Japan

JAPAN ROAD ASSOCIATION
SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES
( MARCH 2002 VERSION )
PART Ⅴ SEISMIC DESIGN
English Version
Translated by PWRI,JAPAN
(March, 2003)
CONTENTS
Part V : Seismic Design
Chapter 1 General ...................................................................................... 1

1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2 Basic Principles for Seismic Design.......................................... 4

2.1 Fundamentals of Seismic Design........................................................................... 4
2.2 Principles of Seismic Design .................................................................................. 6
2.3 Classification of Importance of Bridges............................................................... 10
Chapter 3 Loads to be considered in Seismic Design .............................. 12

3.1 Loads to be considered in Seismic Design and their Combinations................... 12
3.2 Effects of Earthquake........................................................................................... 13
Chapter 4 Design Earthquake Ground Motions...................................... 15

4.1 General.................................................................................................................. 15
4.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion .................................................................... 16
4.3 Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion .................................................................... 19
4.4 Modification Factor for Zones .............................................................................. 24
4.5 Ground Type for Seismic Design.......................................................................... 31
4.6 Ground Surface to be considered in Seismic Design........................................... 33
Chapter 5 Verification of Seismic Performance ....................................... 36

5.1 General.................................................................................................................. 36
5.2 Limit States of Bridges for Seismic Performance Level 1 .................................. 38
5.5 Basic Principles to Verify Seismic Performance.................................................. 48
5.6 Unseating Prevention Measures of Bridge Superstructure ............................... 53
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Chapter 6 Verification Methods of Seismic Performance Based on Static
Analysis................................................................................... 55
6.1 General.................................................................................................................. 55
6.2 Calculation Methods of Loads in Static Analysis................................................ 56
6.2.1 General ............................................................................................................. 56
6.2.2 Inertia Force..................................................................................................... 57
6.2.3 Calculation Method of Natural Period ............................................................ 64
6.2.4 Seismic Earth Pressure ................................................................................... 77
6.2.5 Seismic Hydrodynamic Pressure..................................................................... 82
6.3 Verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 for Earthquake Ground Motion... 90
6.3.1 General ............................................................................................................. 90
6.3.2 Calculation Method of Inertia Force ............................................................... 90
6.3.3 Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient .......................................................... 102
6.3.4 Verification of Seismic Performance Level 1................................................. 105
6.4 Seismic Performance Verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion..... 107
6.4.1 General ........................................................................................................... 107
6.4.2 Calculation Method of Inertia Force ............................................................. 109
6.4.3 Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient ...........................................................110
6.4.4 Force Reduction Factor ...................................................................................115
6.4.5 Performance Verification for Seismic Performance Levels 2 and 3 ............. 120
6.4.6 Performance Verification for Reinforced Concrete Columns........................ 123
6.4.7 Performance Verification for Pier Foundations ............................................ 127
6.4.8 Performance Verification for Abutment Foundations................................... 131
6.4.9 Performance Verification for Superstructures .............................................. 133
6.4.10 Performance Verification for Bearing Supports.......................................... 133
Chapter 7 Verification Methods of Sesmic Performance based on Dynamic

Analysis................................................................................. 135
7.1 General................................................................................................................ 135
7.2 Design Earthquake Ground Motions for Dynamic Analysis ............................ 137
7.3 Analytical Models and Procedures .................................................................... 140
7.3.1 Analytical Models and Procedures ................................................................ 140
7.3.2 Modeling of Structural Members................................................................... 143
7.4 Verification of Seismic Performance .................................................................. 146
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Chapter 8 Effects of Seismically Unstable Ground ............................... 151
8.1 General................................................................................................................ 151
8.2 Geotechnical Parameters of Extremely Soft Layer
and Sandy Layer Prone to Liquefaction ............................................................ 152
8.2.1 General ........................................................................................................... 152
8.2.2 Assessment of Extremely Soft Soil Layer in Seismic Design....................... 153
8.2.3 Assessment of Soil Liquefaction .................................................................... 154
8.2.4 Reduction of Geotechnical Parameters ......................................................... 158
8.3 Verification of Seismic Performance of Foundations
for Liquefaction-induced Ground Flow.............................................................. 161
8.3.1 General ........................................................................................................... 161
8.3.2 Calculation of Lateral Force on Foundations by Liquefaction-induced
Ground Flow.................................................................................................. 165
Chapter 9 Verification of Seismic Performance of Seismically Isolated

(Menshin) Bridges ................................................................ 170
9.1 General................................................................................................................ 170
9.2 Verification of Seismic Performance of Seismically-Isolated Bridges .............. 177
9.3 Analytical Model of Isolation Bearings ............................................................. 180
9.3.1 General ........................................................................................................... 180
9.3.2 Inelastic Hysteretic Model of Isolation Bearings.......................................... 180
9.3.3 Equivalent Linear Model of Isolation Bearings............................................ 181
9.4 Basic Performance Requirement for Isolation Bearings................................... 186
9.5 Other Structures for reducing Effects of Earthquake....................................... 189
Chapter 10 Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity of Reinforced Concrete

Columns ................................................................................ 190
10.1 General................................................................................................................ 190
10.2 Evaluation of Failure Mode, Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity ........... 192
10.3 Calculation of Lateral Strength and Displacement .......................................... 198
10.4 Stress–Strain Curve of Concrete ....................................................................... 205
10.5 Shear Strength ................................................................................................... 210
10.6 Structural Details for Improving Ductility Performance ................................. 216
10.7 Cut-off of Longitudinal Reinforcement at Mid-Height ..................................... 226
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10.8 Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity of Reinforced Concrete
Two Column Bents.............................................................................................. 228
10.9 Effect of Eccentric Loading of Superstructure .................................................. 244
Chapter 11 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Steel Colums .......... 249

11.1 General................................................................................................................ 249
11.2 Verification of Seismic Performance by Dynamic Analysis .............................. 250
11.3 Structural Details............................................................................................... 260
11.4 Design for Anchorage Block ............................................................................... 266
Chapter 12 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Pier Foundations ..... 268

12.1 General................................................................................................................ 268
12.2 Calculation of Sectional Force, Ground Reaction Force, and Displacement
of Pier Foundations ............................................................................................ 272
12.3 Yielding of Pier Foundations.............................................................................. 276
12.4 Calculation of Foundation Response in Case of Plastic Hinges Generating
in Pier Foundations ............................................................................................ 278
12.5 Ductility and Displacement Capacity of Pier Foundations .............................. 280
12.6 Design of Members of Pier Foundations............................................................ 282
Chapter 13 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Abutment Foundations at

Site Prone to Soil Liquefaction ............................................. 283
13.1 General................................................................................................................ 283
13.2 Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Performance Verification
of Abutment Foundations................................................................................... 286
13.3 Calculation of Response Ductility Factor of Abutment Foundations ............... 289
13.4 Ductility Capacity of Abutment Foundations ................................................... 291
13.5 Design of Members of Abutment Foundations .................................................. 291
Chapter 14 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Superstructure......... 293

14.1 General................................................................................................................ 293
14.2 Steel Superstructure .......................................................................................... 295
14.2.1 Strength and Displacement Capacity ......................................................... 295
14.2.2 Structural Details ........................................................................................ 296
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14.3 Reinforced Concrete Superstructure ................................................................. 297
14.3.1 Strength and Displacement Capacity ......................................................... 297
14.3.2 Structural Details ........................................................................................ 300
14.4 Ends of Superstructure ...................................................................................... 302
14.4.1 Gap between Two Adjacent Girders ............................................................ 302
14.4.2 Expansion Joints .......................................................................................... 307
14.4.3 Joint Protectors ............................................................................................ 310
Chapter 15 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Bearing Support System

.............................................................................................. 314
15.1 General................................................................................................................ 314
15.2 Design Seismic Force for Performance Verification
of Bearing Support System ................................................................................ 318
15.3 Performance Verification of Bearing Support System ...................................... 324
15.4 Structural Details of Bearing Support System ................................................. 328
15.5 Excessive Displacement Stopper ....................................................................... 330
Chapter 16 Unseating Prevention System .............................................. 334

16.1 General................................................................................................................ 334
16.2 Seat Length......................................................................................................... 340
16.3 Unseating Prevention Structure........................................................................ 351
16.4 Structure for Protecting Superstructure from Subsidence............................... 355
16.5 Excessive Displacement Stopper ....................................................................... 356
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Chapter 1 General
1.1 Scope
This Part shall apply to the seismic design of highway bridges.
This section clarifies the scope of Part V Seismic Design.

The applicable bridges and application procedures are specified in Section 1.1 Scope of
Part I Common Provisions.
1.2 Definition of Terms
The terms used in this part are defined as below:
(1) Seismic performance

Performance of bridges subjected to the effects of earthquakes.
(2) Limit state

Limit state of a whole bridge and each structural member capable of meeting the
requirements of seismic performance.
(3) Liquefaction
Phenomenon of destruction of a soil layer when a saturated sandy soil loses its
shear strength due to a sudden rise of pore water pressure caused by earthquake
ground motion.
(4) Liquefaction-induced ground flow

Phenomenon of the ground moving laterally due to liquefaction.
(5) Ground type for seismic design

Type of ground for engineering purpose, classified depending on its dynamic
characteristics during an earthquake.
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(6) Ground surface to be considered in seismic design
Ground surface assumed for seismic design.
(7) Bedrock for seismic design

Upper surface of a fully hard ground layer that exists over a wide area in the
construction site, and is normally situated below a surface soil layer shaking with
a ground motion different from the bedrock motion during an earthquake.
(8) Seismic coefficient method

A verification method of seismic performances in which seismic forces are
statically applied to a structure and ground, with use of the seismic coefficients
taking into account the seismic actions caused by an earthquake.
(9) Ductility design method

A verification method of seismic performances in which seismic forces are
statically applied to a structure and ground, considering the lateral capacity,
ductility, and energy absorption in the nonlinear range of the structure.
(10) Static verification method

Method verifying the seismic performances based on static analysis.
(11) Dynamic verification method

Method verifying the seismic performances based on dynamic analysis.
(12) Design vibration unit

A structural system that can be regarded as a single vibration unit during an
earthquake.
(13) Plasticity
A phenomenon of a structural member in which the member deforms beyond its
elastic limit when subjected to the seismic forces.
(14) Seismic lateral strength

Lateral strength of a structural member when subjected to repeated seismic
forces.
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(15) Ductility
Performance of a structural member capable of sufficiently deforming in the
plastic ranges, while keeping its lateral strength unchanged when subjected to
repeated seismic forces.
(16) Plastic hinge

A specific portion of an Reinforced Concrete structural member capable of
performing ductile behavior when subjected to repeated alternate deformations.
In the calculation of ultimate horizontal displacement, a length of an estimated
plastic hinge in the axial direction of the member is defined as the plastic hinge
length, and sections in the plastic hinge length is defined as the plastic hinge
zone.
(17) Horizontal inertia force distributed structure

Structure supporting a superstructure with a plural number of substructures, for
the purpose of distributing the seismic inertia forces to these substructures. The
structure includes a bridge with elastic supports such as rubber bearings and
isolation bearings, and a bridge with plural fixed supports.
(18) Seismiclly-Isolated bridges

Bridge with isolation bearings intended to make natural period of the bridge
longer and to increase the damping characteristics to decrease the inertia forces
during an earthquake.
(19) Unseating prevention system

Structural system having a seat length, an unseating prevention structure, an
excessive displacement stopper, and a structure for protecting the superstructure
from subsidence, in order to prevent a superstructure from unseating due to an
earthquake.
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Chapter 2 Basic Principles for Seismic Design
2.1 Fundamentals of Seismic Design
(1) In the seismic design of a bridge, the seismic performance required depending on
the levels of design earthquake ground motion and the importance of the bridge
shall be ensured.
(2) In the seismic design, topographical, geological and soil conditions, site conditions,
etc. shall be taken into account. A structural type with high seismic performance
shall be selected. Necessary seismic performance shall be secured in the design of
individual structural members of the bridge and the entire bridge system.
(1) Bridges play very important roles of evacuation routes and emergency routes for
rescue, first aid, medical services, firefighting, and transporting urgent goods to
refugees. For these purposes, it is essential to ensure seismic safety of a bridge in
the seismic design. In view of importance of a bridge, it is still a key issue to
minimize as much as possible loss of the bridge functions that might affect the
regional community lives. Therefore, in the seismic design of a bridge, seismic
performance required depending on levels of design earthquake ground motions
and importance of the bridge, shall be ensured.
(2) In the seismic design of a bridge, it is important to select a proper structural type,
in consideration with topographical, geological and ground conditions, and site
conditions. Furthermore, the entire bridge system capable of fully resisting
earthquake forces shall be designed, by increasing the strength and ductility of
structural members. Advantageous and disadvantageous in view of seismic
performance are discussed below.
1) To surely prevent bridge unseating, it is desirable to adopt a multi-span
continuous structure. There are two types of bearing supports in such a
structure, one is a structure with one fixed support and the other is a
horizontal force distributed structure. Since the former is likely to cause an
excessive load in the substructure that equips the fixed bearing support, the
latter is preferable. Furthermore, for a bridge with tall piers built in a
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mountainous region, it is generally better to resist seismic horizontal forces by
abutments rather than piers if the ground conditions at the abutments are
sufficiently sound. Accordingly, it is better to consider the seismic performance
of the whole bridge, and to select proper bearing supports in view of bridge
structural conditions and ground bearing properties.
2) On reclaimed land or alluvial ground where ground deformation such as sliding
of a soft cohesive clayey layer, liquefaction of sandy layer and
liquefaction-induced ground flow caused by liquefaction may happen, a
foundation with high horizontal stiffness should be designed. Furthermore, a
structural system, such as multi- fixed-point type and rigid frame type, which
has many contact points between the superstructure and substructure, should
be selected.
3) For a multi-span short-period continuous bridge on stiff ground conditions, a
seismically-isolated bridge should be adopted.
4) For a structure whose partial collapse may cause collapse of the entire system,
the damage should be limited to local failure.
5) For a strong earthquake motion, a proper structural system shall be designed
by clarifying structural members with nonlinear behavior and those basically
remaining in elastic states. Additionally, a structure greatly affected by
geometrical nonlinearity or a structure having extensive eccentricity of dead
loads, which tends to become unstable during a strong earthquake motion,
shall not be adopted.
6) When ground conditions or structural conditions on a pier change remarkably,
it is necessary to carefully examine which is more advantageous, between a
case of two girder ends on the pier and that of a continuous girder.
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2.2 Principles of Seismic Design
(1) Two levels of design earthquake ground motions shall be considered in the seismic
design of a bridge. The first level corresponds to an earthquake with high
probability of occurrence during the bridge service life (called “ Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion” hereafter), and the second level corresponds to an earthquake with
less probability of occurrence during the bridge service life but strong enough to
cause critical damage (called “Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion”). For the Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, two types of earthquake ground motion shall be taken
into account, namely, Type I of an interplate earthquake with a large magnitude
and Type II of an inland near-field type earthquake.
(2) Depending on the importance factors such as road class, bridge functions and
structural characteristics, bridges shall be classified into two groups: bridges of
standard importance (Class A), and bridges of high importance (Class B). The
definitions of the importance classification are specified in Section 2.3.
(3) Seismic performances of bridges shall have the following three levels, in view of the
seismic behavior of bridges:
1) Seismic Performance Level 1
Performance level of a bridge keeping its sound functions during an earthquake.
Performance level of a bridge sustaining limited damages during an earthquake
and capable of recovery within a short period.
Performance level of a bridge sustaining no critical damage during an
earthquake.
(4) Depending on the levels of design earthquake ground motions and the importance
of bridges, the seismic design of bridges shall conform to the following.
1) Both Class A and Class B bridges shall be designed so that the Seismic
Performance Level 1 is ensured when subjected to the Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion.
2) Class A bridges shall be designed so that the Seismic Performance Level 3 is
ensured when subjected to the Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, while Class B
bridges should be designed so that the Seismic Performance Level 2 is ensured
when subjected to the Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion.
(5) Bridges shall be designed so that unseating of superstructures can be prevented,
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even though structural failures may occur due to structural behavior or ground
failure unexpected in the seismic design.
(1) Earthquake ground motions to be taken into account in seismic design include two
levels: a Earthquake Ground Motion with high probability of occurrence for the
bridge service life (called “Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion”), and a earthquake
ground motion by a strong earthquake with low probability of occurrence for the
bridge service life (called “Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion”). In this revised
edition, these two levels of design earthquake ground motions are defined as Level
1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, respectively. Here, Level 1 is determined
by assuming an earthquake with a medium magnitude but with high probability of
occurrence. Furthermore, Level 2 is classified into two types: one is a earthquake
ground motion corresponding to a interplate earthquake with a large magnitude
(Type I Earthquake Ground Motion); the other is a earthquake ground motion
corresponding to an inland near-field earthquake with low probability of occurrence
such as Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (Type II Earthquake Ground Motion). Type I
motion represents one with large amplitude and longer duration, while Type II
motion is one with strong accelerations and shorter duration. These two types of
motions having different characteristics shall be taken into account in the seismic
design.
(2) In consideration of the social functions of bridges, roles of bridges for disaster
reduction efforts after an earthquake, and great influences of losses of bridge
functions, bridges are classified into two groups in terms of importance (refer to 2.3).
In the definitions, factors such as road classes, and functions and structures of
bridges, are incorporated according to the former convention in seismic design.
Importance stated here represents a result of assessment on significance evaluated
in terms of seismic resistant design.
(3) As defined in the above, seismic performances of bridges as a target of seismic
design are classified into three levels in view of the safety, serviceability and
repairability for seismic design. Here, safety implies performance to avoid loss of
life due to unseating of superstructure during an earthquake. Serviceability means
that a bridge is capable of keeping its bridge functions such as fundamental
transportation function, role of evacuation routes and emergency routes for rescue,
first aid, medical services, firefighting and transporting emergency goods to
refugees. Repairability denotes capability of repairing seismic damages.
First of all, the Seismic Performance Level 1 is defined as “Performance level of a
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bridge keeping its sound functions during an earthquake.” This definition implies
that the bridge shall be protected safely from unseating, no emergency repair work
is need to recover the functions soon after the earthquake, and also repair work
which may take a long time can be easily conducted.
The Seismic Performance Level 2 is defined as “Performance level of a bridge
sustaining limited damages during an earthquake and capable of recovery within a
short period.” In other words, this performance can ensure not only the safety of
unseating prevention, but also capability of recovering the functions soon after the
event as well as repairability by a comparatively easy long-term repair work.
The Seismic Performance Level 3 is defined as “Performance level of a bridge
sustaining no critical damage during an earthquake.” It implies that the safety
against unseating should be ensured, but does not cover the functions necessary for
serviceability and repairability for seismic design.
Table C-2.2.1 summarizes items of Seismic Performances 1 to 3 in view of safety,
serviceability and repairability for seismic design. When serviceability and
repairablility for Seismic Performances 1 and 2 are satisfied, seismic safety
against unseating can be implicitly ensured. In this case, the seismic safety design
is not a dominant seismic design.
Table C-2.2.1 Seismic Performance of Bridges
Seismic Seismic Repairability Design

Seismic Safety
Seismic Performance Serviceability Emergency Permanent
Design
Design Repairability Repairability
Seismic Performance To ensure the To ensure the No repair work is Only easy repair
Level 1: safety against normal functions needed to recover works are needed
Keeping the sound girder of bridges the functions
functions of bridges unseating
Seismic Performance Capable of Capable of Capable of easily
Level 2: recovering recovering undertaking
Limited damages and Same as above functions within functions by permanent repair
recovery a short period emergency repair works
after the event works
Seismic Performance
Level 3: Same as above －－－
No critical damages
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(4) Depending on the levels of design earthquake ground motions specified in (1) and
the two categories on bridge importance in (2), seismic performances damaged for
bridges are specified in the above provisions. This relation is shown in Table
C-2.2.2.
Table C-2.2.2 Design Earthquake Ground Motions and Seismic Performance of Bridges
Earthquake Ground Motions Class A Bridges Class B Bridges
Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion (highly Keeping sound functions of bridges

probable during the bridge service life) (Seismic Performance Level 1)
Level 2 Earthquake Type I Earthquake No critical damages Limited seismic
Ground Motion Ground Motion (an (Seismic Performance damages and capable of
interplate earthquake Level 3) recovering bridge
with a large magnitude functions within a
like the Kanto Eq. of short period
1923) (Seismic Performance
Type II Earthquake Level 2)
Ground Motion (an
inland near-field
earthquake like the
Kobe Eq. of 1995)
(5) Even if structural failures may occur due to structural behavior or ground failure
unexpected in the seismic design, safety measures to prevent from unseating of the
superstructure should be ensured, as specified.
Although the earthquake ground motion caused by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Earthquake which may be the most devastating one in the world is considered in
the seismic design, earthquake ground motion may be generated in the future.
This is because of mechanisms of generating strong earthquake ground motions
and properties of active faults causing future earthquakes are uncertain yet. In
addition, since time for observing strong earthquake is short, and observation
records of such strong earthquakes are insufficient yet, an accurate estimation of
earthquake ground motion characteristics is difficult in surely incorporating
seismic design of bridges. Furthermore, unexpected forces, displacements and
deformations may generate in bridges due to failure of surrounding ground or
unexpected complicated behavior of structural members. In this case, safety
against unseating shall be ensured as much as possible. In the Kocaeli, Turkey
Earthquake of 1999 and the ChiChi, Taiwan Earthquake of 1999, however,
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superstructures fell down due to extremely large fault displacements of 5 to 10m.
In order to directly incorporate characteristics of individual active faults into the
design, locations and active periods of the faults, and ground surface dislocations
caused by the faults, should be identified. Although investigations on active faults,
and fault displacements are recently carried out, many points remain unsolved. It
is necessitated to carefully examine these subjects through further research.
In view of the above-mentioned unsolved subjects and unexpected phenomena
actually experienced, prevention of superstructures from unseating shall be a
target of seismic design of a bridge. However, it is still difficult to design a
completely safe bridge against any earthquake ground motions or extremely large
fault displacements. In preparation for such earthquakes, it is important to
enhance redundancy of highway networks, and to develop preparedness systems
and techniques that will allow earlier recovery.
2.3 Classification of Importance of Bridges
The importance for both Class A bridges and Class B bridges shall be classified as
defined in Table-2.3.1.
Table-2.3.1 Classification of importance of bridges
Class Definitions
Class A bridges Bridges other than Class B bridges
 Bridges of National expressways, urban expressways,
designated city expressways, Honshu-Shikoku highways,
and general national highways.
Class B
 Double-deck bridges and overbridges of prefectural
bridges
highways and municipal roads, and other bridges, highway
viaducts, etc., especially important in view of regional
disaster prevention plans, traffic strategy, etc.
This classification of Class A or Class B bridges is defined in accordance with the

provision in 2.2 (2). When bridge importance is classified in view of roles expected
in the regional disaster prevention plan and road serviceability, following items
should be taken into account.
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(1) Roles expected in the regional disaster prevention plan
To what extent a bridge is necessitated for post-event rescue and recovery
activities, as emergency transportation routes.
(2) Possibility of secondary disaster

To what extent damages to bridges (such as double-deck bridges and
overbridges) affect other structures and facilities.
(3) Serviceability and availability of substitute

Present traffic volume of the bridge or traffic, and availability of substitute
when the bridge loses pre-event functions.
(4) Difficulty in recovering bridge function

Duration and cost required for recovering the function of a bridge damaged.
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Chapter 3 Loads to be considered in Seismic Design
3.1 Loads to be considered in Seismic Design and their Combinations
(1) The following loads shall be taken into account in the seismic design:
1) Primary loads
The primary loads defined in Section 2.1 of the Common Provisions, excluding
the live load and the impact, shall be considered:
a. Dead load (D)
b. Prestress force (PS)
c. Effect of creep of concrete (CR)
d. Effect of drying shrinkage of concrete (SH)
e. Earth pressure (E)
f. Hydraulic pressure (HP)
g. Buoyancy or uplift (U)
2) Secondary loads
Effects of earthquake (EQ)
(2) Combinations of loads shall be as follows:

Primary loads + Effects of earthquake (EQ), specified in (1)
(3) Loads and their combinations shall be determined in such manners that they cause
the most adverse stresses, displacements and effects.
(1) The loads to be taken into account in seismic design are specified depending on
bridge site, structure of the bridge, and other condition. Adoption of all loads is not
necessarily requirement.
It has been decided that it is not necessary to take the live load into account in
seismic design. Because the live load varies temporally and spatially, and the
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probability of a full live load occurring at the same time as an earthquake is
generally small. On the other hand, there is the opinion that for a bridge on which
motor vehicles stay for a relatively long period of time, the live load should be taken
into account together with the effects of an earthquake. However, the value of the
live load to be taken into account, safety factor, etc., are yet to be clarified by
research, and it has been decided not to take live load into account in seismic design.
The another reason for it is that even if the vehicles happen to pass through a
bridge while there is an earthquake, since these vehicles could control the vibration
of the bridge, and the results of the dynamic analysis for vehicles-bridge model with
considering dynamic behaviors of large-size cars have shown that the seismic
response of a bridge has little effects on the vehicles, the bridge can be designed by
conforming to the old rules.
3.2 Effects of Earthquake
The following seismic forces shall be taken into account to determine the effects of
earthquake.
(1) Inertia force due to the dead weight of the structure (called “inertia force”
hereafter)
(2) Earth pressure during an earthquake
(3) Hydrodynamic pressure during an earthquake
(4) Effects of liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground flow
(5) Ground displacement during an earthquake
The effects stated here include all kinds of effects of earthquake that should be taken
into account in seismic design of a bridge. But for seismic design of a certain bridge,
only necessary types among them should be selected individually according to its
design conditions.
As the weight to the structure, the weight of attachments, etc., should also be taken
into account. If the soil mass vibrates together with the structure and greatly affects
the structure, its inertia force should be taken into account.
In Part V of 1996 version, the displacement of the ground during an earthquake has
been taken into account in designing the seat length for preventing superstructure
from unseating. This revision has prescribed clearly that this is one of the effects of
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earthquake.
As one of such displacements during an earthquake that affects the bridge, effects of
the fault displacement with the occurrence of seismic fault on surface of the ground
have been fully recognized through the extraordinary damages of earthquakes such as
the Kocaeli, Turkey Earthquake of 1999 and the ChiChi, Taiwan Earthquake of 1999.
However, how to locate the occurrence of such displacements and then predict the
values, etc., remain unsolved up to now, as well as the verification methods that could
definitely represent the seismic design of bridges. For this purpose, it is necessary to
suitably examine both the technical development and selection method for a structure
that is least affected by such displacements.
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Chapter 4 Design Earthquake Ground Motions
4.1 General
Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions shall be determined in accordance

with the provisions in Section 4.2 and 4.3, respectively. However, design earthquake
ground motions at a bridge site can be determined in consideration of the information
on earthquake histories around the bridge site, active faults, earthquakes occurring in
the plate-boundaries near the site, geological structures, geotechnical conditions, and
existing strong motion records, if this procedure is more appropriate.
This is the provision concerning the basic consideration about the settings of design
earthquake ground motions used in verifying the seismic performances. As described
above, Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be determined
respectively, based on the acceleration response spectra specified in Section 4.2 and
4.3.
On the other hand, a calculation method of design earthquake ground motions with
fault models has been developed recently according to investigation results on the
active faults around the bridge location. In this revision, when design earthquake
ground motions at the bridge location can be appropriately estimated by using such
methods effectively, they shall be assumed based on the information. In setting the
design earthquake ground motions at the bridge location, the following items should be
appropriately taken into account as either the existing observation records or the
effects of earthquake ground motions at the bridge location.
1) Past earthquake history around the bridge location, including scale, location
and frequency of the earthquake, etc.
2) The distribution and activity degree of the active faults around the bridge
location, and the scale of an earthquake due to these active faults
3) Information on the scale of an earthquake which occurred on the boundary
between plates around the bridge location, and the location of the earthquake
center fault
15
4) Underground structures affected by the transmission of the earthquake ground
motions
5) Ground conditions at the bridge location
6) Existing strong motion records
When setting design earthquake ground motions, since the various parameters
derived from the information on earthquakes, active faults and ground may largely
affect the calculative results of design earthquake ground motion, in general, the above
information should be carefully investigated. For purpose of determining the design
earthquake ground motions based on the characteristics investigation of individual
active fault, various information become necessary. The research on the calculation
methods of design earthquake ground motions is also in progress. Consequently, it is
necessary to reexamine these methods carefully through further research when setting
design earthquake ground motions.
For example, when a bridge spans across some points where the characteristics of
the ground changes sharply, setting design earthquake ground motions to describe the
ground conditions of ground surface at the bridge location and the vibration properties
of the ground may be rational. In this case, it is necessary to determine the design
earthquake ground motions after sufficiently investigated on the vibration properties of
the ground based on the investigating results of the ground.
4.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
(1) Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be determined in accordance with the
acceleration response spectrum specified in (2).
(2) The acceleration response spectrum shall be provided, in principle, at the ground
surface to be considered in seismic design prescribed in Section 4.6, and shall be
calculated by Equation (4.2.1).
S  c Z c D S 0 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (4.2.1)
where
S : Acceleration response spectra for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
16
(rounded to an integral by neglecting decimals)
cZ : Modification factor for zones specified in Section 4.4
cD : Modification factor for damping ratio. It shall be calculated by Equation
(4.2.2) in accordance with the damping ratio h.
1.5
cD   0.5 ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (4.2.2)
40h  1
S0 : Standard acceleration response spectra (gal) for Level 1 Earthquake

Ground Motion. It shall be a value in Table 4.2.1 in accordance with the
ground type specified in Section 4.5 and the fundamental period T.
Table 4.2.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra S0

Ground Type So (gal) with Fundamental Period T(s)
T＜0.1 0.1≦T≦1.1 1.1＜T
1/3
Type I So =431T So =200 So =220/T
but So≧160
T＜0.2 0.2≦T≦1.3 1.3＜T
Type II So=427T 1/3 So =250 So =325/T
but So≧200
T＜0.34 0.34≦T≦1.5 1.5＜T
1/3
Type III So=430T So =300 So =450/T
but So≧240
(1) Methods used for design earthquake ground motions include time history wave
method and acceleration response spectrum method. The acceleration response
spectrum, which has been defined as the maximum response of a single degree of
freedom system with a given natural period and damping ratio under a designated
earthquake ground motion, is generally used for design earthquake ground motions
so that it has been specified in the provision that earthquake ground motions shall
be determined in accordance with the acceleration response spectra.
(2) Acceleration response spectra S for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be
obtained by correcting the standard acceleration response spectra S0 specified in
Table 4.2.1 based on modification factor for damping ratio cD and Modification
factor for zones cZ specified in Section 4.4.
The standard acceleration response spectra S0, after combining the past rules
17
with experimental facts, is established for each ground type specified in Section 4.5,
based on the results of multiple regression analysis of the acceleration response
spectra of an damping ratio of 0.05 obtained from strong motion records with 394
components observed at the ground surface in Japan, with these results modified
to account for the characteristics of past earthquake damage, vibration properties
of the ground, and other engineering evaluations. Plotting the data of Table 4.2.1
obtains Fig. C-4.2.1.
Additionally, the modification factor for damping ratio cD is a coefficient used to
correct the acceleration response spectra of a damping ratio of 0.05 to the
acceleration response spectra with damping ratio h. Fig. C-4.2.2 gives the
modification factor for damping ratio cD.
The above provision stipulated the acceleration response spectra in cases where
the ground surface for seismic design specified in Section 4.6 is considered to be
the input location. Consequently, in cases where the foundation surface is assumed
to be the input location, the effects of the ground must be appropriately taken into
account.
Fig. C-4.2.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra S0
18
Fig. C-4.2.2 Modification Factor for Damping Ratio cD
4.3 Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
(1) Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be determined in accordance with the
acceleration response spectrum specified in (2).
(2) The acceleration response spectrum shall be provided, in principle, at the ground
surface to be considered in seismic design prescribed in Section 4.6, and shall be
calculated by Equations (4.3.1) and (4.3.2) according to the type of seismic ground
motion specified in Section 2.2, respectively.
SⅠ  cZ c D SⅠ0 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････(4.3.1)
S II  cZ cD SⅡ0 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (4.3.2)
where
SI : Type I acceleration response spectra (rounded off to 1 gal)
SII : Type II acceleration response spectra (rounded off to 1 gal)
cz : Modification factor for zones specified in Section 4.4
19
cD : Modification factor for damping ratio. It shall be calculated using Equation
(4.2.2) in accordance with the damping ratio h.
SI0 : Standard acceleration response spectra (gal) Type I. It shall be a value from
Table 4.3.1 in accordance with the ground type specified in Section 4.5 and the
fundamental period T.
SII0 : Standard acceleration response spectra (gal) Type II. It shall be a value from
Table 4.3.2 in accordance with the ground type specified in Section 4.5 and the
fundamental period T.
Table 4.3.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra Type I, SI0
Ground Type SIo (gal) with Fundamental Period T(s)

T ≦1.4 1.4<T
Type I
SⅠ0=700 SⅠ0=980 /T
T < 0.18
0.18≦T≦1.6 1.6 < T
Type II SⅠ0 =1,505T 1/3
SⅠ0 =850 SⅠ0 =1,306T
but So≧700
T < 0.29
0.29≦T ≦2.0 2.0 < T
Type III SⅠ0 =1,511T 1/3
SⅠ0 =1,000 SⅠ0 =2,000/T
but So ≧700
Table 4.3.2 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra Type II, SII0
Ground Type SIIo (gal) with Fundamental Period T(s)

T < 0.3 0.3≦T ≦0.7 0.7 < T
Type I 2/3
SⅡ0 =4,463T SⅡ0 =2,000 SⅡ0 =1,104/T 5/3
T < 0.4 0.4≦T ≦1.2 1.2 < T
Type II 2/3
SⅡ0 =3,224T SⅡ0 =1,750 SⅡ0 =2,371/T 5/3
T < 0.5 0.5≦T ≦1.5 1.5 < T
Type III 2/3
SⅡ0 =2,381T SⅡ0 =1,500 SⅡ0 =2,948/T 5/3
(1) As has been stated in previous section, there are two methods used for design
earthquake ground motions, one is time history wave and the other is acceleration
response spectrum. With the same reason as level 1, Level 2 Earthquake Ground
20
Motion shall be determined in accordance with the acceleration response spectra.
(2) Based on the provisions in Section 2.2, Level 2 included both Type I and Type II
earthquake ground motions. Acceleration response spectra SI and SII for Level 1
and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, respectively, shall be obtained by
correcting the standard acceleration response spectra SI0 and SII0 specified in Table
4.3.1 and Table 4.3.2, respectively, based on modification factor for damping ratio cD
and Modification factor for zones cZ.
Type I provides the earthquake ground motion that hypothesizes a large-scale
marine earthquake occurring on the boundary between plates: a category of
earthquake that occurs rarely. The earthquake motion generated in the Tokyo area
by the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 is cited as an example of this type of
earthquake motion, and has been incorporated into seismic design based on the
ductility design method. Because strong motion observations were not performed at
the time of the Great Kanto Earthquake, it is impossible to perform earthquake
motion evaluations based on scientific evidence such as strong motion records, but
the acceleration at the surface of the ground is estimated at between 0.3 and 0.4 G
using the distance decay equation, etc. Although it varies in different ground types
according to the natural period or damping characteristics of each bridge, the
acceleration generated in abridge when a certain vibration occurs in the ground is
generally about two to three times the acceleration in the ground. So if it is
assumed that a bridge exhibits elastic behavior under earthquake motion between
0.3 and 0.4 G, the acceleration generated in the bridge will be between 0.7 and 1 G.
The standard acceleration response spectra SI0 for Type I earthquake ground
motions specified in Table 4.3.1 has been determined based on the results of
statistical analysis of the acceleration response spectra of strong motion records of
394 constituents observed in Japan.
On the other hand, the standard acceleration response spectra SII0 for Type II
earthquake ground motion, which is based on acceleration strong motion records
actually obtained at ground surface during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake of
1995, was established by categorizing its acceleration response spectra for each
ground category. In brief, during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, the
acceleration was high at the Kobe Maritime Meteorological Observatory (Type I
ground), at the JR West Japan Takatori Station (Type II ground), and in the ground
around the Higashi Kobe Bridge (Type III ground), and earthquake motion
acceleration that destroyed structures was observed. Table 4.3.2 presents the
21
values of the standard acceleration response spectra SII0 for Type II earthquake
ground motions obtained by calculating the acceleration response spectra of the
earthquake motions that were observed, smoothing particularly conspicuous peaks
in the spectra.
Plotting the data of Table 4.3.1 and Table 4.3.2 provides Fig. C-4.3.1 and Fig.
C-4.3.2, respectively.
The above provision stipulated the acceleration response spectra SI and SII for
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, in cases where the surface of the ground for
seismic design specified in Section 4.6 is considered to be the input location, with
the same considerations as that of level 1 in Section 4.2. Consequently, in cases
where the foundation surface is assumed to be the input location, the effects of the
ground must be appropriately taken into account.
22
Fig. C-4.3.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra SI0 for Type I Earthquake
Fig. C-4.3.2 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra SII0 for Type II Earthquake
Ground Motion
23
4.4 Modification Factor for Zones
Modification factor for zones shall be determined in accordance with Table 4.4.1 for
different zones. When the bridge site is just located on the border between different
zones, the higher factors shall be adopted.
Table 4.4.1 Modification Factors for Zones, cz

Zone Modification Factor cz Definitions
A 1.0 Regions other than the followings
Regions specified in item (II) of the Table in
Section 1 (Z-values), “Z-values, methods for
calculating Rt and Ai and standard for a
B 0.85
specific administrative organ to designate
areas with remarkably unstable ground
“ (Ministry of Construction Notification)
Regions specified in items (III) and (IV) of
the Table in Section 1 (Z-values), “Z-values,
methods for calculating Rt and Ai and
C 0.7 standard for a specific administrative organ
to designate areas with remarkably unstable
ground “ (Ministry of Construction
Notification)
The standard acceleration response spectra stipulated in Section 4.2 and 4.3 are
specified as the values of standard acceleration response spectra to be applied to
bridges constructed in regions where a large-scale earthquake may probably happen,
by comprehensively examining the conventional practice and empirical facts. Therefore,
it for regions other than these, the values of standard acceleration response spectra
should be corrected by modification factors for zones. The reason is that it is
impractical to use the acceleration response spectra specified for a region having a high
earthquake occurrence frequency in a region having a lower earthquake occurrence
frequency.
In Section 1 (Z-values), “Z-values, methods for calculating Rt and Ai and standard for
a specific administrative organ to designate areas with remarkably unstable ground
24
“ (Ministry of Construction Notification) based on Section 88 of the Enforcement
Ordinance of the Building Standard Law, the classification of regions for decreasing the
lateral force coefficient is specified. The classification of regions is established by
somewhat modifying the classification of regions for the earthquake ground motion
intensities in the New Seismic Design Method (draft) compiled by the Ministry of
Construction in March 1977, considering the administrative classification.
The names of respective regions falling under the regional classes shown in Table
4.4.1 are stated in Table C-4.4.1. A region class map prepared according to Table
C-4.4.1 is shown in Fig. C-4.4.1.
The regional classification of earthquake ground motion intensities in the New
Seismic Design Method (draft) compiled by the Ministry of Construction is as shown in
Fig. C-4.4.2. This map has been prepared by examining the results of studies published
so far concerning the seismic risk in Japan from the following six point of view, to
obtain practical applicable regional characteristics of seismic risk, and also
comprehensively examining together with the practical applicable data on the
earthquakes affecting Japan such as large-scale earthquakes occurring at plat
boundaries and earthquakes occurring at inland active faults.
1) Accuracy of seismic parameters (magnitudes hypocenters, etc.) contained in the
area
2) Homogeneity of information available among respective regions
3) Volume of data (years of statistics)
4) Adequacy of the calculation formulae to obtain the maximum earthquake
ground motion from a magnitude and a hypocenter distance
5) Adequacy of the methods of predicting the maximum earthquake ground
motion for a given return period based on the obtained frequency distribution
of maximum earthquake ground motion values
6) Adequacy of the methods of expressing results
The original data of these researches include not only the earthquake histories in
past thousands of years, but also active faults that still act at intervals of several
thousand. In recent years, although the investigation on active faults has been carried
out, many points remain unclear. It is necessary to reexamine these matters carefully
through further research.
The modification factors for regional classes A, B and C are specified as 1.0 for
regions A, 0.85 for regions B and 0.7 for regions C, in reference to the practice in the
conventional seismic design of highway bridges, New Seismic Design Method (draft).
Table C-4.4.1 Regional classification of Modification Factors for Zones
25
Modification
Zone Definitions
Factor cz
A 1.0 ① Regions other than the followings
② Hokkaido (covering only Sapporo City, Hakodate City,
Otaru City, Muroran City, Kitami City, Yubari City,
Iwamizawa City, Abashiri City, Tomakomai City, Bibai City,
Ashibetsu City, Ebetsu City, Akabira City, Mikasa City,
Chitose City, Takigawa City, Sunagawa City, Utashinai City,
Fukagawa City, Furano City, Noboribetsu City, Eniwa City,
Date City, Sapporo-gun, Ishikari-gun, Atsuta-gun,
Hamamasu-gun, Matsumae-gun, Kamiiso-gun, Kameda-gun,
Kayabe-gun, Yamakoshi-gun, Hiyama-gun, Nishi-gun,
Kudoo-gun, Okushiri-gun, Setana-gun, Shimamaki-gun,
Suttsu-gun, Isotani-gun, Abuta-gun, Iwanai-gun, Furuu-gun,
Shakotan-gun, Furubira-gun, Yoichi-gun, Sorachi-gun,
Yubari-gun, Kabato-gun, Uryu-gun, Kamikawa-gun
(Kamikawa-shicho) (covering only Higashikagura-cho,
Kamikawa-cho, Higashikawa-cho, and Biei-cho), Yufutsu-gun,
Abashiri-gun, Shari-gun, Tokoro-gun, Usu-gun, and
B 0.85
Shiraoi-gun)
Aomori Pref. (covering only Aomori City, Hirosaki City,
Kuroishi City, Goshogawara City, Mutsu City,
Higashitsugaru-gun, Nishi tsugaru-gun, Nakatsugaru-gun,
Minamitsugaru-gun, Kitatsugaru-gun, and Shimokita-gun),
Akita Pref., and Yamagata Pref.
Fukushima Pref. (covering only Aizuwakamatsu City,
Koriyama City, Shirakawa City, Sukagawa City, Kitakata
City, Iwase-gun, Minamiaizu-gun, Kitaaizu-gun, Yama-gun,
Kawanuma-gun, Ohnuma-gun, and Nishishirakawa-gun)
Niigata Pref.
Toyama Pref. (covering only Uozu City, Namerikawa City,
Kurobe City, and Shimoniikawa-gun)
Ishikawa Pref. (covering only Wajima City, Suzu City,
Fugeshi-gun, and Suzu-gun)
26
Modification Definitions
Zone
Factor cz
② Tottori Pref. (covering only Yonago City, Kurayoshi City,

Sakaiminato City, Tohaku-gun, Saihaku-gun, and Hino-gun)
Shimane Pref., Okayama Pref., and Hiroshima Pref.
Tokushima Pref. (covering only Mima-gun, and Miyoshi-gun)
Kagawa Pref. (covering only Takamatsu City, Marugame City,
B 0.85 Sakaide City, Zentsuji City, Kanonji City, Shodo-gun,
Kagawa-gun, Ayauta-gun, Nakatado-gun, and Mitoyo-gun)
Ehime Pref., and Kochi Pref.
Kumamoto Pref. (excluding City or Gun appearing at ③)
Oita Pref. (excluding City or Gun appearing at ③)
Miyazaki Pref.
Hokkaido (covering only Asahikawa City, Rumoi City,
Wakkanai City, Monbetsu City, Shibetsu City, Nayori City,
Kamikawa-gun (Kamikawa-shicho)(covering only
Takasu-cho, Toma-cho, Pippu-cho, Aibetsu-cho,
Wasaamu-cho, Kenbuchi-cho, Asahi-cho, Furen-cho, and
Shimokawa-cho), Nakagawa-gun (Kamikawa-shicho),
Mashike-gun, Rumoi-gun, Tomamae-gun, Teshio-gun,
Soya-gun, Esashi-gun, Rebun-gun, Rishiri-gun, and
Monbetsu-gun)
Yamaguchi Pref., Fukuoka Pref., Saga Pref., and Nagasaki
③
C 0.7 Pref.
Kumamoto Pref. (covering only Yatsushiro City, Arao City,
Minamata City, Tamana City, Hondo City, Yamaga City,
Ushibuka City, Udo City, Hotaku-gun, Udo-gun, Tamana-gun,
Kamoto-gun, Ashikita-gun, and Amakusa-gun),
Oita Pref. (covering only Nakatsu City, Hita City,
Bungotakada City, Kitsuki City, Usa City, Nishikunisaki-gun,
Higashikunisaki-gun, Hayami-gun, Shimoge-gun, and
Usa-gun)
Kagoshima Pref. (excluding Naze City and Ohshima-gun)
④ Okinawa Pref.
27
28
Fig. C-4.4.1 Regional Classification
29
Fig. C-4.4.2 Regional Classification of Earthquake Ground Motion Intensities in New
Seismic
30
4.5 Ground Type for Seismic Design
Grounds types in seismic design shall be classified, in principle, into those types
defined in Table 4.5.1, in accordance with the ground characteristic value TG calculated
from Equation (4.5.1). When the ground surface lies on the same level as the surface of
a bedrock in seismic design, the ground type shall be Type I.
n
Hi
TG = 4  ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (4.5.1)
i 1 V si
where
TG : Characteristic value of ground (s)
Hi : Thickness of the i-th soil layer (m)
Vsi : Average shear elastic wave velocity of the i-th soil layer (m/s)
i : Number of the i-th soil layer from the ground surface when the ground is
classified into n layers from the ground surface to the surface of a bedrock in
seismic design
Table 4.5.1 Ground Types in Seismic Design

