichos residuos se depositan principalmente en vertederos [1]. Al hablar sobre el futuro del concreto, una tendencia
importante y predecible es la creciente utilización de desechos industriales y de materiales reciclados como
ingredientes para mezclas de concreto [2,3]. Algunos investigadores [4,5,6] indican que las cenizas (más del 50% m)
que el aglutinante se denominan hormigones voladores de alto volumen (HVFAC).
Sin embargo, debe tenerse en cuenta que los hormigones verdes ecológicos preparados de esta manera, a pesar de
la utilización de materiales de desecho, pueden costar más que aquellos que se mezclan con los componentes
actualmente utilizados [5,7]. El uso de RCA como sustituto de agregados naturales y SCM como un reemplazo parcial
de cemento en la mezcla de concreto es una manera de abordar potencialmente las preocupaciones económicas y
ambientales.
La utilización de RCA gruesa en la fabricación de hormigón se ha investigado a fondo. Dosho en 2007 [8] escribió
sobre estudios de concreto agregado reciclado que se publicaron justo después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial con
respecto a: propiedades físicas por Glruzhge en 1946, Rusia, y la influencia de las impurezas de la mezcla por Graf
en 1948, Alemania. Los primeros resultados detallados de las pruebas sobre la aplicación de RCA en la tecnología del
hormigón fueron publicados por Nixon en 1978 [9]. Sugirió que el campo principal en el que se requiere más
información sobre el comportamiento del hormigón reciclado es su durabilidad. Los estudios sobre la aplicación de
RCA en mezclas de hormigón se han referido principalmente al diseño de mezcla [10,11], las propiedades mecánicas
[12,13], el rendimiento estructural [14,15] y el objetivo final [16,17]. Hasta ahora, muchos de los parámetros de
durabilidad se han investigado, se formularon recomendaciones tecnológicas y requisitos detallados basados en la
calidad de RCA [18]. Hasta ahora, se ha afirmado que es posible diseñar y preparar hormigones duraderos utilizando
RCA con una calidad adecuada. También se definen las recomendaciones para usar RCA grueso en la fabricación de
hormigón [19,20]. A menudo se considera que los RCA y los materiales de desecho utilizados como SCM son
componentes de baja calidad que reducen ligeramente el costo del concreto, pero deterioran la mayoría de sus
propiedades vitales. Algunos autores afirman que RCA no es un componente adecuado para preparar hormigones con
una resistencia a la compresión diseñada superior a 25 MPa [21].
Este tipo de barrera mental debe desglosarse, y el objetivo de los autores es hacer un hoyo más. Los intentos de
obtener concreto de alto rendimiento con el uso de RCA y un alto contenido de SCM son raros. Estos se basan
generalmente en RCA adquiridos a partir de la demolición de estructuras hechas de hormigón de muy alta resistencia
a la compresión (incluso más de 100 MPa) [22]. Sin embargo, la RCA de una calidad tan alta es una rareza y no puede
suponerse que estará ampliamente disponible.
El objetivo principal de nuestra investigación fue evaluar la posibilidad de usar simultáneamente RCA del
hormigón de rango de resistencia a la compresión media como reemplazo del agregado grueso natural y SCM como
reemplazo de cemento para mezclar hormigones con propiedades mecánicas superiores a la permeabilidad promedio
y baja. La utilización de SCM (por ejemplo, cenizas volantes) en la producción de hormigón puede conducir a una
reducción significativa de la permeabilidad del hormigón al considerar los iones de agua y cloruro [23,24]. La
posibilidad de mezclar hormigones de alta calidad con áridos RCA gruesos y una cantidad significativa de residuos
material: Kubissa presentó cenizas volantes de clase F [25]. En base a estudios previos, la composición de aglutinante
elegida fue de 300 kg / m3 de cemento y 300 kg / m3 de cenizas volantes de Clase F. Además, se añadió metacaolín
en una cantidad de 60 kg / m3 y, en el caso de una de las mezclas (marcado con REC6), cenizas volantes fluidizadas.
Se utilizaron una variedad de cementos CEM I 42.5, CEM I 52.5, CEM II con escoria de alto horno y aditivos de
piedra caliza y CEM III, cuyo principal componente fue la escoria de alto horno. El objetivo de usar aditivos
cementosos fue producir hormigones que sean más ecológicos. Se propusieron varios objetivos: el flujo de concreto
fresco era aproximadamente 40 cm después de 60 minutos de agregar agua a la mezcla (para asegurar una buena
trabajabilidad), la resistencia a la compresión promedio era de alrededor de 55 MPa y los parámetros de durabilidad
no eran peores que los de esos concretos ordinarios, que se mezclan con componentes tradicionales. Para cumplir con
las propiedades específicas se usó un reductor de agua de alta velocidad (superplastificante) junto con la adición de
metacaolín y cenizas volantes fluidizadas. En el curso de la corriente de investigación principal también se probó,
¿cuál es el efecto de reemplazar fracciones de 2-4 mm de agregado natural (NA) con la misma fracción de RCA
utilizada?