Ground Type Characteristic Value of Ground, TG (s)
Type I TG < 0.2
Type II 0.2 ≦TG < 0.6
Type III 0.6 ≦TG
When the ground type in seismic design is determined according to the design
earthquake ground motions specified in Sections 4.2 and 4.3, the effects of the ground
conditions shall be considered as described in the above. Generally, Type I ground
includes good diluvial ground and rock, Type III ground includes soft ground of alluvial
ground, and Type II ground denotes diluvial and alluvial ground not belonging to either
Type II ground or I. Where, the alluvial ground includes a new sedimentary layer
formed by landslide while surface soil, reclamation soil and weak layer, and the
compact sand layer, gravel layer and boulder layer of alluvium may be treated as
diluvial ground.
Grounds types in seismic design shall be classified, in principle, into those types
defined in Table 4.5.1, in accordance with the ground characteristic value TG calculated
31
from Equation (4.5.1). TG, originally referring to the fundamental natural period of the
surface layer ground in a slight strain amplitude region, is called the characteristic
value of ground here. Vsi can be estimated from Equation (4.5.1) using the N value if
there is no measured value available, though it is usually measured by elastic wave
prospecting or PS logging. In this case, an average N value of each layer should be used,
and it is not necessary to complicate the calculation needlessly.
where
Ni : Average N value of the i-th soil layer obtained from SPT
Equation (C4.5.1) is an estimation equation derived from experimental results in a
range of N = 1 - 25 for the cohesive soil layer and in a range of N= 1 - 50 for the sandy
soil layer. When the N value is 0, Vsi = 50 m/s can be taken.
The surface of a bedrock in seismic design represents upper surface of a fully hard
ground layer that exists over a wide area in the construction site, and is normally
situated below a surface soil layer shaking with a ground motion different from the
bedrock motion during an earthquake. Where, the upper surface of a fully hard ground
layer might be the upper surface of a highly rigid soil layer with a shear elastic wave
velocity of more than 300 m/s (an N value of 25 in the cohesive soil layer and an N
value of 50 in the sandy soil layer from Equation (C4.5.1)).
When the ground surface is not flat such as a dam body or fill, or a footing is
constructed in the dam body as shown in Fig. C-4.5.1 (a), the dam crown should be
regarded as the ground surface to obtain the characteristic value of ground from
Equation (C4.5.1) for the vibration of the substructure may be affected by the vibration
of the dam body. So, when a footing is constructed in the ground below a dam body as
shown in Fig. C-4.5.1 (b), the average ground surface around it should be regarded as
the ground surface in calculating the characteristic value of ground.
According to the results of calculation on many pieces of ground, it is clear that TG
has a correlation with alluvial layer thickness HA and diluvial layer thickness HD, and
ground can be approximately classified into the types shown in Fig. C-4.5.2. Therefore,
when it is difficult to obtain TG from Equation (C4.5.1) as in the case where the bedrock
surface cannot be identified even by a standard penetration test at a very deep layer,
the ground type can be classified as shown in Fig. C-4.5.2.
32
Fig．C-4.5.1 How to Determine the Ground Surface of Dam Body and Fill
Fig．C-4.5.2 Ground Types Determined by Alluvial Layer Thickness HA and Diluvial

Layer Thickness HD
4.6 Ground Surface to be considered in Seismic Design
Ground surface to be considered in seismic design shall generally be the ground surface
in the normal design. However, for sites of unstable soil layers whose seismic subgrade
reactions cannot be anticipated, the ground surface to be considered in seismic design
shall be appropriately assumed by taking the effects into account.
The ground surface to be considered in seismic design refers to a ground surface in
33
which design earthquake ground motion specified in Sections 4.2 and 4.3 is input,
assuming that the seismic force acts only on the structures above it but excluding the
structures existing below it.
The ground surface to be considered in seismic design is defined as the ground
surface in the normal design specified in Section 9.4 of Part IV Substructures, as
shown in Fig.C-4.6.l and Fig.C-4.6.2. However, for sites of unstable soil layers whose
seismic subgrade reactions cannot be anticipated, such as an extremely soft layer or
liquefiable sandy soil layer, the bottom face of the layer should be taken as the ground
surface to be considered in seismic design for ensuring a safety design. This is because
the quality of the ground of 10m deep under the actual ground may largely affect the
lateral resistance of the foundation, in addition to an unclear present state of dynamic
relation between ground and the structure during an earthquake that must be solved
in the near future.
In the explanation of Section 9.4 in Part IV Substructures, the seismic design can be
carried out by considering resistance of the ground around the footing and taking the
upper part of the footing as the ground surface in the normal design, when backfilling
around the footing is sufficiently done so that the ground surface is kept to be stable for
a long term. In case that weight of the footing may largely affect the whole foundation
like a pile foundation, taking into account the effects of the inertia force of the footing
is recommended in the seismic design of the foundation, even if the ground surface in
the normal design is just above the footing. For sites of soil layers being alternation of
strata whose seismic subgrade reactions cannot be anticipated, the ground surface to
be considered in seismic design should be the top face of a sandy soil layer with a
thickness of at least 3 m and of none zero subgrade reactions, as shown in Fig. C-4.6.3.
This is based on the past earthquakes and the fact that the influence of a soil layer of
zero subgrade reaction on a soil layer of none zero subgrade reaction above it cannot be
quantitatively evaluated.
For an abutment, the ground surface to be considered in seismic design of different
depths may be set at the rear or in front of the abutment. For safety, it is generally set
in front of an abutment. The seismic earth pressure acting on an abutment from its
backside should be assumed to act above the bottom face of the footing at the rear of
the abutment irrespective of whether the ground surface to be considered in seismic
design is at the bottom face of the footing at the rear of the abutment or further below
it. In design, it is recommended that the lateral resistance of the ground existing above
the ground surface be disregarded for seismic design in front of the abutment.
34
Fig. C-4.6.1 Ground Surface of a Pier in Seismic Design
Fig. C-4.6.2 Ground Surface of an Abutment in Seismic Design
Fig. C-4.6.3 Ground Surface to be considered in Seismic Design When There is an

Intermediate Soil Layer Whose Seismic Subgrade Reactions Can be
Anticipated
35
Chapter 5 Verification of Seismic Performance
5.1 General
(1) In verifying seismic performance, the limit state of each structural member shall
be appropriately determined in accordance with the limit states of the bridge
specified in Sections 5.2 to 5.4.
(2) The verification shall ensure that the state of each structural member due to the
design earthquake ground motions does not exceed its limit state defined in (1).
The verification method is specified in Section 5.5.
(3) Based on the provisions in Section 5.6, the verification shall be performed such
that the unseating of the superstructure can be prevented, even though the
structural failures may occur due to structural behavior or ground failure
unexpected in the seismic design.
(1) In verifying seismic performance, the limit state of each structural member shall be
appropriately determined in accordance with the limit states of the bridge, in
addition to selection of the member or portion with plastic behavior. Based on the
provisions of the limit states of the bridge specified in Sections 5.2 to 5.4, various
considerations such as how to combine the limit state of each structural member
according to bridge type are discussed. Details about these provisions are given
then through a bridge under normal conditions, for explaining how to determine
the limit state of each structural member based on the limit states of the bridge
specified in Sections 5.2 to 5.4.
(2) The verification shall generally ensure that the state of each structural member of
a bridge due to the design earthquake ground motions does not exceed its limit
state defined in (1). The verification method is specified in Section 5.5.
(3) With basis on the provisions in Section 2.2(5), the verification shall be performed so
that the unseating of the superstructure can be prevented, even though the
structural failures may happen to occur due to structural behavior or ground
failure unexpected in the seismic design.
Fig. C-5.1.1 summarized the general procedure of seismic design and the
chapters and sections of related provisions, which is applicable to provisions in
other Bridge Specifications in verification of seismic performance.
36
Start
V 5.5
For bridges with a
No complex seismic behavior
5 Yes
for Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion
Calculation of design
horizontal seismic coeffients V 6.1, 6.2
and inertia forces 6.3.1~6.3.3
Calculation of sectional forces and Calculation of Calculation of allowable values

Verification of
displacements, etc. by a static analysis Responses by a (Allowable stresses, etc.)
seismic
Reinforced Concrete Columns IV 5.1 dynamic Reinforced Concrete Columns IV 4
performance for
Level 1 Steel piers II Analysi Steel piers II
Earthquake Foundations IV 9.2 V7.1~7.3 Foundations IV 10~14
Ground Motion (Footings IV 8.7) (Footings IV 4)
IV 5.1 s Abutments IV 4
Abutments
Superstructures II 4 or III 4 Superstructures II 3 or III 3
Bearing supports V 15.1 Bearing supports V 15.1
es
ici
Verification of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion

V6.3.4 or 7.4(1)
ents Calculation of allowable values

V 5.5
For bridges with a (Ultimate lateral strength, allowable
No complex seismic behavior Yes displacements, etc.)
for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion
Yes Considering plastic No

or nonlinear
Verification of Calculation of design behavior
seismic horizontal seismic coefficients V 6.1, 6.2
performance for and inertia forces 6.4.1~6.4.4
Level 2
Earthquake Reinforced
Calculation of sectional forces and Calculation of Abutment foundations
Ground Motion displacements, etc. by a static Concrete Columns V 10.2
responses by a V 12.3
analysis dynamic Steel piers V 11.2 Superstructures
Reinforced V 6.4.6 analysis Pier foundations V 12.5 V14.1 (2)
Concrete Columns V7.1~7.3 Abutment foundations Bearing supports
Piers foundations V 12.2, 12.4 (Rubber, Steel) V 15.3
Abutment foundations V 13.3 V 13.4
Superstructures
Superstructures V 6.4.9
V14.2.1 or V 14.3.1
Bearing supports V15.2, 15.3
Bearing supports V 15.3
(Seismic isolation)
ces Verification of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion

V6.3.5 or 7.4(2), (3)
Design of unseating prevention system

V 16.1
End
Fig. C5.1.1 Procedure of Seismic Design and Part/Section Number specifying the
Related Provisions
37
1.2
5.2 Limit States of Bridges for Seismic Performance Level 1
Limit states of bridges for Seismic Performance Level 1 shall be properly established so
that the mechanical properties of the bridges are maintained within the elastic ranges.
When the limit state of each structural member is defined in terms of the stress,
working stresses generated by an earthquake should not exceed its allowable value.
Limit states of bridges for Seismic Performance Level 1 shall be properly established
so that the bridge functions before and after an earthquake can be ensured and
recovery of damages that any structural member suffered is kept slight.
For ordinary bridges, limit state of each structural member for Seismic Performance
Level 1 can be assumed in such a manners that its mechanical properties could be kept
within the elastic ranges. For ground supporting any foundation, its limit states should
be the state that its mechanical properties do not change greatly.
Here, the limit state of each structural member is determined in such a way that its
mechanical properties could be kept within the elastic ranges. This corresponds to the
state in which stress occurring in concrete or steel of each member reaches its
allowable stress amplified by an increase factor of 1.5 for consideration of effects of
earthquake.
In addition, limit state of expansion joint connecting with the ends of superstructure
can be the limit state that damage never happens. This is because any damage in the
expansion joint will interfere with the traffic.
(1) Limit states of bridges for Seismic Performance Level 2 shall be properly
established so that only the structural member in which the generations of plastic
hinges are allowed deforms plastically within a range of easy functional recovery.
(2) The structural member in which the generations of plastic hinges are allowed shall
be selected so that reliable energy absorption and recovery in a short period are
ensured.
(3) These structural members shall be properly combined in accordance with the
structural character of the bridge. Then, the limit state of each member shall be
appropriately determined in consideration of the combination.
38
(1) Limit states of bridges for Seismic Performance Level 2 are established in such a
way that only the structural member in which the generations of plastic hinges are
allowed deforms plastically within a range of easy functional recovering, after
clearly classify the members into members with and without plastic behavior.
(2) The structural member in which reliable energy absorption, easy discovery of the
damage and recovery in a short period are ensured due to its plastic behavior,
mainly corresponds to a pier in any bridge.
As members related with serviceability of direct traffic, superstructures without
plastic behavior are fundamentally recommended from a view of serviceability in
the seismic design. However, for bridges with special structure such as rigid-frame
bridges in which effects of earthquake predominate the design of superstructure,
and bridges with long girder span, superstructures without plastic behavior during
an earthquake will possibly lead to an extremely uneconomical design. On the other
hand, in design of a pre-stressed concrete superstructure for a rigid-frame bridge,
excessive reinforcing steel bars for avoiding plasticity of the superstructure may
cause a big loss in pre-stress on the contrary. In this case, secondary plasticity can
be happened in the superstructure, in addition to the assumption that plastic
hinges are principally generated in piers. Here, the secondary plasticity denotes for
that the structural members with plastic behavior play a great role in energy
absorption and the seismic responses locally reaches to the plastic ranges. Besides,
the superstructures described above include only girders directly subjected to live
loads.
Seismic isolation bearings are members with the mechanism having nonlinear
hysteretic characteristics and capable of absorbing energy with deformation. When
such kinds of seismic isolation bearings are applied in Seismically-isolated bridges,
limit states of each bridge members should be properly determined with
consideration of plastic behavior of the bearings and surely ensuring an energy
absorption by these bearings. Instead of expressing the mechanical properties for
the seismic isolation bearings in terms of plastic behavior, nonlinear character is
used here because the former is not proper. From the view of improving ability of
energy absorption, both the expressions have the same meaning.
Since foundations are likely to play a role in improving the ability of energy
absorption, some damages may happen in the process of energy absorption as the
foundations deform. In this case, it is not an easy thing to find the damage of the
foundations, and the recovery becomes serious and difficult, too. Therefore, the
39
foundations can be designed to allow secondary plasticity generated without
considering principal plastic behavior. However, if the ultimate strength of piers to
design seismic forces is sound enough or the horizontal force of ground due to
effects of liquefaction cannot be expected, ensuring the ultimate strength to cause
yielding of the foundations is not necessarily rational. For such unavoidable case,
plastic behavior of the foundations could be involved in the design.
For bridges such as arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges or suspension bridges,
structural members with plastic behavior shall be properly selected according to
the structural character of each bridge. In addition, the limit states of these
members shall also be appropriately set up based on the limit states of entire
bridge system specified in (1). On the other hand, the structural members such as
the arch rings in arch bridges or the main tower of cable-stayed bridges which play
an important role in keeping the dynamic behavior and stability of the entire
bridge system, and those subjected to large axial forces in normal conditions which
may vary during an earthquake, shall be carefully investigated and designed
within the allowable plastic ranges. This is because dynamic behaviors of these
members are still unclear up to now.
(3) Structural members with plastic behavior shall be properly combined in accordance
with bridge types and the limit state of entire bridge system specified in (1). As
explained in the above, the structural members in piers, foundations and seismic
isolation bearings can absorb energy by their plastic behavior or nonlinear
properties. Table C-5.3.1 shows examples about how to combine the members with
plastic behavior or nonlinear properties and how to determine the limit states of
the combined structural members so as to ensure the Seismic Performance Level 2
for an entire bridge system. For the same purpose, limit states of expansion joints
connecting with the ends of superstructure are not determined so that traffic can be
kept passable through simple recovery with a short period supposing some
damages generated.
Another way to ensure reliable energy absorption is using a structure consisting
of plural members that work simultaneously. In this case, its dynamic behavior is
likely to be getting complicated during an earthquake, so that further investigation
on response characteristics of this kind of structure is needed. At the present stage,
selecting structural members with plastic behavior or nonlinear properties from
either of a pier, a foundation or seismic isolation bearings of a seismically-isolated
bridge is desirable for getting reliable energy absorption, as shown in Fig. C-5.3.1.
Table C-5.3.1 shows the limit states of each member with plastic behavior or
40
nonlinear properties corresponding to their combination. The reason for it is
summarized in the following.
1) When considering the plasticity of piers
Limit states of the piers with plastic behavior are known as the limit states in
which the damages can be easily recovered. In other words, the limit state denotes
the state just before reduction of lateral strength begins, or the state that residual
displacement difficult to recover does not generate, for purpose of ensuring a rapid
recovery in bridge functions.
In order to surely ensure the plastic hinges firstly generate only in piers, limit
states of members of abutments, bearing support system and superstructures shall
be states that the mechanical properties could be kept within the elastic ranges.
Bearing support system shall be capable of absorbing deformation like rubber
bearing supports, and need to apply its mechanical properties within proved
ranges without generation of any damages.
Limit states of foundations were defined as the states that only secondary plastic
behavior were allowed, so that necessary strength and stiffness can be ensured to
prevent the foundation from generating damages in the whole foundation that are
difficult to recover. This is based on the consideration that some of the foundation
members may deform plastically other than nonlinear effects of the foundations.
As footings play a role in smoothly transferring seismic force acting on piers to
foundations, the limit states shall be states that the mechanical properties could
be kept within the elastic ranges.
2) When considering the plasticity of piers and superstructures
In case of considering the plasticity of piers and superstructures, limit states of
the piers should be states that the bridge functions can be easily recovered from
the point of view as the same as that in 1).
Limit states of superstructures were generally the states to allow only secondary
plastic behavior, even if plastic hinges may generate firstly in the piers. Since
pavements and handrails are put up on the superstructures that subjected to live
loads directly, and recovery works may be limited due to the space under the
girders, it is preferable to define the limit state as state capable of keeping the
serviceability within a long period without permanent recovery but slight damages
even if plasticity is considered.
In case that a superstructure connects with piers like a rigid-frame bridge,
excessive bending strength on top of the pier may lead to a larger seismic force
transferring to the superstructure. Thus, the section on top of the pier should be
41
carefully designed so that plastic hinges surely generate in the pier first and any
failures occurring in the superstructure could be controlled well. In addition, since
the secondary plastic behavior of pre-stressed concrete superstructure in a
rigid-frame bridge, as shown in Fig. C-5.3.1 (e), may easily happen near sections
with zero bending moment (inflection point) under normal load conditions, special
attention should be paid in the design. On the other hand, plastic behavior of steel
superstructure remains unclear, as a result, careful investigation on allowable
ranges of the plastic behavior becomes necessary if the secondary plastic behavior
is included.
3) When considering the plasticity of foundations
In this case, the limit states should be the states without excessive deformation
or damage that may affect recovery works. So that dynamic behavior of the
foundation could be kept within a range of estimated subgrade reactions and there
are no large damages generated in the foundation, and deformation of the
foundation could not affect the superstructural behavior, when considering energy
absorption of the foundation.
In addition, limit states of each members in piers, abutments, bearing support
system or super structure shall be states that the mechanical properties could be
kept within the elastic ranges.
4) When considering both plasticity of piers and non-linearity of seismic isolation
bearings
For a seismically-isolated bridge in this case, limit states of its seismic isolation
bearings should be states that only secondary plastic behavior is allowed in the
piers and energy absorption by these bearings can be reliably ensured. This is
resulted from the fact that the piers are expected in participating in energy
absorption of the entire bridge system to some extent in addition to the seismic
isolation bearings. However, excessive share in energy absorption for the piers may
cause impossible share for the seismic isolation bearings due to ineffectual
damping properties. Therefore, the limit states of the piers should be states that
only allow secondary plastic behavior so that not only damages in the piers can be
reduced but also the seismic isolation bearings surely share most of energy
absorption instead of the piers.
5) When plastic behavior of structural members can be neglected
For an Reinforced Concrete with shear failure or a bridge without considering
plasticity of any members for structural reason, limit states of members for
Seismic Performance Level 2 shall be states that responses of the members could
42
be kept within the elastic ranges without occurrence of brittle failures. Here, the
limit states represent the states that horizontal forces acted on the pier reach to
shear strengths for an Reinforced Concrete Columns with shear failure, and that
bending moments reach to yield moments for an Reinforced Concrete Columns
with flexural failure.
Table C-5.3.1 Combination Examples of Members with Consideration of Plasticity

(Non-linearity) and Limit States of Each Members (For Seismic Performance Level 2)
Members Considering
Plasticity
(Non-linearity) Piers and Seismic Isolation
Piers Superstructures Foundations Bearings and Piers
Limit States of
Members
States that the
mechanical
States within a range of The same as the properties could States only allow
Piers easy functional left secondary plastic
recovering be kept within behavior
the elastic
ranges
States that the
mechanical properties The same as the The same as the
Abutments left Same as above left
could be kept within the
elastic ranges
States ensuring
reliable energy
Bearing Support absorption by
System Same as above Same as above Same as above
seismic isolation
bearings
States that the
States only allow mechanical
Superstructures Same as above secondary plastic Same as above properties could be
behavior kept within the
elastic ranges
States without
excessive
States only allow deformation or States only allow
Foundations secondary plastic Same as above secondary plastic
behavior damage to behavior
disturb recovery
works
States that the
mechanical properties The same as the The same as the The same as the
Footings left left left
elastic ranges
For piers having
sufficient
Deck bridges other than strength or cases
Rigid-frame Seismically-isolated
Application Examples Seismically-isolated bridges with bridges
bridges unavoidable
effects of
liquefaction
43
44
Fig. C-5.3.1 Combination Examples of Members with Consideration of Plasticity or
Non-linearity
45
hinges are allowed deforms plastically within a range of the ductility limit of the
member.
(2) The structural member in which the generations of plastic hinges are allowed shall
be selected so that reliable energy absorption is ensured.
(3) These structural members shall be properly combined in accordance with the
structural character of the bridge. Then, the limit state of each member shall be
appropriately determined in consideration of the combination.
hinges are allowed deforms plastically within a range of easy functional recovering.
In this process, members in which the generations of plastic hinges are allowed or
not, should be distinguished first. Then, only those members in which the
generations of plastic hinges are allowed should be forced to deform plastically
during an earthquake, resulting in no fatal damages in the bridge.
(2) For piers, foundations and Seismically-isolated bridges, seismic isolation bearings
are generally taken as members that are capable of playing a role in energy
absorption during an earthquake, just like the explanations of the limit states of
bridges for Seismic Performance Level 2 in Section 5.3.
(3) Although members of piers, foundations and Seismically-isolated bridges can be
served as the members capable of absorbing energy, their combination should be
properly determined depending on bridge types and the limit states of entire
bridges specified in (1). Table C-5.4.1 illustrates combination examples of limit
states for members to ensure the Seismic Performance Level 3 for entire bridge
system, and the limit states of each members corresponding to the combination. In
this section, limit states of structural members corresponding to the combination of
members with plastic or nonlinear behavior are summarized and the reasons for
such definitions are stated as follows.
1) When considering the plasticity of piers
In this case, limit state of a pier is defined as a state when horizontal strength of
46
the pier starts to get reduced. This is because the pier could generally keep its
ductility within an allowable range at the state just before its horizontal strength
starts to get reduced.
Limit states of members in abutments, bearing support system, superstructures,
foundations and footings are defined as the same as that for Seismic Performance
Level 2, based on the reasons described in Section 5.3.
2) When considering the plasticity of piers and superstructures
For the same reasons stated in 1), limit state of a pier is defined as a state when
horizontal strength of the pier starts to get reduced rapidly. Since researches on
ductility of superstructures remain insufficient, how to quantify the magnitude of
superstructural plasticity is still unclear in case of Seismic Performance Level 3.
Therefore, limit state of a superstructure can be established just like that for
Seismic Performance Level 2.
In addition, limit states for members of other bridge components can be
determined on basis of Table C-5.4.1 according to the same reasons in Section 5.3.
3) When considering the plasticity of foundations
As dynamic behavior of a foundation during an earthquake remains unclear
when severe damage generates in the foundation, the limit state of a foundation
can be established similarly to that for Seismic Performance Level 2. In this case,
the limit state of any member in piers, abutments, bearing supports or
superstructures can be determined in such a way that their mechanical properties
could be kept within the elastic ranges.
4) When considering both plasticity of piers and non-linearity of seismic isolation
bearings
To avoid loss of required effects of earthquake as plastic ranges in piers get wider
than that in Seismic Performance Level 2, limit states of Seismically-isolated
bridges can be defined just like the case for Seismic Performance Level 2.
5) When plastic behavior of structural members can be neglected
For bridges with Reinforced Concrete Columns of shear failure, or bridges in
which no plastic hinges are allowed in any members for structural reasons, their
limit states for Seismic Performance Level 2 should be established as the same as
that specified in Section 5.3.
47
Table C-5.4.1 Combination Examples of Members with Consideration of Plasticity
(Non-linearity) and Limit States of Each Members (For Seismic Performance Level 3)
Members Considering
Plasticity
(Non-linearity) Piers and Seismic Isolation
Piers Superstructures Foundations Bearings and Piers
Limit States of
Members
States that the
mechanical
States that horizontal The same as the properties could States only allow
Piers strength of piers start to left secondary plastic
get reduced rapidly be kept within behavior
the elastic
ranges
States that the
mechanical properties The same as the The same as the
Abutments left Same as above left
elastic ranges
States ensuring
reliable energy
Bearing Support absorption by
System Same as above Same as above Same as above
seismic isolation
bearings
States that the
States only allow mechanical
Superstructures Same as above secondary plastic Same as above properties could be
behavior kept within the
elastic ranges
States without
excessive
States only allow deformation or States only allow
Foundations secondary plastic Same as above secondary plastic
behavior damage to behavior
disturb recovery
works
States that the
mechanical properties The same as the The same as the The same as the
Footings left left left
elastic ranges
For piers having
sufficient
Deck bridges other than strength or cases
Rigid-frame Seismically-isolated
Application Examples Seismically-isolated bridges with bridges
bridges unavoidable
effects of
liquefaction
5.5 Basic Principles to Verify Seismic Performance
(1) The seismic performance shall be verified by a proper method in accordance with
factors such as design earthquake ground motions, structural type and limit states
of the bridge.
(2) For bridges without complicated seismic behavior, the above provision (1) is deemed
to have met if the seismic performances are verified in accordance with the static
methods specified in Chapter 6. On the other hand, for bridges with complicated
seismic behavior, the seismic performances shall be verified in accordance with the
dynamic methods specified in Chapter 7 in order to meet provision (1).
48
(1) Seismic performances of bridges can be verified either by static analysis or dynamic
analysis. In the static analysis, responses can be obtained by substituting reactions
generated in structures or ground due to effects of earthquake with static loads so
that seismic behavior could be comparatively simply estimated. However, there are
some limitations in modeling static loads or applying these static methods to
estimating seismic behavior have to be satisfied, so the static analysis is not
applicable to all bridge types and structural conditions. In contrast, a dynamic
analysis for determining a dynamic structural behavior during an earthquake has
higher precision than the static one in estimating seismic responses of bridges, and
few applicable conditions due to structural type bring a wide application. On the
other hand, how to establish an analytical model will greatly affect the analytical
results, so necessary technique and knowledge about the dynamic analysis are
required in appropriately evaluating the results and applying them to real seismic
design. Consequently, as the two analysis methods are so different in many aspects,
selecting a proper verification method in verifying seismic performances becomes
important.
Corresponding to level of earthquake ground motions and limit states for
verification, plastic or non-linear behavior of members may need to be considered so
that an evaluation method should be properly selected so that these properties can
be appropriately appreciated.
(2) It is the provision related to selecting verification methods of seismic performances.
As described above, for bridges without complicated seismic behavior, the above
provision (1) can be deemed met if the seismic performances are verified in
accordance with the static methods specified in Chapter 6. On the other hand, for
bridges with complicated seismic behavior, the seismic performances shall be
verified in accordance with the dynamic methods specified in Chapter 7 in order to
meet provision (1).
This provision stipulated that an applicable verification method should be
determined in accordance with the complicated degree of seismic behavior, where
basic considerations with respect to the complicated degree are given as follows.
1) For bridges without complicated seismic behavior
The static methods specified in Chapter 6 can be applied to these bridges. In the
verification for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, the first vibration mode in
elastic range of the objective structure should be taken into account and associated
elastic responses be estimated by substituting seismic reactions with static loads.
Stresses or displacements resulted from the responses should be then confirmed to
49
be less than each allowable value. In applying the static methods, two conditions
have to be satisfied. One is seismic reaction or dynamic behavior of the structure
during an earthquake is expressed by a static analytical model, and the other is
the objective structure is a system with an excellent first vibration mode.
In verification of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion by the static analysis,
dynamic inelastic response generating in the bridge should be simply estimated in
accordance with Energy Conservation Principle, and ductility or strength should
be taken into account within plastic ranges of members. Furthermore, since the
structure is a system with an excellent first vibration mode and at where primary
plastic behavior generates is already clear, Energy Conservation Principle shall be
applicable to this verification. As specified in the provision, “bridges without
complicated seismic behavior” is meant by bridges satisfied the above condition.
2) For bridges with complicated seismic behavior
In verification of seismic performance for bridges with complicated seismic
behavior, as the static analysis cannot fully describe all the dynamic behavior, a
dynamic analysis should be applied in accordance with Chapter 7.
“Bridges with complicated seismic behavior” include bridges whose dynamic
behavior cannot be accurately expressed by the static analysis, and bridges that
can be verified by the static analysis method within limited range as given below.
i) In case that vibration modes which are affected primarily by responses of the
bridge defer considerably from ones assumed by the static analysis method.
ii) There are more than 2 types of vibration modes influenced by responses of
the bridge.
iii) In verification of seismic performance for Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion, plural plastic hinges are expected or locations of plastic hinges
cannot be specified due to complicated structure.
iv) In verification of seismic performance for Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion, application of Energy Conservation Principle based on inelastic
hysteretic properties of structural members or entire bridge has not been
completely investigated.
Depending on the above discussion, bridges that can be verified with use of a
dynamic analysis method are definitely determined as follows.
① Bridges with longer natural periods (generally over 1.5s), or bridges with
higher piers (generally over 30m)
② Bridges of horizontal force distributed structure with rubber bearings
③ Seismically-isolated bridges
50
④ Rigid-frame bridges
⑤ Bridges in which generations of plastic hinges are allowed in steel piers
⑥ Bridges with cables such as cable-stayed bridges or suspension bridges
⑦ Deck-type or half-through-type arch bridges
⑧ Curved bridges with a large angle between ends of superstructure at a
small curvature
It is well known that in horizontal force distributed structure with use of rubber
bearings or seismically-isolated bridges, accuracy of inelastic response estimation
according to Energy Conservation Principle of one-degree-of-freedom system may
be getting lower due to interaction between plasticity of piers and dynamic
behavior of bearing supports. As a result, these bridges are also regarded as the
bridges with complicated seismic behavior and should be verified by a dynamic
method.
In the verification of a bridge considering plasticity of its steel piers for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, a dynamic method should be applied even if
application of Energy Conservation Principle based on inelastic hysteretic
properties of structural members considering plastic behavior has not been
sufficiently investigated.
In case of assuming that plastic deformations may happen at more than one
section in in-plane direction of a rigid-frame bridge during an earthquake, seismic
performance of the bridge should be generally verified by a dynamic method as one
with complicated seismic behavior. But it is no more than applicable, if locations of
primary plastic behavior are well known. Since a rigid-frame bridge is simple in
structure and excellent in a special vibration mode, push over analysis by
substituting the excellent mode with a static seismic force should be conducted for
finding nonlinear behavior of the entire bridge system. Its seismic performance
could be verified by a static method with combination of the results of push over
analysis and Energy Conservation Principle.
As for cable-stayed bridges, suspension bridges or deck-type or half-through-type
arch bridges, seismic experiences up to now are limited and how to evaluate lateral
strength in structural member level remains unclear. Thus, a dynamic analysis
can be used for investigating where will have plastic hinges and how to make
structural details to ensure an effective ductility in these sections.
For a curved bridge with a small radius of curvature and large angle between
ends of superstructure, inertia forces acting on the substructure may not be
properly found from the direction of seismic force and three-dimensional dynamic
51
behavior. A dynamic method can be applied in this case.
As well as the conditions of bridges with complicated seismic behavior given in
the above, seismic performance of bridges in the following could also be verified by
a dynamic method if necessary.
① When discussing effects of both upward and downward earthquake ground
motions. For instance, a reverse L-type pier subjected to a large eccentric
bending moment in normal conditions due to dead loads, or a structural
member with an increased large sectional force when subjected to upward
and downward earthquake ground motions
② Bridges having special piers or superstructure in configuration and
structure
③ When investigating effects of transferring inertia force of one girder to
another, due to spacing between girders with considerably different
weights or collision between a girder and an abutment
④ Bridges with piers under water subjected to large effects of seismic
hydrodynamic pressure
⑤ Bridges with novel configurations that have been ever used
Table C-5.5.1 summarized the bridge types and design methods applicable to
seismic performance verification. Although dynamic analysis methods can be
applied in bridges without complicated seismic behavior, use of static analysis
methods are recommended here because the verification in accordance with static
method is generally feasible for these bridges. In addition, for bridges of excellent
first vibration mode and with plural plastic or nonlinear behavior, or bridges in
which investigation on application of Energy Conservation Principle remains
unclear, their seismic behavior may become complicated due to plasticity of
members. Therefore, their Seismic Performance Level 1 should be verified by the
static analysis methods but Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 be verified by
dynamic methods.
52
Table C-5.5.1 Relation between Complexity of Seismic Behavior and Design
Methods Applicable to Seismic Performance Verification
Dynamic Bridges Bridges with plastic Bridges of Bridges not applicable of
characteristics without hinges & yielded sections, likely the Static Analysis
of bridges complicated and bridges not applicable importance Methods
Seismic seismic of the Energy of higher
Performance behavior Conservation Principle modes
to be verified
Seismic Static Static analysis Dynamic Dynamic analysis
Performance analysis analysis
Level 1
Seismic Static Dynamic analysis Dynamic Dynamic analysis
Performance analysis analysis
Level 2 &
Level 3
Examples of Other than ･ Bridges with rubber ･ Bridges ･Long-span bridges such
applicable bridges bearings to disperse with long as cable-stayed bridges
bridges shown in the seismic lateral forces natural and suspension bridges
right columns ･ Seismically-isolated periods ･ Deck-type & half
bridges ･ Bridges through-type arch bridges
･ Reinforced Concrete with high ･Curved bridges
rigid-frame bridges piers
Bridges with steel piers
likely to generate plastic
hinges
5.6 Unseating Prevention Measures of Bridge Superstructure
(1) Adequate measures against unseating of superstructures shall be taken when the
superstructure separates structurally from the substructure, and with large
relative displacements.
(2) Provision (1) is deemed to be satisfactory if the unseating prevention systems
specified in Chapter 16 are installed.
(1) In addition to the provisions about verification of seismic performances in Section

5.5, bridges should be designed in such a manner that the unseating of the
superstructure can be prevented, even though the structural failures may happen
to occur due to structural behavior or ground failure unexpected in the seismic
design. This provision corresponds to measures that should be properly taken
against large relative displacement between a structurally separated
superstructure and a substructure.
(2) Unseating preventing system specified in Chapter 16 can be applied to prevent
53
superstructure from unseating, which is such a system that can eliminate the
relative displacement likely to generate between the superstructure and the
substructure due to structural behavior or ground failure during an earthquake,
and aims to prevent superstructure from unseating. It generally consists of seat
length, unseating prevention structures, excessive displacement stoppers and
unevenness prevention structures. These components shall be appropriately
selected in accordance with bridge type, kind of bearing supports.
54
Chapter 6 Verification Methods of Seismic Performance Based
on Static Analysis
6.1 General
(1) Verification of seismic performance of a bridge by static method shall be based on

the seismic coefficient method.
(2) In verifying the seismic performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion using
the static method, loads shall be calculated according to the provisions specified in
Section 6.2. The verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 shall be carried out by
the seismic coefficient method described in Section 6.3, where the dynamic
structural characteristics in the elastic range are taken into account.
(3) In verifying the seismic performance for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion using
the static method, loads shall be calculated according to the provisions specified in
Section 6.2. The verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 shall be
carried out by the ductility design method described in Section 6.4.
(1) These are fundamental provisions that should be followed during verification of
seismic performance for Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion by using the
static method. Here, the static method requires use of the seismic coefficient method, in
which earthquake effects are replaced with loads calculated using seismic coefficient.
The loads are applied to a bridge statically to calculate resultant deformations and
sectional forces, which shall then be calculated.
In the previous version of the Seismic Design Specifications (1996), the seismic
coefficient method and the ductility design method were defined separately. The former
refers to the design method in which vibration characteristics of elastic range is
considered while the latter is a method in which deformation property and dynamic
strength of nonlinear zone of a structure is taken into account. In both of these seismic
design methods, loads caused by earthquake are added statically to the structure.
However, the original idea of the seismic coefficient method is to change the dynamic
seismic force, which is the product of seismic coefficient multiplied by structure weight,
into a static force. Then, the static force is acted on the structure as a horizontal force.
The same idea exits in the ductility design method defined in the previous version, i.e.
55
changing of dynamic forces into static ones by using the seismic coefficient. Therefore,
for the present version, the two different methods are summarized into one. For this
reason, definitions related with the seismic coefficient method and the ductility design
method are revised here. Verification of seismic performance of a bridge by the static
method shall be based on the seismic coefficient method.
(2) & (3) When applying the static method to verification for Level 1 and Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, inertia force, seismic earth pressure and hydrodynamic
pressure should be calculated in accordance with the provisions in Section 6.2.
The calculation method of the design horizontal seismic coefficient and the inertia
force, and the verification method of seismic performance should be determined as
below. For Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, the seismic coefficient method specified
in Section 6.3 shall be used with consideration of vibration characteristics of the elastic
range. For Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the ductility design method specified in
Section 6.4 shall be adopted.
6.2 Calculation Methods of Loads in Static Analysis
6.2.1 General
(1) In verifying the seismic performance of a bridge using the static method, careful
consideration shall be given to the effects of earthquake listed in Section 3.2, such
as inertia force, seismic earth pressure, hydrodynamic pressure, liquefaction and
liquefaction-induced ground flow of ground.
(2) In calculation of inertia force, seismic earth pressure and hydrodynamic pressure,
Sections 6.2.2, 6.2.4 and 6.2.5 shall be referred to, respectively. Consideration of the
influence of liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground flow shall be based on the
provisions specified in Section 8.1.
(3) For structures below the ground surface described in Section 4.6, inertia force,
seismic earth pressure or hydrodynamic pressure need not be applied to the
structures.
(1) & (2) As specified in Section 3.2, these are the effects of earthquake that have to be
56
considered in verifying the seismic performance of a bridge using the static method. In
addition, in order to consider the impact of an earthquake on these factors in this
process, it is necessary to change them into static loads. In this case, effects of
earthquake should be taken as static loads and evaluated by an appropriate method.
For calculation of inertia force, the weight of any subsidiary structures should also be
included in weight of the bridge structure. In case of considering the inertia force
caused by earth, which affects greatly the structure if the earth shakes together with
the structure, the weight of the earth mass shall be multiplied by the design seismic
coefficient. When liquefaction affecting the bridge is estimated in a soil layer, the
influence of the liquefaction due to decrease in the value of geotechnical parameter
shall be taken into account during seismic design. When liquefaction-induced ground
flow having an impact on the bridge is likely to be found in the ground, influence of the
liquefaction-induced ground flow due to horizontal force acting on the foundation
should be considered.
(3) When using the static method in verification, inertia force shall be applied as a
static force to the bridge supported by stable ground. In practice, however, inertia force
also occurs in foundations as the result of interactive dynamic reactions between the
ground and the structure because the ground will shake together with the structure
during an earthquake. In order to include such interactive dynamic reactions into
static seismic calculation, the concept of the ground surface is to be adopted in design.
Forces such as inertia force, seismic earth pressure and hydrodynamic pressure shall
be applied to the structure above the ground surface.
In some cases, inertia force occurred below the ground surface can be disregarded
because the foundations of the structure are assumed to be maintaining sufficient
contact with the ground below. That condition cannot be satisfied depending on the
construction method such as back filling with soft soil. Therefore, this rule shall not be
applicable for structures below the ground surface.
6.2.2 Inertia Force
(1) Inertia force shall be calculated in terms of the natural period of each design
vibration unit specified in Section 6.2.3. For Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion, Sections 6.2.3 and 6.4.2 shall be referred to, respectively.
57
(2) Inertia forces shall be generally considered in two horizontal directions
perpendicular to each other. It can be assumed that the inertia forces in the two
orthogonal directions, i.e. the longitudinal and transverse directions to the bridge
axis, act individually. However, in the design of substructure in which the
horizontal component of the earth pressure acts in a different direction from the
bridge axis, the inertia force can be assumed to act in the directions of the
horizontal component of earth pressure and its perpendicular direction.
(3) In the design of supports, vertical inertia forces shall be taken into account, in
addition to the inertia forces in the two horizontal directions mentioned in the
above (2).
(4) The inertia force of a superstructure shall be assumed to act at the height of the
center of gravity of the superstructure. However, in case of a straight bridge, the
acting height of the inertia force can be considered to be at the bottom of its support
in the case of the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis.
(1) Changes in the vibration characteristics of a bridge depend on factors such as the
stiffness and heights of its piers and abutments, the characteristics of the ground of the
foundations, the properties of its superstructure. Therefore, a bridge shall be divided
into several design vibration units, which can be regarded as vibrating in the same way
during an earthquake within each unit. Inertia force of each individual design
vibration unit shall be calculated separately. Here, a design vibration unit refers to a
structural system, which can be considered to vibrate integrally during an earthquake.
If the joint section between a superstructure and a substructure is fixed in the acting
direction of the inertia force, they shall be treated as an integral structural system.
When a superstructure and a substructure are not fixed at the joint section such as a
substructure with a support movable in the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis,
the substructure itself will form an individual structural system to be considered as
one design vibration unit. In case that a bridge with a horizontal force distributing
structure or a seismically-isolated bridge is adopted, the bridge shall generally have to
be regarded as consisting of multiple substructures and their supporting
superstructural part in seismic design.
The design vibration unit shall be decided corresponding to factors such as the acting
direction of inertia force, bridge type, fixing condition of the support and characteristics
of inter-pier natural period. In principle, Table C-6.2.1 shall be followed when
58
determining design vibration units. For a continuous girder bridge in the perpendicular
direction to the bridge axis, how to divide the design vibration units shall be changed
according to the difference in the characteristics of the inter-pier natural periods. In
Table C-6.2.1, "not greatly different" in the inter-pier natural periods means that if a
bridge is divided into individual design vibration units, assuming that each unit
consists of one pier and the superstructure portion supported by it, the ratio of the
maximum natural period to the minimum natural period obtained for each design
vibration unit shall be less than 1.5.
Calculation methods of the design horizontal seismic coefficient and the inertia force
using this coefficient are demonstrated in details in Section 6.3.2 for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion and Section 6.4.2 for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion.
(2) During an earthquake, inertia forces act in the vibration direction of the earthquake
ground motion. Inertia forces in any given direction can be expressed as the inertia
forces acting in two horizontal directions. Since it is less probable that both inertia
forces in horizontal direction reach the maximum value simultaneously, the inertia
forces in two horizontal directions can be allowed to act on a bridge independently. The
influence of earthquake ground motion in vertical direction on the seismic performance
of the superstructure and substructure is generally small and therefore can be
neglected. However, when it is desirable to examine the influence of earthquake ground
motion in vertical direction, for example, for a member subjected to a large eccentric
bending moment caused by a normal dead load, verification by the dynamic analysis
specified in Chapter 7 is recommended.
The acting directions of inertia forces are the longitudinal and transverse directions
of the bridge axis in the case of a straight bridge as shown in Fig. C-6.2.1. In case of a
skew bridge, etc., when the acting direction of the lateral component of earth pressure
differs from the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis, the inertia forces should be
assumed to act in the acting direction of the lateral component of the earth pressure
and the perpendicular direction to it. In the case of a skew bridge with a large skew
angle (in general, 60 degrees or more), the skew bridge can also be treated as a straight
bridge for simplicity of calculation when obtaining the inertia forces in the longitudinal
and transverse directions of the bridge axis. These inertia forces can be regarded
respectively as being in the acting direction of the lateral component of the earth
pressure and in the perpendicular direction to it.
Generally, the sectional parameters of a superstructure are rarely decided by seismic
design. However, depending on the structural system, the impacts of an earthquake
59
can become dominant. For example, in the case of a skew bridge, which is long in span
and narrow in width and has a superstructure with a low stiffness in the perpendicular
direction to the bridge axis, the inertia forces acting in the perpendicular direction to
the bridge axis will be more disadvantageous for the superstructure than the inertia
forces acting in the perpendicular direction to that of the lateral component of the
earth pressure. Therefore, in the seismic design of the superstructure of such a bridge,
it is recommended that the inertia forces be acted in the perpendicular direction to the
bridge axis.
Since the inertia forces are obtained from each design vibration unit, the design
horizontal seismic coefficient in the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis may be
different from that in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis.
(3) Earthquake ground motions in vertical direction usually do not have serious effects
on either the superstructure or substructure and therefore can be neglected. For design
of a support, however, it is a rule that the inertia forces in vertical direction should be
taken into consideration due to their big influence during an earthquake.
(4) The height of inertia force in a superstructure should be the center of gravity of the
superstructure as shown in Fig.C-6.2.2. However, the height of the inertia force of a
superstructure in the design of a substructure can be decided as demonstrated in
Fig.C-6.2.3 due to considerations of transmission mechanism of the inertia force and
convenience of design.
1) In the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis to a straight bridge