2. Materiales e Investigación

2.1. Materiales

Portland cements CEM I 42.5R, CEM I 52.5R, CEM II/A-M (S-LL) 52.5 N from Lafarge Cement Plant and
CEM III/A 42.5 N-LH/HSR/NA cement from GyraĪdĪe Cement Plant as per PN-EN 197 while Class F fly ash from
coal combustion in Kozienice Power Plant was used. As NA, river sand of 0-2 mm and 2-4 mm fractions were
 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603 597

used. RCA was obtained by crushing concrete pieces of compressive strength between 35-50 MPa. Aggregate fulfilled
requirements of RCAC II (acc. to Rilem), type II (acc. to DIN 4226-100) and type A (acc. to PN-EN- 206:2014).
RCA has been sieved into fractions of: 0-2 mm, 2-4 mm, 4-8 mm and 8-16 mm. Natural aggregate fractions of 0-2
mm and of 2-4 mm were used together with 4-8 mm and 8-16 mm fractions of RCA. Natural aggregate was used at
air-dry condition. The RCA had been weighted and saturated with water, in an amount of 3.5% of its air-dry
weight. The absorbed water was not taken into account when calculating W/C and (W+SP)/(C+SCM)
ratios. High-range water reducer Muraplast FK 88 manufactured by MC-Bauchemie was used. Regular tap water was
used as mixing water.

Table 1. Proportions of concrete mixtures [kg/m3].

Material denomination Sign of mixture REC1 REC2 REC3 REC4 REC5 REC6

CEM I 42.5 300 300 0 0 0 300

CEM I 52.5 0 0 300 0 0 0
CEM II 52.5 A-M (S-LL) 0 0 0 300 0 0
CEM III/A 42.,5 N-LH/HSR/NA 0 0 0 0 300 0
Class F fly ash 300 300 300 300 300 300
metakaolin 60 60 60 60 60 0
fluidized fly ash 0 0 0 0 0 100
natural sand 0-2 473 473 467 470 466 427
natural sand 2-4 172 0 170 171 170 155
RCA 2-4 0 156 0 0 0 0
RCA 4-8 325 325 321 322 320 293
RCA 8-16 390 390 385 387 384 351
SP FK-88 (superplasticizer) 10 10 10 10 10 11
water 190 193 197 193 192 212
W/C 0,63 0,64 0,66 0,64 0,64 0,71
(W+SP)/(C+SCM)*) 0,30 0,31 0,31 0,31 0,31 0,32
*Previous to mixing RCA has been saturated, the saturation water is NOT incorporated in the ratio.

Six concrete mixtures were prepared. They contained 300 kg/m 3 of cement. As for SCM, 300 kg/m3 of fly ash was
used, together with metakaolin in an amount of 10% and fluidized fly ash in amount of 16.7% of the total mass of fly
ash and cement. Water reducer was used in the dosage of 2% by total mass of cement, metakaolin and 50% mass of
fly ash. Mix proportions are presented in Table 1. The workability of concrete mixtures was me asured by flow table
test, in accordance with PN-EN 12350-5.

2.2. Compressive and Tensile Strength Test

Specimens were prepared and cured as per PN-EN 12390-2. They were cast in steel moulds and underwent double
compaction on vibrating table. After 2 days the specimens were demoulded and water-cured in the laboratory till the
age of 28 days. The compressive strength tests were conducted in accordance with PN-EN 12390-3 on 150 mm cube
specimens after 28 and 90 days of hardening. The tensile splitting strength tests were conducted on the same
type of specimens in accordance with PN-EN 12390-6. The compressive strength tests were performed by using the
machine ToniTechnic, ToniPACT II having 3000 kN loading capacity. The rate of loading was maintained at 0.5
MPa/s for compressive strength test and 0.05 MPa/s for splitting test respectively.