Generally, since a support allows rotation of a girder, the height of superstructural
inertia force can be at the center of gravity of the support as shown in Fig.C-6.2.3 (a).
However, in the seismic design of a substructure of an ordinary bridge, since the
influence of the height of the support is relatively small, the height can be at the
bottom of the support for convenience of design.
2) In the transverse direction to the bridge axis to a straight bridge

Since the height of the superstructural inertia force is the center of gravity G of the
superstructure as shown in Fig.C-6 .2.3 (b), as shown in Fig.C-6.2.4, moment M acts on
the top of the substructure in addition to horizontal force H and vertical force W in the
design of the substructure.
In an ordinary bridge, since the center of gravity of the superstructure is below the
60
bottom of the floor slab, it is thought to be safe if the height of the superstructural
inertia force is assumed to be at the bottom of the floor slab. Therefore, it can generally
be assumed that the height of the superstructural inertia force is at the bottom of the
floor slab. On the contrary, however, for a through bridge, since the center of gravity of
the superstructure is above the floor slab, the height of the superstructural inertia
force must be at the center of gravity of the superstructure instead of the bottom of the
floor slab.
3) In case of a skew bridge

The height of the superstructural inertia force must be the center of gravity of the
structure in any direction. However, in case of a skew bridge, due to the conditions of
the rotation direction or movable direction of the support as mentioned above, the
components of the moment or shear force in that direction are not transmitted, the
inertia forces acting on the top of the substructure can be obtained with consideration
of the relationship between their acting directions.
Fig. C-6.2.1 Acting Directions of Inertia Forces
61
Table C-6.2.1 Design Vibration Units
62
Fig.C-6.2.2 Height of the Superstructural Inertia Force
Fig. C-6.2.3 Height of the Superstructural Inertia Force in Seismic Design of a

Substructure
Fig. C-6.2.4 Load Acting on the Top of a Substructure (Transverse Direction to the
Bridge Axis)
63
6.2.3 Calculation Method of Natural Period
(1) Natural periods shall be appropriately calculated with consideration of the effects
of deformations of structural members and foundations. In case of unstable ground
during an earthquake, natural periods shall be obtained without reducing
geotechnical parameters specified in Section 8.2.4.
(2) When a design vibration unit consists of one substructure and its supporting
superstructural part, natural periods can be calculated by Equation (6.2.1)
T  2.01  ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.1)
where
T : Natural period of the design vibration unit (s)
δ : Lateral displacement of the superstructure at the height of the
superstructural inertia force when 80% of the weight of the substructure
above the design ground surface and the entire weight of the superstructure
jointly act in the directions of their inertia forces (m)
(3) When a design vibration unit consists of multiple substructures and their
supporting superstructural part, natural periods shall be obtained by Equation
(6.2.2).
T  2.01  ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.2)
 w(s) u (s) ds
2
δ = ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.3)
 w(s) u (s) ds
where
T : Natural period of the design vibration unit (s)
w(s ) :Weight of the superstructure or the substructure at position s (kN/m)
u(s ) : Lateral displacement of each structure at position s in the direction of the
inertia force when a lateral force equal to the sum of the weight of the
superstructure and that of the substructure above the design ground surface
act in the direction of the inertia force (m)
64
Here, the symbol ∫ denotes the integral throughout the entire portion of the design
vibration unit.
(1) When calculating the natural period, deformation effects of the structural members
and the foundations have to be considered. Here, for structural members like those
having inelastic hysteretic property, the stiffness of structural members will change
largely due to the deformation. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the influence of
deformation during calculation of the natural period. Generally, the following rules
shall be followed:
1) For verification of seismic performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, the
stiffness shall be calculated by assuming that the whole section of the pier is effective.
For verification of seismic performance for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, yield
stiffness of the pier shall be adopted. Here, the yield stiffness refers to the secant
stiffness Ky at yielding due to bending deformation of the pier and is obtained as the
ratio of the yield strength Py to the yield displacement δy of the pier (Ky = Py/δy).
Since the plastic hinge generated in a pier is often a main nonlinear factor among the
vibration responses of a bridge, this influence shall be involved in calculationof the
yield stiffness. During verification of seismic performance for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion, the natural period shall be calculated based on the yield stiffness. The
reason for this is as follows. Since the natural period changes with the ductility factor
after a pier reaches the plastic range, in order to calculate the value of the natural
period accurately, calculations must be repeated so that the assumed ductility factor,
the natural period based on it and the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in
Section 6.4.3 may match with each other in their mutual relations. However, the
amount of calculation will greatly increase due to such repeated calculations, the
natural period based on the yield stiffness can be used as a representative value. The
natural period corresponding to the yield stiffness of a pier is a fundamental element
expressing the vibration characteristic in the plastic range of the pier. If the natural
period is determined in this way, the design horizontal seismic coefficient can be
obtained with a certain accuracy based on the property of energy conservation as
described in the explanations of Section 6.4.4. Therefore, the natural period T shall be
determined by using the yield stiffness.
2) Stiffness of a superstructure and foundations can generally be calculated assuming

that the whole section is effective during the verification of seismic performance for
65
Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions. For purposes of preventing
occurrence of primary plastic behavior in such members generally and avoiding
underestimation of the seismic force due to overestimation of the natural period.
Regarding the coefficient of subgrade reaction, for verification of seismic performance
under Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions, it shall be obtained by
following provisions in Part IV: Substructures. However, in calculation of the natural
period, the same principle as stated above shall be followed, i.e. the coefficient of
subgrade reaction shall be obtained based on the stiffness of the ground which is
equivalent to the deformation of the ground occurred during an earthquake. The
reference value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction shall be obtained from Equations
(C6.2.1) and (C6.2.2).
1
kH0  ED ···
0.3
···································································································· (C6.2.1)
1
kV 0  ED
0.3
········································································································ (C6.2.2)
E D  2 (1   D ) E D
······························································································· (C6.2.3)
t
GD  V S2D
g
········································································································ (C6.2.4)
Where,
kH0: Reference value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction in horizontal direction
(kN/m3)
kv0: Reference value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction in vertical direction
(kN/m3)
ED: Dynamic modulus of deformation of the ground (kN/m2)
vD: Dynamic Poisson's ratio of the ground
GD: Dynamic shear deformation modulus of the ground (kN/m2)
γt : Unit weight of the ground (kN/m3)
g: Acceleration of gravity (= 9.8) (m/s2)
VSD: Shear elastic wave velocity of the ground (m/s)
Here, VSD for the i-th soil layer can be calculated by Equation (C6.2.5), based on the
VSi obtained from Equation (C4.5.1).
66
VSDi = cVVsi
0.8 ( V si  300 m / s )
· cV  
1.0 ( V si  300 m / s )
······················································································(C6.2.5)
Where,
VSDi : The average shear elastic wave velocity of the i-th soil layer to be used for
calculation of spring constant representing resistance of foundation (m/s)
VSi : The average shear elastic wave velocity of the i-th soil layer designated by
Equation (C4.5.1) (m/s)
CV: Modification factor based on degree of ground strain
However, if the shear elastic wave velocity VSi measured at the construction site is
available, use of the measured value rather than the VSi obtained by Equation (C4.5.1)
is recommended. The dynamic Poisson's ratio of the ground can be set at 0.45 above the
underground water level in an ordinary alluvial or diluvial ground, 0.5 below the
underground water level in alluvial or diluvial ground, 0.4 in soft rock and 0.3 in hard
rock respectively.
During calculation of the natural period, in case of the existence of an extremely soft
clayey layer or a soil layer for which liquefaction affecting a bridge has been estimated
in seismic design according to the judging standard of Section 8.2, reduction of the
geotechnical parameter shall not be expected. This is because there are still many
unclear points about the mechanism of the excessive vibration characteristics caused
by instability of the ground. If the natural period is obtained by reducing the
geotechnical parameter under the unstable condition of the ground during an
earthquake, the design seismic force is likely to be underestimated. Therefore, it has
been considered that a conservative value of the design seismic force shall be obtained.
3) For the bearing whose stiffness almost does not change due to deformation as in the
case of a laminated rubber bearing used in a structure for distributing horizontal forces
during an earthquake, its stiffness shall be used as it is. For the bearing whose
equivalent stiffness changes due to deformation as in the case of an isolation bearing,
the equivalent stiffness correspondent to the effective design displacement specified in
Section 9.3.3 shall be adopted.
superstructural part, the natural period shall be obtained by Equation (6.2.1) based on
67
the vibration theory of one degree-of-freedom system. (Please refer to Fig.C-6.2.5). The
superstructure portion supported by the substructure refers to the superstructure
portion within each integral structural system, which is surrounded by the dotted lines
shown in Table C-6.2.1.
Fig. C-6.2.5 Calculation Model of Natural Period (when a design vibration unit consists
of one substructure and its supporting superstructural part)
Theδin Equation (6.2.1) can be obtained from Equation (C6.2.6).
Where,
δP: Bending deformation of substructure body (m)
δ0: Lateral displacement of foundation (m)
θ0: Rotation angle of foundation (rad)
h0: Height from the ground surface to be considered in seismic design to the heightof
superstructural inertia force (m)
When the body of the substructure has a uniform section, the bending deformationδ
P can be calculated by Equation (C6.2.7).
Where,
WU: Weight of the superstructure portion supported by the substructure body
concerned (kN)
Wp : Weight of the substructure body (kN)
68
EI: Bending stiffness of the substructure body specified in the explanations of (1)
above (kN· m2).
h: Height from the bottom of the substructure body to the height of the
superstructural inertia force (m)
hP: height of the substructure body (m)
When section of the substructure changes along the height or a substructure is in

rigid-frame form, the displacement should be calculated corresponding to its structural
type. However, in such a case, the bending deformation of the substructureδP can be
calculated from Equation (C6.2.8) by using the weight of the superstructure portion
and the weight of the substructure body.
Where,
W: Equivalent weight used for calculation of bending deformation δ P of the
substructure body (kN); It shall be obtained by Equation (C6.2.9).
The horizontal deformationδ0 and rotation angleθ0 of a foundation can be calculated

from Equation (C6.2.10). (Please refer to Fig.C-6.2.6).
69
Fig. C-6.2.6 Load and Displacement at Ground Surface for Seismic Design
Where,
Ho, Mo: Horizontal force (kN) and moment (kN ･ m) at the ground surface to be
considered in seismic design; When the substructure is uniform in section, HO
and MO can be given by Equation (6.2.11).
WF : Weight of footing or caisson above the ground surface to be considered in seismic

design (kN)
hF: Height of footing or caisson above the ground surface to be considered in seismic
design (m)
Ass, Asr, Ars, Arr : Spring constants (kN/m, kN/rad, kN· m/m, kN· m/rad) representing
the resistance of the foundation. They are calculated from Equation (6.2.12) by
using the horizontal displacement and rotation angle resulted from acting the
unit horizontal force and unit moment on the top of foundation, respectively.
70
δOH , θOH : horizontal displacement and rotation angle (m/kN, rad/kN) formed on the
top of foundation when acting the unit horizontal force to the top of foundation
δOM , θOM : horizontal displacement and rotation angle (m/kN, rad/kN) formed on the
top of foundation when acting the unit moment to the top of foundation
For calculations of δOH, θOH andθOM, according to the type of the foundation, an
analytical model having considered the subgrade resistance properties as explained in
Part IV: Substructures can be used. However, as indicated in the explanation of the
above (1), the reference value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction in horizontal
direction shall be obtained from Equations (C6.2.1) and (C6.2.2).
In addition, in case of a direct foundation or a pile foundation having vertical piles
exclusively and the piles are arranged symmetrically, spring constant representing the
resistance of the foundation can be obtained through simplified calculation by using
Equations (C6.2.13) and (C6.2.14).
① Direct foundation
Where,
kSB : Coefficient of shear subgrade reaction in horizontal direction at the bottom of
foundation (kN/m3)
kV : Coefficient of subgrade reaction in vertical direction at the bottom of foundation
(kN/m3)
AB : Area of the bottom surface (m2)
IB: Sectional second moment of the bottom surface (m4)
71
② Pile foundation with only vertical piles arranged symmetrically
Where,
n : Total number of piles
yi : y coordinate of the pile head of i-th pile (m)
K1, K2 K3 K4: Spring constants (kN/m, kN/rad, kN· m/m, kN· m/rad) of the piles in
the perpendicular direction to the pile axis in case of rigid connection at pile head as
shown in Table 12.6.1 in Part IV Substructures.
KVP: Spring constant (kN/m) of the piles in the direction of the pile axis
When calculating the natural period during verification of seismic performance for
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, it is necessary to obtain δP by Equation (6.2.7)
using the yield stiffness of a pier. Yield displacementδ y of the pier must not be
regarded asδ P. The reason for this is that Equation (6.2.1) is fundamentally for
calculation of the natural period based on the displacement at the height of the
superstructural inertia force. In this case, the forces assumed to be acting are
equivalent to approximately 80% of the weight of the substructure above the ground
surface to be considered in seismic design plus the total weight of the superstructural
part supported by it. Similarly, when calculatingδO and θO by Equation (6.2.10), HO
and MO caused by the above inertia forces must be used.
(3) When a design vibration unit consists of multiple substructures and their
supporting superstructural part, the natural period can be calculated by Equation
(6.2.2) according to Fig. C-6.2.7. To obtain δ by Equation (6.2.3), the following
procedures shall be followed.
1) The distributions of stiffness and weights of the superstructure and substructures

shall be calculated in order to model a bridge. Since it is intended to calculate the
natural period, only primary members shall be taken into account when calculating
stiffness and weights. The secondary members can be neglected. The bridge shall be
modeled as follows:
① The stiffness of the member shall be calculated. The stiffness corresponding to the
72
deformation occurred in the structural member shall be based on the explanation (1)
above.
② When modeling an abutment, the influence of the weight, deformation of the soil
behind the abutment may be neglected.
③ The influence of deformation of the ground of foundations shall be considered with
reference to the spring constant expressing the resistance of the foundations.
④ The position of the girder representing a superstructure should be the center of
gravity of the superstructure specified in Section 6.2.2 (4).
⑤ In the calculation of the natural period, the influence of the friction of a movable
support can be disregarded. However, in case that the acting direction of the inertia
force does not agree with the moving direction of the movable support as in a skew
bridge or a curved bridge, since a component of force will also occur in the direction
perpendicular to the moving direction, the bearing shall have to be modeled correctly in
its moving direction.
⑥ The restraining condition for the relative displacement between a superstructure
and a substructure shall generally conform to Table C-6.2.2 according to the bearing
type. Here, the restraining condition of a fixed bearing around the vertical axis can be
regarded as free for the sake of simplicity in calculation even though it is fixed
structurally.
⑦ To distribute the inertia forces by using the stiffness of a rubber bearing, the
stiffness can be assumed as a spring in modeling. However, in case that a fixed rubber
bearing is used to restrain the horizontal displacement by a fixed member, or a
movable rubber bearing having a sliding device (called sliding rubber bearing), the
stiffness of the rubber bearing shall not be considered generally in calculating the
natural period and the inertia force.
2) The force corresponding to the weight of the superstructure and the substructure
above the ground surface to be considered in seismic design shall be acted statically in
the acting direction of the inertia force on the model described in the above 1). The
displacement occurred in that direction shall be calculated with unit of m.
When a bridge is modeled into a discrete skeleton structure as shown in Fig. C-6.2.8,
the δ in Equation (6.2.3) can be obtained by Equation (C6.2.15).
73
Where,
Wi: Weight of superstructure and substructure at node i (kN)
ui: Displacement of node i occurred in the acting direction of inertia force when a force
corresponding to the weight of the superstructure and the substructure above the
ground surface to be considered in seismic design is acted in the acting direction of
inertia force (m)
In addition, ∑ stands for the sum of all the design vibration units.
When the natural period is obtained separately by using eigenvalue analysis, it can
be obtained as the T in Equation (6.2.1) or Equation (6.2.2).
74
Fig. C-6.2.7 Calculation Flow of Natural Period and Inertia Force
75
Fig. C-6.2.8 Calculation Model of Natural Period (when a design vibration unit consists
of multiple substructures and their supporting superstructural part)
Table C-6.2.2 Modeling Examples of Support (restraining of relative displacement

between superstructure and substructure)
Around
Transverse
Support Bridge Axis Vertical Around Transverse Around
Direction to
Condition Direction Direction Bridge Axis Direction to Vertical Axis
Bridge Axis
Bridge Axis
Fixed
Restrained Restrained Restrained Restrained Free Free
Support
Movable
Free Restrained Restrained Restrained Free Free
Support
Rubber
Spring* Spring* Restrained** Restrained** Free** Free**
Bearing
Seismic
Isolation Spring* Spring* Restrained** Restrained** Free** Free**
Bearing
Notes:
1)* refers to the case of supporting by a rubber bearing or a seismic isolation bearing in
76
both the longitudinal and transverse directions to the bridge axis.
2) ** indicates condition of a spring support in a strict sense, but since its influence on
the result of analysis is generally small, the assumption marked by ** is allowed.
3) If the movement of a bearing is restrained by an excessive displacement stopper, the
conditions concerned shall be taken into account in the modeling.
6.2.4 Seismic Earth Pressure
(1) Seismic earth pressure shall be determined with careful consideration of factors
such as structural type, soil conditions, level of earthquake ground motions and
dynamic behavior of the ground.
(2) Seismic earth pressure shall be assumed as a distributed load. The strength of an
active earth pressure shall be calculated by Equation (6.2.4)
PEA= rｘKEA+ q’KEA ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････(6.2.4)
where
PEA : Active earth pressure strength (kN/m2) during an earthquake at depth x (m)
KEA: Coefficient of seismic active earth pressure to be calculated by Equation
(6.2.5)
1) Between soil and concrete

Sand or gravel: KEA = 0.21 + 0.90kh
Sandy soil : KEA = 0.24 + 1.08kh
･････････････････････････････････(6.2.5)
2) Between soil and soil
Sand or gravel: KEA = 0.22 + 0.81kh
Sandy soil : KEA = 0.26 + 0.97kh
kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient used in seismic earth pressure

calculation
r : Unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
q’ : Surcharge on the ground surface during an earthquake (kN/m2)
Here, q’ shall be the surcharge actually acting during an earthquake, excluding

vehicular live load.
77
(2) Up to recently, the active earth pressure coefficient is calculated with Equation
(C6.2.16), using Monobe–Okabe Method (see Fig. C-6.2.9) in verification of seismic
performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. This is a calculation method in
which earthquake effect on Coulomb’s earth pressure is taken into account. When a
certain earthquake ground motion is acting, a sliding surface will appear. The earth
pressure obtained by this method is assumed to be in such a state that a uniform shear
force having reached the shear strength is acting on the sliding surface.
Fig. C-6.2.9 Active Seismic Earth Pressure
Where,
KEA : Coefficient of active seismic earth pressure
φ : Angle of shear resistance of soil (degree)
α : Angle formed between the ground surface and a horizontal plane (degree)
θ : Angle formed between back surface of a wall and a vertical plane (degree)
δE : Wall surface friction angle between the back surface of wall and soil
(degree); Please refer to Table 2.2.5 in the Part I: Common Provisions.
θO : tan-1kh (degree)
kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient used for calculation of seismic earth
pressure
78
Here, when Φ-α-θO < 0, sin(Φ-α-θO ) = 0 shall be followed.
However, for the seismic coefficient that is considered to be acting on the ground
when subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Section 6.4.3, for
example, if we apply Equation (6.2.16) to the calculation of the horizontal seismic
coefficient on the ground surface to be considered in seismic design specified in
Section 6.4.3, the assumed sliding zone of the soil would be too big to be practical
in real situation and therefore can cause a problem in design. As a result, proposals
for modification have been made to the Monobe-Okabe Method by Mr. Furuseki et
al in recent years. In this proposal, application scale of the Moobe-Okabe Method is
extended to calculation of the assumed seismic coefficient for earthquake ground
motions of up to Level 2. Compared with the old method, the modified version of
the Moobe-Okabe Method is capable of explaining clearly the results of the
simulated model test for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. For the damage
example of the structures during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake of 1995, a
reasonable explanation can also be provided to the angle of the sliding surface
appeared behind the structures resisting the earth pressure. Therefore, for the
present version of the Seismic Design Specifications, the modified Monobe-Okabe
Method has been chosen for calculation of the active seismic earth pressure for
Earthquake Ground Motions of both Level 1 and Level 2. Equation (6.2.5) shall be
a simplified approximate formula for obtaining the coefficient of active earth
pressure based on the modified Monobe-Okabe Method. In case it is applied to
calculation for an ordinary abutment, considerations should be given to a number
of factors such as the soil behind the abutment, conditions of construction, shape of
the abutment and applicability to design. The following procedures and conditions
shall be referred to during calculation by Equation (6.2.5).
1) Since the soil behind a structure is usually of good quality and tightly tamped,
the shear resistance of the ground will be lowered to the residual strength after the
peak strength is found. Therefore, based on the assumption that the soil behind an
abutment is made of sand, gravel and sandy soil that will satisfy the unit volume
weights as designated in Table 2.2.4 in Part I Common Provisions and that will be
cautiously dealt with during construction, the peak strengthφpeak and residual
strength φ res of the shear resistance angle of the soil behind the abutment
corresponding to the soil quality have been stipulated in Table C-6.2.3. The shear
resistance angles shown in the same table are the assumed values to reflect the
79
effect of cohesion strength on the shear resistance angle in the state of plane strain,
which is close to the state of occurrence of sliding damage when using fine sandy
soil.
2) During an earthquake, it is difficult to predict at which point an active damage

plane would appear when the horizontal seismic coefficient reaches, because of the
influence on the displacement of the abutment. Supposing the horizontal seismic
coefficient becomes zero when an active damage plane occurs, by using this
horizontal force coefficient and the following 4) below, the calculation results of the
relationship between the coefficient of active earth pressure and the horizontal
seismic coefficient will be close to the momentary coefficient of the active seismic
earth pressure when the initial active damage occurs under the respective
horizontal seismic coefficients within the scale of 0.4. Based on the consideration
that the initial active damage will possibly occur before the horizontal seismic
coefficient reaches around 0.4, it is assumed here that a potential sliding plane
may appear due to the normal slight displacement of the backing soil of the
abutment. The angleθ formed between the sliding plane and the horizontal plane
shall be obtained from Equation (C6.2.17) by using Monobe-Okabe Method. The
first sliding plane occurred is called the initial active damage plane hereafter.
Here, for calculation of the initial active damage plane, φpeak shall be used as
the shear strength of the backing soil of the abutment. δE is to be calculated by
usingφpeak in accordance with Table 2.2.5 of Part I Common Provisions. In addition,
when calculating the active seismic earth pressures by Equation (6.2.5), the most
common shape of an abutment should be chosen assuming that θ= 0˚ and α= 0
˚ .
3) While increasing the value of the horizontal seismic coefficient, the coefficient
of the active earth pressure (KEA1) having considered the balance between the
acting forces on the soil mass with the initial active damage plane shall be
calculated by Equation (6.2.18). The coefficient of the seismic earth pressure (KEA2)
shall be calculated by Equation (C6.2.16) assuming that φ=φpeak. When KEA1 >
80
KEA2, the soil mass with the initial active damage plane cna be regarded as having
seismic influence on the abutment. If KEA1 ≦ KEA2, the second sliding plane will
occur. If a larger horizontal seismic coefficient than this is found, the soil mass with
this second sliding plane can be regarded as having influence on the abutment, too.
This second sliding plane is called the second active damage plane hereafter.
Here, as the initial active damage plane has already occurred,δ E used for
calculation of KEA1 and KEA2 shall be obtained usingφres with reference to Table
C-2.2.5 in Part I Common Provisions. It should also be assumed thatθ= 0˚ and
α= 0˚ when applying Equation (6.2.5) in calculation.
4) In case of a structure subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the

possible sliding plane of the backing soil can be considered as the second active
damage plane during calculation. If the third active damage occurs, it is difficult to
apply the Monobe-Okabe Method because excessive residual displacement occurred
in the filling. In that case, the angle formed between the second active damage
plane and the horizontal plane shall be taken asθs, and the coefficient of the active
earth pressure in respect to any seismic coefficient selected shall be calculated by
Equation (C6.2.18) disregarding the design horizontal seismic coefficient. This is
an equation to calculate the relationship between coefficient of the active earth
pressure and the horizontal seismic coefficient.
In case that the conditions for calculation of geotechnical parameter of the
backing soil, the shape of abutment and the angle between the ground surface and
the horizontal plane by Equation (6.2.5) cannot be satisfied, the procedures
described in the above 1) – 4) shall be followed in calculation of the coefficient of
active earth pressure. For reference, the calculation results of the coefficient of
active earth pressure are listed in Table 6.2.4. In this table, a few angles (θ) of
backing soil as shown in Table C-6.2.3 have been included as examples.
When the shear resistance angle is calculated based on a soil test, as far as the
quality of the backing soil used is concerned,φ peak andφ res shall generally be
obtained through an indoor test on items like the designed density and moisture
content assumed for construction. Although it is not clear what kind of effects the
81
earth pressure would have on the cohesion of soil during a big and strong
earthquake, for evaluation of the shear resistance angle in a triaxial compression
test, for example,φpeak andφres can be applied when cohesion is zero. When clayey
soil is used as the backing soil, φpeak andφres shall be decided in the same way by
soil test and the coefficient (KEA) of the active earth pressure can be calculated by
following the above procedures of 1) – 4). However, in case that the shear
resistance angle is determined by soil investigation,φpeak = 50 can be set as the
upper limit because the property of the active earth pressure of the backing soil is
not clearly known.
Table C-6.2.3 Geotechnical Parameter for Calculation of Seismic Earth Pressure
φpeak φres
Sand & Gravel 50˚ 35˚
Sandy Soil 45˚ 30˚
Table C-6.2.4 Active Seismic Earth Pressure Coefficient Corresponding to

Abutment Shape KEA = a0 + a1kh (a= 0˚ )
(a) For sand and gravel (b) For sandy soil
δE = 0˚ δE = φ/2 δE = 0˚ δE =φ/2
θ θ
a0 a1 a0 a1 a0 a1 a0 a1
1˚ 0.21 0.91 0.22 0.82 1˚ 0.25 1.09 0.26 0.98
2˚ 0.22 0.91 0.23 0.83 2˚ 0.26 1.09 0.27 0.98
3˚ 0.23 0.91 0.24 0.84 3˚ 0.26 1.09 0.28 0.99
5˚ 0.24 0.92 0.25 0.85 5˚ 0.28 1.09 0.29 1.00
10˚ 0.28 0.94 0.29 0.90 10˚ 0.32 1.10 0.33 1.04
6.2.5 Seismic Hydrodynamic Pressure
82
(1) Hydrodynamic pressure shall be appropriately determined with consideration of
factors such as water level, shape and size of the section of a substructure and level
of design seismic ground motion.
(2) Seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a substructure subjected to Level 1

Earthquake Ground Motion can be calculated by the following equations. The
seismic hydrodynamic pressure can be assumed to act in the same direction of the
inertia force of the superstructure specified in Section 6.3.2.
1) Seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a wall structure with water on one

side only:
Resulting force of seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a wall structure with
water on one side only and height of the resulting force shall be calculated by
Equations (6.2.6) and (6.2.7), respectively. (Refer to Fig. 6.2.1).
7
P k h w0 bh 2 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.6)
12
2
hg  h ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.7)
5
where
P: Resultant force of seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a structure (kN)
kh: Design lateral seismic coefficient for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
specified in Section 6.3.3
w0: Unit weight of water (kN/m3)
h : Water depth (m)
hg: Height from the ground surface to the resultant force of hydrodynamic pressure
(m)
b : Structural width in the direction perpendicular to the direction of hydrodynamic
pressure (m)
Ground surface
Fig. 6.2.1 Seismic Hydrodynamic Pressure Acting on a Wall Structure
83
2) Seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a column structure completely
surrounded by water:
Resulting force of seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a column structure
completely surrounded by water and the height of the resultant force shall be
calculated by Equations (6.2.8) and (6.2.9), respectively. (Refer to Fig. 6.2.2).
b
when ≦2.0
h
3 b b 
P  k h w0 A0 h 1  
4 a 4h 
b
when 2.0< ≦4.0
h
3 b b 
P  k h w0 A0 h  0.7   ･････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.8)
4 a 10h 
b
when 4.0<
h
9 b
P k h w0 A0 h
40 a
3
hg  h ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.2.9)
7
where
P : Resultant force of seismic hydrodynamic pressure acting on a structure (kN)
kh: Design lateral seismic coefficient for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
w0: Unit weight of water (kN/m3)
h : Water depth (m)
hg: Height from the ground surface to the resultant force of hydrodynamic pressure
(m)
b: Structural width in the direction perpendicular to the direction of hydrodynamic
pressure (m)
a : Structural width in the direction of hydrodynamic pressure (m)
A0: Sectional area of the substructure (m2)
84
Ground Surface
Average Section
Fig. 6.2.2 Seismic Hydrodynamic Pressure Acting on a Column Structure
(1) A submerged structure or a substructure in contact with water is influenced in

complex ways by the water during an earthquake. For this reason, evaluation of the
water effect should be done properly during verification of seismic performance
according to factors like the water level, shape and size of a substructure and level of
the design earthquake ground motion. However, effect of earthquake of the
hydrodynamic pressure on a bridge is generally considered only for a bridge with tall
piers in deep water.
There are a number of ways to reflect the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure
such as the method to change the pressure into a static load, the method to convert it
into an additional mass or the dynamic finite element method considering its integral
relationship with water. Since this Chapter deals with verification of seismic
performance by the static method, the method in which hydrodynamic pressure is
changed into a static load shall be applied here.
Seismic hydrodynamic pressure in a weak soil layer and a layer that has liquefied
shall not be considered in design. For calculation of the natural period specified in
Section 6.2.3, the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure can be neglected. The reason
for this is that the influence of seismic hydrodynamic pressure on the natural period of
a bridge is generally small. This is also based on the consideration that the natural
period should be evaluated as being comparatively short so as to secure a safe value of
the design seismic coefficient.
(2) These are the provisions for calculating the seismic hydrodynamic pressure in
verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion.
The seismic hydrodynamic pressure for a wall structure with water on one side only
85
like an abutment is based on the Westergaard equation for dams. In this case, the
seismic hydrodynamic pressure acts in a way that it causes increase or decrease in the
static water pressure in the acting direction of the static water pressure and in the
opposite direction (reservoir direction). Consequently, (static water pressure) + (seismic
hydrodynamic pressure) act in the acting direction of the static water pressure, while
(seismic hydrodynamic pressure) - (static water pressure) act in the form of the
resultant water pressure in the reservoir direction. Based on these conditions, during
seismic calculation for a wall structure, the inertia force together with the static water
pressure and the seismic hydrodynamic pressure shall be considered in the acting
direction of the static water pressure. In the reservoir direction on the other hand, the
inertia force and the soil pressure shall be taken into account, but the static water
pressure and hydrodynamic pressure shall be neglected. The reason to ignore the static
water pressure and seismic hydrodynamic pressure in the reservoir direction is due to
consideration of safety in seismic design.
Equation (6.2.8) and Equation (6.2.9) reveal how to calculate the seismic
hydrodynamic pressure of a column structure, considering the reduction of pressure
caused by the water surrounding the structure. To study the stability of the overall
structure during the seismic design of a column structure, the static water pressure
shall be balanced both in front and behind the structure and only the seismic
hydrodynamic pressure shall be considered. Here, what is given by Equation (6.2.8) is
the resultant of the seismic hydrodynamic pressures calculated based on Gotoh-Toki
Proposal. In the Equation, this resultant is obtained by integrating the seismic
hydrodynamic pressure in the direction of the pier height. The height of the resultant
force shall be equivalent to the bending moment occurred due to the seismic
hydrodynamic pressure at the pier base and shall be obtained by Equation (6.2.9). To
ensure the seismic hydrodynamic pressure proportional to the response acceleration of
the section concerned, it is reasonable to consider the distribution of response
acceleration in the height direction during integral calculation for obtaining the
resultant force of the seismic hydrodynamic pressure. However, out of safety concerns,
it has been assumed that the response acceleration at the height of the
surperstructural inertia force occurs in the direction of pier height in all cases. In
Equation (6.2.8), the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion specified in Section 6.3.3 is adopted as the horizontal seismic coefficient
without any change. Due to consideration on safety, when b/h is within a range greater
than 4, a constant value has been set regardless of b/h itself. Besides, in case of a
hollow sectional pier, the sectional area of the structure shall be taken as Ao, regarding
86
the hollow part inside the structure as being full and the value for the full sectional
area shall be used.
In verifying seismic performance of a substructure in contact with water and
subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, an analytical model capable of
considering the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure should be established to
analyze seismic behaviors by the dynamic analysis method. The reasons for this are as
follows. First, for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, if a plastic deformation in the
substructure section occurs, it may cause a deformation larger than the deformation
assumed for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. Second, although the response
acceleration of the body of a substructure changes in the direction of the pier height,
application of Equation (6.2.8) can be limited because it is assumed to be a constant
value in this equation. Finally, usually the anxiety about the effect of seismic
hydrodynamic pressure lies in a bridge with a high pier in deep water because this
kind of bridge is likely to be affected by high mode vibration. Therefore, as shown in
Table C-5.5.1, it is necessary to carry out the verification of seismic performance by
using the dynamic method.
As one of the methods to examine the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure by
using the dynamic analysis, after modeling the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure
as a mass, the mass can be added to the range of the substructure portion in contact
with water (called a model with additional mass hereafter). In this method, the
additional mass of water shall be an assumed mass to be added to the substructure
body in order to consider the effect of the seismic hydrodynamic pressure. With the
inertia force resulted from the movement of the added mass, the effect of seismic
hydrodynamic pressure can be modeled in a simple way. As to the applicability of this
model with additional mass to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, there have been
very few research examples available for reference so far. In case that it is necessary to
examine the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure when the water is deep, it is
recommended that Gotoh-Toki Proposal can be based on as shown in Equation
(C6.2.19) and a model with additional mass can be used with consideration of the
effect.
87
Where,
m: Additional mass corresponding to the unit length at the position of y below the
water level (kNsec2/m2)
g: Gravity acceleration (m/sec2)
wo: Unit weight of water (kN/m3)
Ao: Sectional area of bridge pier (m2)
a: Structural width in the acting direction of seismic hydrodynamic pressure (m)
b: structural width in the direction perpendicular to the direction of hydrodynamic
pressure (m)
y: Depth below water surface (m)
h: Water depth (m)
For the purpose of roughly estimating the influence of seismic hydrodynamic

pressure for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, instead of using Equation (6.4.8),
Equation (C6.2.20) can be applied for the calculation of the equivalent weight. In this
case, the equivalent weight obtained can also be adopted for the ductility design
method specified in Section 6.4. This rule can be taken as a reference.
Where,
W: Equivalent weight used in the ductility design method (kN)
WU: Weight of the superstructure portion supported by the pier concerned (kN)
CP: Coefficient of equivalent weight of pier according to Table 6.4.3
WP: Weight of pier (kN)
88
CWP: Coefficient of equivalent weight of seismic hydrodynamic pressure, which can be
calculated by Equation (C6.2.21)
H: Height from pier base to the height of the superstructural inertia force (m)
WWP: Additional weight of water to be calculated by Equation (C6.2.22) (kN)
Here, Equation (C6.2.20) can be derived through adding the equivalent weight to
Equation (6.4.8), considering the influence of seismic hydrodynamic pressure. The
coefficient of equivalent weight (cWP) of seismic hydrodynamic pressure is designated in
the way that the following two bending moments shall be equal to each other at the
pier base i.e. the bending moment formed when adding an equivalent weight
correspondent to the effect of seismic hydrodynamic pressure at the height of the
superstructural inertia force and the bending moment formed by the inertia force of an
additional mass of water assuming that the deformation of the pier will occur due to
the rotating movement of the pier base only. By Equation (C6.2.22) in which
Gotoh-Toki Model is used as the model of the additional mass of water, the additional
weight of the water can be obtained by integrating it within the scale of water depth.
89
6.3 Verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 for Earthquake Ground
Motion
6.3.1 General
In verifying Seismic Performance Level 1 the seismic coefficient method considering

dynamic structural characteristics in elastic range shall be used according to the
provisions specified in Section 6.3.4. In this process, the sectional force and
deformation in each member shall be calculated, when subjected to the loads specified
in Section 6.2 and the inertia force specified in Section 6.3.2.
For verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 for Level 1 Earthquake Ground

Motion, these provisions shall be followed in calculation and consideration of the loads
and inertia forces in case of using the seismic coefficient method having considered the
vibration characteristics of elastic range.
6.3.2 Calculation Method of Inertia Force
Inertia force shall be defined as the lateral force equal to the product of the weight of a
structure and the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.3.3, and be
considered acting on the structure in the direction of the inertia force of a design
vibration unit. However, in the case of a movable bearing support between the
superstructure and the substructure, static frictional force of the bearing support shall
be applied to the substructure, rather than the inertia force of the superstructure.
These are the recommended methods for calculation and action of the inertia force to
be used during verification of seismic performance. Calculation of inertia force should
be performed for each design vibration unit specified in Section 6.2.2. When a design
vibration unit consists of one substructure and its supporting superstructural part or
when a design vibration unit consists of multiple substructures and their supporting
superstructural parts, the following rules can be applied to the calculations accordingly.
superstructural part, the superstructural inertia force shall be calculated by
multiplying the weight of the superstructural part by the design horizontal seismic
coefficient.
90
1) Treatment of frictional force at a movable support
When the joint between a superstructure and a substructure is movable in the acting
direction of inertia force, the static frictional force acting on the support shall have to
be taken into account instead of the superstructural inertia force. To calculate the
inertia force acting from a superstructure onto a substructure in the longitudinal
direction to the bridge axis, the static frictional force at a movable support shall be
treated as follows (Please refer to Fig.C-6.3.1).
Fig. C-6.3.1 Treatment of Frictional Force of a Movable

Support
i) Substructure connected with a superstructure by a joint fixed in the longitudinal

direction of the bridge axis
Like the abutment shown in Fig.C-6.3.1, when the joint with the superstructure is
fixed in the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis, the influence of the frictional force
acting on the movable supports of the other substructures (Piers 1 and 2) shall be
disregarded when calculating the inertia force acting from the superstructure onto the
substructure. This is based on the conventional concept that when a substructure with
a movable support vibrates during an earthquake, although the inertia force acting
from the superstructure onto the substructure may decrease at a fixed joint, there are
cases in which the inertia force may increase on the contrary. Therefore, due to
consideration of safety, the frictional forces at the movable supports should not be
subtracted.
ii) Substructure connected with a superstructure by a joint movable in the longitudinal

direction of the bridge axis
91
When the joint with the superstructure is movable in the longitudinal direction of
the bridge axis like Pier 1 shown in Fig. C-6.3.1, instead of the inertia force acting from
the superstructure onto the substructure, the static frictional force generated at the
movable support of the substructure concerned shall be acted on the bottom of the
support as a horizontal load. The static frictional force of a support shall be the value
obtained by multiplying the vertical reaction due to the dead load acting on the support
by the coefficient of static friction of the movable support. For the coefficient of static
friction, the value specified in the explanation of Section 4.1.2 of Part I Common
Provisions shall be used. The reason for this is that a substructure with a movable
support vibrates in the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis independently from the
other design vibration units. However, the frictional force of a support shall be smaller
than the inertia force acting from the superstructure onto the substructure, which is
borne by the support when it is fixed. Using a static frictional force instead of a
dynamic frictional force is based on the conventional consideration of ensuring safety in
design. In case that one substructure is supporting two girders by movable supports,
the frictional forces acting on both movable supports shall be added in the same
direction.
iii) Substructure connected with a superstructure by both fixed and movable joints in
the direction of bridge axis
When a substructure has two joints with the superstructure that are both fixed and
movable in longitudinal direction of the bridge axis like Pier 2 shown in Fig.C-6.3.1, the
larger of the following two values shall be used as the inertia force acting from the
superstructure onto the substructure.
① Inertia force acting from the superstructure (Girder B) onto the substructure on the
side of the fixed joint
② Force obtained by first subtracting the total of the frictional forces acting on the
other substructure supporting the same superstructure (Girder B) from the inertia
force acting from the superstructure (Girder B) on the substructure on the side of the
fixed joint, and then adding in the same direction the frictional force acting from
Girder A onto the movable support of the substructure (Pier 2) with the subtracted
force
Here, the reason why the condition of ② is taken into account in addition to ① is
that when two superstructures greatly different in scale are supported by the same
substructure, for example, when the span of Girder A is remarkably longer than that of
Girder B, the influence of the frictional force acting on the movable support cannot be
92
neglected. However, when obtaining the inertia force acting on the fixed support of
Girder B based on the considerations specified in the above i), the frictional forces
acting on the other movable supports of the girder B are disregarded and the frictional
force acting on the movable support of Girder A shall be added in the same direction. In
this way, a very conservative estimation is given to the influence of the inertia force
and the frictional force. Thus, for a substructure with joints both fixed and movable in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis for its superstructure like Pier 2, to
calculate the inertia force acting on the fixed support of Girder B, the total sum of the
frictional forces acting on the other movable supports of Girder B shall be subtracted,
and that the frictional force acting on the movable support (Pier 2) of Girder A is added
to the subtracted value in the same direction, to obtain the inertia force acting on Pier
2.
The inertia force used for designing the fixed support of the girder B should be as
stated in ②, and in this case, the frictional forces acting on the movable supports must
not be subtracted.
2) Inertia force in a simple girder bridge

In a simple girder bridge, the inertia force acting from the superstructure onto the
substructure in the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis shall be calculated as
follows as shown in Fig. C-6.3.2.
Fig. C-6.3.2 Inertia Force in the Longitudinal Direction to the Bridge Axis of a Simple
Girder Bridge
93
i) Inertia force from superstructure upon abutment
① When support AL is fixed
② When support AL is movable
However,
ii) Inertia force from superstructure upon pier

①When support AR and support BL are both fixed
②When support AR is fixed and support BL
Also,
It shall be the larger value.

However,
③ When both support AR and support BL are movable
However,
Where,
HA : Superstructural inertia force on the abutment (kN)
HP: Superstructural inertia force on the pier(kN)
WA : Dead load of the girder A (kN)
WB : Dead load of the girder B (kN)
94
RAL: Vertical reaction of the abutment due to WA (kN)
RAR : Vertical reaction of the pier due to WA (kN)
RBL : Vertical reaction of the pier due to WB (tt)
khA: Design horizontal seismic coefficient of the design vibration unit containing girder
A
khB : Design horizontal seismic coefficient of the design vibration unit containing girder
B
khP: Design horizontal seismic coefficient of the design vibration unit in which the pier
is assumed to support the superstructure portion corresponding to a half of the
total of RAR and RBL
fAL: Coefficient of static friction when the support AL is movable
fAR: Coefficient of static friction when the support AR is movable
fBL : Coefficient of static friction when the support BL is movable
In a simple girder bridge, the inertia force in the direction perpendicular to the
bridge axis acting from the superstructure onto the substructure shall be the value
obtained by multiplying the vertical reaction acting on the support due to the dead load
of the superstructure by the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section
6.3.3.
3) Inertia force in a continuous girder bridge fixed at one point

In a continuous girder bridge fixed at one point as shown in Fig.C-6.3.3, the inertia
force in the longitudinal direction of the bridge axis acting from the superstructure
onto the substructure shall be calculated as follows.
Fig. C-6.3.3 Inertia Force in the Longitudinal Direction to the Bridge Axis of a
Continuous Girder Bridge
95
i) Inertia force from superstructure upon abutment
① When support AL is fixed while support AC and support AR are both movable
② When support AL is movable
However,
ii) Inertia force from superstructure upon Pier 1

① When support AC is fixed while support AL and AR are both movable
② When support AC is movable
However,
iii) Inertia force from superstructure upon Pier 2

① When support AR and support BL are both fixed while support AL and support AC are
both movable
② When support AR is fixed while supports AL, AC and BL are all movable
Also,
It shall be the larger value.

However,
③ When support AR and support BL are both movable
However,
96
Where,
HA : Superstructural inertia force on the abutment (kN)
HP1: Superstructural inertia force on the pier 1 (kN)
HP2: Superstructural inertia force on the pier 2 (kN)
WA: Dead load of the girder A (kN)
WB :Dead load of the girder B (kN)
RAL : Vertical reaction of the abutment due to WA (kN)
RAC: Vertical reaction of the pier 1 due to WA (kN)
RAR: Vertical reaction of the pier 2 due to WA (kN)
RBL : Vertical reaction of the pier 2 due to WB (kN)
KhA: Design horizontal seismic coefficient of the design vibration unit with girder A
KhB: Design horizontal seismic coefficient of the design vibration unit with girder B
FAL: Coefficient of static friction when support AL is movable
FAC: Coefficient of static friction when support AC is movable
FAR: Coefficient of static friction when support AR is movable
FBL: Coefficient of static friction when support BL is movable
(2) In case that a design vibration unit consists of multiple substructures and their
supporting superstructural part, when the natural period T is calculated by Equation
(6.2.2), the sectional forces formed in the respective portions of the bridge shall also be
obtained at the same time and then the sectional forces due to the inertia forces can be
calculated by Equation (C6.3.22) (Please refer to Fig.C-6.2.7).
Fd = khF …………………………………………………………………………(C6.3.22)
Where,
Fd : Sectional force due to the inertia force (kN or kN∙ m)
kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient
F: Sectional force caused when the horizontal force corresponding to the weight of the
superstructure and the substructure above the ground surface to be considered in
seismic design is acted in the acting direction of inertia force (kN or kN∙ m).
Therefore, in seismic design of the substructure of a continuous girder bridge, the

horizontal force H at the height of the superstructural inertia force acts can be
obtained by Equation (C6.3.22) so that it can be regarded as the inertia force from the
superstructure. The height of the superstructural inertia force and its handling shall
be as specified in Section 6.2.2 (4).
97
In the case that a design vibration unit consists of multiple substructures and their
supporting superstructural part or in case of a skew bridge, the inertia force acting on
the substructures as shown in Fig.C-6.3.4 shall be calculated as follows.
i) When the inertia force is acted in the acting direction of the horizontal component of
the earth pressure (Please refer to Fig.C-6.3.4(b)).
① Substructure with a fixed support
Here,
② Substructure with a movable support
Here,
ii) When the inertia force is acted in the perpendicular direction to the acting direction
of the horizontal component of the earth pressure (Please refer to Fig.C-6.3.4 (c)).
① Substructure with a fixed support
Here,
② Substructure with a movable support
Here,
Where,
FF: Inertia force acting on the substructure with a fixed support (kN)
FM: Inertia force acting on the substructure with a movable support (kN)
98
FFT: Horizontal force generated in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis in the
substructure with a fixed support when the force corresponding to the weight of
the superstructures and the substructures above the ground surface to be
considered in seismic design is acted in the acting direction of inertia force (kN)
FFL: Horizontal force generated in the direction of the bridge axis in the substructure
with a fixed support when the force corresponding to the weight of the
superstructures and the substructures above the ground surface to be considered
in seismic design is acted in the acting direction of the inertia force (kN)
FMT: Horizontal force generated in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis in the
substructure with a movable support when the force corresponding to the weight of
the superstructures and the substructures above the ground surface to be
considered in seismic design is acted in the acting direction of the inertia force
(kN)
kh: Design horizontal seismic coefficient
R : Vertical reaction due to the dead load of the superstructure acting on the
substructure with a movable support (kN)
fs: Coefficient of static friction of the movable support
θ: Skew angle (degree)
Regarding a bridge with multiple substructures supporting a superstructure, due to

the bearing conditions and difference of stiffness between piers, it is afraid that
distribution of inertia force of a pier might be underestimated in design calculation,
which will result in design of a pier with extremely low strength. While dealing with
this kind of pier, if vibration mode unpredicted in design occurs due to unexpected
damage to the support, it is possible that the inertia force acting on the pier concerned
may greatly exceed the original design value and the influence of the additional
bending accompanied by an increase in the displacement would become dominant. This
may result in serious effect on the entire bridge due to damage of the supports. To cope
with a bridge with this kind of structure, it is necessary to devote careful attention to
anti-earthquake safety design of the whole bridge structure by taking measures such
as considering the resistance power of the entire bridge including abutment, support
and unseating prevention system etc., trying to avoid the fatal effects on the whole
bridge structure due to damage of the piers with low strength and ensuring the
minimum strength necessary for a pier based on consideration of the influence of
additional bending accompanied by displacement.
In the previous version of Seismic Design Specifications (1996), based on the
99
intention to avoid design of a pier with extremely weak strength, it was stipulated that
the inertia force of a superstructure acting on a substructure should not be less than
2/3 of the product of the reaction from the superstructural weight acting on the
substructure concerned multiplied by design horizontal seismic coefficient. However,
the methods to improve the earthquake resistance capacity of the whole bridge are not
limited to increase of inertia force on pier only. Other methods are also available for
choices such as strengthening the abutments, supports and unseating prevention
system. Therefore, the limit on inertia force has not been included for the present
version. It is also applicable to the verification of seismic performance for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Section 6.4.
100
Fig. 6.3.4 Calculation Method of Inertia Force of a Skew Bridge
101
6.3.3 Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient
(1) Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion shall
be calculated by Equation (6.3.1). When the kh-value obtained by this Equation is
less than 0.1, kh shall be taken as 0.1
k h  cZ k h0 ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.3.1)
where
kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient (rounded to two decimals)
kh0: Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion, shown in Table 6.3.1 below.
In verifying seismic performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, inertia force
caused by the soil weight and seismic earth pressure shall be calculated using design
horizontal seismic coefficient at ground level obtained by Equation (6.3.2)
khg  cZ khg 0 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.3.2)
where
khg: Design horizontal seismic coefficient at ground level (rounded to two
decimals)
khg0: Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient at ground level for
Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. Values of 0.16, 0.2 and 0.24 shall be used
for ground types I, II and III, respectively.
102
Table 6.3.1 Standard Values of the Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for
Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, kh0
Ground Type kh0 - Values in Terms of Natural Period T (s)

T ＜ 0.1 1.1＜ T
0.1≦T ≦1.1
Type I kh0 = 0.431T 1/3 kh0 = 0.213T
kh0 = 0.2
but kh0≧0.16 -2/3
T ＜ 0.2 1.3＜ T
0.2≦T ≦1.3
Type II kh0 = 0.427T 1/3 kh0 = 0.298T
kh0 = 0.25
but kh0≧0.20 -2/3
T ＜ 0.34 1.5＜T
0.34≦T ≦1.5
Type III kh0 = 0.430T 1/3 kh0 = 0.393T
kh0 = 0.3
but kh0≧0.24 -2/3
(2) As a principle, the design horizontal seismic coefficient to be used shall be identical
within the same design vibration unit.
(1) The design horizontal seismic coefficient kh to be used in verification of seismic

performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be calculated by modifying
the standard values kh0 of the design horizontal seismic coefficient provided in Table
6.3.1 using the modification factor on zones cz specified in Section 4.4.
The standard values of the design horizontal seismic coefficient for each natural
period specified in Table 6.3.1 are established by modifying the acceleration response
spectrum for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Section 4.2 by using the
damping ratio for each natural period. In other words, the factors governing the
structural properties of a bridge include its natural period, damping characteristics
and vibration mode. However, because there is a certain constant relationship between
the damping characteristics and the natural period and because vibration mode and
natural period are closely connected like one factor, the natural period is used to
represent the structural properties of the bridge and modification based on the
damping ratio for each natural period has been performed in order to consider this
influence. Table 6.3.1 can be illustrated as Fig.C-6.3.5.
Here, the minimum value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient obtained by
Equation (6.3.1) has been set as 0.1. The reason for this is that if the design horizontal
seismic coefficient is below 0.1, which is obtained by modifying horizontal force
103
coefficient with the modification factor on zones, prevention of seismic damage to a
bridge can no longer be effective in some cases.
For Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, during calculation of the design horizontal
seismic coefficient used for calculation of the inertia force due to the earth weight or
calculation of the seismic earth pressure, the design horizontal seismic coefficient on
the ground surface shall be used. The standard values of the design horizontal seismic
coefficient on the ground surface for ground Types I, II and III are set as 0.16, 0.2 and
0.24 respectively. This is because vibration of the bridge does not have a big influence
on the inertia force caused by earth weight or the seismic earth pressure.
Besides, when an isolation bridge is adopted as specified in Chapter 9, for
verification of seismic performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, Equation
(6.3.1) shall be used as it is. No modification based on damping ratio h is necessary.
This is because it is important to have a clear understanding of the vibration
characteristics of a seismically-isolated bridge during a strong earthquake in isolation
design. Reduction of the seismic force based on vibration characteristics under this
kind of condition shall be carried out in verification of seismic performance for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion.
Fig.C-6.3.5 Standard Values of the Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion
(2) If the ground type changes within the same design vibration unit, different design
horizontal seismic coefficients for each pier shall be given. However, if the same seismic
force is expected and desired for the design within the same design vibration, as stated
104
above, it is a principle that a single value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient
shall be adopted. It can be the biggest value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient
obtained with consideration of ground type of each pier.
6.3.4 Verification of Seismic Performance Level 1
Reinforced Concrete Columns or Reinforced Concrete abutments shall be verified

according to Section 5.1, and foundations shall be in accordance with Sections 5.1 and
9.1 of Part IV Substructures. Steel piers and steel superstructures shall follow Part II
Steel Structures. Concrete superstructures shall be based on the design loads specified
in Chapter 4 of Part III Concrete Structures. Seismic isolated bridges and bearing
supports shall be verified on the basis of the provisions of Chapter 9 and Section 15.1 of
Part V, respectively.
As explained in Section 5.2, the limit state of each structural member in regard to
Seismic Performance Level 1 is equivalent to the state in which the stress occurred in
the concrete, reinfoing Reinforced Concrete bars or structural steel of each member has
reached the value obtained by multiplying the allowable stress by an increase factor of
1.5 for considering the effect of earthquake. Therefore, verification of each structural
member shall be carried out based on the allowable stress design method by following
the regulations regarding verifications of different parts of a bridge specified in the
above provisions. Here, the allowable stress, which is the allowable value to be used in
verification of each member, shall be the value having considered the seismic increase
factor specified in Section 4.1 of Part IV Substructures in case of a Reinforced Concrete
Columns and an abutment. For steel pier and steel superstructure, the value having
considered the seismic increase factor specified in Section 3.1 of Part II Steel
Structures shall be used. For concrete superstructure, the value having considered the
required extra seismic value specified in Section 3.1 of Part III Concrete Structures
shall be adopted. As to the foundation, Section 5.1 for verification of sectional force
occurred in foundation and Section 9.2 for verification of foundation stability can be
referred to respectively in Part IV Substructures.
For verification of support under Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, it is acceptable
to examine Type A supports only as described in Section 15.1. This is because a Type B
support will generally satisfy the requirements of verification for Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion if it meets the standards of Level 2. For verification of Type A supports,
105
the allowable stress design method can also be applicable, but for a rubber bearing, the
member properties and shear strain shall be examined as well. The rules specified in
Section 5.3 shall be based on when deciding the allowable shear strain. For verification
of an expansion joint installed at the end of a superstructure, Section 14.4.2 can be
referred to.
Table C-6.3.1 summarizes the limit state and major verification items for each
member during verification of Seismic Performance Level 1.
Table 6.3.1 Major Verification Items for Seismic Performance Level 1
Combination of the limit states for each Dominant

Properties Major Verification
member satisfying Seismic Performance Level properties in
indirectly Items
1 seismic design
satisfied
The limit state in
Reparability in
which mechanic Safety in
Structural seismic design Stress < Allowable
property does not seismic
body serviceability in stress
exceed the elastic design
seismic design
range
Super
Design expansion
structure
Reparability in length during an
The limit state in Safety in
Expansion seismic design earthquake <
which no damage seismic
joint serviceability in expansion length of
occurs design
seismic design the expansion
device
Shear strain< the
The limit state in allowable shear
Rubber Reparability in
which mechanic Safety in strain;
Bearing bearing seismic design
property does not seismic Stress < Allowable
Support serviceability in
exceed the elastic design stress
seismic design
Steel range Stress < Allowable
bearing stress
The limit state in
Reparability in
which mechanic Safety in
seismic design Stress < Allowable
Pier and abutment property does not seismic
serviceability in stress
exceed the elastic design
seismic design
range
Bearing force
The limit state in
< the allowable
which mechanical
bearing force;
property does not
Recoverability
exceed the elastic
in seismic Safety in Stress < Allowable
range and no big
Foundation design seismic stress;
changes occur to the
serviceability in design
mechanical
seismic design Response
property of ground
displacement
supporting the
< the allowable
foundation
displacement
106
The limit state in Recoverability
which mechanic in seismic Safety in
Stress < Allowable
Footing property does not design seismic
stress
exceed the elastic serviceability in design
range seismic design
6.4 Seismic Performance Verification Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
6.4.1 General
(1) In verifying Seismic Performance Level 2 and Level 3, the ductility design method
shall be employed according to the provisions in Section 6.4.5. Sectional force and
deformation in each member subjected to loads specified in Section 6.2 and inertia
forces in Section 6.4.2 shall be calculated.
(2) In this process, seismic performance of each design vibration unit with one
substructure and its supporting superstructural part shall generally be verified
using the ductility design method, after obtaining the inertia force by the provision
of section 6.4.2.
(1) During verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, since there is a limit in
the member’s resistance against earthquake simply by increasing the strength of a
structural member, it is important to give the member a certain ductility even if
plasticity has occurred so as to enable it to absorb energy more efficiently and thus
limit the damage to the member within the allowable range. From this point of view,
the ductility design method, being one of the static verification methods to examine
seismic performance of a bridge, is characterized by estimating nonlinear response of a
bridge based on the property of energy conservation and evaluation of the seismic
horizontal strength and deformation property for such critical structural members as
pier, abutment, foundation, superstructure and bearing support, for which the seismic
influence is most likely to become dominant during an earthquake.
Since the property of energy conservation is used in the ductility design method, it is
necessary to pay attention to its applicability during verification by this method. In
case that the first vibration mode becomes dominant in a simple structural system or
when considering primary plasticity for a Reinforced Concrete Columns, nonlinear
response of a bridge can well be estimated with enough precision in practice. However,
107
when it comes to consideration of primary plasticity for a steel pier or when plasticity
is likely to occur in several places, the applicability of the property of energy
conservation still remains unclear. Also, as in the case of an arch bridge and a
cable-stayed bridge, when it is not obvious to which member plasticity will occur due to
a variety of structural characteristics, applicability of the property of energy
conservation can become limited. In cases like these, Section 5.5 shall be based on and
verification of seismic performance by the dynamic method is recommended.
In the previous version of Seismic Design Specifications (1996), it was suggested that
for a steel pier filled with concrete, the ductility design method could be applied based
on the property of energy conservation in the same way as for a Reinforced Concrete
Columns. In the present version, however, based on the investigations and researches
since then, it has been found that if a inelastic hysteretic model of the relationship
between horizontal load and horizontal displacement is established which reflects the
structural characteristics of a steel pier filled with concrete and if dynamic analysis is
used, seismic behavior of the pier can be estimated more precisely than before.
Therefore, the dynamic verification method has been selected for the bridge pier filled
with concrete this time.
(2) As a principle, verification of seismic performance using the ductility design method
shall be carried out in such a procedure that after calculating the inertia force for each
design vibration unit, the whole structural system should be divided into multiple
design vibration units, each of which contains one substructure and the
superstructural part supported by it. However, if plasticity occurs in several places or a
re-distribution of sectional forces according to the degree of the plasticity happens
within the structural system as in the case of a rigid-frame bridge along its in-plane
direction, it becomes necessary to give proper consideration to the influence of such
phenomenon. The whole structural system shall then be modeled without being divided
into the design vibration units.
In addition, when dividing design vibration units into one substructure and its
supporting superstructural part, it is required that modeling is done properly so that
actions of the inertia force and load conditions of the substructure concerned will be the
same as when the design vibration unit is considered as a whole.
108
6.4.2 Calculation Method of Inertia Force
Inertia force defined as the lateral force equal to the product of the structural weight
and the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.4.3, shall act in the
direction of the inertia force of a design vibration unit. However, where the bearing
support between the superstructure and the substructure is movable in the direction of
the inertia force, inertia force of the superstructure shall be determined by the product
of one half of the reaction from the superstructural weight and the design horizontal
seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.4.3.
This is the provision for considering the calculation and action methods of the inertia
force to be used for verification of seismic performance by using the ductility design
method. Calculation of inertia force should be done according to each design vibration
unit as is stated in Section 6.2.2. In case that a design vibration unit consists of one
substructure and its supporting superstructural part and when the unit consists of
multiple substructures and the supporting superstructural part, it is recommended
that Section 6.3.2 can be referred to for specific calculation method. Concerning the
design horizontal seismic coefficient described in the explanation of Section 6.3.2, use
of the coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion is required.
When a joint between a superstructure and a substructure is movable in the
direction of the inertia force, the superstructural inertia force shall be the action force
obtained by multiplying 1/2 of the reaction of the superstructural weight by the design
horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.4.3. This is because a movable
support is expected to suffer from damage when subjected to a strong earthquake
ground motion and the damaged bearings will interact with each other to produce an
inertia force exceeding the static frictional force to act on the pier with movable support.
In that case, if only the static frictional force is considered, the design of a pier may be
extremely weak in strength. For this kind of pier, therefore, inertia force should be
obtained by multiplying 1/2 of the reaction of the superstructural weight by the
horizontal seismic coefficient during verification of seismic performance using the
ductility design method. It should be noticed that such consideration is applied
exclusively to the pier with movable support but not to the pier with both fixed and
movable supports as shown in the example of Fig. C-6.3.1.
109
6.4.3 Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient
(1) Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be
calculated according to the following:
1) Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion

(Type I)
Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type
I) shall be calculated by Equation (6.4.1). When the product of the standard value of
the design horizontal seismic coefficient (khc0) and the modification factor for zones
(cz) is less than 0.3, design horizontal seismic coefficient shall be obtained by
multiplying the force reduction factor (cs) by 0.3. In addition, when the design
horizontal seismic coefficient is less than 0.4 times the modification factor for zones
(cz), the design horizontal seismic coefficient shall be equal to 0.4 times cz.
khc = cS cz khc0 …………………………………………………………..(6.4.1)
where
khc : Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
(Type I) (rounded to two decimals)
khc0 : Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (Type I), according to Table 6.4.1
cS : Force reduction factor specified in Section 6.4.4.
In assessing liquefaction potential of a sandy soil layer in the seismic performance

verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type I), the design horizontal
seismic coefficient at the ground level calculated by Equation (6.4.2) shall be used.
The design horizontal seismic coefficient used for calculation of inertia force caused
by the soil weight and the seismic earth pressure shall be obtained with reference to
Section 13.2.
khg = cz khg0 …………………………………….………………………….... (6.4.2)
where
110
khg : Design horizontal seismic coefficient at the ground level for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (Type I) (rounded to two decimals) .
khg0 : Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient at the ground level
for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type I) (rounded to two decimals). For
ground Types I, II and III, the values shall be 0.3, 0.35 and 0.40, respectively.
Table 6.4.1 Standard Values of the Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (Type I), khc0
Ground Type Values of khc0 in Terms of Natural Period T (s)

T ≦1.4 1.4<T
Type I
khc0 = 0.7 khc0 = 0.876T- - 2 / 3
T＜0.18
0.18≦T ≦1.6 1.6<T
Type II khc0=1.51T 1 / 3
khc0= 0.85 khc0 =1.16T - 2 / 3
but Khc0≧0.7
T＜0.29
0.29≦T ≦2.0 2.0<T
Type III khc0 =1.51T 1 / 3
khc0=1.0 khc0=1.59T - 2 / 3
but khc0≧0.7
2) Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion

(Type II)
Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type
II) shall be calculated by Equation (6.4.3). When the product of the standard value
(khc0) of the design horizontal seismic coefficient and the modification factor for
zones (cz) is less than 0.6, the design horizontal seismic coefficient shall be 0.6 times
the force reduction factor (cs). In addition, when the design horizontal seismic
coefficient is less than 0.4 times the modification factor for zones, the design
horizontal seismic coefficient shall be 0.4 times the modification factor for zones.
khc = cS cz khc0 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････(6.4.3)
where
khc : Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
(Type II) (rounded to two decimals)
111
khc0 : Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (Type II), according to Table 6.4.2
cs : Force reduction factor specified in Section 6.4.4.
cz : Modification factor for zones, specified in Section 4.4
In assessing liquefaction potential of a sandy soil layer in seismic performance

verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type II), the design horizontal
seismic coefficient at the ground level calculated by Equation (6.4.4) shall be used.
The design horizontal seismic coefficient used for calculation of inertia force caused
by the soil weight and seismic earth pressure shall be obtained from Section 13.2.
khg = cz khg0 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････(6.4.4)
where
khg : Design horizontal seismic coefficient at the ground level for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (Type II) (rounded to two decimals)
khg0 : Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient at the ground level
for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type II) (rounded to two decimals).
For ground Types I, II and III, the values shall be 0.80, 0.70 and 0.60,
respectively.
Table 6.4.2 Standard Values of Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (Type II), khc0
Ground Type Values of khc0 in Terms of Natural Period T (s)
T < 0.3 0.3≦T ≦0.7 0.7 < T

Type I
khc0 = 4.46T 2/3
khc0 = 2.0 khc0 = 1.24T - 4 / 3
T < 0.4 0.4≦T ≦1.2 1.2 < T

Type II
khc0 = 3.22T 2/3
khc0 = 1.75 khc0 = 2.23T -4/3
T < 0.5 0.5≦T ≦1.5 1.5 < T

Type III
khc0 = 2.38T 2/3
khc0 = 1.50 khc0 = 2.57T- - 4 / 3
The highest value of design horizontal seismic coefficient shall generally be used in each
design vibration unit.
112
(1) As for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the design horizontal seismic coefficients
have been defined for Type I and Type II separately based on Section 2.2.
The design horizontal seismic coefficients of both Type I and Type II shall be
calculated by modifying the standard values of Kh0 provided in Tables 6.4.1 and 6.4.2
using the force reduction factor Cs specified in Section 6.4.4 and the modification factor
on zones Cz listed in Section 4.4. In the previous version of Seismic Design
Specifications (1996), the design horizontal seismic coefficient was defined as the value
obtained by modifying the standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient
with the modification factor on zones. Furthermore, the equivalent horizontal force
coefficient was defined as the horizontal seismic coefficient, which should be reduced
according to the ductility capacity of the structure based on the property of energy
conservation. Considering that several definitions of the design horizontal seismic
coefficient in existence can be confused and complicated to understand, it is re-defined
this time as the coefficient formed at the time when an actual seismic behavior occurs
to a bridge. For this reason, the equivalent horizontal force coefficient in the previous
version has been adopted as the design horizontal seismic coefficient.
The standard values of the design horizontal seismic coefficients for each natural
period in Tables 6.4.1 and 6.4.2 have been determined by modifying the damping ratios
of each natural period within the acceleration response spectra for Type I and Type II
Earthquake Ground Motions specified in Section 4.3. Tables 6.4.1 and 6.4.2 can be
illustrated as Figures C-6.4.1 and C-6.4.2.
Here, the lower limits of 0.3 and 0.6 have been set for the products of the standard
values of the design horizontal seismic coefficient times the modification factors on
zones for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion for Type I and Type II respectively. This
is to ensure that the design horizontal seismic coefficient will not be less than the
horizontal seismic coefficient on the ground surface even when it is within the long
period zone. It is also based on the judgment that considering the effect of the long
period component, which is included in earthquake ground motions, the design
horizontal seismic coefficient, even though it is within the long period zone, shall not be
designed to be much lower than the design horizontal seismic coefficient within the
intermediate period zone.
Also, the lower limit of the design horizontal seismic coefficient having considered
the force reduction factor has been set at 0.4Cz. This is based on the consideration that
even for a structure with a long period, it is possible that the design horizontal seismic
coefficient may become extremely low. In this case, the structure should be designed to
have the strength above a certain level so as to avoid the result of a structure with
113
extremely low strength.
According to ground types, the standard values of the design horizontal seismic
coefficient on the ground surface are set to be within the scale of 0.3 - 0.4 for Type I
Earthquake Ground Motion and 0.60 – 0.80 for Type II. For Type I, it is based on the
estimation that during 1923 Kanto Earthquake, the acceleration at the ground surface
was about 0.3 - 0.4G. For Type II, it is from the actual record of the 1995 Hyogo-ken
Nanbu Earthquake, in which the acceleration at the ground surface was measured as
around 0.60 – 0.80G.
(2) Within the same design vibration unit, any change in the ductility capacity or
ground type will result in a different design horizontal seismic coefficient for each pier.
However, since it is expected that the same seismic force will probably occur within one
design vibration unit, as stated in the provisions, the same value of the design
horizontal seismic coefficient shall be used in the same design vibration unit. It can be
the biggest value among all the design horizontal seismic coefficients obtained for each
pier within the same vibration unit.
114
Fig. C-6.4.1 Standard Values of the Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Level
2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type I)
Fig. C-6.4.2 Standard Values of the Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Level
2 Earthquake Ground Motion (Type II)
115
6.4.4 Force Reduction Factor
(1) Force reduction factor (cs) shall be appropriately determined with considerations of
mechanical properties of structural members, including their plastic characters.
(2) For a structural system that can be modeled as a one degree-of-freedom system
having an elasto-plastic force-displacement relation, force reduction factor shall be
calculated by Equation (6.4.5)
1
cS  ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.5)
2μa  1
where
μa: Allowable ductility ratio for the structural system having an elasto-plastic
force-displacement relation. μa can be obtained by Equation (10.2.3) for the
case of an Reinforced Concrete Columns
(1) This is the basic rule to be followed in determining the force reduction factor cs used
for calculation of the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion. Since the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion will change according to the degree of the allowable plasticity of a
structural member, the force reduction factor shall be decided properly with careful
study of the mechanical properties of the structural member concerned.
(2) When primary plasticity occurs in a Reinforced Concrete Columns, this shall be the
calculation method for the force reduction factor for the structure, which can be
modeled into a one degree-of-freedom vibration system having the elasto-plastic
force-displacement relation. Here, the effect of reduction of the elastic seismic force
based on nonlinear response is anticipated on the condition that a primary plastic
hinge is formed at the pier base which is accompanied by the lengthening of the
natural period and an increase in stable absorption of the energy.
The force reduction factor calculated by Equation (6.4.5) is obtained by modifying the
design horizontal seismic coefficient with a modification factor when the structural
system consisting of a single substructure and its supporting superstructural part is
replaced by a single mass point vibration system in order to obtain the approximate
nonlinear response value based on the property of energy conservation. The property of
116
energy conservation is an approximate analytical method based on the concept that the
input energy of both elasto-plastic response and elastic response are almost equal in
quantity, when a single mass point system structure having elasto-plastic
force-displacement relation is subjected to a earthquake ground motion. In other words,
when a horizontal load acts on a pier at the height of the superstructural inertia force,
the relationship between the horizontal force P and horizontal displacement δat the
height can be expressed by a simplified illustration as shown in Fig.C-6.4.3. When a
pier base has entered the plastic range, an elasto-plastic response is generated in such
a way that the surface areas of Δ0AB and □0CDE are equal. Therefore, even if the
pier base has entered the plastic range, so long as the horizontal strength of the base is
not reduced greatly and the zone allowable for deformation to occur remains big
enough, it is acceptable that the horizontal force Py entering the plastic range is
designed to be small.
In order to regard a structural system consisting of one substructure and its
supporting superstructural part as one degree-of-freedom vibration system, it is
required that for the ductility capacity to be used for Equation (6.4.5), the ductility
capacity of the whole structural system shall be adopted. When considering primary
plasticity for a Reinforced Concrete Columns base only, the ductility capacity in
Equation (6.4.5) can be obtained by using the ductility capacity calculated by Equation
(10.2.3). If primary plasticity is also considered for sections other than the pier base as
in the case of a rigid-frame bridge, push-over analysis for the whole bridge structure
shall be conducted to obtain the yield displacement and the ultimate displacement and
then their values can be used for calculation of the ductility capacity by Equation
(10.2.3). Here, it is necessary to set the value of the ultimate displacement properly for
the entire bridge structure in response to its structural form based on the rules
specified for the limit state in Sections 5.3 and 5.4.
117
Fig. C-6.4.3 Elasto-plastic Response Displacement of a Pier
Fig. C-6.4.4 An Example of a Push-Over Analysis Model (in case of a rigid-frame

bridge)
In addition, when simple verification of seismic performance is carried out for a

seismically-isolated bridge by using the ductility design method, the force reduction
factor Cs can be calculated by Equation (C6.4.1). In this process, however, verification
of seismic performance by using the dynamic method as explained in Section 5.5 has to
be conducted.
118
Where,
CE: Modification factor based on the damping ratio (h) of a seismically-isolated
bridge; The value designated in Table 6.4.1 shall be used.
μm: Ductility capacity of the pier of an isolation bridge to be obtained by Equation
(9.2.1).
Table C-6.4.1 Modification Factor CE Based on the Damping Ratio h of a

Seismically-Isolated Bridge
Damping ratio h of Bridge Modification Factor CE
h < 0.1 1.0
0.1≦h < 0.12 0.9
0.12≦h < 0.15 0.8
h ≧ 0.15 0.7
Here, the damping ratio of a seismically-isolated bridge can be calculated by

Equation (C6.4.2) based on the equivalent linear model of an isolation bearing specified
in Section 9.3.3.
Where,
h: Damping ratio of the seismically-isolated bridge
hBi: Equivalent damping ratio of the i-th isolation bearing
hPi: Damping ratio of the i-th substructure
hFui: Damping ratio of horizontal vibration of the i-th foundation
hFθi: Damping ratio of rotational vibration of the i-th foundation
KBi : Equivalent stiffness of the i-th isolation bearing (kN/m)
KPi : Equivalent stiffness of the i-th substructure (kN/m)
KFui: Horizontal spring constant of the i-th foundation (kN/m)
KFθi: Rotational spring constant of the i-th foundation (kN· m/rad)
uBi: Design displacement of the i-th isolation bearing (m)
H: Height from the footing top to the heightof the superstructural inertia force
The damping ratio of the seismically-isolated bridge shall be decided with
119
consideration of not only the damping energy absorbed by the isolation bearing but also
the damping characteristics specific to the bridge. Here, it is assumed that the girder
suffers very little deformation due to its strong stiffness when the damping ratio of the
seismically-isolated bridge is calculated by using the proportional energy damping
method according to the characteristics of the isolation bearings, bridge piers and
foundations. For the damping ratios of each structural element when calculating the
damping ratio of the whole seismically-isolated bridge by Equation (C6.4.2), the values
listed in Table C-7.3.1 can be referred to. In case that detailed calculation for the
damping ratio is to be done for a bridge made of members with various damping
characteristics, Equation (C7.3.1) can be applied.
6.4.5 Verification of Seismic Performance Levels 2 and 3
Reinforced Concrete Columns shall be verified in accordance with Section 6.4.6.

Verification of pier foundations and abutment foundations shall follow Sections 6.4.7
and 6.4.8, respectively. For verification of superstructures, reference shall be made to
Section 6.4.9. Bearing supports shall be verified according to Section 6.4.10.
Verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 should be carried out in such a

way that the limit state set for the structural member concerned specified in Section
5.1 must not be exceeded. Tables C-6.4.1 and 6.4.2 show an example of an ordinary
girder bridge for which consideration of primary plasticity of the pier has been included
in the design conditions. The tables have also summarized the limit states to be
designed for each structural member and the major items to be examined during
verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 and Level 3.
120
Table C-6.4.1 Major Verification Items for Seismic Performance Level 2
(An example of an ordinary girder bridge with the design condition of considering
primary plasticity in its bridge piers)
Dominant
Combination of the limit states of the members Properties Major verification
properties in
satisfying Seismic Performance Level 2 indirectly items
seismic design
satisfied
The design value
of the expansion
spacing at the
The limit state Serviceability superstructure
Expansion Reparability in
Superstructure in which no in seismic end < the
spacing seismic design
damage occurs design expansion spacing
at the
superstructure
end
Shear strain< the
The limit state Serviceability allowable shear
Rubber
in which in seismic strain;
bearing Reparability in
Bearing mechanic design sectional force <
seismic design
Support property does Safety in strength
not exceed the seismic Horizontal seismic
Steel bearing elastic range design force < horizontal
strength
Inertia force <
The limit state seismic horizontal
Reparability in
in which Safety in strength; residual
seismic design
Pier reparability of seismic displacement <
serviceability in
damage can be design the allowable
seismic design
easily done residual
displacement
The design
horizontal
The limit state Recoverability
earthquake
within which in seismic Safety in
ground motion
Foundation the secondary design seismic
< yield strength of
plastic behavior serviceability in design
foundation; acting
is stopped seismic design
shear force <
shear strength
The limit state
Recoverability Acting bending
in which
in seismic Safety in moment < yield
mechanic
Footing design seismic bending moment;
property does
serviceability in design acting shear force
not exceed the
seismic design < shear strength
elastic range
121
Table C-6.4.2 Major Verification Items for Seismic Performance Level 3
(An example of an ordinary girder bridge with the design condition of considering
primary plasticity in its bridge piers)
Dominant
Combination of the limit states for each member properties in Properties Major Verification
satisfying Seismic Performance Level 3 seismic indirectly Items
design satisfied
The design value
of the expansion
spacing at the
The limit state Reparability superstructure
Expansion Serviceability in
Superstructure in which no in seismic end < the
spacing seismic design
damage occurs design expansion spacing
at the
superstructure
end
Shear strain< the
Rubber allowable shear
The limit state
bearing strain; sectional
in which Reparability Serviceability in
force < strength
Bearing mechanic in seismic seismic design;
Horizontal
Support property does design safety in seismic
earthquake
not exceed the design
Steel bearing ground motion <
elastic range
horizontal
strength
The state in
which
Safety in Inertia force <
horizontal
Pier seismic seismic horizontal
strength begins
design strength
to decrease
greatly
Design horizontal
Recoverabilit earthquake
The limit state
y in seismic ground motion
within which
design Wafety in < yield strength of
Foundation the secondary
serviceability seismic design foundation; acting
plastic behavior
in seismic shear force <
is stopped
design shear strength
The limit state Recoverabilit

Acting bending
in which y in seismic
moment < yield
mechanic design Wafety in
Footing bending moment;
property does serviceability seismic design
Acting shear force
not exceed the in seismic
< shear strength
elastic range design
122
6.4.6 Performance Verification for Reinforced Concrete Columns
(1) Verification of Seismic Performance Level 2

Reinforced Concrete single column piers and Reinforced Concrete single-story
rigid-frame piers shall be verified according to Equations (6.4.6) and (6.4.7).
ｋｈｃW ≦Pa ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.6)

δR ≦δRa ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.7)
where
khc :Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
W : Equivalent weight (N) in the ductility design method obtained by Equation
(6.4.8)
W =WU + cpWp ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.8)
cp : Equivalent weight (N) coefficient determined from Table 6.4.3
WU : Weight of the superstructural part supported by the pier concerned (N)
WP : Weight of the pier (N)
Pa : Lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns, calculated from Section
10.2 (N)
δR : Residual displacement (mm) of a pier, obtained by Equation (6.4.9)
δR = cR (μr – 1 ) (1 – r )δy ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.9)
cR : Modification factor on residual displacement, a factor of 0.6 shall be taken for

Reinforced Concrete Columns.
r : Ratio of the secondary post-yielding stiffness to the yielding stiffness of a pier, a
ratio of 0 shall be taken for Reinforced Concrete Columns
δy : Yield displacement (mm) of piers, calculated by Section 10.3 for Reinforced
Concrete Columns
μr : Maximum response ductility ratio of piers, obtained by Equation (6.4.10)
1  c k W 
2

ｒ＝  z hco   1 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.10)
2  Pa  

khc0: Standard value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, specified in Section 6.4.3
123
δRa : Allowable residual displacement (mm) of piers. δR shall be 1/100 times the
height from the bottom of the pier to the height of inertia force of the
superstructure.
Table 6.4.3 Equivalent Weight Calculation Coefficient, cp
Bending Failure, or Shear

Shear Failure
Failure after Flexural Yielding
0.5 1.0
Reinforced Concrete single column piers and Reinforced Concrete single-story

rigid-frame piers, shall be verified in according with Equation (6.4.6)
(1) For verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 for an Reinforced Concrete single
column pier and an Reinforced Concrete single-story rigid-frame pier, examination
shall be made of the seismic horizontal strength and the residual displacement
occurred after an earthquake.
1) Verification of seismic horizontal strength

It is fundamental that strength shall be taken as an index during verification of a
Reinforced Concrete Columns. However, for a reinforced pier of flexural failure type, it
is possible that displacement is treated as an index. In this case, the verification
standard can be expressed by Equation (6.4.3).
μr ≦ μa ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C 6.4.3)
Where,
μr: The maximum response ductility ratio of pier to be calculated by Equation (6.4.10)
μa: Ductility capacity of pier to be calculated by Equation (10.2.3)
Although Equation (6.4.6) in the provisions is for verification in which strength is

taken as an index, it is derived by substituting Equations (6.4.5) and (6.4.10) into
Equation (C 6.4.3) and then obtained after adjustment is made to Equation (6.4.1). It
has exactly the same meaning as Equation (C 6.4.3) in terms of verification. However,
if only Equation (C 6.4.3) is used for verification, the intention that a lower limit is set
124
for the design horizontal seismic coefficient obtained by Equations (6.4.1) and (6.4.3)
cannot be reflected. Therefore, even in case of consideration of plastic behavior in a pier
of flexural failure type, Equation (6.4.6) shall be selected for verification.
As specified in the previous version of Seismic Design Specification (1996), the
equivalent weight calculation coefficient used to obtain the inertia force of a pier should
be selected from Table 6.4.3 corresponding to the failure mode of a pier. In case that a
pier is judged to be flexural failure type, the equivalent weight shall be set as 1/2 of the
pier weight. This is because the following two bending moments shall be made equal at
the pier base: One is the bending moment occurred when acting the equivalent weight
on the height of the superstrucutral inertia force and the other is the bending moment
happened when acting inertia forces on a pier in a pattern of even distribution.
2) Verification of Residual Displacement

For verification of Seismic Performance Level 2, in addition to examination of the
seismic horizontal strength, residual displacement shall also be verified. This is
because if a big ductility is allowed in the nonlinear zone of a bridge pier during
seismic design, a proportionally large nonlinear response displacement will occur
accompanied by a large residual displacement in the bridge pier after an earthquake. If
there is a big residual displacement generated in the substructure body after an
earthquake, restoration work may turn out to be difficult. For this reason, verification
of Seismic Performance Level 2 shall include study of residual displacement as shown
in Equation (6.4.7) based on the response spectrum of residual displacement so as to
avoid a design that relies on ductility excessively. As a spectrum used for design, the
residual displacement response spectrum has been provided as the mean residual
displacement obtained from the bridge piers with hysteresis properties of bilinear type
based on 63 records of the strong earthquakes being 6.5 or higher in magnitude, which
have been collected on the ground surface all over Japan. Based on this, the residual
displacement of a pier can be obtained by using the following three values as shown in
Equation (6.4.9): response ductility factor μr, ratio r of the secondary stiffness after
yield to the yield stiffness of the pier and the modification factor of residual
displacement cR. Although the modification factor cR of residual displacement is a
coefficient determined by r, it can be assumed to be 0 as the ratio of the secondary
stiffness after yield to the yield stiffness of the pier in order to make it possible for a
Reinforced Concrete Columns to be modeled into the perfect elasto-plastic type. In this
case, as stated in the provisions, the modification factor of residual displacement shall
be designated as around 0.6.
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The maximum response ductility ratio of pier shall be calculated by using Equation
(6.4.10). As a method used for estimation of nonlinear response displacement of a pier,
it is established by adopting the property of energy conservation, which is applied in
deciding the force reduction factor, as specified in Section 6.4.4.
As a principle, the allowable residual displacement shall be 1/100 of the height from
the bottom of the pier to the acting position of the inertia force on the superstructure,
or in other words, the rotation angle of the pier has been set as 1/100 (rad). Among the
bridge piers that were damaged during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, in cases
where the residual displacement of pier occurred at about 1/60 of the pier height or
about 150 mm or above, because it was difficult to forcefully repair the residual
displacement and complicated restoration work was necessary such as increasing the
size of the support, in some occasions the bridge piers had to be replaced. Besides,
based on the consideration that the purposes of verification of Seismic Performance
Level 2 should be to keep the damages due to an earthquake within a limited range
and to enable the recovering of bridge functions as fast as possible after the earthquake,
it is decided that the allowable residual displacement should be designated as 1/100 of
the pier height. However, in case of special bridge piers such as those that are
extremely high, making it obviously impractical to base the design on the provisions on
the allowable residual displacement, it is recommended that a study be conducted to
determine a way to guarantee seismic performance of the overall bridge by way of
dynamic analysis.
During verification of the seismic behaviors of both superstructure and substructure
as a whole as in the case of a rigid-frame bridge, the response value occurred in the
members composing the two structures can be obtained by following this procedure:
First, the horizontal seismic coefficient of the ultimate limit shall be found out by
conducting a push-over analysis for the entire bridge structure as illustrated in
Fig.C-6.4.4. Then, the maximum response ductility ratio shall be calculated with
Equation (C6.4.4) by applying the property of energy conservation. The response value
of each member when reaching the maximum response ductility ratio can be obtained.
1  c z k h c 0 
2

 rT     1  ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C6.4.4)
2  k hu 
  
Where,
μrT: The maximum response ductility ratio of the whole bridge structure
khu: the ultimate horizontal seismic coefficient of the whole bridge structure to be
126
calculated by applying push-over analysis to the whole bridge structure
kc0 : the standard design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion specified in Section 6.4.3
cz: Modification factor on zones as described in Section 4.4
During verification of both superstructure and substructure, the response values

obtained in the above way shall be kept below the design allowable values for each
member.
(2) For verification of Seismic Performance Level 3 for an Reinforced Concrete single
column pier and an Reinforced Concrete single-story rigid-frame pier, Equation (6.4.6)
shall be applied. Besides, examination of residual displacement is not required for
verification of Seismic Performance Level 3.
6.4.7 Performance Verification for Pier Foundations
(1) Pier foundations shall be verified according to their structural types. Responses of
foundations subjected to loads described in (2) shall satisfy the conditions specified
in (3).
(2) When responses of the piers reach the plastic ranges, the dead loads plus the
inertia forces obtained by the design horizontal seismic coefficient in Equation
(6.4.11), shall be considered as design loads. When responses of the piers remain
within the elastic ranges, the sectional force at the pier bases shall be considered as
design loads.
khp = cdF Pu /W ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (6.4.11)
where
khp: Design horizontal seismic coefficient used in the verification of pier
foundations based on the ductility design method (rounded to two decimals)
cdF: Modification factor used in calculation of the design lateral coefficient for pier
foundations based on the ductility design method (rounded to two decimals)
Pu : Lateral strength (kN) of the pier supported by the foundation. For Reinforced
Concrete Columns, Pu shall be calculated by referring to Section 10.3.
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However, in case of shear failure according to the provisions of Section 10.2,
the shear strength based on Section10.5 shall be used. For steel piers, the
maximum lateral force obtained from inelastic hysteretic models specified in
Section 11.2 shall be adopted.
W: Equivalent weight (kN) used in the ductility design method, obtained by
Equation (6.4.8)
As for underground structural portions above the ground surface described in