2.3. Sorptivity Test and Free Water Absorption

598 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

The sorptivity and free water absorption tests were conducted on the halves of cubic specimens of 150 mm edge.
At first the specimens had been fully saturated with water for about 14 days, than weighed and subsequently oven-
dried to the permanent mass at the temperature of about 105ƒ &. 7KH PDVV GLfferences were used to calculate the
values of free water absorption. The measurements of sorptivity were conducted at the temperature of approximately
20ƒ &. The specimens of known weight were arranged in the vessel with water (the specimens were dipped up
to the depth of 3 mm). In specific time intervals from the beginning of the test, the specimens were weighed again to
define their weight gain resulting from water sorption. Subsequent mass gain measurements were conducted for 6
hours. Sorptivity S in g/(cm2 x h0.5) was defined as a slope of the linear function expressing the dependence of the
mass of the water absorbed _m by the area F on the time root t 0.5 [26].

2.4. Depth of Penetration of Water Under Pressure Test

For water penetration tests, 150 mm cubes were used. The tests were performed after 90 days of hardening in
accordance to PN-EN 12390-8. The specimens were water cured for 28 days and then stored in laboratory ambient
conditions for the rest of the time before the testing was started. Water pressure of 0.5 MPa was applied on one
surface of the specimens which was maintained constant for 72 h. At the end of the test, the specimens were split
vertically to record the maximum penetration depth of the water front.

2.5. Chloride Migration Coefficient Test

The Nord Test method (NT Build 492) was used in order to determine the nonsteady state chloride migration
coefficients. The tests were conducted on specimens having sizes of 150 mm in diameter and 50 mm in thickness at
the age of 90 days. After 28 day of water curing the specimens were stored under laboratory ambient conditions until
the tests started. The test were performed according to the NT Build 492 guidelines [27]. The depth of chloride
penetration into concrete specimens, in form of a visible precipitate of AgCl, was measured with a vernier calliper.
The chloride migration coefficient values were calculated by using the formulas given in NT-Build 492.

2.6. Carbonation Depth Test

Carbonation tests were performed by using 100x100x500 mm beams. They were water cured for 28 days and
kept under laboratory ambient conditions till the beginning of the tests which started 90 days after specimen FDVWLQJ.
6SHFLPHQV ZHUH SODFHG LQ YHUWLFDO SRVLWLRQ LQWR D FOLPDWLF FKDPEHU ZKHUH 40ƒ & temperature was
maintained. The relative humidity was set to 60% and the CO 2 concentration to 10%. After 7, 14 and 28 days from
the top of the test specimens several centimeters were split off. The splitting surfaces were then sprayed with
phenolphthalein solution. Depth of non-coloured area was measured in eight points, 2 cm away from the corners of
the specimens and perpendicular to each of their lateral surfaces. The mean value of the eight measurements is the
result of the test.

3. Research Results

Research results are presented in the Table 2. The results are mean values of six measurements. Only for fresh
concrete mixtures, the result of flow is an average of three measured values.

3.1. Workability of Concrete

Flow values of concrete after 60 minutes for all concrete mixtures were within the targeted limits. Differences in
flow values of concrete mixtures which were measured after 15 and 60 minutes following the mixing for series REC1,
REC3, REC4 and REC6 were relatively small. In relation to the 15 minutes measurements they were 1.19%, 4.65%,
7.78% and 4.55% respectively. For concrete mixture REC5, containing CEM III cement the difference in flow
value after 15 and 60 minutes was significantly higher and it was 14.29%. This value is still acceptable. Comparing
recipes REC1 and REC2, a high influence of 2-4 mm fraction of RCA on concrete consistency was
 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603 599

observed. To obtain flow value of 385 mm after 60 minutes, (to get near to the targeted one) additional dosage of
water was required. But this resulted in a concrete flow value of the 15 minutes measurement to be 520 mm. The
flow value decrease was significant, 25.96%. From these results it is obvious, by appropriate binder blending and the
parallel usage of a superplasticier it is possible to obtain a concrete mixture even if using RCA as 100% of coarse
aggregate which will have a minor decrease in its one hour flow value.

Table 2. Test results.