Section 4.6 and the substructural portions like pile footings below the ground
surface that may greatly affect the seismic pile behavior, the inertia forces obtained
by multiplying the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.4.3
and their weights, shall be considered in the design.
(3) When the loads specified in (2) above are considered, pier foundations shall
generally be verified to ensure that yielding of the foundation specified in Section
12.3 will never generate.
However, when piers have their lateral strength sufficiently higher than the seismic
force due to the design horizontal seismic coefficient, or when the effects of
liquefaction are large, plastic behavior of pier foundations may be allowed. Under
these circumstances, response ductility ratios and response displacements of the
pier foundations calculated in accordance with Section 12.4 shall not exceed the
allowable ductility ratios and the allowable displacements of the pier foundations,
respectively, as specified in Section 12.5.
(1) This is the provision for verification of pier foundations by using the ductility design
method. The foundation defined here applies to the foundation deeply embedded
underground to support a pier. For the foundation supporting an abutment, Section
6.4.8 shall be referred to.
For a shallowly embedded foundation like a direct foundation, since it is generally
located in a fairly good supporting layer, floating may happen to a certain part of the
foundation due to rotation during an earthquake, which can be considered as a
nonlinear behavior. However, according to the result of trial calculations in regard to a
direct foundation, even if nonlinear behavior occurs to the foundation due to floating, if
it has satisfied the verification standards of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, it is
generally unlikely for the response rotation angle and sliding displacement to become
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too big. In addition, based on the repeated loading and vibration table experiments on
direct foundation, it is believed that so long as the resistance moment due to the
reaction of the bottom of a foundation is maintained until a relatively big rotation
displacement appears, the hysteresis of rotational vibration will be close to the origin
pointing type in case of a small amount of the covering soil. For this reason, during
verification in regard to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, it can be considered that
the possibility for residual leaning to occur due to excessive damage of the bottom of
the ground remains rather small.
From this point of view, it is acceptable that once verification is performed for a
direct foundation for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion according to the rules
clarified in Section 6.3.4 and Chapter 10 of Part IV Substructures, there is no need to
carry out further verification by using the ductility design method. However, when
floating happens in a direct foundation, since compared with Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion, a stronger sectional force may occur in the footing if it is subjected to
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, study of the footing strength based on Section 2.6
shall be conducted.
(2) The loads that have to be taken into account during verification of a pier foundation
by using the ductility design method have been provided here. It is necessary to
consider the dead loads such as the weights of the superstructure supported by the pier
concerned, self-weights of the pier and the footing. Even if the ground above the footing
remains stable for a long period of time, the self-weight of the footing still has to be
considered.
During verification of the pier foundation by the ductility design method, in order to
prevent primary nonlinearity from occurring to the foundation-ground system, the
state after the inertia force equivalent to the seismic horizontal strength of the pier has
been applied shall be considered in seismic design. However, since there is usually a
redundant strength for the seismic horizontal strength after it is obtained by
calculation, the seismic horizontal strength shall be multiplied by the modification
factor cdF to get the earthquake ground motion of the pier during verification of the pier
foundation. The value of the modification factor cdF is set to be 1.1 based on the
consideration of the unevenness of pier strengths due to different properties of the
construction materials used for the pier.
In addition, it is required that in seismic design, inertia force shall also be acted to
such structures specified in Section 4.6, i.e. the underground structural portion above
the ground surface and the structural portion that is likely to have a great influence on
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the seismic behavior of the foundation even if it is below the ground surface to be
considered in seismic design as in the case of the footing of a pile foundation. Although
there are some points that still remain unclear about the design horizontal seismic
coefficient to be acted on the underground structural portion, it has been proposed that
for the design horizontal seismic coefficient to be combined with the sectional force that
is transferred from the bottom of pier, the design horizontal seismic coefficient above
the ground surface specified in Section 6.4.3 shall be used.
(3) As explained in Section 5.3, when considering primary plasticity occurred to a pier,
it is necessary to ensure that the secondary plastic deformation is stopped within the
pier foundation so as to prevent it from further progress. Consequently, as a principle,
verification of the foundation shall guarantee that when the loads specified in the
above (2) are acted on the pier foundation, each member of the pier foundation should
hold enough strength that the foundation as a whole should bear the necessary seismic
horizontal strength and that yield shall not be reached. Specifications on the
foundation yielding can be found in Section 12.3.
As mentioned above, the pier foundation should generally be seismically designed to
avoid the situation in which nonlinearity occurs to exceed the yield of the
foundation-ground structural system. However, when there is a big redundant strength
in the seismic horizontal strength of the pier in relation to the design horizontal
seismic coefficient, it may no longer be reasonable to allow the foundation having
strength bigger than the seismic horizontal strength in seismic design. On the other
hand, when liquefaction happens, the strength of the whole foundation will be
weakened as the result of reduction of the ground strength and the supporting force
around the foundation. Under this condition, if the foundation strength is designed to
be stronger than the seismic horizontal strength of the pier, the structural section
would become excessively big and thus an unreasonable design of the bridge as a whole
might be produced. In a situation like this, primary plasticity can be allowed to occur in
bridge foundation and its ductility factor shall be studied so as to control the damage of
pier foundation within a repairable scale. Also, for the design horizontal seismic
coefficient in case that the seismic horizontal strength has a big redundant strength,
Equation (C6.4.5) can be taken as a design standard.
Pu ≧ 1.5khcW ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C6.4.5)
Where,
Pu: The ultimate horizontal strength (kN) of a pier supported by a foundation
khc: Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
130
W: Equivalent weight (kN) used for the ductility design method: It shall be calculated
by Equation (6.4.8)
When considering primary plasticity of a pier foundation, in order to ensure that the
displacement occurred in the pier foundation does not impair the reparability and
safety of the whole bridge structure, it has been stipulated that verification of the
displacement in the pier foundation has to be carried out. It can be considered that the
displacement of the pier foundation affects the reparability and safety of the whole
bridge structure in the form of residual displacement due to excessive response
displacement or plasticity of foundation-ground system during an earthquake. For this
reason, their values at the height of the superstructural inertia force, which is
considered in seismic design of the pier foundation, shall be calculated. When the
influence on residual displacement is verified, it is also necessary to study the
structure of the unseating prevention system with consideration of the deformation
effect of the pier foundation.
6.4.8 Performance Verification for Abutment Foundations
Abutment foundations resting on the ground where liquefaction described in Section

8.3.2 may affect the safety of the bridge, they shall be verified in accordance with the
provisions provided in Chapter 13.
In the previous version of the Seismic Design Specifications (1996), it was proposed
that verification of abutments subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion could be
omitted. This was based on the following three considerations: ①In the past, very few
examples had been found of serious damages to an abutment or abutment foundation
on the ground where no liquefaction had occurred. ②Compared with a structure rising
above the ground like a bridge pier, an abutment is more affected by the seismic
behavior of the soil behind it than by its own inertia force. ③Since abutment is a
structure to resist earth pressure, its displacement usually occurs in the push-forward
direction and therefore the possibility of unseating is small even if the abutment has
suffered from excessive damages.
In recent years, however, as explained in Section 6.2.4, the modified Monobe-Okabe
Method has been proposed as a calculation method of the seismic earth pressure for
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Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. This new proposal has made it possible to conduct
a detailed evaluation of the seismic behavior of an abutment including the ground
under it. It is now clear that by using this new evaluation method, the verification
result of an abutment subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion has showed that
for the abutment built on the ground where no liquefaction has occurred, if verification
of Seismic Performance Level 1 for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion has been
performed for the abutment and its foundation based on Section 6.3.4, the verification
standard of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion will generally be satisfied too. For the present version, therefore, in view of the
past cases of seismic damages to abutment and abutment foundation, only the
abutment built on the ground where liquefaction affecting the bridge has occurred as
described in Section 8.2.3 has been selected as the subject for study. As a principle,
besides designing an abutment foundation with enough strength, it is also necessary to
ensure that no excessive residual displacement occurs even if damage to the foundation
is found when verification is carried out for the abutment foundation under Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion in accordance with the provisions specified in Chapter13.
However, as specified in Section 8.2.3, it is acceptable that verification of an
abutment subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion can be omitted in the
following two cases: in a case where even when liquefaction affecting the bridge is
found in the ground surrounding the abutment, it has been judged that recoverability
of the bridge function is not under great difficulty (for example, a single span bridge
having abutments at both ends with a total length below 25m) and in a case where it
has been estimated that no big displacement is likely to occur to a certain structural
form.
In case that allocation of horizontal force of an abutment during an earthquake is big
or the allocation rate of inertia force of an abutment under Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion is higher than that under Level 1, it is recommended that regardless of the
conditions of the ground surrounding the abutment, careful decision should be made as
to whether it is necessary to carry out verification of the abutment for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion. In addition, for a special abutment without soil at the
back, for example, if it has the same vibration characteristics as the pier, verification
has to be done according to the rules specified in Sections 6.4.6 and 6.4.7.
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6.4.9 Performance Verification for Superstructures
Superstructures that may sustain major effects of earthquake shall be verified in a

manner that the response values of the superstructural members do not exceed their
allowable values. The allowable values for superstructural members can be found in
Chapter 14, depending on types and properties of structural members.
Apart form the section around a support that transfers the seismic force from the
superstructure to the substructure, the seismic influence on a superstructure is usually
not predominant. When the seismic force is received in the longitudinal direction of the
bridge axis by such bridges as a rigid-frame bridge, an arch bridge or a bridge with
suspension structure or when the seismic force is received in the direction
perpendicular to the bridge axis by a bridge that has a relatively long span between
supporting points compared with its width, seismic influence of a superstructure can
become dominant and therefore demands attention in seismic design. Therefore,
verification needs to be carried out for this kind of superstructure based on the above
provision.
In addition, for a bridge having a superstructure for which seismic influence may
become dominant, such as an arch bridge or a bridge with a suspension structure,
because it is difficult to conduct a static analysis of the seismic behaviors due to their
complicated structures as explained in Section 5.5, it is recommended that the dynamic
method is applied to the verification of the seismic performance of the bridge.
6.4.10 Performance Verification for Bearing Supports
Bearing supports shall be verified by the provision of Chapter 15, depending on their
structural characteristics. Response values of the supports shall not exceed the
allowable values.
A bearing support, as a connection between a superstructure and a substructure, has

the function of transferring vertical and horizontal forces from the former to the latter.
It is also one of the most important structural members playing a distributing role in
dividing vibration characteristics of the whole bridge structure or the inertia force
transferred from the superstructure to the substructure. Therefore, during verification
133
of seismic performance by using the ductility design method, it is required that while
giving proper consideration to the influence of the seismic behavior of supports on the
behavior of the entire bridge structure, the supports should be designed to be able to
transfer the inertia force from the superstructure to the substructure effectively. For
detailed verification method including the seismic force to be considered for Seismic
Performance Level 2 or Level 3, verification items, the allowable values, please refer to
Chapter 15.
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Chapter 7 Verification Methods of Seismic Performance Based
on Dynamic Analysis
7.1 General
(1) Seismic performance by dynamic method shall be verified according to the

provisions in Section 7.4. Sectional force, displacement and other responses of each
structural member when subjected to earthquake ground motions described in
Section 7.2, shall be calculated through dynamic analysis.
(2) In the dynamic analysis an appropriate model shall be established depending on the
purpose of the analysis and the level of design earthquake ground motion, as
specified in 7.3, and a suitable analysis method shall be selected.
(1) During verification of seismic performance by dynamic method, the maximum

response values such as the sectional force and displacement occurred in each
structural member, which are obtained from the dynamic analysis results, shall be kept
below the respective allowable values.
Regarding a single column pier and the structural members which can be modeled in
the same way as a single column pier, verification shall be done in the same manner as
the verification of seismic performance by using the ductility design method specified
in Section 6.4. Study shall be made on the seismic horizontal strength, the allowable
horizontal displacement and the residual displacement. On the other hand, for bridges
with a complicated structural system, it is recommended that verification should be
done to guarantee the seismic performance of the entire bridge by dividing the
members into those for which plasticity can be allowed and those for which plasticity
cannot be allowed and by making a careful study of each of them according to the
required functions after an earthquake for the whole bridge or each individual member.
Also, the sectional force and response ductility factor shall generally be limited below
the sectional strength and the ductility capacity.
Furthermore, it is suggested that the following points should be confirmed during
verification of seismic performance by dynamic method.
1) No plasticity occurs in the places other than expected ones in an analysis model.
2) The whole structural system of the bridge does not become unstable due to
occurrence of plasticity in a certain structural member.
3) No plasticity occurs in those members for which plasticity is not allowed.
135
Especially for a seismically-isolated bridge, it is necessary to ensure that, as
anticipated in design, no excessive displacements are concentrated in the substructure
because isolation bearings are designed capable of absorbing most of the
displacements.
If effect of earthquake of either of them is not taken into account for the dynamic
analysis, seismic earth pressure and hydrodynamic pressure specified in Section 3.2
can be obtained as separate static loads according to specific needs based on Section 6.2
and then added to the result of the dynamic analysis. The modeling method of the
seismic hydrodynamic pressure for the dynamic analysis is available for reference in
the explanation of Section 6.2.5.
(2) During analysis of seismic behavior of a bridge by dynamic method, thoughtful

considerations should be made on the factors such as the natural vibration
characteristics, damping characteristics and inelastic hysteretic property of the pier. It
is necessary to adopt an analytical model capable of expressing dynamic properties of
the bridge in order to calculate the response values during an earthquake. As
mentioned previously, when modeling a bridge for dynamic analysis, it is required that
an appropriate model and a suitable analysis method shall be chosen in response to the
level of earthquake ground motion and the members’ limit state under that motion. In
other words, during verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 in regard to Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion, since nonlinear behavior is generally not allowed in a
bridge, an analytical model that can demonstrate the dynamic properties of the bridge
within the elastic range and an appropriate analysis method shall be selected. In
addition, for verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 and Level 3, since the plastic
deformation and energy absorption of a member are generally considered, it is
necessary that an analytical model capable of expressing the dynamic properties of the
nonlinear zone of the bridge having considered inelastic hysteretic property of the
members like a pier and an appropriate analysis method shall be adopted according to
necessity.
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7.2 Design Earthquake Ground Motions for Dynamic Analysis
The design earthquake ground motion in dynamic analysis shall be obtained as follows:
(1) In case of the response spectrum method:

Acceleration response spectra obtained from Equation (4.2.1) for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion, and Equations (4.3.1) or (4.3.2) for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion shall be applied to the dynamic analysis.
(2) In case of the time-history response analysis method:

Amplitudes of acceleration records obtained during past typical strong earthquakes
shall be adjusted so that they have properties close, as far as possible, to those of
the acceleration response spectra obtained by Equation (4.2.1) for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion and Equations (4.3.1) or (4.3.2) for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion, respectively. Acceleration records adjusted in such a manner shall
be adopted for the analysis.
Generally, there are two analytical methods used in dynamic analysis of a bridge.
One is the response spectrum method and another the time-history response analysis
method. The response spectrum method is a method to obtain the maximum response
occurred in the vibration system by the following procedures. First, the natural period,
vibration mode, participation factor are obtained up to the necessary numbers by
eigenvalue analysis. Second, the responses corresponding to each vibration mode are
calculated by using the acceleration response spectrum. Finally, each of the vibration
modes with the participation rate taken into account for the responses shall be added
together to get the maximum response of the vibration system. On the other hand, the
time-history response analysis method is a method to obtain the response value within
a vibration system from moment to moment. This is a process in which the equation of
motion of the vibration system is gradually solved by calculations in sequence. In this
vibration system, the input earthquake ground motion to which time history has been
given is taken as an external force. The time-history response analysis method can
further be divided into several methods. One is the mode analysis method in which the
equation of motion of one degree-of freedom system in regard to each vibration mode
shall be solved one by one and then the results are added together to get the
time-history responses of multiple degree-of-freedom systems. Another is the direct
integration method in which the equation of motion is solved within the time zone. The
137
third is the complex response method in which the equation of motion is solved within
the frequency zone. As dynamic analysis methods, each of them has its own
characteristics. Based on a good understanding of their characteristics, an appropriate
method shall be chosen according to the analysis purpose during verification of seismic
performance.
If the response spectrum method is chosen as a dynamic analysis method, the
acceleration response spectra specified in Sections 4.2 and 4.3 can be used. On the
other hand, if the time-history response analysis is selected, it is hoped that the input
earthquake ground motion based on some previous record of a strong earthquake
actually measured at the construction side of a bridge could be used, but it is generally
impossible to obtain such a record in practice. Therefore, it is a principle that while
choosing the input the design earthquake ground motion, considerations have to be
made on factors such as the intensity of the earthquake ground motion, frequency
characteristics and lasting time besides the natural period and damping ratio of the
bridge. It is a principle that the amplitudes of acceleration waveforms obtained from
past typical records of strong earthquakes shall be adjusted in order to enable them to
have the properties as close as possible to the acceleration response spectra as
described in Sections 4.2 and 4.3. The amplitudes of acceleration thus adjusted shall be
input as the earthquake ground motion on the ground surface to be considered in
seismic design, as specified in Section 4.6. With this method, although it is possible to
adjust the amplitudes of acceleration in any way so as to obtain any properties of the
response spectra, if these properties are changed completely, the previous records of
earthquakes would loose their real meaning in practical sense. Therefore, the past
typical record, which is used for adjustment of the amplitude of acceleration, shall be
selected according to the following standards.
1) A strong earthquake record observed at a location with topography and ground

conditions similar to those of the site of the bridge construction
2) In order to keep the adjustment of the amplitudes of acceleration waveforms as
small as possible, the strong earthquake record to be used shall have the spectrum
properties similar to the target acceleration response spectrum.
When adjusting the amplitude in order to determine the design earthquake ground
motion of Type II, various strong earthquake records obtained from the Hyogo-ken
Nanbu Earthquake of 1995 can be used. For example, for Type I ground, the record
from the Kobe Maritime Meteorological Observatory can be adopted. For Type II
ground, the records from the JR West Japan Takatori Station, and for Type III ground,
138
records from the ground around the Higashi Kobe Bridge can be selected respectively.
In addition, when the whole bridge system is modeled in order to conduct dynamic
analysis, sometimes the ground type may differ according to the position of its
substructure. Although it is considered that earthquake ground motions tend to change
under the influence of topography and ground conditions, many points still remain
unclear when it comes to the details concerning the difference of earthquake ground
motions due to change of sites and the effect of such change on seismic design. For this
reason, in a case like this, the dynamic analysis shall have to be performed by using
various earthquake ground motions in regard to each ground type. From the results
obtained, the earthquake ground motion having the biggest effect shall be chosen for
verification.
In case that time-history response analysis method is used for verification of Seismic
Performance Level 2 and Level 3 with consideration of plastic behaviors of the
members, it is recommended that about three waveforms instead of only one shall be
used as the input earthquake ground motions. The reason for this is that in the
time-history response analysis which considers the nonlinearity of the members, even
for the earthquake ground motions having the same characteristics of the acceleration
response spectra, the response analysis values may vary due to the difference in their
phase characteristics. Therefore, during verification by way of dynamic analysis, it is
suggested that the dynamic analysis is conducted for about three waveforms of
earthquake ground motions and the mean response value shall be obtained from the
analysis results. The mean value thus obtained shall be adopted as the response value
for the verification. To ensure the behavior of a structural memeber within the elastic
range in the verification of Seismic Performance Level 1, only one waveform shall be
taken as the input earthquake ground motion.
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7.3 Analytical Models and Procedures
7.3.1 Analytical Models and Procedures
In a dynamic analysis, an appropriate analysis model and analysis method shall be

employed, depending on the analysis purpose and the level of the design earthquake
ground motion as shown below:
(1) In verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 for Level 1 Earthquake Ground

Motion, an analytical model capable of expressing dynamic properties of a bridge
within the elastic ranges and a suitable analysis method shall be selected.
(2) In verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 and Level 3 for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion, an analytical model and an analysis method capable of expressing
inelastic effects of members in the plastic ranges shall be suitably adopted, when
necessary.
As explained in Section 7.2, there are generally two analysis methods that can be
used in dynamic analysis of a bridge: the response spectrum method and time-history
response analysis method. It is necessary to get a good understanding of their
characteristics and adopt a suitable method according to analysis purpose and the level
of earthquake ground motion.
The following dynamic analysis methods can be chosen for verification of seismic
performance for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. Although the time-history
response analysis method having used a inelastic hysteretic model is usually selected
for a structural member, other methods are also available for choices according to
analysis purposes such as the time-history response analysis using the equivalent
linear model approach, the response spectrum method using the equivalent linear
model approach and a combination of push-over analysis and time-history response
analysis. Attention should be paid to the characteristics and applicability of each of
them in order to carry out verification of seismic performance property.
1) Time-history response analysis method using inelastic hysteretic model

This is a method of analysis that incorporates the nonlinear properties of a bridge
pier, etc. directly into an inelastic hysteretic model. Since various kinds of models have
been proposed as inelastic hysteretic models, a hysteretic model suited to the
structural characteristics and analysis purposes shall be adopted. However, it is
140
important that instead of modeling the bridge using a needlessly large number of
nonlinear elements, the members that will enter the nonlinear zone are first identified
based on linear analysis, then only the necessary members are modeled as nonlinear
elements. Analytical purpose shall be clarified and modeling shall be performed in
conformity with the purpose.
2) Time-history response analysis method using equivalent linear model approach

This is a method to obtain the response of a bridge by using the time-history response
analysis method through modeling a member within nonlinear zone into a linear
member based on the idea of the equivalent linear model approach. Here, the
equivalent linear model approach refers to the way to model a member showing
nonlinear behavior into a linear member having the equivalent stiffness and the
equivalent damping ratio. That is to say, as shown in Fig.C-7.3.1, the stiffness change
due to the initial stiffness K0 in nonlinear response is expressed by the equivalent
stiffness Keq and the hysteresis damping effect, which occurs when the horizontal force
– horizontal displacement curve forms a hysteresis loop, is expressed by the equivalent
damping ratio heq. This is a method to approximate the maximum nonlinear response
displacement δ max to the linear response displacement of the equivalent linear
vibration system. Generally, the equivalent stiffness Keq and the equivalent damping
ratio heq are obtained corresponding to the value of the effective displacement αδmax,
which is calculated by multiplying the maximum nonlinear response displacementδmax
by the modification factor α(≦1.0) expressing the unstableness of inertia force. Fig.
C-7.3.2 is an example of modeling the equivalent stiffness Keq and the equivalent
damping ratio heq. The equivalent stiffness Keq and the equivalent damping ratio heq
are modeled as the function of response ductility factor μ. In the equivalent linear
model approach, the nonlinear response displacement δi0 to be studied is assumed,
which is likely to occur within the nonlinear vibration system and the equivalent
stiffness Keq and the equivalent damping ratio heq are obtained corresponding to the
response ductility factor μ which is corresponding to the effective displacement αδi0.
All of these values shall be used together to form the equivalent linear vibration
system. Within this vibration system, the time-history response analysis shall be used
to obtain the linear response displacement δi. Repeated calculations shall be done
until it is equal to the nonlinear response displacement δi0 assumed at the beginning.
3) Response spectrum method using the equivalent linear model approach

This is a method to obtain the response by using the response spectrum method and
141
by modeling a member showing nonlinear behavior into a linear member based on the
idea of the equivalent linear model approach mentioned above. It can be adopted as a
simplified method of the time-history response analysis when using nonlinear factors
for verification of seismic performance.
4) The method of combining push-over analysis and the time-history response analysis
This is a method to obtain response by using time-history analysis method. In this
method, the relationship between load and deformation of the entire bridge, which is a
multiple degree-of-freedom system, is obtained by push-over analysis. Then, the
inelastic hysteretic property which fits into this relationship shall be modeled into one
degree-of freedom system and then response is obtained by using the time-history
analysis method. In addition, it is necessary to be aware that since this method is
based on the assumption that one degree-of-freedom system is modeled, it is only
applicable to the case in which only one mode having the primary influence on the
seismic response of a bridge becomes the dominant mode.
Also, although it is hoped that the whole bridge system is modeled for the dynamic
analysis if possible, it can be difficult in practice sometimes. Therefore, in case that the
natural periods are about the same or the horizontal strengths are approximately
equal and it is also possible to divide the bridge system into proper design vibration
units, modeling can be done for each individual design vibration unit.
Fig.C-7.3.1 Concept of the Equivalent Linear Model Approach
142
Fig.C-7.3.2 Relationship between Response Ductility Factor and the Equivalent
Stiffness - Damping Ratio
7.3.2 Modeling of Structural Members
(1) Structural members shall be properly modeled in consideration of their inelastic

hysteretic properties.
(2) Effects of the ground deformation (or subgrade reaction) can be modeled in terms of
springs.
(3) Bearing supports shall be properly modeled in accordance with their structural
properties, inelastic hysteretic properties and damping characteristics.
(4) In the case where a member having nonlinear behavior is modeled as an equivalent
linear member by using the equivalent linear model approach, values of equivalent
stiffness and equivalent damping ratio shall be appropriately determined.
In the dynamic analysis for an ordinary bridge, it is common that structural

members and the ground are modeled into girder models and spring models. During
modeling of a structural member, it is required that modeling shall be done when
careful consideration is given to setting of stiffness and inelastic hysteretic property of
the member depending on whether the member has nonlinear behavior and the degree
143
of nonlinearity.
(1) Concerning the inelastic hysteretic property of a Reinforced Concrete member, it is

necessary to perform modeling appropriately in response to the failure property of the
member. That is to say, when estimating the nonlinear behavior of a Reinforced
Concrete member by using the dynamic analysis, before establishing an analysis model,
careful study has to be made to find out which failure mode the member belongs to: the
flexural failure type, the type of shear failure after flexural yielding or the shear failure
type. During verification of seismic performance by using the ductility design method,
although the failure mode of a member can be found by Equation (10.2.1), it is required
that even in case of verification of seismic performance by dynamic method, the failure
mode of the Reinforced Concrete member concerned has to be determined by using
equation (10.2.1) first and then modeling of the inelastic hysteretic property of the
member shall be done appropriately according to its failure type. In case that the
Reinforced Concrete member is judged to be flexural failure type, it is common to use a
model of stiffness degradation type having considered the influence of concrete cracks
and yield of the axial reinforcing bars etc.
Besides, for modeling of inelastic hysteretic property of a steel pier, Section 11.2 can
be referred to for specifications.
(2) Regarding deformation effect of the foundation, it can generally be modeled linearly
into the form of a spring expressing the resistance of the foundation. It is better to
establish a model for the foundation in terms of a spring capable of expressing
foundation resistance, because the primary plasticity of a bridge usually occurs to the
structural members like the pier base. Here, the spring constant representing
resistance of the foundation can be calculated by Equations (6.2.12) by using the
standard values of subgrade reaction coefficient obtained by Equations (6.2.1) and
(6.2.2).
(3) As far as a support is concerned, modeling shall generally be done according to

Table C-6.2.2. Here, when isolation bearings are used, since their mechanical
properties will have a great influence upon the seismic behavior of the whole bridge
system, it is necessary to conduct the analysis by modeling the nonlinearity of the
bearings appropriately.
(4) The damping ratio comes from the viscous damping generated by the viscous
144
resistance of a member, the hysteretic damping due to the feature of plasticity of a
member and the underground dissipation damping of vibration energy. The damping
ratio changes according to the structural characteristics of a bridge. In case that linear
analysis or the equivalent linear model approach is used, the damping ratio hi for the
i-th vibration mode (the equivalent damping ratio) shall be obtained by Equation
(C7.3.1).
n
 h j { i j }T [ K i j ]{ i j }
j 1
hi  ············································································
{ i }T [ K i ]{ i }
(C7.3.1)
Where,
{ Φij} :Mode vector of element j of the i-th vibration mode
hj : Equivalent damping ratio of element j
[Kj]: Equivalent stiffness matrix of element j
{Φi} : Mode vector of the overall structure of the i-th vibration mode
[K] : Equivalent stiffness matrix of the overall structure
Because the values in Table C-7.3.1 are often used as the equivalent damping ratio hj
of the structural elements, the table may be taken as a reference. Table C-6.2. 1
presents the mean damping ratios for the case in which a structural member is in the
elastic range and the case in which a structural member is in the nonlinear zone.
When nonlinear characteristics of a structural member are represented by an
inelastic hysteretic model, the hysteretic damping of the member is automatically
included in the analysis by the hysteretic model. This means that in Table C-7.3.l, the
damping ratio of the member represented by an inelastic hysteretic model may be
assumed to be about 0.02 for concrete members and about 0.01 for steel members.
Since the damping characteristics of an isolation bearing and a rubber bearing
usually have a big influence on the response of a bridge, it is recommended that the
equivalent damping ratio is determined and reflected in the dynamic analysis
appropriately. Especially, the reference value of the equivalent damping ratio of a
rubber bearing was set to be 0.02 in the previous version of the Seismic Design
Specifications (1996). According to recent experimental and research results, their
values often turn out to be around 0.04 or above. Therefore, it is better to determine
the value of the equivalent damping ratio based on careful studies of the damping
characteristics of the rubber bearing to be used.
145
Table C-7.3.1 Reference Values for the Equivalent Damping Ratio for Each Structural
Element
Within Elastic Range Nonlinear Range

Structural Reinforced Reinforced
Members Steel Structure Concrete Steel Structure Concrete
Structure Structure
To be set specifically according to
Superstructure 0.02～0.03 0.03～0.05
experiment
Rubber
Equivalent damping ratio －
Bearing
Isolation The equivalent damping ratio as
－
Bearing per Section 9.3.3
Pier 0.03～0.05 0.05～0.1 0.1～0.2 0.1～0.2
Foundation 0.1～0.3 0.2～0.4
7.4 Verification of Seismic Performance
1) Cross-sectional stresses in Reinforced Concrete Columns and Reinforced Concrete

abutments obtained from a dynamic analysis shall not exceed the allowable stresses
specified in Chapter 4 of Part IV Substructures.
2) Steel piers and steel superstructures shall be verified by comparing sectional forces
obtained from a dynamic analysis with the provisions given in Part II Steel
Structures.
3) In verification of pier foundations, sectional forces at the pier base obtained from a
dynamic analysis shall be taken as the design seismic forces acting on the pier
foundations. In the verification, reference shall be made to Sections 5.1 and 9.1 of
Part IV Substructures.
4) In verification of concrete superstructures, cross-sectional stresses obtained from a
dynamic analysis shall not exceed the allowable stresses specified in Chapter 3 of
Part III Concrete Structures.
5) Bearing supports shall be verified so that the response values obtained from a
146
dynamic analysis do not exceed the allowable values specified in Section 15.3.
1) In verification of Reinforced Concrete Columns, response ductility ratios obtained

from a dynamic analysis shall not exceed the allowable ductility ratios specified in
Section 10.2. At the same time, residual displacements calculated from Equation
(6.4.9) with the use of maximum response displacement at the height of inertial force
of the superstructure, shall not exceed the allowable residual displacements
specified in Section 6.4.6.
2) Steel piers shall be verified in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 11.
3) Pier foundations shall be verified in accordance with Section 6.4.7.
4) For steel and concrete superstructures, verification shall be carried out to ensure
that their response values obtained from a dynamic analysis do not exceed the
ultimate strength and the allowable deformation within the plastic range, as defined
in Sections 14.2.1 and 14.3.1, respectively.
5) Bearing supports shall be verified to ensure that response values obtained from a
dynamic analysis are not exceeding the allowable values specified in Section 15.3.
1) In verification of Reinforced Concrete Columns, response ductility ratios obtained

from a dynamic analysis shall not exceed the allowable ductility ratios provided in
Section 10.2.
2) Steel piers shall be verified in accordance with Chapter 11.
3) Pier foundations shall be verified in accordance with Section 6.4.7.
4) For steel and concrete superstructures, verification shall be carried out to ensure
that their response values obtained from a dynamic analysis do not exceed the
strength and the allowable deformation within the plastic range, as defined in
Sections 14.2.1 and 14.3.1, respectively.
5) Bearing supports shall be verified to ensure that response values obtained from a
dynamic analysis are not exceeding the allowable values specified in Section 15.3.
(4) In verification of the seismic performance of a seismically-isolated bridge, reference

shall be made to Chapter 9.
147
(4) In verification of seismic performance of a bridge with the use of a dynamic method,
special attention shall be paid to guaranteeing the seismic resistance of the bridge
as a whole system.
(1) This is an explicit summary of the verification method for Seismic Performance
Level 1 of each structural member and the relevant provisions of the specifications of
this guideline. Generally, for a pier foundation located below the ground surface to be
considered in seismic design, the maximum sectional force occurred to the pier base,
which is obtained through dynamic analysis shall be regarded as seismic force acting
on the pier foundation. Verification in this respect shall follow the rules stipulated in
Sections 5.1 and 9.1 of the substructure Specifications.
this guideline. It is stated in the provision above that verification of a Reinforced
Concrete Columns shall be based on the ductility factor and displacement. However,
corresponding to the modeling method of a Reinforced Concrete Columns, it is also
acceptable that verification can be done based on curvature or rotation angle. In this
case, the allowable curvature and the allowable rotation angle shall be designated
based on the calculation method of the ductility capacity specified in Section 10.2.
Concerning a pier foundation, when plasticity occurs to the pier base as the result of
the dynamic analysis, the design horizontal seismic coefficient to be used for
verification of the pier base shall be calculated from Equation (6.4.11) by using the
ultimate horizontal strength of the pier concerned. Verification of the pier foundation
can be based on specifications of Section 6.4.7. In case that the seismic behavior of the
pier remains within the elastic range as the result of the dynamic analysis, the
sectional force generated in the pier base shall be regarded as the seismic force acting
upon the pier foundation. The specifications of Section 6.4.7 can also be referred to for
verification of the pier foundation under this condition.
According to the research results up to now, it has become clear that the residual
displacement occurred in a bridge after having nonlinear response is largely dependent
on the characteristics of the earthquake ground motion and the unevenness in its
changes can also be quite big. Therefore, it is recommended that in case of verification
of Seismic Performance Level 2 by dynamic method, the pattern of this unevenness in
relation to the residual displacement should be based on and a safe evaluation shall be
148
given. The residual displacement can be calculated by Equation (6.4.9). However, for
the response ductility factor μr in Equation (6.4.9), the maximum response ductility
ratio obtained from dynamic analysis can be applied. This maximum response ductility
ratio shall be the mean value of the dynamic analysis result of 3 waveforms. Also,
Equation (6.4.9) is devised to be applicable to a Reinforced Concrete Columns. The
method of its application to the estimation of residual displacement of a steel bridge
can be found in Section 11.2.
this guideline.
(4) Concerning a seismically-isolated bridge, since there are special verification items
for this kind of bridge, Chapter 9 shall be followed for its verification.
(5) In case of verification of seismic performance by dynamic method, in order to truly

ensure the earthquake resistance capacity of the overall bridge structure, it is required
that careful attention should be paid to the analysis model and analysis method to be
adopted so that the seismic behaviors of the bridge during an earthquake can be
examined properly. Especially when verification of seismic performance with
consideration of the properties of nonlinear zone for each member subjected to Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, since modeling of the inelastic hysteretic property of a
member can have a big influence on the dynamic analysis result, special attention is
needed for modeling.
In regard to the model to be used for dynamic analysis, it would be ideal if the actual
conditions of the bridge can be reflected to the greatest extent. In reality, however,
sometimes it can be difficult to consider modeling of everything due to factors such as
P-δ effect accompanied by the influence of friction in the support or increase in
displacement. In view of such situation, in order to truly guarantee the earthquake
resistance capacity of the overall bridge, it is better to confirm that the horizontal
strength of the entire bridge does not become excessively weak nor does the
deformation get excessively big. Particularly, if the natural period becomes too long, the
acceleration response spectrum and the frequency component of the acceleration
waveform suited for this spectrum will become smaller. As a result, the structural
members might be designed to have an extremely weak strength. That is why for
verification by using the static method, in order to prevent big changes in the design
149
horizontal seismic coefficient of the bridges with a long or intermediate natural period
and avoid design of a bridge with extremely weak strength, a lower limit of the design
lateral coefficient has been set. Therefore, in order to reflect such concerns for
earthquake resistance in verification of seismic performance by using the dynamic
analysis, the seismic horizontal strength of the pier being examined shall be ensured to
satisfy Equation (C7.4.1).
Pa ≧ 0.4czW ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ (C7.4.1)
Where,
Pa: Seismic horizontal strength of a pier (kN). For a Reinforced Concrete Columns, it
shall be calculated by following Section 10.2. For steel pier, it shall be the
maximum horizontal force obtained from inelastic hysteretic model established
based on Section 11.2.
W: The equivalent weight (kN) used in the design ductility method, which shall be
calculated by Equation (6.4.8). However, when obtaining the equivalent weight
for a steel pier, the calculation coefficient of the equivalent cP can be set as 0.5.
In addition, although this kind of concern for earthquake resistance is also important
in verification of seismic performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, since
verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion is generally predominant, it will be
sufficient to devote consideration to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion.
Furthermore, Equation (C7.4.1) can be applied to a bridge with an ordinary
structural form whose superstructure is supported by the top of the pier and for which
the initial vibration mode becomes dominant. Therefore, for a bridge with a structural
form having complicated seismic behaviors such as a cable stayed bridge or a
suspension bridge, Equation (C7.4.1) can not be applied directly. It is recommended
that careful studies should be made to ensure that the balance of strengths is not lost
between individual members composing the cable stayed bridge or the suspension
bridge, that the whole bridge structural system does not become unstable and that it is
a structure having some redundancy so as to avoid collapse of the overall bridge system
due to damage of a certain structural member.
150
Chapter 8 Effects of Seismically Unstable Ground
8.1 General
(1) In verification of seismic performance of a bridge on a ground changing into

unstable state during an earthquake, the effects of the unstable ground shall be
taken into account. In the above, an unstable ground is defined as an extremely soft
soil layer in seismic design, or a sandy layer susceptible to liquefaction and affect
the bridge due to the liquefaction and the liquefaction-induced ground flow.
(2) In verifying seismic performance of a bridge with conditions shown in the above (1),
a case assuming a stable ground shall also be considered, in order to ensure the
seismic performance of the bridge for both the stable and unstable grounds.
(1) Past cases of earthquake damage have revealed that a decline in the strength of an
extremely soft clayey layer or silt layer during an earthquake, or liquefaction in a
saturated sand layer which is accompanied by liquefaction-induced ground flow of the
ground can seriously affect the seismic performance of a bridge. Therefore, it has been
stipulated that such effect shall be taken into account during verification of seismic
performance of a bridge when the ground becomes unstable during an earthquake.
For a clayey layer and a silt layer, there are cases in which the soil strength declines
when the layer is subjected to remolding deformations during an earthquake. This
tendency is recognized especially in layers with a high sensitivity ratio such as a soft
clayey layer or silt layer in the surface layer.
When liquefaction occurs, it is possible that structures with an apparently high
specific gravity will subside while structures with an apparently low specific gravity
will rise. Furthermore, the structures that are built to resist the earth pressure will be
pushed forward due to the increase of the earth pressure. The structures that are
expected to have horizontal resistance like the foundation may loose the resistance
capacity and big displacement may occur. Furthermore, for the inclined ground near
the water front line, it is possible that liquefaction accompanied by a
liquefaction-induced ground flow may occur. For this reason, it has been stipulated
that these effects have to be taken into account in verification of seismic performance
as well.
151
(2) As the ground changes into an unstable state, the response properties of a structure
tend to become complicated. Even if a certain ground has been estimated to be unstable,
it is possible that it may not be in the same conditions as it has been assumed in the
original design due to the physical properties of the earthquake ground motion or the
ground itself. Therefore, the design condition in which no instability of the ground is
expected shall also be a subject for verification of seismic performance. Between the
verification results under both conditions, the more disadvantageous condition shall be
chosen and adopted for design.
That is to say, in case that it has been judged that liquefaction affecting the bridge
will possibly occur, the condition in which no liquefaction happens shall also be
examined. Then, the result with more severe conditions shall be used for seismic design.
In addition, in case that it has been judged that liquefaction-induced ground flow
affecting the bridge is likely to occur, the following three cases shall be examined
during verification of seismic performance. From the results, the case that has the
biggest effect on the bridge shall be selected for study in seismic design.
1) The case in which it is assumed that liquefaction-induced ground flow will occur
2) The case in which it is assumed that only liquefaction will occur
3) The case in which it is assumed that neither liquefaction nor liquefaction-induced
ground flow will occur
8.2 Geotechnical Parameters of Extremely Soft Layer and Sandy Layer

Prone to Liquefaction
8.2.1 General
For an extremely soft soil layer in seismic design specified in Section 8.2.2 or a sandy
layer in Section 8.2.3 which may affect the bridge due to liquefaction, geotechnical
parameters used in the seismic design shall be reduced in accordance with the
provisions in Section 8.2.4.
If liquefaction is estimated to occur within an extremely soft clayey layer or a silt

layer, there may be a decline in the strength and supporting power of the soil.
Therefore, it is stipulated that the geotechnical parameter to be used in seismic design
152
shall be either zero or a reduced value according to Section 8.2.4. However, as specified
in Section 6.2.3 (1), when obtaining the design horizontal seismic coefficient, the
natural period shall be calculated without consideration of reduction of the
geotechnical parameter as designated in Section 8.2.4.
8.2.2 Assessment of Extremely Soft Soil Layer in Seismic Design
For a clayey layer or a silt layer located up to three meters below the ground surface,
and having compressive strength of 20kN/m2 or less obtained from an unconfined
compression test or an in- situ test, the layer shall be regarded as an extremely soft
layer in the seismic design.
Generally, if the clayey soil or silt soil has a compressive strength of 20kN/m2 or
below, the testing sample of such soil will be so soft that it can hardly stand by itself
during the test. Effective support of the foundation during an earthquake by this kind
of soil cannot be expected. Therefore, a soil layer like this shall be regarded as
extremely soft in seismic design.
153
8.2.3 Assessment of Soil Liquefaction
(1) Sandy layer requiring liquefaction assessment
For an alluvial sandy layer having all of the following three conditions, liquefaction
assessment shall be conducted in accordance with the provisions specified in (2) below,
because liquefaction may affect the bridge during an earthquake.
1) Saturated soil layer having ground water level higher than 10 m below the ground
surface and located at a depth less than 20 m below the present ground surface.
2) Soil layer containing a fine content (FC) of 35% or less or soil layer having a higher
FC and plasticity index IP less than 15.
3) Soil layer with a mean grain diameter (D50) less than 10 mm and a grain diameter at
10% pass (on the accumulation curve) (D10) less than 1 mm.
(2) Assessment of liquefaction
For a soil layer requiring liquefaction assessment according to the provisions specified
in 1) above, liquefaction resistance factor FL shall be calculated by Equation (8.2.1). If
the result turns out to be less than 1.0, the layer shall be regarded as having
liquefaction potential.
FL = R / L ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.1)
R = cw RL ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.2)
L = rd khgσv /σ’v ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.3)
Rd =1.0－0.015x ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.4)
σv =γt1ｈｗ +γt2 (x －hw) ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.5)
σ’v =γt1ｈｗ +γ’t2 (x －hw) ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.6)
(For Type I Earthquake Ground Motion)
cw =1.0 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.7)
(For Type II Earthquake Ground Motion)
1.0 (RL≦0.1)
cw = 3.3RL+0.67 (0.1<RL≦0.4) ･････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.8)
2.0 (0.4<RL)
where
FL : Liquefaction resistance factor
154
R : Dynamic shear strength ratio
L : Seismic shear stress ratio
cW : Modification factor on earthquake ground motion
RL : Cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio to be obtained by properties (3) below
rd : Reduction factor of seismic shear stress ratio in terms of depth
khg: Design horizontal seismic coefficient at the ground surface for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Section 6.4.3
σv: Total overburden pressure (kN/m2)
σ’v : Effective overburden pressure (kN/m2)
x : Depth from the ground surface (m)
γt1: Unit weight of soil above the ground water level (kN/m3)
γt2: Unit weight of soil below the ground water level (kN/m3)
γ’t2: Effective unit weight of soil below the ground water level (kN/m3)
hw: Depth of the ground water level (m)
(3) Cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio
Cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio RL shall be calculated by Equation (8.2.9).
0.0882 N a / 1.7 ( N a  14)

RL   ･････････････････････ (8.2.9)
0.0882 N a / 1.7  1.6  10 ・ N a  14  (14  N a )
6 4.5
where
<For Sandy Soil>
Na = c1N1 + c2･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.10)
N1 =170N / (σ’v +70 )･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.11)
1 ( 0%≦FC < 10% )
c1 = (FC +40) / 50 ( 10%≦FC < 60% ) ･･･････････････････････････････ (8.2.12)
FC / 20－1 ( 60%≦FC )
0 (0%≦FC <10%)
c2 = ････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.13)
(FC －10) / 18 (10%≦FC )
<For Gravelly Soil>
Na = { 1－0.36 log10(D50 / 2 ) }N1 ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.2.14)
RL: Cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio
155
N: N value obtained from the standard penetration test
N1 : Equivalent N value corresponding to effective overburden pressure of 100 kN/m2
Na : Modified N value taking into account the effects of grain size
c1, c2: Modification factors of N value on fine content
FC : Fine content (%) (percentage by mass of fine soil passing through the 75μm
mesh)
D50: Mean grain diameter (mm)
These assessment standards have been established by adding the analysis examples
of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake in 1995 to the research results accumulated ever
since the Niigata Earthquake in 1964.
(1) Almost all past cases of liquefaction during an earthquake had occurred in the
alluvial sandy layers. However, during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake and other
recent earthquakes, liquefaction occurred in soil layers other than the alluvial sandy
layers. Therefore, the range of soil layers requiring liquefaction assessment has been
revised as 1) – 3) below.
1) The depth of the soil layer for assessment has been set as within 20 m below the
ground surface based on the studies of the past experiences and the seriousness of the
soil effects on structures.
2) The lower limit of the grain size of a soil layer that requires liquefaction assessment
has been set in the provisions according to the research results of recent years. In the
past cases, most layers found to have liquefied had a fine-grained fraction FC of less
than 35%. However, there were some cases in which liquefaction also occurred in the
soil layers with an FC value over 35% but with a low plasticity index, for example, as
in silt sandy soil. Therefore, the assessment standards have been provided in the above
provisions. When the FC value is below 35%, there is no need to perform the liquid and
plasticity limit state testing.
3) In regard to the upper limit of the grain size of a soil layer that requires liquefaction
assessment, since observations of the effects of recent earthquakes including the
Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake have revealed that liquefaction has occurred to gravelly
soil with a mean diameter bigger than 2 mm, specifications in this respect have been
provided in the above provisions. However, the grain diameter indicated here is a value
obtained by analyzing the grain size of the specimens for the standard penetration test.
The specimens used for the standard penetration test have a finer grain size than the
in-situ material due to the consequence of crushing during the test. Although this
156
difference does not necessarily have anything to do with the hardness or coarseness of
the grains, it can be assumed that the mean grain diameter of 10 mm of a specimen
used for the standard penetration test is roughly equivalent to the in-situ material
with a mean grain diameter of about 20 mm or more.
The grain diameter at 10% pass (D10) was set as below 1 mm due to the
consideration that the gravelly soil with coarse grains and with a low uniformity
coefficient is usually high in permeability of water and is therefore difficult to liquefy.
Here, a distinction shall be made of the mean grain diameters i.e. for sandy soil, D50
shall be less than 2 mm while for gravelly soil, D50 shall be more than 2mm.
Up to now, there have been no confirmed cases of liquefaction in diluvial soil during
any earthquake, including the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake. Since the N value of
diluvial soil is usually high and as a result of diagenesis, its resistance to liquefaction
is also high, the possibility of liquefaction generally remains small in diluvial soil.
However, there are some regions in which diluvial soil layer is found with a low N
value or has lost its diagenesis ability. It is recommended that liquefaction assessment
is carried out for such diluvial soil.
(2) Liquefaction assessment shall be performed for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion.
Since the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio RL changes greatly according to the repeated
property of seismic ground motions, the ratio shall be modified by Equations (8.2.7) and
(8.2.8) depending on whether it is Type I or Type II Earthquake Ground Motion.
In case that the water level is above the ground surface as in a riverbed, the total
overburden pressure and the effective overburden pressure shall be obtained assuming
that the underground water level is on the ground surface. This is because water,
which does not transmit shear force, does not act as an external force against the
ground during an earthquake and because the load of the water above the ground
surface does not contribute to an increase in the effective overburden pressure.
When considered particularly necessary, various testing and analyses can be
performed such as the most detailed and up-to-date ground survey and testing at the
site, soil testing in laboratory and response analysis of the ground. In addition to these,
past data shall also be taken as reference for assessment of liquefaction.
(3) The equations used to calculate the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio RL as stipulated
in the provisions have been devised for sandy soil and gravelly soil separately based on
the results of the laboratory undrained cyclic triaxial testing using frozen undisturbed
specimens and the results of case studies including the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake.
157
As for the effect of grain size during evaluation of cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio RL,
modification of N value based on the fine-grained fraction FC shall be considered for
sandy soil. The reasons for this are as follows:
1) Concerning the effect of the property of grain size on the cyclic triaxial strength ratio,
it has been concluded that sandy soil that is relatively fine-grained is greatly
influenced by the fine-grained fraction FC and therefore the effect of grain size can be
evaluated based on its fine-grained fraction FC.
2) When considering the effect of grain size on the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio,
there are two applicable methods. One is to treat the effect of grain size as the
increment of the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio and another is to regard it as the
increment of the N value. The second method can provide a more appropriate
evaluation of the strength of the soil that contains a relatively high fine-grained FC
and that has a big N value.
It is recommended that a penetration test to measure the N value is conducted by
the free drop method which will result in a small loss of energy at the moment of
impact. Besides, in Equation (8.2.14), since the modified N value of gravelly soil is
measured a little high due to the influence of the existence of gravel, the N value
obtained shall be reduced in accordance with the mean grain diameter D50 to estimate
the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio. However, since little data of this kind has been
collected for gravelly soil, the N value provided in Equation (8.2.14) can be used for
evaluation of the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio for the time being.
It has been argued that the cyclic triaxial shear stress ratio of the soil in a reclaimed
land is lower than the value obtained by Equation (8.2.9). So far the data collection in
this respect is not yet sufficient and the differences have not been clarified between the
strength properties of this kind of soil and those of the alluvial soil. Therefore, no
particular specifications have been provided concerning the soil in a reclaimed land.
More survey and research work shall be necessary in this area.
8.2.4 Reduction of Geotechnical Parameters
(1) When a soil layer is considered to be an extremely soft layer according to the
provisions specified in Section 8.2.2, its geotechnical parameters (shear modulus
and strength) shall be assumed to be zero in the seismic design.
(2) For a sandy layer causing liquefaction and affecting a bridge according to the
provisions of Section 8.2.3, geotechnical parameters in the seismic design shall be
158
reduced in accordance with the liquefaction resistance factor FL.
Geotechnical parameters of a sandy layer causing liquefaction and affecting a bridge

shall be equal to the product of geotechnical parameters obtained without liquefaction
and coefficient DE in Table 8.2.1. In the case of DE = 0, geotechnical parameters (shear
modulus and strength) shall be taken as 0 in the seismic design.
Table 8.2.1 Reduction Factor DE for Geotechnical Parameters
Dynamic shear strength ratio R

Depth from R ≦0.3 0.3<R
Present Verification Verification Verification Verification
Range of FL Ground for Level 1 for Level 2 for Level 1 for Level 2
Surface Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake
x (m) Ground Ground Ground Ground
Motion Motion Motion Motion
0≦x≦10 1/6 0 1/3 1/6
FL≦1/3
10<x≦20 2/3 1/3 2/3 1/3
0≦x≦10 2/3 1/3 1 2/3
1/3<FL≦2/3
10<x≦20 1 2/3 1 2/3
0≦x≦10 1 2/3 1 1
2/3<FL≦1
10<x≦20 1 1 1 1
(3) Weight of a soil layer with reduced or zero geotechnical parameter in the seismic
design shall be assumed to be acting as an overburden.
(1) Since an extremely soft soil layer in seismic design cannot be counted on to provide
strength and bearing capacity, its soil parameter shall be taken as zero in design.
(2) The strength and bearing capacity of soil decline in a liquefied sandy soil layer.
Consequently, when liquefaction has been evaluated for a sandy soil layer according to
the judging standards of Section 8.2.3, the geotechnical parameter of that soil layer
shall be multiplied by the coefficient DE provided in Table 8.2.1 corresponding to the
value of resistance factor FL against liquefaction which is calculated by Equation
(8.2.1). The geotechnical parameter to be used for seismic design shall be either zero or
159
a reduced value.
Here, the geotechnical parameter reduced by multiplying DE indicates the subgrade
reaction coefficient, the upper limit value of the ground reaction and the maximum
skin friction force.
Even when FL is below 1.0, the significance can be different when its value is 0.9 or
0.5. Therefore, by summarizing the analysis results of the damage cases caused by the
Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake and the effect on design etc., the values of the coefficient
DE to be multiplied by the geotechnical parameter have been designated as those
shown in Table 8.2.1, which shall be correspondent to the values of FL and the dynamic
shear strength ratios R. The reason why the values of DE shall vary according to the
values of R is that even if the values of FL are the same, if the value of R is high, the
decrease in subgrade reaction will be small compared with the case in which the value
of R is low.
As specified in Section 8.2.3, since the design horizontal seismic coefficient used for
the ductility design method for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion is adopted to assess
liquefaction, the level of the earthquake ground motion assumed for design of the
foundation under Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion will turn out to be different. To
make up this difference, the value of DE has been designated in the present version in
order to ensure the continuity with the design against liquefaction which is based on
the combination of the design horizontal seismic coefficient on the ground surface and
the reduction coefficient of the geotechnical parameter used for assessment of
liquefaction as stipulated in the old versions of Seismic Design Specifications before
1990.
FL is obtained at the depth for which the standard penetration test is performed, but
in order to obtain DE, FL shall usually be calculated at spacings of about 1 m to find the
mean value of FL for each soil layer. Then DE can be obtained according to Table 8.2.1.
Additionally, considering that the deeper the ground, the smaller its vibration will
become and that there are very few cases of complete liquefaction in the soil layers
deeper than 10 m, the values of the coefficient DE shall be changed within the
boundary of 10 m below the ground surface.
Also, for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, DE can be obtained for Type I and Type
II Earthquake Ground Motions respectively. For verification of the foundation,
however, whichever smaller value shall be used.
(3) For the soil layer whose geotechnical parameter is set as zero or has been reduced
in seismic design, if there is no possibility that the soil will ever be excavated or
160
scoured in the future, the soil layer shall be assumed as a load weight acting upon the
ground below it. Consequently, for a soil layer whose geotechnical parameter is set as
zero or has been reduced in seismic design, when the bearing capacity of the bottom
surface of a footing is calculated, this weight shall have to be considered.
For a soil layer whose geotechnical parameter is set as zero or has been reduced in
seismic design, it is acceptable that the seismic hydrodynamic pressure and seismic
earth pressure are not considered as effects of earthquake. However, when it has been
estimated that liquefaction-induced ground flow affecting the bridge will possibly occur,
Section 8.3 shall be referred to for verification.
8.3 Verification of Seismic Performance of Foundations for

Liquefaction-induced Ground Flow
8.3.1 General
(1) Ground with possible lateral movement
A ground with both of the following two conditions shall be treated as a ground with
possible lateral movement affecting a bridge.
1) Ground within a distance less than 100 m from a water front in a shore area formed
by a revetment with an elevation difference of 5 m or more between the water
bottom and the ground surface behind.
2) Ground with a sandy layer thicker than 5 m that is assessed as a liquefiable layer
according to the provisions in Section 8.2.3 and is distributed somewhat widely in
the area of the water front.
(2) Verification of seismic performance of a bridge for liquefaction-induced ground flow
A pier foundation situated on a ground specified in (1) above shall be verified against
possible liquefaction-induced ground flow. In the verification, lateral movement force
specified in Section 8.3.2 shall act on the pier foundation, and horizontal displacement
at the top of foundation shall not exceed two times the horizontal displacement at
yielding of the foundation described in Section 12.3. However, the lateral movement
force and the inertia force need not be considered simultaneously.
161
(1) Since liquefaction-induced ground flow occurs in response to a decline in the bearing
capacity accompanied by liquefaction, it can be assumed that liquefaction-induced
ground flow will possibly occur in a soil layer for which liquefaction has been estimated
according to the standards of Section 8.2.3 and which at the same time is subjected to
the action of asymmetrical earth pressure. During the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake
of 1995, it was found that in some cases liquefaction-induced ground flow accompanied
by liquefaction happened near the water front line in the shore area and that residual
displacement of pier foundations occurred. The analysis results of the pier foundations
that suffered residual displacement have revealed that the soil layers near the ground
surface that did not liquefy moved along with the liquefied soil layers below them,
applying considerable forces on the footing. It was a phenomena confirmed for the first
time. Although the necessary occurring conditions of liquefaction-induced ground flow
affecting a bridge are still not fully understood, the types of the ground for which
liquefaction-induced ground flow affecting a bridge will possibly occur have been
specified in the provisions based on the damage cases of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Earthquake.
Here, an elevation difference of 5 m or more between the ground behind a revetment
and the sea bottom in front of it has been included in the judging standard. This is
because during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, the elevation difference between
the ground behind the revetment and the sea bottom in front of it in a shore area
where liquefaction-induced ground flow caused residual displacement in the pier
foundations was more than 10 m, but in some locations where liquefaction-induced
ground flow occurred, smaller elevation differences were found. Also, the area range
within which a possible liquefaction-induced ground flow affecting a bridge is likely to
occur shall be within 100 m from the water front line. This has been set by referring to
the range of the residual displacement occurred to the pier foundations which were
caused by the liquefaction-induced ground flow during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Earthquake. The distance from the water front line indicates the distance from the
water front line that is closest to the pier foundation concerned in the verification of
seismic performance and it shall be determined according to Fig. C-8.3.l.
A thickness of 5 m or more has been provided as a judging standard for the sandy
layer for which liquefaction is estimated. This was decided with reference to the ground
conditions at the locations where liquefaction-induced ground flow caused residual
displacement in the pier foundations and at the locations where big ground
displacement occurred during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake. In addition, since
162
liquefaction-induced ground flow is a phenomenon accompanied by the liquefaction of
the ground in a large scale, based on the results of liquefaction assessment for the
areas between the water front line and the location of each foundation, it can be
considered that even within 100 m from the water front line, so long as the layer for
which possible liquefaction has been estimated does not exist continuously in the
horizontal direction from the water front line, liquefaction-induced ground flow
affecting a bridge will not occur in the ground behind.
Fig. 8.3.1 Elevation Difference from the Sea Bottom and Distance from the Water
Front Line
Even in areas away from coastal regions, cases of bridge damage due to liquefaction
accompanied by liquefaction-induced ground flow were found along the Shinano River
in the City of Niigata during the Niigata Earthquake of 1964, which resulted in the
beginning of consideration of liquefaction effect in seismic design. After that, the first
case of a bridge being seriously affected by liquefaction-induced ground flow identified
in shore areas during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake. The mechanism of
liquefaction-induced ground flow and its effects on structures around river areas are
usually considered to be different from the same phenomena happening in shore areas.
However, if both of the conditions described in 1) or 2) in the above provisions has been
found to exist in the ground in a high water channel behind a vertical low water
revetment, which is assumed to be strongly affected by the eccentric earth pressure or
in the ground inside a vertical special dike, it is suggested that the effects of
liquefaction-induced ground flow should be studied by following the standards for shore
areas. To deal with liquefaction-induced ground flow around river areas, some
163
measures shall be necessary based on the results of further investigations and
researches in the future.
(2) It is a rule that during verification of seismic performance of a bridge in regard to

liquefaction-induced ground flow, the lateral movement force specified in Section 8.3.2
shall be acted upon the pier foundation.
In the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, damages due to liquefaction-induced ground
flow were found in the abutment parapet, abutment body and pile heads. It would be
an understatement to say that the mechanism of the effect of liquefaction-induced
ground flow on a structure like an abutment subjected to asymmetrical earth pressure
still remains unclear. However, it is understood that since an abutment is a structure
under asymmetrical earth pressure all the time, the movement of the abutment due to
the influence of liquefaction-induced ground flow will occur in the push-forward
direction, the possibility of this effect to cause the unseating of the superstructure is
rather small. For this reason, it is acceptable if verification of seismic performance for
an abutment considering the effect of liquefaction-induced ground flow is not carried
out. When the abutment is likely to move forward, big displacements may occur to the
piers in the middle of the bridge due to the superstructure being pushed out by the
abutment. The influence of such a phenomenon has to be examined.
In addition, in a skew bridge and a curved bridge, if the abutment moves forward
due to the influence of liquefaction-induced ground flow, the entire superstructure will
possibly rotate to cause a big displacement. In this case, it is required that the effect of
liquefaction-induced ground flow shall be a subject for study.
It has been stipulated that during verification of a pier foundation in regard to
liquefaction-induced ground flow, the horizontal displacement at the top of the
foundation shall not exceed the allowable displacement. Here, the horizontal
displacement generally refers to the relative displacement from the center of rotation
in the case of a caisson foundation, a steel pipe sheet pile foundation, and a
cast-in-place diaphragm wall foundation. In case of a pile foundation, it shall be taken
as the relative horizontal displacement from the pile tip. The allowable displacement
has been determined as 2 times the horizontal displacement when the yield of the
foundation specified in Section 12.3 has been reached. The reason for this is as follows:
If the displacement of the foundation reaches 2 times the yield displacement, it can
increase considerably merely with a small amount of load being added. On the other
hand, there are always some uncertainties in the evaluation of the loads acting upon
the pier foundations due to the influence of liquefaction-induced ground flow. In order
164
to prevent a big displacement from occurring because of such uncertainties, the
allowable displacement has been set as 2 times the yield displacement.
Although many aspects concerning the mechanism of occurrence of
liquefaction-induced ground flow are still not well understood, it is reported that after
an earthquake, liquefaction-induced ground flow begins at the stage when the
excessive pore water pressure rises and liquefaction has advanced to a certain degree.
Since it can be considered that in most cases, the major vibrations of the earthquake
ground motions have already ended by this stage, it has been stipulated that the
inertia force and the effects of liquefaction-induced ground flow do not have to be taken
into account at the same time.
In case that liquefaction-induced ground flow affecting a bridge is likely to occur, it is
important to consider measures which include not only reinforcement of the foundation,
but also adoption of a type of foundation having a strong lateral stiffness so as to
ensure the earthquake resistance capacity of the entire bridge.
8.3.2 Calculation of Lateral Force on Foundations by Liquefaction-induced

Ground Flow Force
When considering the effects of liquefaction-induced ground flow, lateral movement

forces acting on pier foundations shall be obtained as below:
In the case where lateral movement occurs under the conditions shown in Fig. 8.3.1,
lateral movement forces per unit area calculated by Equations (8.3.1) and (8.3.2) shall
be applied to structural members in the non-liquefying layer and those in the
liquefying layer, respectively, both of which are located above the depth in
consideration of the effects of lateral movement. In this case, the horizontal resistance
of the soil layer within the thickness necessary to consider the effects of lateral
movement cannot be expected.
qNL＝cs cNL KｐγNL x (0≦x ≦HNL ) ････････････････････ (8.3.1)

qNL＝cs cL { γNLHNL +γL (ｘ-HNL) } (HNL< x ≦HNL + HL ) ･････････････ (8.3.2)
where
qNL: Lateral movement force per unit area (kN/m2 ) acting on a structural member in
a non-liquefying layer at the depth x (m)
qL : Lateral movement force per unit area (kN/m2) acting on a structural member in a
165
liquefying layer at the depth x (m)
cs: Modification factor on distance from the water front. CS shall take a value shown in
Table 8.3.1.
cNL: Modification factor of the lateral movement force in a non-liquefying layer. CNL
shall be a value in Table 8.3.2, according to liquefaction index PL (m2) obtained
from Equation (8.3.3).
PL   1  FL 10  0.5x dx ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (8.3.3)

20
CL : Modification factor of the lateral movement force in a liquefying layer (can be

taken as 0.3)
Kp: Passive earth pressure coefficient (in normal condition)
γNL: Mean unit weight of a non-liquefying layer (kN/m3)
γL : Mean unit weight of a liquefying layer (kN/m3)
x : Depth from the ground surface (m)
HNL: Thickness of non-liquefying layer (m)
HL : Thickness of liquefying layer (m)
FL : Liquefaction resistance factor calculated by Equation (8.2.1). If FL ≧1, FL = 1 .
Non-liquefying layer
Thickness necessary
to consider the
liquefaction-induced Liquefying layer HL
ground flow effects
Thickness Non-liquefying layer

unnecessary to
consider the
liquefaction-induced
ground flow effects
Fig.8.3.1 Model for Calculating Lateral Movement Force
166
Table 8.3.1 Modification Factor Cs on Distance from Water Front
Distance From Water Front s (m) Modification Factor cs
s≦50 1.0
50＜s≦100 0.5
100＜s 0
Table 8.3.2 Modification Factor CNL of Lateral Movement Force in Non-Liquefying

Layer
Liquefaction Index PL (m2) Modification Factor cNL
PL≦5 0
5<PL≦20 (0.2 PL－1)/3
20＜PL 1
Although some aspects of the mechanism of the effects of liquefaction-induced

ground flow on the pier foundation still need further research, a modeling method has
been described in the provisions to deal with the liquefaction-induced ground flow
forces acting upon the pier foundation due to the influence of liquefaction-induced
ground flow. This model was established based on the results of damage analysis of the
bridges on the reclaimed land in the shore areas during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Earthquake. As illustrated in Fig.8.3.1, there is a soil layer that does not liquefy (the
non-liquefying layer) close to the ground surface and a layer that does liquefy below it
(the liquefying layer). The model has been created to show the necessary ranges for
consideration of the influence of liquefaction-induced ground flow for both liquefying
layer and non-liquefying layer. Consequently, when the conditions in design differ
greatly from the model shown in the figure, appropriate modifications shall have to be
made to the model. Besides, in case that the liquefying layer and the non-liquefying
layer exist in an alternating pattern, Fig.8.3.2 shall be referred to for the necessary
ranges of consideration of the influence of liquefaction-induced ground flow.
167
Fig. 8.3.2 An Example of the Necessary Ranges for Consideration of
Liquefaction-induced Ground Flow Effect When a Liquefying Layer and a
Non-liquefying Layer Exist in an Alternating Pattern
Based on the force corresponding to the passive earth pressure of a non-liquefying

layer, Equation (8.3.1) is used to obtain the liquefaction-induced ground flow force per
unit area acting on the structure from the non-liquefying layer. Concerning the
relationship between the liquefaction-induced ground flow force and the distance from
the water front line, the relationship between residual displacement in the piers and
the distance from the water front line observed after the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake
was taken as a reference to provide the modification factors in relation to the distances
as shown in Table 8.3.1. When the quantity of liquefaction-induced ground flow is
small, the liquefaction-induced ground flow force does not reach the passive earth
pressure, but when the quantity increases to a certain extent, the liquefaction-induced
ground flow force will reach the passive earth pressure for the first time. The
coefficient CNL has been given in Table 8.3.2 as a modification factor considering this
phenomenon based on the inverse analysis of the pier foundations damaged by the
liquefaction-induced ground flow during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake.
On the other hand, Equation (8.3.2) provides the liquefaction-induced ground flow
force per unit area acting on a structure from a liquefying layer based on the force
equivalent to the total overburden pressure. The modification factor CL of the
liquefaction-induced ground flow force in a liquefying layer represents the percentage
of the liquefaction-induced ground flow force acting upon the foundation out of the total
168
overburden pressure. The value of CL has been set as 0.3. The reason for this is that
according to the inverse analysis results of the pier foundations suffering from the
residual displacement which was caused by the liquefaction-induced ground flow
during the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, the liquefaction-induced ground flow force
acting upon the foundations located inside the liquefying layer was about 30% of the
total overburden pressure.
Since Equations (8.3.1) and (8.3.2) provide the liquefaction-induced ground flow force
per unit area, the liquefaction-induced ground flow force per unit depth for a pier or
footing can be obtained by multiplying the force by the width of the pier body or footing
body respectively. Also, the liquefaction-induced ground flow force per unit area for a
pile foundation shall be multiplied by the outermost widths between the piles at both
ends of the surface resisting the liquefaction-induced ground flow force. The product
thus obtained shall be treated as the liquefaction-induced ground flow force per unit
depth of the pile foundation. For a foundation type other than a pile foundation, the
value having been multiplied by its width can be regarded as the liquefaction-induced
ground flow force per unit depth of the foundation concerned. For a pile foundation,
sometimes a liquefaction-induced ground flow force passes the first row of piles and
acts on the second and subsequent rows. The mechanism for this phenomenon is still
not well understood. However, this effect is approximately incorporated here
considering the projection area of the outermost edge. In addition, for design purpose,
it can be assumed that all piles share the role of resisting the liquefaction-induced
ground flow force.
In a case that there is no non-liquefying layer above the liquefying layer, when
calculating the liquefaction-induced ground flow force for the ground that liquefies up
to the ground surface, it will be sufficient to consider Equation (8.3.2) while ignoring
Equation (8.3.1). In case of complicated ground conditions, the displacement caused by
liquefaction-induced ground flow can be estimated by using the finite element analysis
etc. when considering the effects of the liquefaction-induced ground flow.
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Chapter 9 Verification of Seismic Performance of Seismically
Isolated (Menshin) Bridges
9.1 General
(1) Introduction of seismic isolation design shall be considered in view of the effects of
increase in natural period and energy absorption capacity of a bridge for both
normal and seismic conditions. In particular, for a bridge meeting the following
conditions, seismic isolation shall not normally be adopted.
1) A bridge on a soil layer for which the seismic geotechnical parameter determined
from Section 8.2.4 is zero.
2) A bridge with a fairly flexible substructure and long fundamental natural period.
3) A bridge on a soft soil layer of long natural period that may cause resonance with
that of the bridge if seismic isolation is introduced.
4) A bridge with uplift at bearing supports.
(2) When seismic isolation is adopted, the bridge should be designed with emphasis on
enhancement of damping properties using a high energy absorption system, and on
dispersion of seismic forces. Excessive increase in the natural period of the bridge
shall be avoided.
(3) Natural period of a seismically-isolated bridge shall be determined in such a

manner that energy is absorbed by the isolation bearings and that an increase in
seismic displacement of the superstructure does not cause any adverse effects on
the bridge functions.
(4) Isolation bearings having good performance by simple mechanisms shall be selected
and used within a range of accurate mechanical behavior. Isolation bearings shall
be firmly fixed to the superstructure and substructure by anchor bolts and be
capable of replacement.
(5) When seismic isolation is adopted, gap allowances shall be kept between main
structures such as abutments, piers and girders so that the displacement assumed
in the design of an isolation system is possible.
170
(6) When an isolation bearing is used as a horizontal force distributing structure
during an earthquake, rather than a seismic force reduction structure through
energy absorption, design structural response based on the damping ratio of the
bridge shall not be reduced.
(1) While revising the previous version of the Seismic Design Specifications (1996), a
new seismic isolation design method was introduced. In this method, it is suggested
that the natural period of an isolation bearing should be lengthened to an appropriate
extent so that improvement of damping performance and reduction of the
superstructural inertia force during an earthquake can be expected. A
seismically-isolated bridge, while being a structure distributing seismic horizontal
forces to disperse the superstructural inertia force to multiple substructures, is
characterized by its capability of reducing the superstructural inertia force during an
earthquake by way of lengthening the natural period and improving the damping
performance through isolation bearings. It is necessary to get a good understanding of
such characteristics of a seismically-isolated bridge when deciding whether to adopt
seismic isolation design or analyzing the seismic behavior of a seismically-isolated
bridge.
In terms of the structure of a seismically-isolated bridge, though it may contain
various types depending on different definitions, the seismically-isolated bridge
adopted here shall satisfy all of the following 3 conditions:
1) To measure the seismic force above certain intensity, isolators are adopted to
support the bridge gently in order to reduce the seismic force while creating a long
natural period.
2) Since over-dependence upon lengthening of the natural period will cause an
excessively big displacement in the bridge during an earthquake, a damper is also
used to reduce the displacement to a certain level so that no problems will occur
during service.
3) In order to maintain the resistance of the bridge to prevent the vibration affecting
the serviceability of the bridge caused by the wind or braking load etc., the isolator
or the damper under use should be allowed to have necessary stiffness.
Here, an isolator is a device that gently supports the superstructure in the lateral
direction while sustaining its weight at the same time. A laminated rubber bearing is
171
primarily used as an isolator. A damper, on the other hand, is a device that absorbs
energy based on the theories of hysteretic damping and viscous damping to improve the
damping performance of the bridge.
Here, only the structures that meet the above three conditions shall be applicable,
for example, a rubber-base isolation bearing unit containing both isolator and damper
just like a laminated bearing with a built-in lead plug or a high damping laminated
rubber bearing, which are increasingly used in practice. In addition to those, new
technologies such as active control or semi-active control are being developed as
described in Section 9.5.
Using an isolation bearing improves the deformation performance and energy
absorption performance of the bridge and also promotes building of a multi-span
continuous bridge and a bridge structure without joints. In view of this, it is desirable
that the continuity of the superstructures should be included in consideration of
adoption of a seismically-isolated bridge.
Whether it is suitable to adopt a seismically-isolated bridge depends on the
structural conditions of the bridge and the conditions of the ground around the
foundation. The seismic performance of a bridge is greatly affected by the stability of
the ground around the foundation during an earthquake. A seismically-isolated bridge
is designed to provide a gentle connection between the superstructure and the
substructure or between the foundation and the pier body so that it will be easier for
the relative displacements to occur between them in order to reduce the seismic force
acting upon the bridge. For this reason, when the ground around the bridge foundation
is estimated to be unstable during an earthquake, the seismic isolation effects
anticipated in the design may not be achieved. In this case, a seismically-isolated
bridge shall not be adopted. Sometimes, the stability of the ground around the
foundation during an earthquake can be badly influenced by the unstable grounds as
described in Chapter 8. For this reason, it is a rule that when a soil layer exists with its
geotechnical parameter specified in Section 8.2.4 being zero in seismic design, a
seismically-isolated bridge shall not be adopted.
In addition, when a bridge has high piers or in a special form with a big substructure
flexibility and a long natural period, it is easy for its substructure to suffer from
significant displacement during an earthquake and the effect of reduction of the inertia
force will be very limited due to the long natural period. It is stipulated that a
seismically-isolated bridge must not be adopted in this situation. Here, the standard
for judging the long natural period of a bridge, though depending on the scale of the
bridge, can generally be set as roughly above 1.0 second on the assumption that all the
172
supporting conditions are fixed. Therefore, when seismic isolation design is adopted for
a bridge with a natural period longer than this, it is recommended that careful study
shall be made on problems such as the displacement of the substructure during an
earthquake and the reduction effect of inertia force due to lengthening of the natural
period and high damping.
Moreover, careful attention shall have to be paid in order to ensure that resonance
between the ground and the bridge does not occur due to adoption of a
seismically-isolated bridge. Concerning the possibility of resonance between the ground
and the bridge, considerations can be made to avoid the closeness between the values of
the natural periods of the ground and the bridge during an earthquake. As to the
natural period of the ground, Equation (4.5.1) shall be used as a standard while taking
into account the stiffness of the ground equivalent to the strain occurred to the ground
during an earthquake. At the same time, it is better to examine the natural vibration
characteristic of the surface ground according to necessity.
Furthermore, since the dynamic characteristics such as the breaking strength and
energy absorption performance of the bearing are yet to be confirmed when the
isolation bearing is subjected to a seismic force in the horizontal direction after
receiving a negative reaction, it has been stipulated that a seismically-isolated bridge
must not be adopted when a bearing receives a negative reaction. Here, the case in
which negative reaction occurs refers to the state when the reaction of the bearing
becomes negative with the dead load being taken into account.
Although the cases in which no seismically-isolated bridge shall be adopted have
been specified in the provisions, the cases that are suitable for a seismically-isolated
bridge shall be provided as follows.
1) When the ground is firm and the ground around the bridge foundation is stable
during an earthquake
2) When the stiffness of the substructure is strong and the natural period of the bridge
is short
3) When it is a multi-span continuous bridge
All of them are conditions in which reduction of the seismic force acting upon the
bridge can be well expected through lengthening of the natural period. A multi-span
continuous bridge is suited for seismically-isolated bridge for the following reasons.
Although building a continuous multi-span increases the displacement of the girder by
factors like changes in temperature, such displacement can be absorbed by the
isolation bearing. The displacement occurred to the girder during an earthquake can
173
also be reduced more effectively than an ordinary rubber bearing. On the other hand,
the effect of seismic isolation design does not generally work well on a simple girder
bridge.
Concerning the structure and design of an isolation bearing, it is recommended that
the Design Manual of Bearings for Highway Bridge (Japan Road Association) can be
used as a reference.
(2) A seismically-isolated bridge is built to reduce the inertia force by creating a long
natural period and enhancing the damping performance. In some foreign countries,
there are examples of reducing the design seismic force by using fairly short natural
periods. In our country, however, the ground conditions are generally rather soft and
earthquakes in large scale tend to occur in which the seismic ground motion component
with a long natural period easily becomes dominant. Based on these conditions, when
determining the design horizontal seismic coefficient for the Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion of Type 1, the values of the natural period in reverse proportion to the
2/3 power of the natural periods which begin to reduce have been set at 1.4 seconds for
Type I ground, 1.6 seconds for Type II ground and 2.0 seconds for Type III ground. For
this reason, unless a longer natural period than these natural periods is created, the
reduction effect of the inertia force will be limited.
However, a longer natural period not only means reduction of the superstructural
inertia force transmitted to the substructure, but also means an increase in the
displacement of the superstructure during an earthquake. Therefore, reducing the
inertia force by creating a longer natural period may prove to be difficult for Type III
ground. In this case, improvement of the damping performance shall be the focus of
seismic isolation design. In the effort of reducing the inertia force by creating a longer
natural period in addition to improving the damping performance, careful
consideration shall be given to restricting the increase of displacement of the
superstructure during an earthquake within the allowable scale in design. An
excessively long natural period shall be avoided.
(3) The natural period of a bridge with an isolation bearing shall be determined in such
a way that while ensuring effective absorption of energy by the isolation bearing, no
adverse effect on the function of the bridge due to increase in the displacement of the
superstructure during an earthquake shall be allowed. In order to achieve this, a
general standard for the natural period of a bridge with isolation bearings can be set as
more than 2 times the natural period of a bridge without isolation bearings. If the
174
difference between the natural period of the superstructure and that of the
substructure is about this much, the influence of the coupled vibrations of the
superstructure and substructure can be kept small, and the displacements of the
bridge will mainly be concentrated in the isolation bearing. On the contrary, if the
natural period of a bridge with a isolation bearing is less than 2 times the natural
period of a bridge without any isolation bearing, the deformations sometimes may be
concentrated in the substructure instead of in the isolation bearing. In this situation,
the isolation bearing will not be able to function effectively. Seismic isolation design
shall have to be done to prevent this from happening. The natural period of a bridge
without an isolation bearing can be assumed to be the natural period when all the
bearings are regarded as fixed bearings. It should be noted that the standard of more
than 2 times the natural period of a bridge with an isolation bearing has been set for
verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion only. For verification for Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion, it is acceptable that this condition does not have to be
satisfied. On the other hand, if the natural period is set as more than 2 times, a
reasonable design may turn out to be difficult due to the excessive displacement of the
superstructure. In a case like this, although it is acceptable to set the increasing rate of
the natural period as less than 2 times, careful study shall have to be made to ensure
that the deformations shall be concentrated in the isolation bearing instead of in the
substructure.
(4) These are the standards for the structure and selection of an isolation bearing. The
following conditions shall have to be met by the isolation bearing to be used.
1) It shall be simple in mechanism but with full functions and shall able to be used
within the scale where its mechanical behaviors are well understood.
2) It shall demonstrate stable performance throughout the period while the
earthquake ground motions last.
3) In terms of its materials and mechanism, the isolation bearing shall serve a long
period of time in stable working conditions. Since an isolation bearing may
deteriorate in quality or be damaged after an extended service period, it is
necessary to have a structure that allows replacement of an isolation bearing
having the same properties as in design in such a case.
4) Anchor bolts and other fixtures shall effectively transmit the seismic forces
between the isolation bearing and the girder or between the bearing and the
substructure.
175
(5) Since creating a longer natural period will increase the displacement of the
superstructure during an earthquake, the key issue is the laying gaps between the
abutment and the superstructure, between adjacent superstructures and between
major structural members. A seismically-isolated bridge is designed based on the
assumption that the displacement equivalent to the design displacement of the
isolation bearing will be generated in the bearing. It is therefore necessary to avoid the
case in which the assumed design displacement fails to occur because of the impact
between the abutment and the superstructure. It is suggested that spacing is designed
at the end of the superstructure by following the specifications in Section 14.4.1 in
principle. However, a large spacing might mean a longer expansion length of the
expansion joint, forcing its structure to become larger. This may cause problems in
maintenance, driving conditions, vibration and noise. Therefore, in adoption of a
seismically-isolated bridge, the following measures are recommended for examination:
1) The bridge should have a multi-span continuous structure to create a structural

system that vibrates together as a whole.
2) An expansion device and an abutment capable of absorbing the big displacements
that will possibly occur to the end of the superstructure or the abutment should be
adopted. Measures should be taken to ensure that the spacing can truly be
maintained during a big earthquake.
In case that two ends of a superstructure are designed to be built upon one pier, in
order to prevent from harmful influence upon each other due to the impact between the
two design vibration units in the superstructure ends, careful considerations shall have
to be given avoid a big difference between the natural periods of the two design
vibration units.
(6) An isolation bearing can also be used as a bearing simply for dispersing the
horizontal forces during an earthquake, for which reduction of seismic force by energy
absorption is not expected. In a case like this in which seismic design is not considered,
since lengthening of the natural period and improvement of energy absorption
performance of the seismic isolation bearing will not be included in the verification,
reduction of the seismic ground motion based on the damping ratio of the bridge shall
not be allowed. In addition, when verification of seismic performance for a bridge with
this kind of design is carried out by dynamic method, when modeling the bearing,
176
considerations shall be devoted to preventing the damping effect of the isolation
bearing from being over expected. As to the damping ratio of this kind of bearing, it is
sufficient to use about the same damping ratio of an ordinary rubber bearing.
In addition, when an isolation bearing is used as a bearing for dispersing the
horizontal forces during an earthquake, the ductility capacity and the allowable
displacement of the pier shall be calculated by following Section 10.2 for a Reinforced
Concrete Columns and Section 11.2 for a steel pier respectively.
9.2 Verification of Seismic Performance of Seismically-Isolated Bridges
(1) Verification of seismic performance of a seismically-isolated bridge shall be based on

the provisions specified in Section 5.5, together with proper consideration of the
bridge properties. In calculating seismic response of the isolation bridge, the
isolation bearing can be modeled in accordance with the provisions provided in
Section 9.3.
(2) Allowable ductility ratio of Reinforced Concrete Columns in a seismically-isolated

bridge shall be obtained by Equation (9.2.1)
u   y
μｍ＝1  ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (9.2.1)
 m y
where
μ m: Allowable ductility ratio of an Reinforced Concrete Columns in
seismically-isolated bridge
αm: Safety factor used for the calculation of the Reinforced Concrete Columns. αm
shall be calculated by Equation (9.2.2)
αm = 2α ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (9.2.2)
α : Safety factor used for calculation of the allowable ductility ratio of the
Reinforced Concrete Columns, and is specified in Table 10.2.1
δy,δu : Yield displacement and ultimate displacement of the Reinforced Concrete
Columns, respectively, and shall be calculated by referring to Section 10.3
177
(3) Isolation bearings shall be verified in accordance with the provisions in Chapter 15.
In addition, only isolation bearings having the fundamental functions specified in
Section 9.4 shall be basically selected.
(4) Design of superstructural end of a seismically-isolated bridge shall be based on

Section 14.4.
(1) Although verification of seismic performance of a seismically-isolated bridge shall be

done based on Chapter 5, it is stipulated here that proper consideration of the
properties of such a bridge shall be included in the verification. For a
seismically-isolated bridge subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the
nonlinearity of the isolation bearing and the secondary plasticity of the pier shall be
taken into account. Therefore, as shown in Table C-5.5.1, a seismically-isolated bridge
shall be classified as a bridge having complex seismic behaviors during an earthquake
and verification of such bridge shall be carried out by dynamic method. During
verification by using dynamic method, Chapter 7 shall be followed and the points listed
below shall also be confirmed at the same time.
1) As expected in seismic design, displacements shall be absorbed mainly by the

isolation bearings and no excessive displacements shall be concentrated in the
substructure.
2) As expected in seismic design, the damping performance shall be improved by the
isolation bearings.
Additionally, for an ordinary seismically-isolated bridge, once the first mode mainly
consisted of the displacement of the isolation bearing becomes dominant, the vibration
characteristics of all the piers will turn out to be roughly the same in most cases.
Therefore, in the process of modeling, unnecessarily complicated models should be
avoided. Each pier can be separated according to necessity in order to create a model
capable of reflecting the vibration characteristics of the bridge appropriately.
(2) When seismic isolation design is adopted, the safety factor used for calculating the
ductility capacity of a Reinforced Concrete Columns shall be 2 times the values shown
in Table C-10.2.1. The purposes of this are to restrict the response occurred in a
Reinforced Concrete Columns as the secondary plastic deformation and minimize
178
damages. At the same time the tasks of lengthening the natural period and absorbing
energy shall be truly realized by the isolation bearing but not by the pier.
Here, the ductility capacity of a steel pier is not provided. The reason for this is that
since a bridge with steel piers generally has a long natural period and in many cases it
is not reasonable to adopt seismic isolation design for such a bridge. In case that
seismic isolation design is introduced for a bridge with steel piers, careful attention is
needed to confirm if it is possible for the isolation bearing to realize lengthening of the
natural period and absorbing of energy.
(3) The design seismic force used for verification of an isolation bearing and the
verification method shall be in accordance with the rules specified in Chapter 15. As
stated in Section 15.1, an isolation bearing shall be classified as a Type B support and
its verification shall be performed for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. This is
because in a seismically-isolated bridge, the isolation bearing is an important
structural element for which reduction of inertia force is expected during an
earthquake and in verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the property of
an isolation bearing plays a dominant role.
In addition, it is a principle that in order to enable the property of an isolation
bearing to function properly under the assumed design conditions, an isolation bearing
possessing the basic functions specified in Section 9.4 shall be adopted.
(5) In adoption of a seismically-isolated bridge, in order to truly allow the assumed

displacement in design to occur to the isolation bearing, impact between the end of the
superstructure and the abutment or the end of an adjacent superstructure shall be
avoided. Studies shall be conducted and considerations be given to the structure of the
end of a superstructure based on Section 14.4.
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9.3 Analytical Model of Isolation Bearings
9.3.1 General
An isolation bearing can be modeled as a nonlinear member having inelastic hysteretic

property or an equivalent linear member having equivalent stiffness and damping
ratio. In the case of modeling an isolation bearing as a nonlinear member, reference
shall be made to provisions in Section 9.3.2. In the case of modeling an isolation
bearing as an equivalent linear member, design displacement and equivalent stiffness
and damping ratio of the bearing shall be based on Section 9.3.3.
Since an isolation bearing generally has inelastic hysteretic property, it is required

that it should be modeled into a nonlinear member or an equivalent linear member
capable of expressing such characteristics appropriately. Especially in case of
verification of seismic performance based on the static method, an isolation bearing can
be modeled by following the equivalent linear method. In the equivalent linear method,
the properties of a member having inelastic hysteretic property are modeled into a
linear member having the equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping ratio.
During application of this method, the displacement that may occur in the isolation
bearing shall first be assumed before the analysis. Then, the equivalent stiffness and
the equivalent damping ratio correspondent to the assumed displacement shall be
obtained. After calculating the displacement occurred to the isolation bearing in that
system, repeated calculations of the value thus obtained shall be done until it
converges into the value of the displacement of the isolation bearing which has been
assumed at the beginning of design.
A laminated rubber bearing with a built-in lead plug and a high damping laminated
rubber bearing are commonly used as isolation bearings. Their inelastic hysteretic
property can be found by referring to the Handbook of Bearing for Highway Bridge
(Japan Road Association).
9.3.2 Inelastic Hysteretic Model of Isolation Bearings
In modeling an isolation bearing as a nonlinear member, a bilinear model illustrated in

Fig. 9.3.1 shall be employed. In this case the initial stiffness and secondary stiffness
shall be appropriately determined according to its properties.
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Fig. 9.3.1 Inelastic Hysteretic Model of Isolation Bearing
Since an isolation bearing generally has inelastic hysteretic property, it is necessary

to use a model capable of expressing this property of the bearing properly during the
time history response analysis or verification of a seismically-isolated bridge. As stated
in the provision, the laminated rubber bearing with a built-in lead plug and the high
damping laminated rubber bearing used increasingly can generally be expressed as a
bilinear model. In this case, however, it is required that the isolation bearing shall be
given an appropriate stiffness corresponding to its characteristics. In case that an
isolation bearing that cannot be expressed as a bilinear model is used, it shall have to
be modeled correctly.
9.3.3 Equivalent Linear Model of Isolation Bearings
In modeling an isolation bearing as an equivalent linear member, design displacement,

and equivalent stiffness and damping ratio shall be obtained in the following manner:
(1) Design displacement of an isolation bearing
To calculate equivalent stiffness and damping ratio of an isolation bearing, design

displacement (uB) and the effective design displacement (uBe) can be obtained by
Equations (9.3.1) and (9.3.2), respectively.
181
k hWU
(in case of verification for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion)
KB
uB= ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (9.3.1)
cm Pu
(in case of verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion)
KB
uBe = cB uB･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (9.3.2)
where
uB: Design displacement of an isolation bearing (m)
uBe: Effective design displacement of an isolation bearing (m)
kh: Design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion,
Pu: Horizontal force equal to the lateral strength of a pier when considering plastic
behavior of the pier, and horizontal force corresponding to the maximum
response displacement of a foundation within its plastic behavior (kN)
cm: Dynamic modification factor used for the calculation of design displacement of
isolation bearing, and can be taken as 1.2.
KB: Equivalent stiffness of isolation bearing used for the calculation of uB (kN/m)
Wu: Weight of superstructure, whose horizontal force is borne by the isolation
bearing (kN)
cB: Modification factor representing the dynamic properties of the inertia force,
and shall be taken as 0.7.
(2) Equivalent stiffness and damping ratio of an isolation bearing