Concrete property / Sign of mixture REC1 REC2 REC3 REC4 REC5 REC6

IORZ ´G´ DIWHU 15 PLQ >PP@ 420 520 430 450 490 440
IORZ ´G´ DIWHU 60 PLQ >PP@ 415 385 410 415 420 420
compr. strength 28d fcm [MPa] 57.11 54.53 58.75 59.54 52.66 51.09
tensile strength 28d fctm [MPa] 3.37 3.43 3.61 4.10 3.69 3.99
compr. strength 90d fcm [MPa] 63.05 63.30 61.43 71.78 64.68 52.26
tensile strength 90d fctm [MPa] 4.10 3.78 4.36 4.41 4.62 3.95
ZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ ´Q´ 28G >%@ 5.89% 6.69% 6.79% 6.06% 6.79% 8.26%
VRUSWLYLW\ ´6´ 28G >FP/h0.5] 0.117 0.141 0.131 0.117 0.085 0.130
ZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ ´Q´ 90G >%@ 6.78% 7.37% 6.81% 6.50% 6.92% 7.92%
0.5
VRUSWLYLW\ ´6´ 90G >FP/h ] 0.116 0.128 0.142 0.123 0.085 0.129
watertightness (penetration) test [mm] 18.33 20.50 17.93 19.67 15.67 17.38
chloride migration Dnsst [10 -12 m2/s] 3.025 3.230 2.643 2.895 2.599 2.120
carbonation depth 7d [mm] 3.69 3.54 2.40 2.58 4.42 3.34
carbonation depth 14d [mm] 5.15 5.46 4.98 5.25 6.17 5.44
carbonation depth 28d [mm] 7.71 7.13 6.88 7.71 10.90 8.50

3.2. Compressive Strength of Concrete

The highest value of mean compressive strength 59.54 MPa was obtained for REC4 series containing CEM II
52.5 A-M (S-LL) cement. This mixture reached also the highest compressive strength of 71.78 MPa after 90 days,
which means a strength gain of 20.57% due to post hardening. A significant gain in compressive strength from
52.66 MPa after 28 days to 64.86 MPa (23.18%) after 90 days was also observed for REC5 mixture. In the opinion
of the authors, specifying only the strength after 28 days for concretes mixed with CEM II and CEM III cements,
does not fully reflect the real strength properties. Mixtures REC1, REC2 and REC3 did not obtain surprising gain in
strength between 28 and 90 days, they were 10.40%, 16.08% and 4.56% respectively. Still the 28 days compressive
strength of these latter mixes with 57.11 MPa for REC1, 54.53 MPa for REC2 and 58.75 MPa for REC3 fulfilled
the target. At the same time the compressive strength of REC5 and REC6 mixtures at the age of 28 days only
reached 52.66 MPa and 51.09 MPa respectively, which are below the targeted value of 55 MPa. Concrete containing
CEM III (REC5) however after 90 days reached the compressive strength of 64.86 MPa which is 2.87% and 2,46%
more than those ones which were achieved by REC1 and REC2 mixtures. They were both mixed with the same
strength class but CEM I ordinary Portland cement. Mixture REC6, in which instead of metakaolin fluidized
fly ash was used has reached the lowest strength values after 28 and 90 days, which were
51.09 MPa and 52.26 MPa, respectively. It is an intriguingly low increase in strength between 28 and 90 days
amounting only to 2.29 %. Comparing concrete series out of REC1 and REC2 mixtures showed that REC1 concrete
achieved 4.5% higher compressive strength than REC2. The difference was mainly the result of using 2-4 mm fraction
of natural aggregate in REC1 concrete series instead of RCA of the same fraction in REC2 concrete. This explains
the requirement in EN-206 standard which exclude 0-4 mm fractions of RCA from the usage in concrete production.
At the same time if this strength decrease due to the fine RCA is compensated, than the authors would not exclude
the utilizability of such RCA fractions.
600 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