Equivalent stiffness and damping ratio of an isolation bearing can be calculated by
Equations (9.3.3) and (9.3.4), respectively.
F u Be   F  u Be 
KB  ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (9.3.3)
2u Be
⊿W
hB  ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (9.3.4)
2W
where
KB : Equivalent stiffness of an isolation bearing (kN/m)
hB : Equivalent damping ratio of an isolation bearing
F(u): Horizontal force necessary to produce the horizontal displacement u of an
isolation bearing (kN)
182
W : Elastic energy of an isolation bearing (kN･m), and equal to the triangular area
in Fig. 9.3.2.
ΔW : Total energy absorbed by isolation bearing, and equal to the area inside the
hysteretic curve of horizontal displacement and force, shown in Fig. 9.3.2. (kN･m)
Fig. 9.3.2 Equivalent Stiffness and Damping Ratio of an Isolation Bearing
(1) When modeling an isolation bearing into a equivalent linear member, the
displacement that is likely to occur to the bearing shall have to be assumed. During
verification for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, the displacement occurred to the
isolation bearing can be taken as the design displacement uB, in case that the inertia
force obtained by using the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section
6.3.3 is acted. During verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, in case of
plasticity being considered for a pier, the horizontal force equivalent to the ultimate
strength of the pier can be used while in case of plasticity being considered for the
foundation, the horizontal force equivalent to the maximum response displacement of
the foundation can be adopted. Then, either of these horizontal forces shall be
multiplied by the dynamic modification factor used for calculation of the design
displacement of the isolation bearing. When the product thus obtained, which is a
horizontal force, is acting on the bridge, the displacement occurred to the bearing can
be taken as the design displacement uB.
In case that plasticity is considered for the foundation or the pier, since the design
seismic force acting on the bearing generally remains constant, there is no need to do
repeated calculations. However, if plasticity is not considered for the foundation nor for
the pier, due to the inelastic hysteretic property of the isolation bearing, the stiffness or
183
damping ratio will generally vary according to the design displacement of the isolation
bearing. Therefore, the design displacement of the isolation bearing shall be based on
to decide the equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping ratio and then this
equivalent linear model shall be used to calculate the seismic response of the bridge.
The analysis results of the obtained displacement occurred to the isolation bearing and
the damping ratio shall have to be adjusted with the design displacement and damping
ratio assumed at the beginning of the design for the isolation bearing. In case that the
design displacement assumed for the isolation bearing by using Equation (9.3.1) differs
from the displacement occurred to the isolation bearing obtained from the above
process, the design displacement of the isolation bearing has to be revised and the
same calculations shall be done again. Although it is hoped that the displacement
occurred to the isolation bearing obtained from the seismic isolation design can be as
close as possible to the design displacement of the isolation bearing, it would be
unreasonable to perform excessive calculations for this purpose. Therefore, in order to
prevent the difference in the equivalent stiffness from affecting the natural period and
the seismic response greatly during an earthquake, it is recommended that the
displacement occurred to the isolation bearing calculated in the isolation design is
generally restricted within ±10% of the design displacement of the isolation bearing.
In some cases, due to the difference between the phases of the superstructure and
the piers, the displacement of the isolation bearing, which is obtained when acting
statically the horizontal force equivalent to the ultimate strength of the pier or the
horizontal force equivalent to the maximum response displacement of the foundation,
may be smaller than the displacement actually occurred to the isolation bearing. To
make up this difference, the dynamic modification factor cm used for calculation of the
design displacement of the isolation bearing has been designated as 1.2 based on a
comparison between the results of the static and dynamic analyses.
Concerning the changes in the displacement occurred to an isolation bearing during
an earthquake in response to time, though it may vary according to the characteristics
of the earthquake ground motions, in order to determine the equivalent stiffness and
the equivalent damping ratio of the isolation bearing, the value correspondent to the
actual value (the effective value) shall be more important than the value correspondent
to the maximum displacement occurred in the isolation bearing. Here, the actual value
shall be called the effective design displacement of the isolation bearing and shall be
obtained by Equation (9.3.2). The modification factor cB expressing the dynamic
properties of the inertia force has been set as 0.7. This is because in order to reflect the
seismic response of a bridge by using the equivalent linearization method, it will be
184
appropriate to use the equivalent stiffness KB and the equivalent damping ratio hB
which are equivalent to the displacement of about 70% of the maximum response
displacement.
(2) Since the reduction of the seismic force by an isolation bearing is realized by an
isolator to create a longer natural period and a damper to absorb energy, the stiffness
and the damping ratio of the isolation bearing shall have to be determined correctly. As
the relationship between the horizontal force and the horizontal displacement of an
isolation bearing is generally non-linear, the calculation equations for expressing the
stiffness and damping ratio of the isolation bearing corresponding to the effective
design displacement by using the equivalent linearization method have been provided.
Different values can be obtained for the effective design displacement uBe of the
isolation bearing for the verification of seismic performance under Level 1 and Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion respectively. Two different values can also be obtained for
the equivalent stiffness KB and the equivalent damping ratio hB according to the
effective design displacement uBe of the isolation bearing.
Generally, the nonlinear characteristics of the isolation bearing can be expressed by
a bilinear model demonstrated in Fig. C-9.3.1. In this case, the equivalent stiffness and
the equivalent damping ratio of the isolation bearing shall be given as follows.
Where,
KB: Equivalent stiffness of isolation bearing (kN/m)
hB: Equivalent damping ratio of isolation bearing
Qd : Yield load of isolation bearing as shown by Fig.C-9.3.1 (kN)
uBe: Effective design displacement of isolation structure (m)
K1, K2 : Initial and secondary stiffness of isolation bearing as shown by Fig.C-9.3.l
(kN/m)
185
Fig.C-9.3.l Hysteretic Property of an Isolation Bearing
9.4 Basic Performance Requirement for Isolation Bearings
(1) Variations of the equivalent stiffness of an isolation bearing shall be within ±10%
of the value obtained by Section 9.3.3. On the other hand, the equivalent damping
ratio of an isolation bearing shall be greater than the value calculated from Section
9.3.3.
(2) An isolation bearing shall be stable when subjected to repeated load corresponding
to the design displacement uB calculated in the verification for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion, as specified in Section 9.3.3.
(3) An isolation bearing shall possess positive tangential stiffness within the range of
the design displacement uB calculated in the verification for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion, as specified in Section 9.3.3.
(4) An isolation bearing shall generally prevent an occurrence of residual displacement

affecting post-earthquake bridge functions.
(5) Equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping ratio of an isolation bearing shall
186
be stable for environmental conditions including repeated live loads and
temperature changes.
(1) Although the indices to determine the dynamic characteristics of an isolation

bearing include the equivalent stiffness, the equivalent damping ratio and yield load,
the effects of seismic isolation are basically dependent on the equivalent stiffness and
the equivalent damping ratio of the isolation bearing. Accordingly, the changes in the
value of the equivalent stiffness of the isolation bearing corresponding to the effective
design displacement uBe of the isolation bearing specified in Section 9.3.3, which is
used for verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, shall be limited within ±
10% of the design value. Besides, it is a rule that an isolation bearing with the
equivalent damping ratio well above the design value shall be selected for use.
Here, the equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping ratio of the isolation
bearing refer to the average respective values calculated from 10 repeated alternative
loads by using the effective design displacement uBe of the isolation bearing specified in
Section 9.3.3 for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. Once the average values of the
equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping ratio of the isolation bearing meet the
conditions specified above in relation to the design values, the changing range of the
response acceleration or response displacement of the superstructure will not cause
any particular problems in design.
In addition, an isolation bearing that displays a big deviation in the values of the
dynamic characteristics or which does not give a stable hysteretic curve must not be
used.
(2) An isolation bearing may experience a rise in temperature and drop in energy
absorption performance caused by the accumulation of energy absorbing as well as a
loss of energy absorption capacity caused by fracture. Therefore, it has been stipulated
that the energy absorption capacity of an isolation bearing shall have to be designed to
be sufficiently bigger than the energy input of the earthquake.
Concerning the number of times of repeated alternative loads, the standards of
approximately 50 times for consideration of Type I Earthquake Ground Motion and
approximately 15 times for consideration of Type II Earthquake Ground Motion have
been provided. Some points still remain unclear about the frequency of repeated
alternative loads in response to different types of seismic ground motions. However, it
is generally known that the earthquake ground motions in a large scaled earthquake of
the plate boundary type like Type I Earthquake Ground Motion tend to have a high
187
repeated frequency. On the other hand, for Type II Earthquake Ground Motion in an
earthquake of inland near-field type like the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, the
repeated frequency is likely to be low. Here, it is anticipated that the repeated
frequency for each earthquake cycle is approximately 30 times for Type I Earthquake
Ground Motion and between seven and eight times for Type II Earthquake Ground
Motion. In order to ensure the safety of the isolation bearing, bigger values than these
have been provided.
(3) Even if a major displacement which falls into the nonlinear zone has occurred in an
isolation bearing, the displacement shall not be allowed to accumulate in one direction
during an earthquake. For this reason, it is required that only an isolation bearing that
always has a positive tangential stiffness within the range of the design displacement
uB of the isolation bearing shall be selected for use in principle.
(4) A seismically-isolated bridge shall have to be designed to prevent the occurrence of

the residual displacement that may badly affect the driving conditions on the bridge
after an earthquake. The recoverability of the isolation bearing to its original position
can be expressed by the residual displacement uBR occurred when the isolation bearing
is naturally released from the design displacement uB of the isolation bearing, which is
used for the verification of seismic performance for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion,
and is made to freely vibrate. The standard for the residual displacement uBR of the
isolation bearing can be set at a level lower than 10% of the design displacement uB of
the isolation bearing specified in Section 9.3.3 which is used for the Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion. However, when it is difficult to conduct an experiment for
the actual isolation bearing due to its big size or other conditions, a model reduced in
size can be used for proper study.
(5) An isolation bearing shall possess a stable equivalent stiffness and equivalent
damping ratio in the temperature environment within the range specified in Part I
Common Provisions. At the same time, when the state of the bearing in which the
bearing possess a static pre-displacement due to creep or dry contraction is taken as
the starting point, or even after the bearing is subjected to the repeated alternative
loads of expansion and contraction of the girder caused by temperature changes and of
vibration due to live loads, the equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping ratio
shall have to remain stable.
188
9.5 Other Structures for Reducing Effects of Earthquake
When reduction of seismic response of a bridge is expected by using structures or

devices other than seismic isolation, careful investigation shall be carried out on
dynamic characters and seismic behavior of the bridge, and unseating of the bridge
shall be fully ensured.
The seismic isolation design introduced in this Chapter is the design method to
reduce the displacement of a girder by using a rubber bearing to support the
superstructure gently in the horizontal direction and to create a long natural period. At
the same time, energy absorbing devices such as a damper are also adopted in order to
reduce the displacement of the girder. Design of the seismic isolation device is based on
the assumption that the rubber bearing and the energy absorbing devices are treated
as a whole seismic isolation bearing.
Apart from the seismic isolation design specified in this Chapter, various new energy
absorption devices, supporting structures and vibration control technologies such as
active control and semi-active control are being developed. Since these cases are still
uncommon at the present stage, concrete design details are not included here.
Considering that this kind of technologies and trial cases of the new devices will be
expected to increase in the coming years, only the general principle for designing the
structures anticipated to reduce effects of earthquake has been provided in the current
version.
In case that the structures or devices for which reduction of the effects of earthquake
is expected are adopted, the following conditions shall have to be satisfied.
① It shall be simple in mechanism and can be used within the scale in which its
mechanic behaviors are well understood.
② It shall be able to function in a stable condition under Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion.
③ Verification of seismic performance using the dynamic analysis shall be carried out
to evaluate the vibration characteristics of the whole bridge.
189
Chapter 10 Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity of
Reinforced Concrete Columns
10.1 General
(1) In verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 and Level 3 of an Reinforced

Concrete Columns, lateral strength and ductility capacity of the pier shall be
calculated in accordance with Section 10.2. However, lateral strength and ductility
capacity of a single story Reinforced Concrete rigid-frame pier or an Reinforced
Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric moment due to dead load of the
superstructure shall be calculated in accordance with Sections 10.8 and 10.9,
respectively.
(2) When plastic behavior of an Reinforced Concrete Columns is expected in the seismic
design, structural details shall conform to Sections 10.6 and 10.7, in order to ensure
its plastic deformation performance.
(1) In the previous version of Seismic Design of the Specifications (1996), for the
application scale of the ductility design method in regard to Reinforced Concrete
Columns, not only single column piers but also the single story Reinforced Concrete ｔ
wo ｃolumn ｂents were included. At the same time, a few new methods such as the
calculation method of the ultimate displacement of the pier with consideration of the
restraining effect of lateral hoop ties and the cyclic property of earthquake ground
motions, the equation for evaluation of shear strength were introduced. In the current
version, the following revisions have been made based on the new research and
analysis results and theories in relation to the earthquake resistance capacity of a
Reinforced Concrete Columns that have been collected ever since then.
1) Clarification of the basic consideration method in regard to arrangement of
reinforcing bars
2) Introduction of the calculation method for the ultimate limit state for the in-plane
direction of a rigid-frame Reinforced Concrete Columns
Furthermore, concerning a Reinforced Concrete Columns with lateral confining
reinforcement in the interlocking form and a steel Reinforced Concrete Columns, some
progress have been made in the researches regarding their earthquake resistance
capacity. Issues such as the lateral strength and the plastic deformation performance
have been clearly understood now. Basically, the lateral strength and the ductility
190
capacity for the piers in these structural forms can generally be obtained in the same
way as for a Reinforced Concrete Columns based on Section 10.2. However, in this case,
it is required that the lateral restraining effect of the lateral confining reinforcement,
the influence of the steel frame etc. on the original properties of the structural form
concerned shall be evaluated properly based on the experimental results in order to
calculate the lateral strength and the ductility capacity.
In recent years, application of high strength reinforcing bars into Reinforced
Concrete members are being studied. In case that high strength reinforcing bars are
used in a Reinforced Concrete Columns, their difference from the traditional structure
that can be considered in terms of seismic resistance lies in a smaller stretching
capacity after the yield and a bigger elastic limit state displacement etc. of the high
strength reinforcing bars.
As to the mechanism of damage when the pier is subjected to repeated alternative
loads and the applicability of the equation for calculation of the ultimate limit state,
the data accumulated up to now is not yet sufficient. Therefore, in case that high
strength reinforcing bars are adopted for a pier, it is recommended that careful studies
should be made on this kind of influence.
(2) In order to ensure sufficient deformation performance of an Reinforced Concrete
Columns, the necessary structural details for arrangement of reinforcing bars have
been provided from the point of view of seismic design. Nevertheless, structural details
specified here are only meant for the Reinforced Concrete bridge pier to which seismic
design is applied with consideration of plastic deformation performance when the pier
is subjected to repeated deformations during an earthquake.
191
10.2 Evaluation of Failure Mode, Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity
(1) Failure mode of an Reinforced Concrete Columns shall be evaluated by Equation

(10.2.1).
Pu ≦ Ps : Flexural (or bending) failure

Ps < Pu ≦ Ps0 : Shear failure after flexural yielding ･･･････････････ (10.2.1)
Ps0 < Pu : Shear failure
where
Pu: Lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns, as specified in Section 10.3
(N)
Ps: Shear strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns, as specified in Section 10.5
(N)
Ps0: Shear strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns calculated by assuming that
the modification factor on the effects of repeated alternative loads specified in
Section 10.5 (N), is equal to 1.0.
(2) Lateral strength Pa of an Reinforced Concrete Columns shall be calculated by

Equation (10.2.2), depending on the failure mode.
Pu (Flexural failure) (where Pc < Pu)

Pa = Pu (Shear failure after flexural yielding) ･･･････････････････････････ (10.2.2)
Ps0 (Shear failure)
where
Pa: Lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns (N)
Pc: Lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns at cracking, specified in
Section 10.3 (N)
(3) Ductility capacity μ a of an Reinforced Concrete Columns shall be calculated

depending on the failure mode as follows:
1) Ductility capacity for flexural failure shall be calculated by Equation (10.2.3):
192
u  y
 a 1 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.2.3)
 y
where
μa : Ductility capacity of the Reinforced Concrete Columns
δu: Ultimate displacement of the Reinforced Concrete Columns, specified in Section
10.3 (mm)
δy: Yield displacement of the Reinforced Concrete Columns, specified in Section 10.3
(mm)
α : Safety factor shown in Table 10.2.1
Table 10.2.1 Safety Factor in Calculating Ductility Capacity of an Reinforced Concrete

Columns Resulting in Flexural Failure
Safety Factor α in Safety Factor α in
Seismic
Calculation of Ductility Calculation of Ductility
Performance to
Capacity for Type I Capacity for Type II
be Verified
Earthquake Ground Motion Earthquake Ground Motion
Seismic
Performance 3.0 1.5
Level 2
Seismic
Performance 2.4 1.2
Level 3
2) For a pier of shear failure after flexural yielding or shear failures, the Ductility
Capacity shall be taken as 1.0.
(1) The failure modes of reinforce concrete piers have been classified into the following
three types: the flexural failure, the shear failure after flexural yielding and the shear
failure. This classification is made based on the relationship between the ultimate
strength specified in Section 10.3 and the shear strength specified in Section 10.5. Here,
in Equation (10.2.1), the failure modes are evaluated by a comparison of only the
ultimate strength and the shear strength. In order to correctly evaluate the shear
failure that will turn into brittle damage, in the calculation equation of the shear
strength specified in Section 10.5, diversion in the values obtained from the
experiments have been taken into account so that a conservative evaluation can be
193
given to the shear strength. Therefore, when the equation for evaluation of shear
strength other than the one provided in Section 10.5 is used and Equation (10.2.1) is
adopted to judge the failure mode of a pier, careful attention shall be paid to the
diversion in the values obtained from these equations.
(2) According to the results of the repeated alternative loading test conducted for an
Reinforced Concrete Columns, the horizontal force - horizontal displacement skeleton
curve can generally be expressed by an ideal elasto-plastic model as shown in
Fig.C-10.2. 1. The axial tensile reinforcement at the outmost edge of the section at the
time of the yield shall be regarded as the initial yield limit state and its initial yield
displacementδy0 shall be calculated. The elastic limit point in the ideal elasto-plastic
model has been defined as the yield displacementδy. The reason for this is that even if
the initial yield displacement is exceeded, stiffness does not drop abruptly because of
the axial reinforcement located on the side. Also, treating the elastic limit point in the
skeleton curve as the yield point produces a better conformity with the elasto-plastic
model with the assumption of the property of energy conservation. Therefore, in case of
flexural failure, lateral strength of the pier shall be calculated by Equation (10.2.2).
However, when the pier has a very big section and the axial reinforcement ratio is
likely to become rather small, it is possible that the ultimate strength calculated by
following Section 10.3 may become smaller than the crack horizontal strength. When a
strong seismic force acts on such a bridge pier, it is afraid that cracking of concrete will
occur causing a quick decline in the strength and resulting in complete failure of the
pier. For this reason, for a Reinforced Concrete Columns of flexural failure type, the
ultimate strength shall have to be designed to be bigger than the crack horizontal
strength.
On the other hand, for shear failure after flexural yielding, as specified in (3) below,
the ultimate strength shall be regarded as the lateral strength on the condition that
the design should prevent repeated deformations from happening within the plastic
range. Similarly for shear failure, also as described in (3) below, the design shall
ensure that no repeated deformations occur within the plastic range and the shear
strength shall be calculated by using the value of 1.0 as the modification factor on the
effect of repeated reciprocating loads as designated in Section 10.5. The value of the
shear strength thus obtained shall be treated as the lateral strength.
Fig.C-10.2.2 is a calculation flowchart for the lateral strength of a Reinforced
Concrete Columns.
194
Fig.C-10.2.1 Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity for Flexural Failure
(3) It is a rule that the ductility capacity of a Reinforced Concrete Columns shall be
calculated according to the failure mode, the type of earthquake ground motion and the
grade of seismic performance for verification.
1) For flexural failure shown in Fig.C-10.2.1, the ductility capacity in regard to the
deformation performance after the axial tensile reinforcement yields shall be calculated
by Equation (10.2.3) by taking into account the safety factor α.
As shown in Table 10.2.1, the ductility capacity is divided into two types according to
the types of the Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Section 2.2. This
classification is made in order to change the ductility capacity in accordance with the
types of earthquake ground motion. A comparison between Type I and Type II
Earthquake Ground Motions shows that Type II occurs less frequently and that the
cycling of its major motions is less, too. The ductility capacity shall be allowed to
change according to these differences in occurrence frequency and repeated
characteristics for different types of earthquake ground motions.
According to the results of the repeated alternative loading test for a Reinforced
Concrete Columns model with a sufficient number of lateral hoop ties arranged within
the range in which a plastic hinge is formed, it is found that a horizontal force and
horizontal displacement are related in the following way. After the axial reinforcement
yields, while the horizontal strength becomes stable and is maintained as it is, the
horizontal strength begins to decrease due to spalling of cover concrete and buckling of
axial reinforcement. Then, the ultimate state will be reached due to crushing of the
core concrete and fracture of the axial reinforcement. Here, the starting point of the
195
decrease in the horizontal strength being stable around the level of maximum
horizontal strength shall be regarded as the ultimate displacement in the design. This
is because the decrease in the horizontal strength becomes more apparent when this
level is exceeded and undesirable effects may be produced on the residual displacement.
However, it should be noted that this is the ultimate state assumed from the point of
view of design. So long as the design details specified in Section 10.6 are followed, the
fatal weakening of the horizontal strength can well be prevented. Based on the results
of the previous repeated alternative loading tests, it is understood that the ultimate
displacement corresponds to the ultimate displacements for different types of
earthquake ground motions. In case that the repeated alternative loading cycle is 1 to 3
times, it corresponds to the ultimate displacement of Type II Earthquake Ground
Motion calculated by the method provided in Section 10.3 and in case of the repeated
alternative loading cycle being approximately 10 times, it corresponds to that of Type I
Earthquake Ground Motion calculated by the method provided in the same section.
Therefore, in case of Type II Earthquake Ground Motion, the ductility capacity shall
be calculated by Equation (10.2.3) by using the safety factor set as 1.5 for the ultimate
displacement. In this way, the damage occurring to the reinforced concrete can
generally be controlled within the state before serious spalling of cover concrete
happens. For verification of Seismic Performance Level 2, this point shall be taken as
the ductility factor that can be allowed in an earthquake. For verification of Seismic
Performance Level 3, the safety factor to be secured against the Type II Earthquake
Ground Motion has been set as 1.2. This is based on the considerations that the point
of 1.2 is equivalent to the degree of damage on the verge of a large-scaled spalling of
cover concrete and that the fatal damage leading to the collapse of the pier can be
safely prevented.
On the other hand, since the frequency of the major motions of Type I Earthquake
Ground Motion is higher, based on the repeated alternative loading test of around 10
times, the safety factor has been set as 3.0 for verification of Seismic Performance
Level 2 and 2.4 for Seismic Performance Level 3. This corresponds to the degree of
damage at which horizontal cracks of certain widths are likely to occur generally.
2) For shear failure, it is possible that a brittle failure due to lack of ductility may occur.
Therefore, it is generally desirable that the seismic design is limited to the flexural
failure. However, in some cases designing for flexural failure is not a rational choice.
An example of this is a wall-shaped pier which has a big bending strength in the
perpendicular direction to the bridge axis. In a case like this, the ductility capacity has
been set at 1.0 without expecting the ductility of the plastic ranges in seismic
196
calculation. Also, in case of shear failure after yielding, considering the shifting to
shear failure in the process of repeated actions of plastic deformation on the pier, the
ductility capacity has also been set at 1.0.
Start
Modification factor on the effect of

repeated alternative loads
0.6 (Seismic Motion Type I)
cc =
Calculation of the ultimate 0.8(Seismic Motion Type II)
strength Pu
Calculation of shear strength Ps
Yes Pu≦Ps No
Calculation of shear strength Ps

assuming the modification factor
on the effect of repeated alternative
loads cc = 1.0
Yes Pu≦Ps0
No
Shear failure after
Flexural failure flexural yielding Shear failure
Pa=Pu
Pa=Pu Pa=Ps0
u  y μa=1.0
 a 1 μa=1.0
 y
End
Fig.C-10.2.2 Evaluation of Failure Mode & Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity for
an Reinforced Concrete Columns
197
10.3 Calculation of Lateral Strength and Displacement
Lateral strength Pc at cracking, yielding lateral strength Py, the lateral strength Pu,
yield displacementδy, and ultimate displacement δu of a single-column Reinforced
Concrete Columns shall be calculated for both Type I and Type II Earthquake Ground
Motions defined in Section 2.2, with the following conditions:
(1) Fiber strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
(2) Skeleton curve between horizontal force and horizontal displacement shall be
expressed by an ideal elasto-plastic model shown in Fig. 10.3.1.
(3) Stress-strain curve and ultimate strain of concrete shall conform to Section 10.4.
(4) Stress-strain curve of a reinforcing bar shall conform to Fig. 10.3.2.
(5) Lateral strength Pc at cracking shall be calculated by Equation (10.3.1)
W N
Pc  ( b t  ) ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.1)
h A
where
W : Section modulus of a pier with consideration of axial reinforcement at the pier
bottom section (mm3)
σbt : Flexural tensile strength of concrete (N/mm2) to be calculated by Equation
(10.3.2)
σbt = 0.23  c2k 3 ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.2)
N : Axial force acting on the pier bottom section (N)

A : Sectional area of a pier, with consideration of axial reinforcement at the pier
bottom section (mm2)
h : Height from the pier bottom to the height of superstructural inertial force (mm)
σck : Design strength of concrete (N/mm2)
(6) Yield limit state denotes the elastic limit state in the skeleton curve of an ideal
elasto-plastic model. Yield lateral strength and yield displacement shall be calculated
by Equations (10.3.3) and (10.3.4), respectively.
198
Mu
Py  ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.3)
h
Mu
y   y0 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.4)
M y0
where
δy0 : Horizontal displacement at the time of yielding of axial tensile reinforcing bars
at the outermost edge of the pier bottom section (called “initial yield
displacement” hereafter) (mm)
Mu : Ultimate bending moment at the pier bottom section (N· mm)
My0: Bending moment at the time of yielding of axial tensile reinforcing bars at the
outermost edge of the pier bottom section (N· mm)
H : Distance from the pier bottom to the height of superstructural inertial force
(mm)
(7) Ultimate limit state denotes the state when concrete strain at the location of axial
compressive reinforcement reaches the ultimate strain. With consideration of
plastic hinges occurring at the damaged sections, the lateral strength and the
ultimate displacement shall be calculated by Equations (10.3.5) and (10.3.6),
respectively.
Mu
Pu  ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.5)
h
δu =δy + (φu－φy) Lp ( h－Lp / 2 ) ････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.6)
where
Lp: Plastic hinge length (mm) calculated by Equation (10.3.7)
Lp = 0.2h – 0.1 D ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.3.7)
in which 0.1D ≦ Lp ≦0.5D
D : Sectional depth (mm) (D shall be the diameter of a circular section, or the length
of a rectangular section in the analytical direction)
φy: Yield curvature at the pier bottom section (1/mm)
φu : Ultimate curvature at the pier bottom section (1/mm)
199
Horizontal force P
Horizontal displacement δ
Fig. 10.3.1 Model of Horizontal Force and Horizontal Displacement Relationship of a

Single–Column Reinforced Concrete Columns
Fig. 10.3.2 Skeleton Curve between Stress and Strain of a Reinforcing Bar
For a single-column Reinforced Concrete Columns, when a horizontal force is acted

at the height of the superstructural inertia force, the relationship between the lateral
strength and horizontal displacement of the yield limit state and that of the ultimate
limit state (Py,δy ), (Pu, δu), which are caused by bending deformations of the pier
body, shall be obtained according to the types of earthquake ground motions. This is
200
not only because the intensities of Type I and Type II Earthquake Ground Motions are
different, but also because the cyclic characteristics of the major earthquake ground
motions greatly affecting the deformation performance of an Reinforced Concrete
Columns will vary, too.
As shown in Fig.C-10.3.1, the ultimate limit state for Type I and Type II Earthquake
Ground Motions has been defined as the state in which the compressive strain of
concrete at the position of the axial compressive reinforcement arranged at the
outermost edge has reached the ultimate strain corresponding to each type of
earthquake ground motion. Since spalling of cover concrete is assumed to occur in the
ultimate limit state, for calculation of lateral strength and horizontal displacement
within this state, the ultimate strain distribution shall be decided by applying the
ultimate strain to the position of the axial compressive reinforcement on the outermost
edge and it shall be assumed that the cover concrete portion does not share the
compressive stress. In case of double arrangement of axial reinforcement, the ultimate
strain shall be applied to the position of the axial reinforcement arranged on the outer
edge.
Yield strain εsy of the reinforcement shall be obtained by dividing yield point σsy by
Young's modulus Es. The yield pointσsy and Young's modulus Es of a reinforcing bar
shall be in accordance with Section 3.1 and 3.3 of Part I Common Provisions. As for the
ultimate strainεcu of concrete, it shall be obtained by following Section 10.4 for each
appropriate type of earthquake ground motion.
The lateral strength and horizontal displacement for the cracking limit state, the
initial yield limit state, yield limit state and the ultimate limit state shall be obtained
by the following procedure.
1) A pier shall be divided into m parts along its height and for each section, the bending
moments (Mc, My0) and curvatures (Φc, Φy0) of the cracking limit state and the initial
yield limit state shall be obtained. The number of divisions along the height can be
around 50 or so. Nevertheless, for a portion having a strong stiffness against bending
deformation such as the lateral beam of a T-shaped pier, it may be treated as a rigid
body.
The bending moment Mc and curvature Φc of the cracking limit shall be calculated
with Equations (C10.3.1) and (C10.3.2).
201
Where,
Mc: Bending moment at cracking (N· mm)
Φc: Curvature of cracking (1/mm)
Wi: Sectional modulus of pier having considered the axial reinforcement in the i-th
section from the height of the superstructural inertia force (mm3).
σbt: Bending tensile strength of concrete (N/mm2) to be calculated by Equation (10.3.2)
N: Axial force due to the weights of superstructure and substructure acting on the i-th
section from the height of the superstructural inertia force (N).
Ai: Sectional area of pier having considered the axial reinforcement in the i-th section
from the height of the superstructural inertia force (mm2)
Ec: Young's modulus of concrete (N/mm2)
Ii: Sectional secondary moment of pier having considered the axial reinforcement in
the i-th section from height of the superstructural inertia force (mm4)
σck :Design standard strength of concrete (N/mm2)
The section of each element is divided into n parts in the acting direction of the
inertia force. It shall be assumed that the fiber strain in proportion to the distance
from the neutral axis obtained with the supposition that a plane is maintained, and the
stresses corresponding to the fiber strain are constant within each infinitesimal unit.
Based on this assumption, the neutral axis to satisfy the equilibrium condition of
Equation (C10.3.3) shall be obtained by trial calculations. The number of divisions in
each section may be around 50 or so.
Where,
σcj, σsj: Stress of concrete and reinforcement within the j-th infinitesimal unit (N/mm2)
∆ Acj, ∆ Asj: Sectional area of concrete and reinforcement within the j-th infinitesimal
unit (mm2)
After determining the position of the neutral axis, the bending moment shall be
calculated by Equation (C10.3.4) and the curvature shall be obtained from Equation
(C10.3.5).
Where,
202
Mi: Bending moment acting on the i-th section from the height of the superstructural
inertia force (N· mm)
Φi: Curvature of the i-th section from the height of the superstructural inertia force
(1/mm)
xj: Distance from concrete or reinforcement in the j-th infinitesimal unit to the centroid
position of section (mm)
εc0: Compressed edge strain of concrete
x0: Distance from the compressed edge of concrete to the neutral axis (mm)
The bending moment and curvature formed when the strain occurred in the axial
tension reinforcement arranged on the outermost edge of the section reaches the yield
strainεsy shall be obtained and taken as the initial yield moment My0 and the initial
yield curvature Φy0. Besides, the bending moment and curvature formed when the
strain of concrete at the position of the axial compressive reinforcement on the
outermost edge reaches the ultimate strain shall be regarded as the ultimate bending
moment Mu and the ultimate curvature Φu.
2) The initial yield displacement δy0 can be calculated by Equation (C10.3.6) based on
the curvature distribution obtained when the initial yield horizontal strength Py0 is
acted on the height of the superstructural inertia force as shown in Fig.C-10.3 .2.
3) The yield curvature Φy (1/mm) in the skeleton curve shall be obtained from Equation
(C10.3.7).
4) The ultimate strength Pu shall be calculated by Equation (C10.3.8).
Where,
h: Distance from pier base to the height of the superstructural inertia force (mm)
5) It has been stipulated that the ultimate displacementδ u shall be calculated by

Equation (10.3.6) with consideration of plastic hinges occurred to the pier base. In this
calculation process, it shall be considered that the plastic hinge formed in the ultimate
203
limit state has a certain height. The plastic deformation generated at the acting
position of the inertia force shall be taken as the displacement caused by the rotation of
the plastic hinge. Also, as illustrated in Fig.C-10.3.2, the plastic curvature within the
range of plastic hinge shall be assumed to show a constant value when calculating the
ultimate displacement.
Based on recent investigations and researches, more and more information has been
found out about the lengths of plastic hinges, which is known to be closely related to
the buckling length of the axial reinforcement and it changes according to the diameter
of the axial reinforcement, spacings between lateral hoop ties as well as the effective
length of the lateral confining reinforcement specified in Section 10.4. Besides, it has
become clear that for the plastic deformation of an Reinforced Concrete Columns, apart
from the plastic rotation of the sectional range turning into the plastic hinge, there is
also a rotation component of the base caused by stretching out of the axial
reinforcement from the top of the footing. According to the result of the experiment of a
model of actual size, stretching out of the axial reinforcement can cause the rotation of
the pier at the joint plane with the footing and energy is being absorbed through this
rotating movement. In order to estimate precisely the ultimate displacement of an
Reinforced Concrete Columns, as mentioned above, it is necessary to give an
appropriate evaluation to both the length of the plastic hinge and the stretching out
displacement of the axial reinforcement. Since some points still remain unclear in
terms of quantitative evaluations, further study and research in this respect will be
necessary in the future. Therefore, for the present version, the previous version of the
Seismic Design Specifications shall be based on in determining the lengths of plastic
hinges. The results of the repeated alternative loading tests on Reinforced Concrete
Columns conducted up to now and the research results in relation to the lengths of
plastic hinges obtained by other countries have also been referred to in establishing the
Equation (10.3.7) to be used for calculation of the length of a plastic hinge. (Refer to
Fig.C-10.3.3).
204
Fig.C-10.3.1 Strain Distribution within Initial Yielding and Ultimate Limit
Fig.C-10.3.2 Curvature Distribution in the Direction of Height
Fig.C-10.3.3 Calculation Method of the Length of Plastic Hinge
10.4 Stress–Strain Curve of Concrete
205
The stress-strain curve of concrete shall be determined by Equation (10.4.1) based on
Fig.10.4.1.
  1    n 1 
 Ec c 1   c   0   c   cc 
c    n   cc   ･･････････････････････････････････ (10.4.1)

 cc  Edes  c   cc   cc   c   cu 
Ec cc
n ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.4.2)
Ec cc   cc
σcc =σck + 3.8αρsσsy ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.4.3)
 s s y
εcc = 0.002+0.033β ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.4.4)
 ck
 ck 2
Edes = 11.2 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.4.5)
 s s y
 cc For Type I Earthguake Ground Motion 


 cu  0.2 cc (10.4.6)
For Type II Earthguake Ground Motion 
･････
 cc  E
 des
4 Ah
ρs = ≦ 0.018 ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.4.7)
sd
where
σc : Stress of concrete (N/mm2)

σcc : Strength of concrete restrained by lateral confining reinforcement (N/mm2)
σck : Design strength of concrete (N/mm2)
εc : Strain of concrete
εcc : Strain of concrete under the maximum compressive stress
εcu : Ultimate strain of concrete restrained by lateral confining reinforcement
Ec : Young's modulus of concrete (N/mm2) shown in Table 3.3.3 of Part I Common
Provisions
Edes : Descending gradient (N/mm2)
ρs : Volume ratio of lateral confining reinforcement
Ah : Sectional area of each lateral confining reinforcement (mm2)
s : Spacings of lateral confining reinforcement (mm)
d : Effective length (mm) of lateral confining reinforcement. It shall be the
largest length of core concrete divided and restrained by lateral hoop ties or
206
cross ties
σsy: Yield point of lateral confining reinforcement (N/mm2)
α,β: Modification factor on section. α=1.0,β=1.0 for a circular section, and α=
0.2, β= 0.4 for rectangular, hollow circular and hollow rectangular sections.
n : A constant defined by Equation (10.4.2)
Stress
Strain
Fig. 10.4.1 Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete
To show the stress-strain relationship of concrete, which is used for calculating the
relationship between the horizontal force and horizontal displacement of an Reinforced
Concrete Columns of flexural failure based on Section 10.3, it is stipulated that
equations such as (10.4.1) and (10.4.2) having considered the lateral restraining effect
shall be used. In these equations, if the volume ratio ρ s of lateral confining
reinforcement is increased, the strength of the concrete σcc being restrained by lateral
confining reinforcement will become higher than the strength of the concreteσck not
being restrained. By using these equations, it is possible to take this phenomenon into
consideration and the increase in the strain εcc and the ultimate strainεcu when the
concrete reaches the maximum compressive stress can also be evaluated.
Here, the lateral confining reinforcement consists of the lateral hoop ties
surrounding the axial reinforcement and the cross ties arranged within the section of a
member. For evaluation of the stress-strain relationship, the lateral hoop ties and the
cross ties restricting the concrete laterally together are called the lateral confining
reinforcement. In addition, the sectional area of the lateral confining reinforcement
refers to the sectional area for each lateral hoop tie. Even in case of arrangement of the
axial reinforcement in two rows or double arrangement of lateral hoop ties, only one
cross tie is generally placed. Therefore, the sectional area of each cross tie shall be
207
taken as the sectional area of the lateral confining reinforcement. Nevertheless, in case
of a pier with a relatively small rectangle section or a circular section, if both axial
reinforcement and lateral hoop ties are arranged in multiple rows, it is possible to
consider the sectional areas corresponding to the number of the lateral hoop ties
arranged as the sectional area of the lateral confining reinforcement.
The effective length of lateral confining reinforcement shall be the largest value of
the lengths of the core concrete divided and restrained by the lateral hoop ties and
cross ties so that the restraining effect can be effectively maintained even when
spalling of cover concrete occurs. In other words, in case of a circular section as shown
in Fig.C-10.4.1, the diameter of the core concrete restrained by lateral hoop ties shall
be used. In case of a rectangular section, hollow section or semi-rectangular section, the
largest value of the lengths of the spacings between lateral hoop ties and cross ties
arranged in the direction parallel to the design direction shall be taken as the effective
length.
A value of 1.8% is set as the upper limit of the volume ratio of lateral confining
reinforcement. This is because in an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to
repeated plastic deformations, if the restraining force on the concrete is excessively
high, the area of plastic hinge will generally become smaller which might result in the
ultimate state being reached due to fracture of the axial reinforcement. Accordingly, in
order to reflect the consideration that deformation performance does not rise without
limit in proportion to the volume ratio of lateral confining reinforcement, the upper
limit of lateral confining reinforcement for calculation of the ductility capacity is set as
1.8% based on the results of experiments. In fact, considering a case in which the
volume ratio of lateral confining reinforcement has been increased excessively, it is
more logical to set an ultimate strain for axial reinforcement than to modify the
ultimate strain of concrete. Here, for design convenience, an upper limit has been set
for the volume ratio of lateral confining reinforcement.
Different values of the ultimate strain of concrete shall be used in designing against
Type I and Type II Earthquake Ground Motions for the following reason. The
stress-strain curve of concrete specified here was modeled based on the experiments by
compression loading in a single direction. To take this effect into account, for design
against Type I Earthquake Ground Motion which has a higher frequency, a lower value
of the ultimate strain is set than that for Type II Earthquake Ground Motion.
In case that the design standard strength of concrete exceeds 40 N/mm2, such an
Reinforced Concrete Columns requires lateral hoop ties of different materials and
arrangement methods from those of ordinary strength in order to achieve the necessary
208
restraining effect. Since the equations for evaluation provided here are not applicable,
special studies by separate experiments or analyses are recommended.
Fig.C-10.4.1 Effective Length of Lateral Confining Reinforcement

(in Both Longitudinal and Transverse Directions to the Bridge Axis)
209
10.5 Shear Strength
Shear strength shall be calculated by Equation (10.5.1).
Ps = Sc + Ss ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.5.1)
S c = c c c e c p t τc bd ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.5.2)
Aw s y d (sin   cos )
Ss = ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.5.3)
1.15a
where
Ps : Shear strength (N)
Sc : Shear strength resisted by concrete (N)
τc : Average shear stress that can be borne by concrete (N/mm2). Values in Table
10.5.1 shall be used.
cc : Modification factor on the effects of alternating cyclic loading. cc shall be taken
as 0.6 for Type I Earthquake Ground Motion and 0.8 for Type II.
ce : Modification factor in relation to the effective height (d) of a pier section. Values
in Table 10.5.2 shall be used.
cpt : Modification factor in relation to the axial tensile reinforcement ratio pt. Values
in Table 10.5.3 shall be used.
b : Width of a pier section perpendicular to the direction in calculating shear
strength (mm)
d: Effective height of a pier section parallel to the direction in calculating shear
strength (mm)
pt : Axial tensile reinforcement ratio. It is the value obtained by dividing the total
sectional areas of the main reinforcement on the tension side of the neutral
axis by bd (%).
Ss: Shear strength borne by hoop ties (N)
Aw: Sectional area of hoop ties arranged with an interval of α and an angle of θ
(mm2)
σsy: Yield point of hoop ties (N/mm2)
θ : Angle formed between hoop ties and the vertical axis (degree)
α : Spacings of hoop ties (mm)
210
Table 10.5.1 Average Shear Stress of Concreteτc (N/mm2)
Design Compressive Strength of Concreteσck (N/mm2) 21 24 27 30 40
Average Shear Stress of Concreteτc (N/mm2) 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.41
Table 10.5.2 Modification Factor ce in Relation to Effective Height d of a Pier Section