3.3. Tensile Strength of Concrete

In accordance with the compressive strength values, the highest splitting tensile strength after 28 days could be
measured on the concrete out of REC4 mixture, which was 4.10 MPa. After 90 days the highest measured splitting
tensile strength obtained was for concrete out of REC5 mixture, which was 4.62 MPa. The gain between 28 and 90
days varied form 1.36% to 25.28% in case of the concretes of REC6 and REC5 mixtures respectively. As in the case
of compressive strength concrete with fluidised fly ash gained only a small increase in splitting tensile strength after
28 days of hardening. The fcm(28)/fctm(28) ratio ranged from 6 Author / Procedia Engineering 00 (2016) 1-8 5.90 (for
REC1 mixture) to 7.81 (for REC6 mixture). The mean splitting tensile strength of the concretes is 6.67 MPa. The
fcm(90)/fctm(90) ratio ranged from 5.97 (for REC2 concrete) to 7.73 (for REC6 concrete) and the average value for
all concrete is 6.76. These are typical values for concrete of that level of average strength. Utilization of RCA 2 -4
mm fraction instead of NA resulted in 1.9% higher average tensile strength value.

3.4. Depth of Penetration of Water Under Pressure

All tested concretes showed high level of watertightness. The lowest value was observed for concrete of REC5
PL[WXUH DQG LW ZDV 15.67 PP. &RQFUHWH LV FRQVLGHUHG ´LPSHUPHDEOH´ DFFRUGLQJ WR ',1 1048, LI the average depth
of penetration does not exceed 30 mm. Utilization of RCA 2-4 mm fraction instead of NA resulted in 11.8% increase
in water penetration depth. Even the higher absorption capability of RCA aggregate and the utilization of additives
to all mixes allowed to achieve high watertightness of the concretes.

3.5. Sorptivity of Concrete

The lowest value of sorptivity after 28 days was observed in case of concrete out of REC5 mixture, it was 0.085 cm/h 0.5.
Similar influence of CEM III and addition of fly ash to reduce the sorptivity was presented in [28]. Concretes of REC1
and of REC4 mixtures had sorptivity values by 37.65% higher but they are also classified as ´YHU\ JRRG´ DFFRUGLQJ WR
SURWHFWLYH TXDOLW\ RI FRQFUHWH FODVVLILFDWLRQ SUHVHQWHG LQ Table 3 of [25]. Sorptivity
values for concretes of REC2, REC3, and REC6 mixtures were 65.90%, 53,52% and 53.03% higher than of REC5 PL[WXUH
EXW WKH FRQFUHWHV FDQ VWLOO EH FODVVLILHG DV ´JRRG´ DFFRUGLQJ WR protective quality. Replacing 2-4 mm NA fraction
with RCA has a large impact on sorptivity. Difference in measured values between the concretes of REC1 and REC2
mixtures was 20.56% in favour of REC1 which FDQ EH FODVVLILHG DV ´YHU\ JRRG´. &RQFUHWH RXW RI 5(&2 mixture by
the same classification achieved only the ´JRRG´ FODVV OHYHO. 6RUSWivity values measured after 90 days were slightly
lower than those measured after 28 days for all concretes except for the one out of REC4 mixture. The reduction in
sorptivity was 1.21%, 9.50%, 9.62%, 0.10% and 0.70% for REC1, REC2, REC3, REC5 and REC6 respectively. For REC4
we experienced a modest increase in its value by 4.44%. It confirms the results which were presented in [26]

Table 3. Concrete durability classification based on the value of sorptivity [25].

Concrete durability class
Sorptivity [cm/h0.5] very low low middle high very high
>0.37 0.37-0.20 0.20-0.12 0.12-0.05 <0.05

3.6. Water Absorption of Concrete

Using RCA, which has several times higher water absorbing capability than NA, caused an expected increase in
water absorption of the concrete samples. Therefore to achieve an absorption value which would be below 5% proved
to be impossible. Between the 28th and the 90th age days the absorption increased in case of concretes out of
REC1 - REC5 mixtures. The increase ranged from 0.43 % to 15.12 % for concretes out of REC3 and REC1 mixtures
respectively. For concrete of REC6 mixture we observed a slight decrease of 4.45 % in water absorption between
the 28th and 90th age days testing. Concretes of REC1, REC3, REC4 and REC5 mixes with the addition
 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603 601

of metakaolin had similar water absorption values between 6.5% and 7.0% regardless of the type of cement used. As
in the case of sorptivity test the negative impact of utilization of RCA 2-4 mm fraction instead of NA on water
absorption was observed. Its value for REC2 concrete (with RCA 2-4 mm fraction) was 13.72% higher in
comparison to REC1 series (with NA 2-4 mm fraction). Concrete of REC6 mixture with fluidized fly ash had the
highest absorption, 7.92%. The authors opinion is that, taking into account the resistance against the selected corrosive
factors of the tested concretes, absorption should not be the main criteria for assessing the suitability of concretes
with RCA aggregate. Reduction of absorption to 5% or below is practically impossible, which will rule out the usage
of such concretes in corrosive environments. Further researches of frost resistance and long lasting tests under
corrosive factors are needed. These may prove the useability of the tested concretes despite their higher water
absorbing capability than of concretes which are mixed with NA.

3.7. Chloride Migration Coefficient of Concrete

The highest chloride migration coefficient (Dnssm) value out of the concretes which were mixed with 2-4 mm NA fraction
was in case of REC2 mixture, it was 3.025x10-12 m2/s. The CMC values for concretes out of REC3, REC4, REC5 mixtures
were similar and they were lower than of the concrete out of REC2 mixture by 12.63%, 4.29% and 14.08%
respectively. The CMC value of concrete REC6 mixture with fluidized fly ash addition was 29.90% lower than for REC2
mixture. This is close to meet the requirement IRU WKH ´YHU\ JRRG´ FODVV. &RPSDULVRQ of the results with limit
values given in [29] demonstrate that values for all concretes are in WKH UDQJH RI WKH ´JRRG´ class. Slightly negative
impact of utilization of 2-4 mm RCA fraction instead of NA was observed, the difference in chloride migration
coefficient was 6.78%.

3.8. Carbonation Depth of Concrete

Carbonation depth measured after 28 days of exposure to CO2 is small, for most of the examined concretes it
is lower than 8 mm. This allows us to predict long life for the structures without problems which are caused by
the neutralization of concrete which is covering the steel rebars. The lowest measured average carbonation depth of
6.88 mm was in case of concrete out of REC3 mixture. Concrete out of REC6 mixture h ad 23.64% higher depth of
carbonation after 28 days. The result is confirmed by the literature [30,31], concrete with blast furnace cement CEM
III results greater depth of carbonation. The depth after 28 days for concrete of REC5 mixture was 58.48% higher
than for REC3 mixture. Replacing 2-4 mm fraction of NA with RCA had a negligible influence on
carbonation depth. Still, it caused a decrease in carbonation depth after 7 days by 3.95%, an increase after 14
days by 6.07% and a decrease in depth after 28 days by 7.57%.

4. Summary and Conclusions

In the paper it has been shown that it is possible to produce a high quality concrete with a targeted 55 MPa mean
compressive strength at the age of 28 days and of more than 60 MPa after 90 days. Good durability influencing
properties could be measured at the same time by the usage of coarse RCA of an average quality and
by simultaneous addition of Class F fly ash as SCM.
The increase in strength between 28 and 90 day of laboratory ambient conditions curing shows that test after more
than 28 days period reflects better the actual properties of the tested concretes. This applies to both the
mechanical properties and to those which are associated with durability.
Chloride migration coefficient and the values obtained regarding sorptivity allow to classify the tested concretes
out of the examined mixtures as a good quality concrete.
Based on our results it we feel it necessary to interpret / evaluate differently the results regarding absorbability
concrete. The limit of 5 % of water absorption is practically impossible to meet.
Replacing 2-4 mm fraction of natural aggregate with RCA caused slight worsening of most of the concrete
durability properties with the exception of sorptivity which worsened significantly (20% increase). This leads to
the conclusion that it is safer to use RCA fractions above 4 mm and this conclusion is consistent
602 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

with the provisions of the standards and recommendations in the literature. At the same time following further
researches this effect might be compensated.
Further research is planned with applying CEM III cement as binder. It is also planned to study such concretes
for frost resistance and long lasting tests regarding selected corrosive factors resistance.

Acknowledgments

The research described in the article have been carried out in Laboratory of Innovative Technologies and
Materials in Plock co-financed by the European Union from the European Regional Development Fund under the
Regional Operational Programme for Mazowieckie Voivodeship 2007-2013. This article is part of a project
´3RVVLELOLW\ RI XWLOL]DWLRQ RI ZDVWH PDWHULDOV DQG 6&0 IRU SURGXFWLRQ RI HQYLURPHQWDO Iriendly DQG GXUDEOH FRQFUHWH´
under the Executive Programme of Polish and the Czech Republic.

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