Effective Height (mm) Below 1000 3000 5000 Above 10000
ce 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5
Table 10.5.3 Modification Factor cpt in Relation to Axial Tensile Reinforcement Ratio
pt
Tensile Reinforcement
0.2 0.3 0.5 Above 1.0
Ratio (%)
cpt 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.5
Equation (10.5.1) is provided for calculation of the shear strength which has been
divided into two parts: the part borne by the concrete and the part borne by the lateral
hoop ties. The shear strength borne by the concrete shall be obtained from the average
shear stress bearable by the concrete while the shear strength borne by the lateral
hoop ties shall be obtained based on their yield points. The shear strength borne by the
lateral hoop ties shall be calculated by Equation (10.5.3) by following the truss theory.
In this equation, the effective height d of the pier section is used. In case that the pier
height hp is smaller (lower) than the value d/1.15, the pier height hp shall have to be
used instead of d/1.15.
The values of average shear stress resisted by concrete shown in Table 10.5.1 are set
as the average shear stress bearable by the concrete on the assumption that the tensile
reinforcement ratio is about 0.3% and the effective height of the section of a member is
about 1 m. It has become clear now that besides changing with the design standard
strength of concrete, the average shear stress bearable by the concrete also varies
according to the effective height d, the main reinforcement ratio, and the effect of the
repeated reciprocating loads. The influences of these factors shall be taken into account
by using the modification factors ce, cpt and cc as provided in Equation (10.5.2). In
addition, although the average shear stress bearable by the concrete changes
211
corresponding to the compressive force in the axis direction, its influence shall be
neglected during calculation of the shear strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns
for verification of seismic performance Level 2 and Level 3. This is because in regard to
a member for which plasticity is likely to occur when it is subjected to repeated
alternative loads, more studies need to be conducted on the influence of the
compressive force in the axis direction upon the average shear stress of concrete.
Modification factor ce is a factor related to the effective height d of a section of an
Reinforced Concrete Columns. The average shear strength borne by the concrete will
decrease as the effective height d of a section increases. The modification factor is
introduced for evaluation of this so-called scale effect. In determining this modification
factor, a beam member without any lateral reinforcement showed obvious scale effect,
was assumed with reference to the results of the shear loading tests on large reinforced
concrete beams carried out by the Public Works Research Institute as well as the
results of previous experiments. Therefore, in case of lateral reinforcement and lateral
hoop ties as in the case of an Reinforced Concrete Columns, the scale effect may be
more moderate than this. However, concerning the scale effect in the cases of lateral
reinforcement and lateral hoop ties, there has been neither sufficient theoretical basis
nor enough test data available up to now. The values provided in Table 10.5.2 have
been determined based on a conservative evaluation.
Modification factor cpt is a factor related to the axial tensile reinforcement ratio pt.
This was introduced since in general, the average shear stress bearable by the concrete
will increase as the axial tensile reinforcement ratio grows. Nevertheless, an increase
in average shear stress borne by concrete shall be disregarded when the axial tensile
reinforcement ratio exceeds 1% because it is not necessarily a good way to raise the
axial tensile reinforcement ratio so as to increase the shear strength borne by concrete.
In addition, it is a principle that the axial tensile reinforcement ratio pt shall be
obtained from the total of the sectional areas of the reinforcing bars on the tension side
of the neutral axis in a section. To simplify the calculation, it is acceptable to obtain it
from the total of the sectional areas of the axial reinforcement on the tension side of the
centroid position of a section.
Figures C-10.5.l through C-10.5.3 are illustrations of values of τc, ce and cpt shown in
Tables10.5.1 through 10.5.3. In Figures C-10.5.2 and C-10.5.3, the abscissas are taken
as the logarithmic axes.
212
Fig.C-10.5.1 Relationship between τc and Design Standard Strength of Concrete
Fig. C-10.5.2 Relationship between ce and Effective Height d
Fig. C-10.5.3 Relationship between cpt and Axial Tensile Reinforcement Ratio pt
213
The modification factor cc is introduced to consider a decline in the average shear
stress borne by concrete due to the effect of repeated alternative loads. From the
repeated alternative loading tests carried out by using models of Reinforced Concrete
Columns, it is known that such a decline in the shear strength of concrete appears
within the range of plastic hinge when the plastic deformation of a Reinforced Concrete
Columns becomes larger and when the number of loading cycles increases near the
ultimate limit state. The larger the number of the loading cycles, the more the average
shear stress borne by concrete will decrease. It has thus been decided that a smaller
modification factor cc shall be used for Type I Earthquake Ground Motion than for
Type II Earthquake Ground Motion.
In regard to the design standard strength of concrete, the effective height of a section
or the axial tensile reinforcement ratio shown in Tables 10.5.1 through 10.5.3, if their
values happen to fall between any of the two values listed in the tables, τc, ce and cpt
may be obtained by using linear interpolation.
The methods of determining the effective height d of a section of a member have been
shown in Figures C-10.5.4 through C-10.5.6 for a rectangular section, a circular section
and a hollow rectangular section respectively. For a rectangular section, the effective
height shall be the distance from the compression edge to the position of the center of
gravity of the tensile reinforcement having neglected the lateral reinforcement. For a
circular section, it shall be substituted with a square section having an equivalent area
as the circular section and then the distance between the compression edge and the
center of gravity of the tensile reinforcements in the square section shall be taken as
the effective height. In this case, the width of the circular section shall be the width of
the square section having an equivalent area.
Here, when the ratio of the height of the pier to the effective height of the section
(shear span ratio) is less than 3 or so, the shear force borne by concrete will generally
increase as the shear span ratio decreases because of the deep beam effect. However,
according to the loading tests of Reinforced Concretemembers with a small shear span
ratio, it has been recognized that in regard to the repeated alternative loads within the
range in which the axial reinforcement does not yield, the decrease in the shear force
borne by the concrete is rather small while in regard to the repeated alternative loads
within the range in which the axial reinforcement tends to yield and a bending plastic
deformation is likely to occur, the decrease in the shear force borne by the concrete will
become considerable. Therefore, for an Reinforced Concrete Columns for which
plasticity during an earthquake has been taken into account, a conservative evaluation
approach shall be adopted in which the deep beam effect shall be neglected and an
214
increase of extra shear force borne by the concrete shall not be considered by using the
shear span ratio.
Fig.C-10.5.4 Effective Height d of a Rectangular Section
Fig.C-10.5.5 Effective Height d and Width b of a Circular Section
Fig.C-10.5.6 Effective Height d and Width b of a Hollow Rectangular Section
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10.6 Structural Details for Improving Ductility Performance
(1) Lapping of axial reinforcement
In order to ensure the lateral strength of a pier specified in Section 10.2, lappings of
axial reinforcements shall not generally be placed within the plastic zone, when
generation of plastic deformation of the pier is expected in the verification of its seismic
performance.
(2) Arrangement of lateral hoop ties and cross ties
1) To prevent buckling of axial reinforcement and for the restraint of internal

concrete, hoop ties and cross ties shall be arranged in an appropriate manner
having suitable spacings, when generation of plastic deformation of the pier is
expected in the verification of its seismic performance.
2) Hoop ties shall be deformed bars of at least 13mm diameter, and the spacings shall
not generally be greater than 150mm in the plastic zone. However, in the case of
adopting different spacings in the middle section of the pier, the spacings shall not
be altered abruptly.
3) Hoop ties shall generally be arranged so as to enclose the axial reinforcement, and
the ends of hoop ties with the hooks described below shall normally be fixed into
the concrete inside a pier. Lap joints without hooks shall not be generally adopted.
When right angle hooks are used, measures shall be taken to prevent the hooks
from becoming ineffective, even if the cover concrete spalls. In addition, lappings of
hoop ties shall be placed in a zigzag pattern along the pier height. Straight length
of a hoop tie between two bending ends at the hooks shall be longer than the
values provided below. Internal radius of bending of a hook shall be at least 2.5
times the hoop tie diameter. Here, internal radius of bending refers to the inside
radius of a bent reinforcing bar. Provisions for the straight length of a hoop tie are
as follows:
i) Semi-circular hook: 8 times the diameter of a hoop tie or 120mm whichever is the
greater.
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ii) Acute angle hook: 10 times the diameter of the hoop tie
iii) Right angle hook: 12 times of the diameter of the hoop tie
4) When hoop ties are lapped at any place other than the corners of a rectangular
section, hoop ties shall generally have a lap length of at least 40 times the diameter
of the hoop ties. In addition, the hoop ties shall generally conform to the provisions in
3) above.
5) Cross ties shall generally be arranged inside the pier section. In order to enhance the
restraint of inside concrete, the following requirements shall be satisfied in arranging
cross ties:
i) Cross ties shall generally be of the same material and the same diameters as the
hoop ties.
ii) Cross ties shall generally be arranged in perimetric directions of a pier section.
iii) Spacings of cross ties within a pier section shall not be greater than one meter.
iv) Cross ties shall be arranged in all sections with hoop ties arranged.
v) Cross ties shall generally be hooked up to the hoop ties arranged in the
perimetric directions of the section. In case of double axial reinforcements, the
cross ties shall be hooked up to the outside hoop ties.
vi) Ends of cross ties being hooked up to the hoop ties shall be generally fixed into
the concrete inside a pier, according to the provisions on semi-circular or acute
angle hooks specified in 3).
vii) A cross tie shall generally go through a pier section, with use of a continuous
reinforcing bar or a pair of reinforcing bars with a joint within the pier section.
In case of a joint within the pier section, an appropriate joint structure shall be
selected so as to possess a joint strength equivalent to that of the cross tie.
It is necessary to keep in mind that within the range of an Reinforced Concrete

Columns for which plasticity is considered i.e. the sectional range in which plastic
hinge forms and its transit zone, the axial reinforcement and lateral hoop ties will
possibly be exposed to the outside due to spalling of the cover concrete. In order to
guarantee effective functioning of the axial reinforcement, the lateral hoop ties and
cross ties, even if damage due to such stripping has occurred, structural details have
been provided in relation to the arrangement of these reinforcements. Here, a lateral
hoop tie refers to the reinforcing bar that is arranged surrounding the axial
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reinforcement along the perimeter direction of a section. A cross tie is the reinforcing
bar that is arranged to pass through the section of the core concrete. Additionally, this
rule is only applicable to the range in which plasticity during an earthquake is taken
into account for an Reinforced Concrete Columns. In case that plasticity is not
considered, the structural details specified in Chapter 7 of Part IV: Substructures shall
be satisfied.
(1) The range of plasticity to be taken into account can generally be considered as the
sectional range in which plastic hinge actually occurs plus its transit zone. As
shown in Fig. C-10.6.1, it is usually located within the range of 4 times the length
of the plastic hinge to be calculated by Equation (10.3.7). Even if the axial
reinforcement is exposed to the outside due to spalling of cover concrete, in order to
truly maintain the lateral strength specified in Section 10.2, it is a principle that
axial reinforcement with any joint structure within this sectional area shall not be
allowed. When the length of a plastic hinge in the axis direction of a bridge differs
from the length in the direction perpendicular to it, the longer length shall be used
for calculation of the range for considering plasticity. However, in case that use of a
joint between axial reinforcement is inevitable within the range of plasticity taken
into account due to construction reasons, a reliable joint structure shall have to be
chosen. When a mechanical joint, a sleeve joint, a welded joint or a gas pressed
joint etc. is used, the strength of the joint shall be determined by testing with
consideration of factors such as the type and diameter of the reinforcing bars, the
state of stress, the position of the joint.
Fig.C-10.6.1 Plastic Zone
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(2) Here, in order to improve the ductility of an Reinforced Concrete Columns, besides
the basic function specified for lateral hoop ties and cross ties in 1) in the provisions,
the standards for their arrangement described in details in 2) – 5) shall also be
satisfied in order to achieve such function.
1) Within the range for considering plasticity, in order to maintain the buckling control
effect of the axial reinforcement and the restraining effect of the core concrete, it is
required that the forms and spacings of lateral hoop ties and cross ties have to be
decided properly.
2) Since the spacing between lateral hoop ties is closely related to the buckling strength
of the axial reinforcement, it is desirable that within the range for considering
plasticity, the lateral hoop ties should be designed to be capable of restricting the
buckling of the axial reinforcement even if plasticity of sectional deformation is
progressing. Consequently, considering the buckling of axial reinforcement, length of
plastic hinge and lateral restraining effect, it is necessary to select an appropriate
value for the spacing of the lateral hoop ties. A general standard of 150mm or less
has been recommended as the spacing of lateral hoop ties within the range for which
plasticity is considered.
However, even when the plastic deformation of a pier assumed during verification
of seismic performance occurs, there is no need to consider buckling of the axial
reinforcement for the sectional range in which the plastic deformation is confirmed
to have stopped in the elastic range. In this case, the maximum value of 300mm can
be accepted for the spacing of the lateral hoop ties. In the previous version of the
Seismic Design Specifications (1996), it was stipulated that except for a case like a
high pier in which an identical spacing of the lateral hoop ties along the entire pier
height would turn out to be unreasonable, the spacings of lateral hoop ties for all the
sections should generally be below 150mm. Based on the researches ever since then,
it has become clear that within the sectional range in which no plastic hinge
appears, the strain of the lateral hoop ties caused by the restraining of the core
concrete is fairly small. It is not necessary to apply the structural details of the
lateral hoop ties, which are stipulated from the point of view of preventing buckling
from occurring to the axial reinforcement, to a range like this. Therefore, it is
suggested that when is has been confirmed that no plastic hinge will occur to a
certain range, the biggest spacing between lateral hoop ties can be 300mm. However,
in case that changes are to be made in the spacings between lateral hoop ties
219
somewhere in the middle, gradual alternation shall be introduced within the scale of
changing. Abrupt changes shall not be allowed. In addition, for a sectional range for
which seismic deformation has been confirmed to remain within the elastic range, it
should not be simply considered as a range not belonging to the range of the plastic
hinge length obtained by Equation (10.3.7). Instead, considerations must also be
made on factors like excessive strength of the axial reinforcement, the actual
characteristics of the distribution of the plastic curvature and spare rooms when
deciding the spacings between lateral hoop ties. As a general rule, for a single
column Reinforced Concrete Columns of flexural failure, in case that plastic hinge
only in the pier base cannot be avoided, the maximum value of the spacing between
lateral hoop ties can be 300mm within the section that is above the range 4 times
the length of the plastic hinge (Please refer to Fig.C-10.6.1).
The spacings for axial reinforcement specified here are the structural details
generally required for the purpose of improving ductility of an Reinforced Concrete
Columns of flexural failure. Therefore, it should be noted that even for the sectional
ranges for which plasticity is not considered, there are cases in which spacings shall
have to be decided for other purposes like shear reinforcement.
3) Lateral hoop ties are placed to prevent buckling of axial reinforcement, to restrain
concrete laterally and to reinforce shear strength. In case that a plastic hinge is formed
due to substantial deformation of an Reinforced Concrete Columns during an
earthquake, lateral hoop ties cannot provide a satisfactory restraining effect as
discussed in Section 10.4 if the hooks and the structural form of the joint of the axial
reinforcement are inappropriate. Therefore, in order to guarantee the concrete section
being reliably restrained by lateral hoop ties, hooks shall have to be attached to both
ends while being anchored to the concrete.
When deciding the lengths of the hooks for lateral hoop ties, if an Reinforced
Concrete Columns is subjected to repeated deformation during an earthquake, it is
necessary to take into account the results of spalling of cover concrete and damage to
the core concrete. In order to restrain the core concrete effectively even in such an
advanced state of damage, the lengths of the hooks have been provided here with
reference to the stipulations in regard to the lengths of hooks within the range of
plastic hinge by other countries. Since right angle hooks come out of core concrete
easily, it is hoped that they should not be used in a sectional area within the range 4
times the plastic hinge length. In case of an inevitable situation in which right angle
hooks have to be used, some measures shall be taken to ensure that the hooks do not
220
come out even after spalling of cover concrete occurs. Fig. C-10.6.2 shows an example of
anchorage that prevents a right angle hook from coming out by attaching a hook to a
cross tie. Also, in order to obtain a satisfactory restraining effect, it has been specified
that the lateral hoop ties in the joint portions along the pier height direction shall be
arranged in a zigzag pattern.
Fig. C-10.6.2 Anchorage of Hoop Ties with Right Angle Hook
4) During evaluation of the plastic deformation performance of an Reinforced Concrete

Columns, in order to ensure the restraining effect of the lateral hoop ties, it is required
that the lateral hoop ties must be joined in a way that the strengths of the lateral hoop
ties can be fully transmitted. Therefore, the standard length of a joint shall be more
than 40 times the diameter of the hoop on the assumption that the hooks have been
attached at joint ends. However, in case that lateral hoop ties are joined in the corner
of a rectangular section, so long as semicircular or acute angle hooks are used to anchor
to the axial reinforcement, it is acceptable not to apply the above standard to the joint
length. Furthermore, in order to transmit the strengths between the lateral hoop ties
effectively, welded joints can also be used if sufficient construction supervision is
provided.
5) This provision specifies the method of arranging cross ties. Cross ties placed inside
not only function as shear reinforcement but also as lateral confining reinforcement
preventing the lateral hoop ties from sticking out. Instead of being a simple assembly
of reinforcing bars, they are important reinforcement that has to be treated and
arranged properly within a certain section. A description of the structural details and
consideration method concerning the arrangement of cross ties has been provided as
follows.
i) As a principle, within a concrete section that has been divided by the cross ties, the
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cross ties to be used shall be made of the same material and have the same
diameter as the lateral hoop ties in order to ensure a uniform restraining effect
ii) In order to divide and restrain the core concrete properly, the cross ties shall
generally be arranged in perimetric directions of the section (in case of a
rectangular section).
iii) If the spacing between cross ties exceeds 1m, they can no longer provide an
adequate restraining effect. Therefore, as a principle, spacings between cross ties
in a section shall generally be less than 1 m. However, if the arrangement of the
cross ties is too tight within a section, the openings for concrete to be poured in
may become too small and it can cause difficulties in compaction work. To avoid
such problems, the spacings between cross ties shall have to be determined
carefully.
iv) To achieve satisfactory restraining effect of concrete, cross ties shall be arranged
in all the sections in which lateral hoop ties are placed.
v) To prevent buckling of axial reinforcement and sticking out of lateral hoop ties
effectively, cross ties shall be hooked to the lateral hoop ties arranged along the
perimetric direction of a section. From the point of view of preventing buckling of
the axial reinforcement, it would be more effective if the cross ties are hooked to
the axial reinforcement in addition to lateral hoop ties. However, if the cross ties
are hooked to the lateral hoop ties very close to the axial reinforcement, it is also
possible to prevent buckling of the axial reinforcement. Based on this consideration
and convenience in construction, hooking of the cross ties only to the lateral hoop
ties will be sufficient.
vi) Like lateral hoop ties specified in 3), the restraining effect of cross ties cannot be
fully achieved if the hooks are not attached in a proper way. In order to ensure
that restriction of the concrete section is really effective, it is a principle that a
semi-circular hook or an acute angle hook shall be attached to the end of the
lateral hoop ties so as to restrict the core concrete inside the pier section. That is to
say, in case that one continuous reinforcing bar is used as the cross tie, the hooks
to be attached to both ends shall be, in principle, a semi-circular hook or an acute
angle hook. However, if there is an inevitable situation due to limitation of
construction method, it is acceptable that a right angle hook is used on one end. In
this case, the cross ties shall be arranged in such a way that the right angle hooks
will be formed in a zigzag pattern. Here, within the range for considering plasticity,
the value of the effective length of the lateral reinforcement can be 1.5 times the
effective length specified in Section 10.4. This is because it has to be considered
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that the same lateral restraining effect as in the case of an acute angle hook or a
semi-circular hook cannot be expected.
On the other hand, when 2 groups of reinforcing bars are connected inside the
pier body as shown in Fig.C-10.6.4, semi-circular hooks or acute angle hooks can be
adopted for the hooks to be used outside the body. As to the hooks to be used inside
the body, they can be any of the hooks specified in 3).
vii) On the condition that the cross ties truly function as shear reinforcement, it is
possible to use either one reinforcing bar or 2 reinforcing bars connected with each
other as the cross tie. However, if the size of a section is too big, it is difficult to use
one cross tie having semicircular or acute angle hooks on both ends in construction.
Thus, it is usually acceptable to adopt two connected reinforcing bars as a cross tie.
In this case, as the joint structure for the 2 reinforcing bars, a lap joint, mechanical
joint or welding joint is available for choices. If a lap joint is chosen, the length of
the overlap portion shall be more than 40 times the diameter of the cross tie.
Based on the principles specified in the provisions concerning the forms and spacings
of lateral hoop ties and cross ties, examples of their arrangement have been given
below corresponding to a rectangular section, wall section, circular section and hollow
section respectively.
a) Rectangular Section or Semi-rectangular Section

Lateral hoop ties shall be arranged to enclose the axial reinforcement while cross ties
shall be placed inside the pier. An example of arrangement of lateral hoop ties and
cross ties within a rectangular section has been illustrated in Fig.C-10.6.3 and C-10.6.4.
The cross ties placed inside the pier function not only as shear reinforcement but also
as lateral confining reinforcement preventing lateral hoop ties from sticking out.
Instead of being regarded as some reinforcing bars simply for assembly, they shall be
treated as important reinforcement to be arranged properly along all perimetric
directions of a rectangular section.
In Fig.C-10.6.5, an example showing the arrangement of lateral confining
reinforcement of interlocking type for an Reinforced Concrete Columns has been
provided. The pier illustrated here is a structure with circular lateral hoop ties or
spiral reinforcing bars with relatively small loop diameters overlapping with each other.
With this overlap, satisfactory restraining effect within the rectangular section can be
achieved even without any cross ties. However, concerning the spacing between the
centers of the two adjacent circular lateral hoop ties or spiral reinforcing bars and the
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structural details of the axial reinforcement to be arranged inside the overlapping
section, it is necessary to give proper considerations based on test results.
Fig.C-10.6.3 Arrangement of Lateral Hoop Ties and Cross Ties in Rectangular Sections
Fig.C-10.6.4 Arrangement of 2 Groups of Cross Ties Joined Together
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Fig.C-10.6.5 Arrangement of Interlocking Type Lateral Confining Reinforcement
b) Circular Section
An example of standard arrangement of lateral hoop ties and cross ties within a
circular section has been provided in Fig.C-10.6.6. For a pier with a circular section,
since satisfactory restraining effect can be expected from the lateral hoop ties, from the
point of view of lateral restriction, cross ties play a less important role. Instead, they
function more effectively as shear reinforcement. Consequently, even within the
circular section of a pier, it is recommended that cross ties shall be arranged according
to necessity. However, for the cross ties arranged solely for the purpose of shear
reinforcement, it is not necessary to hook their ends to the lateral hoop ties arranged
along the perimetric directions. Anchorage with the axial reinforcement only by hooks
will be sufficient. Also, in a circular section, restriction of concrete by using spiral
reinforcing bars can be effective, too.
Fig. C-10.6.6 Arrangement of Lateral Hoop Ties within a Circular Section
c) Hollow Section
In order to create a structure of reinforcement arrangement which can prevent the
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axial reinforcement from sticking out of a section or a hollow portion and which can at
the same time restrain the section of concrete properly, lateral hoop ties shall be
arranged outside the axial reinforcement on the outer side of the hollow section and
inside the axial reinforcement on the inner side of the hollow section. In order to
maximize this hoop effect, cross ties shall be arranged surrounding the lateral hoop
ties on the outer side and the lateral hoop ties on the inner side. An example of
arrangement of lateral hoop ties and cross ties within a hollow section has been
provided in Fig.C-10.6.7. In addition, in case of a thin wall and the required length of
the overlapping joint of cross ties cannot be guaranteed within a hollow section, right
angle hooks can be used to anchor the cross ties at the inner side of the section. In this
case, however, it has to be taken into consideration that the same lateral restraining
effect cannot be expected as in the case of acute angle hooks or semicircular hooks.
Therefore, for the effective length of lateral confining reinforcement, the value, which is
1.5 times the effective length specified in Section 10.4, can be used.
Fig. C-10.6.7 Arrangement of Lateral Hoop Ties within a Hollow Section
10.7 Cut-off of Longitudinal Reinforcement at Mid-Height
(1) In order to increase ductility and ultimate strength of a pier, cut-off of the
longitudinal reinforcement at mid-height of the pier shall not generally allowed.
(2) In case that the cut-off of the longitudinal reinforcement at mid-height is
226
unavoidable, the cut-off position shall be carefully selected so as to prevent the
occurrence of plastic behavior at that position. Generally, the position can be
determined by Equation (10.7.1).
 M yi 
hi = h  1  D ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.7.1)
 2M y B 
 
where
hi : Height from the pier bottom to the i-th cut-off position of axial reinforcement
(mm)
h: Height from the pier bottom to the height of the superstructural inertial force
(mm)
Myi: Yield bending moment of the section from the pier bottom to i-th cut-off portion
of the axial reinforcement (N・mm)
MyB: Yield bending moment at the pier bottom section (N・mm)
D : Smaller dimension of the pier, in the longitudinal and transverse directions to
the bridge axis. In the case of a circular section, D shall be taken as the
diameter of the section.
(3) When the cut-off of the longitudinal reinforcement at mid-height of a pier is allowed,
the following structural details shall be considered:
1) Cut-off of the longitudinal reinforcement at mid-height of the pier shall not be

located within the area of four times the length of a plastic hinge.
2) A reduction rate in the amount of axial reinforcement at a cut-off position shall not
exceed 1/3. Notwithstanding this, in the case reduction is carried out at different
heights in both the longitudinal and transverse directions, the reduction rate shall be
determined individually at each section.
3) Within a section with height of 1.5 times of either the smaller dimension of a
rectangular pier or the diameter of a circular pier measuring towards both above and
below the cut-off position, the spacings of the hoop ties shall not exceed 150 mm.
Furthermore, as mentioned in Section 10.6 (2), the spacings of the hoop ties shall not
be altered abruptly.
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(1) When carrying out the seismic design having considering plasticity for an
Reinforced Concrete Columns, it is required that cut-off of the arrangement of axial
reinforcement shall be considered on the condition that plasticity really occurs only in
the estimated places. During the seismic design having considered primary plasticity
for a single-column Reinforced Concrete Columns, if the actual strength of the axial
reinforcement becomes higher than the design value resulting in an excessive residual
strength in the pier base, it is possible that damage will occur in the middle of the pier
height at the cut-off position. Therefore, to prevent such damage in the place of cut-off,
it shall be a principle that reduction of arrangement of the axial reinforcement shall
not be implemented.
(2) In case of a high bridge pier, it is not practical to arrange the axial reinforcement
uniformly throughout the entire height. A cut-off of the reinforcement at mid-height is
unavoidable in some circumstances. In that case, when reduction is carried out,
considerations shall have to be given to factors such as changes in the strengths of the
concrete or axial reinforcement and the anchorage length of the axial reinforcement
while deciding the cut-off positions so as to prevent occurrence of plasticity at these
locations. Equation (10.7.1) shows a simple calculation method to decide a cut-off
position of axial reinforcement and it shall be applied to a single-column Reinforced
Concrete Columns. Additionally, the standard for judging a high pier shall be over
30m.
The same is true with a rigid-frame bridge with a high pier. If the amount of the
axial reinforcement is kept identical throughout the entire pier height, the
arrangement of reinforcement can become complicated at the joint section with the
superstructure and the convenience of concrete construction may be badly influenced in
some cases. If no cut-off of reinforcement is carried out, the bending strength of the top
section of the pier will become so high that it may cause an increase in the seismic
force to be transmitted. If cut-off of arrangement of reinforcement has been decided for
these reasons, the cut-off positions shall have to be determined appropriately.
(3) These are the structural details that must be taken into consideration when cut-off
of axial reinforcement is executed.
1) Within the range 4 times the length of a plastic hinge, changing of sectional strength
shall not be considered in design.
2) In order to avoid abrupt changes in sectional strength, the maximum rate of
reduction in the amount of reinforcement shall be 1/3 for each cut-off position. Here,
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in case that cut-off is planned in both longitudinal and transverse directions to the
bridge axis, the reduction rate shall be applied to each section respectively.
3) At the cut-off position, in order to increase restraining power of lateral hoop ties, the
spacing between lateral hoop ties has been set as 150mm or less. Since an abrupt
change in the spacings will cause a sudden drop in shear strength, such change shall
be made gradually.
10.8 Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Two

Column Bents
Lateral strength and ductility capacity of an Reinforced Concretesingle-layer

rigid-frame pier for both out-of-plane and in-plane directions shall be calculated as
follows:
(1) Inertia force resisted by each column member in the out-of-plane direction of an
Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall first be calculated. Then, lateral
strength and ductility capacity of the pier shall be obtained from the provisions of
Sections 10.2 and 10.5, by assuming that each column member is regarded as a
single-column Reinforced Concrete Columns.
(2) Lateral strength and ductility capacity in the in-plane direction of an Reinforced
Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall be obtained by referring to the following 2),
depending on the evaluation result on failure mode described in 1) below. In
addition, in the case when plastic hinges in a beam member is allowed to be formed,
the requirements as specified in 3) below shall be satisfied, in order to avoid brittle
failure of the beam under the primary loads specified in Section 2.1 of Part I
Common Provisions.
1) Failure mode of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall be evaluated

from Equation (10.8.1) using shear force Si, shear strengths Psi and Ps0i, generated at
each plastic hinge when an inertia force equivalent to the lateral strength is applied
to the pier.
229
Si ≦ Psi : Flexural failure
Psi < Si ≦ Ps0i : Shear failure after flexural yielding ･･･････････････ (10.8.1)
Ps0i < Si : Shear failure
where
Si : Shear force generated at i-th plastic hinge when an inertia force equivalent to the
lateral strength is applied (N)
Psi: Shear strength at i-th plastic hinge obtained from Section 10.5 (N)
Ps0i : Shear strength at i-th plastic hinge calculated by using a modification factor of
1.0 on the effects of alternative cyclic forces, specified in Section 10.5 (N)
2) Lateral strength and ductility capacity of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂ

ents shall depend on the failure mode of the pier, and can be obtained as follows:
i) Lateral strength Pa of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall be given

by Equation (10.8.2).
Pu (Flexural failure)
Pa = Pu (Shear failure after flexural yielding) ･･･････････････････････････ (10.8.2)
Pi (Shear failure)
where
Pu: Lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents (N)
Pi: Horizontal force when shear force generated at a plastic hinge exceeds the shear
strength (N)
ii) Ductility capacityμa of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall be

given by Equation (10.8.3).
u   y
1 (Flexural failure)
 y
μa = ････････････････････････････････････････ (10.8.3)
1.0 (Shear failure after flexural yielding, and shear failure)
where
μa: Ductility capacity of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents
δy: Yield displacement of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents (mm)
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δu: Ultimate displacement of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents (mm)
α: Safety factor shown in Table 10.2.1
iii) Yield displacementδy, lateral strength Pu and ultimate displacementδu of an

Reinforced Concrete ｔ wo ｃ olumn ｂ ents shall be calculated under the
following conditions, besides the provisions specified in Section 10.3:
① An analytical model used in the analysis shall be capable of considering change in

axial forces acting on each column member and formation of plastic hinges at
plural sections.
② Ultimate limit state of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents judged as

flexural failure shall be an earlier one of the following two: a state when all
plastic hinges formed in plural sections reach the ultimate limit state specified in
Section 10.3 (7), and a state when curvature formed in a section of a plastic
hinge reaches 2 times the ultimate curvature of the section.
3) When a plastic hinge is expected to occur in a beam, the sectional force generated in
the beam shall be verified by Equation (10.8.4).
Vb / Psi ≦ 1 ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.8.4)
where
Vb: Shear force acting on the beam when subjected to the primary loads (excluding
the impact) as defined in Section 2.1 of Part I Common Provisions (N)
Psi: Shear strength at i-th plastic hinge, calculated from the provisions in Section
10.5 (N)
(3) At the upper and lower column ends and both beam ends of an Reinforced Concrete
ｔ wo ｃ olumn ｂ ents where plastic hinges generate, structural details for
improving ductility of an Reinforced Concrete Columns provided in Section 10.6
shall be satisfied within a section of 4 times the plastic hinge length given in
Equation (10.3.7).
These are the application methods of the ductility design method for a indeterminate
structure, which are based on the research and study results obtained up to now in
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relation to the deformation performance within the nonlinear zone of a indeterminate
structure. Here, the so-called indeterminate structure is applicable to a single story
rigid-frame pier only. A two-story rigid-frame pier or a rigid-frame pier in a complex
form shall have to be studied separately. Besides, in case of a rigid-frame pier for which
prestress is introduced in a beam member and plasticity is not considered for the beam,
occurrence of a plastic hinge must be avoided. However, in case that plasticity is
allowed, the behaviors of the member within the plastic zone, for which prestress is
introduced, shall have to be examined separately. In the previous version of Seismic
Design Specifications (1996), it was stipulated that when prestress is introduced to a
beam member, plastic hinge must be prevented. Since then, there has been some
progress in researches concerning plastic deformation performance of a prestress
concrete member. Since the degree of plasticity considerable has been understood in
terms of quantity, so long as a separate study is conducted, it is acceptable to consider
plasticity.
(1) In the out-of-plane direction of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents, the
superstructural inertia force is shared by multiplying column members during an
earthquake. Therefore, for the out-of-plane direction, the weight of the superstructure
to be shared by each column member shall be calculated. Each column member
supporting this weight shall be regarded as a single-column Reinforced Concrete
Columns when calculating the lateral strength and the ductility capacity based on the
specifications in Sections 10.2 – 10.5. Here, the superstructural inertia force to be
shared by each column member may be determined according to its yield stiffness ratio.
Nevertheless, in case that the superstructure supported by the beam is extremely
eccentric, the share rate of each column member shall have to be studied separately.
(2) When the ductility design method is applied to the in-plane direction of an
Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents, attention shall be paid to the following
items:
① Accompanied by the effect of repeated alternative loads of horizontal forces, the

axial forces acting upon the column members will change. Consequently, it is necessary
to take into account the fact that the bending moment - curvature relationship of each
column member is influenced by such changes in the axial forces.
② It is possible that plastic hinge may occur in such positions as the upper and lower
232
ends of a column member and both ends of a beam member. Since the stiffness and
arrangement of reinforcing bars of each member are the key factors that determine the
locations of a plastic hinge, appropriate evaluation and considerations are needed in
these respects.
③ A plastic hinge shall not be allowed in the positions other than the upper and lower
ends of a column member or either end of a beam member. Especially in the joint
section between a column and a beam, occurrence of any plastic hinge shall be
prevented. This is because damage in the joint section will lead to the shear failure,
which will easily cause brittle damages to the pier.
In order to calculate the ultimate strength of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn
ｂents more accurately by taking into account the above ① and ②, it is desirable that
the pier is divided into reinforcement element and concrete element. Then, based on
the stress-strain relationship of each element, a nonlinear analysis is carried out.
However, by using a simple frame model that has been defined as having hysteretic
characteristics according to the bending moment – curvature relationship of the
members, it is possible to obtain the lateral strength and the ductility capacity of an
Reinforced Concrete ｔ wo ｃ olumn ｂ ents with sufficient accuracy for practical
purpose. When calculations are made of the lateral strength and the ductility capacity
of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents by using a frame model based on the
bending moment – curvature relationship of members, the following methods can be
adopted.
1) Equation (10.8.1) shall be used to evaluate the failure mode of an Reinforced

Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents. This is because that for an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo
ｃolumn ｂents, in order to count on the deformation performance assuming that a
bending damage has been formed, it is necessary to ensure that even when the pier is
subjected to an inertia force equivalent to the ultimate strength, no shear failure
should occur to any of the members.
In case that even if measures have been taken to reinforce the shear strength such as
making changes in the arrangement of lateral hoop ties, it is still impossible to use
Equation (10.8.1) to evaluate the pier as flexural failure type in seismic design, it is
required that the design shall be carried out on the assumption that the pier will
experience shear failure. Nevertheless, efforts shall be made to avoid such a design.
233
Fig.C-10.8.1 Modeling of an Reinforced Concrete Two Column Bents
2) The lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall be

calculated by following this procedure: First, a frame model shall be established for the
pier as shown in Fig.C-10.8.1. Then, when a horizontal force is acted statically with a
gradual increase at the height of the superstructural inertia force, the relationship
between the horizontal force and the horizontal displacement can be obtained. Based
on the skeleton curve of this relationship, the lateral strength shall be calculated.
The ultimate limit state shall be regarded as the state in which all of the plastic
hinges formed in multiple locations have reached the ultimate limit state as described
in Section 10.3 (7). The displacement in this state shall be taken as the ultimate
displacement in order to calculate the ductility capacity. This rule is established based
on the following conclusions derived from the repeated alternative loading tests carried
out for a experimental model by the Public Works Research Institute: First, even if the
ultimate displacement obtained by using the calculation method described here has
been exceeded, the pier will still have sufficient ductility so that the deformation
performance is not lost for the Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents. Second, as
specified below, so long as the arrangement of the reinforcing bars within the range 4
234
times the length of a plastic hinge has satisfied the structural details of Section 10.6,
even if the curvature, which is formed by the first plastic hinge having reached the
ultimate limit state, has exceeded the ultimate curvature, it will not lead to the
collapse of the pier. However, depending on the structural conditions and arrangement
of the reinforcing bars, when the first plastic hinge reaches the ultimate limit state, a
curvature greatly exceeding the ultimate curvature may appear. In this case, the
damage due to this plastic hinge may become so outstanding that it will lead to the
beginning of a decline in the lateral strength of the entire rigid-frame pier. For this
reason, in order to avoid an excessive decline in the lateral strength of the whole pier,
the curvature formed in the section of the plastic hinge has been stipulated to be less
than 2 times the ultimate curvature of the section concerned.
The yield limit state, the horizontal displacement and the lateral strength within the
ultimate limit state of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents shall be obtained
by the following procedures.
Fig.C-10.8.2 Relationship between Bending Moment and Curvature of a Plastic

Rotating Spring
i) Since it is possible that a plastic hinge may occur in the upper and lower ends of a
column member and both ends of a beam member, when modeling an Reinforced
Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents, as shown in Fig.C-10.8.1, a plastic rotating spring,
which is capable of considering the bending moment – curvature relationship of an
ideal elasto-plastic type as illustrated in Fig.C-10.8.2, shall be installed in the positions
described below.
In case of a single column pier, as mentioned in Section 10.3, the bending
moment-curvature relationship is determined in three states: the cracking limit state,
the yield limit state and the ultimate limit state. Here, the cracking limit state has
235
been omitted and the bending moment-curvature relationship of the ideal elasto-plastic
type is used. This is because for an Reinforced Concrete ｔ wo ｃ olumn ｂ ents,
whether to take the cracking limit state into account has a small influence on the
ultimate horizontal seismic strength.
① As shown in Fig.C-10.8.1, the position of the plastic rotation spring at the lower end
of the column shall be placed at the point of 1/2 of the length of plastic hinge Lp above
the pier base specified in Section 10.3.
The position of the plastic rotation spring at the joint section between the column
and beam shall generally be at the point shown in Fig.C-10.8.3 depending on whether
to consider the haunch. On the side where there is an abrupt sectional change in the
haunch with a steep gradient of being over 1:1 as in the case of the column as shown in
Fig.C-10.8.3 (a) and the beam shown in (b), the position of the plastic rotation spring
shall be placed at the point away from the outer side of the haunch at a distance of 1/2
of the length of the plastic hinge Lp. On the contrary, on the side where the haunch has
a gentle gradient of less than 1:1 as in the case of the beam shown in Fig.C-10.8.3 (a) or
the column shown in (b), the plastic rotation spring can be installed inside the haunch
by ignoring the influence of the haunch. However, in this case, it is necessary to
confirm that the section containing the root of the haunch does not reach the yield
bending moment earlier than the section containing the plastic rotation spring.
Here, h used in calculating Lp by Equation (10.3.7) shall be 1/2 of the height from the
pier base to the axis of the beam in the case of a column and shall be 1/2 of the distance
from the center of one column to the center of the other column in the case of a beam. D
can be the height of the section. However, in case that a plastic hinge exists in a
haunch as in the case of the beam shown in Fig.C-10.8.3 (a), it can be the height of the
section of the root portion in the joint section.
236
Fig.C-10.8.3 Modeling of Column-beam Joint Section with Haunch
ii) For the members other than those having sufficiently high stiffness as shown in
Fig.C-10.8.1, as the stiffness of the linear members representing a column or a beam,
the bending stiffness EIy of the yield limit state shall be used, which is calculated by
Equation (C10.8.1). Here, the axial force used to calculate the bending stiffness shall be
regarded as the axial force generated in each member when the dead load is acted.
Bending moment My0 and curvature Φy0 of the initial yield limit state shall be
calculated by equations (C-10.3.3) through (C-10.3.5). Here, the changes in the axial
force caused by action of a horizontal force are ignored for the sake of simple analysis
because the influence of axial force on stiffness EIy of the yield limit state is generally
small.
Mu M y0
EI y   ·····················································································
y y 0
(C10.8.1)
Where,
EIy: Bending stiffness at yield (N· mm2)
Mu: Ultimate bending moment (N· mm)
Φy: Yield curvature (1/mm)
My0: Initial bending moment at yield (N· mm)
Φy0: Initial yield curvature (1/mm)
237
iii) The initial stiffness before plasticity occurs in a plastic rotating spring shall be
obtained by Equation (C10.8.1). If the result of the calculation described below shows
that the bending moment acting on a plastic rotating spring exceeds the yield bending
moment (= the ultimate bending moment Mu), the plastic rotating spring shall be
judged to have entered the plastic range. Since the axial force has a substantial
influence on the ultimate bending moment Mu, based on Equations (C10.3.4) - (C10.3.5),
the ultimate bending moments shall be calculated by changing the axial force Ni,
including the negative values (tension) in order to obtain the correlation between the
axial moment and the bending moment as shown in Fig.C-10.8.4.
Fig. 10.8.4 Correlation between Axial Force and Ultimate Bending Moment
iv) Using the initial stiffness described in iii) above, the horizontal displacement shall
be statically increased gradually at the height of the superstructural inertia force. In
this process, the ultimate bending moment Mu shall be obtained from Fig.C-10.8.4 in
accordance with the axial force occurred at the position of the plastic rotating spring.
When the bending moment generated in the plastic rotating spring reaches Mu, the
subsequent tangential stiffness shall be taken as 0 as shown in Fig.C-10.8.2.
By increasing the horizontal displacement gradually as stated above, the
relationship between the horizontal force and the horizontal displacement at the height
of the superstructural inertia force as shown in Fig.C-10.8.5 shall be obtained. By doing
so, four plastic hinges can be identified out of six plastic rotating springs shown in
Fig.C-10.8.l. When the four plastic hinges have reached the yield, the shear force
generated in the respective plastic hinges shall be taken as Si. At the same time, the
relationship between the plastic rotation angle and horizontal displacement resulted
from the plastic hinges shall be obtained by referring to Fig.C-10.8.6.
238
Fig.C-10.8.5 Horizontal Force – Horizontal Displacement Relationship Obtained from
Push-over Analysis
Fig.C-10.8.6 Relationship between Plastic Rotation Angle and Horizontal Displacement

in Plastic Hinge
v) The maximum value of the horizontal force shown in Fig.C-10.8.5 shall be taken as
the ultimate strength Pu. In addition, when the first plastic hinge reaches the yield, the
horizontal displacement shall be regarded asδy0 and the horizontal force shall be
taken as Py0 and the yield displacementδy shall be obtained by Equation (C10.8.2).
where
δy: Horizontal displacement of the yield limit state (mm)
δy0: Horizontal displacement when the first plastic hinge reaches the yield (mm)
239
Pu: Ultimate strength (N)
Py0: Horizontal force when the first plastic hinge reaches the yield (N)
vi) In case that the shear force Si obtained in iv) above is lower than the shear strength
Psi at all of the plastic hinges positions, the failure mode of the pier shall be evaluated
as flexural failure. In case that the shear force Si exceeds the shear strength Psi in more
than one plastic hinge positions but is lower than the shear strength Ps0i, which is
calculated by using the value of 1.0 as the modification factor cc for the effect of
repeated alternative loads obtained in Section 10.5, the failure mode of the pier shall
be judged as shear failure after flexural yielding according to the standard of a
single-column pier. In case that in more than one plastic hinge positions, the shear
force Si exceeds the shear strength Ps0i which is calculated by using the value of 1.0 as
the modification factor cc on the effect of repeated alternative loads obtained in Section
10.5, the failure mode of the pier shall be evaluated as shear failure. In this case, the
ultimate horizontal seismic strength and the ductility capacity shall be obtained by
following provision 2). Here, the horizontal force when the shear force Si exceeds the
shear strength Ps0i for the first time in any of the plastic hinges shall be taken as the
shear strength Ps of the Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents.
vii) The ultimate plastic rotation angle θpu at each plastic hinge position shall be given
by Equation (C10.8.3).
Where
θpu: Ultimate plastic rotation angle in plastic hinge
Φy: Curvature of the yield limit state to be obtained by following Section 10.3 (1/mm)
Φu: Curvature of the ultimate limit state to be obtained by following Section 10.3
(1/mm)
Lp: Length of plastic hinge to be obtained by following Section 10.3 (mm)
However, unlike ii), specifications of Section 10.3 shall be followed here and the axial
force produced in each plastic hinge position when the ultimate strength Pu is reached
shall be taken into account when calculating Φy and Φu.
viii) For every four plastic hinges, a comparison shall be made between the ultimate
plastic rotation angle θpu and the plastic rotation angle - horizontal displacement
240
relationship (as shown in Fig.C-10.8.6) obtained by following the requirements in iv)
above. When all the plastic hinges have reached their θpu, or when the curvature
occurred in the section of any of the four plastic hinges has reached 2 times the
ultimate curvature of the respective sections, the horizontal displacement of the earlier
case shall be taken as the ultimate displacement δu, of the Reinforced Concrete ｔwo
ｃolumn ｂents.
3) In case that plastic hinge occurs in the beam of a single story rigid-frame pier, brittle
damage shall be avoided even if a primary load other than the impact specified in Part
I Common Provisions is acted at the position of the plastic hinge after an earthquake.
For this purpose, Equation (10.8.4) has been provided for verification of shear strength.
This is because if a plastic hinge occurs due to an earthquake, the shear strength of
that section will drop to a lower level than it is before the earthquake. Therefore, the
shear damage of the beam due to this effect caused by the action of a primary load after
an earthquake shall be avoided. In addition, the shear strength of the section in which
the plastic hinge has occurred can be obtained by Equation (10.5.1) by considering the
modification factor on the effect of repeated alternative loads specified in Section 10.5.
(3) It is possible that plastic hinges may be formed in the upper and lower ends of a
column member and both ends of a beam member. Therefore, among the column
members and beam members of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents, in the
lower end of the column member, within the range 4 times the length of the plastic
hinge from the pier base and in the upper end of the column member and both ends of
the beam member, within the range 4 times the length of the plastic hinge from the
root of the joint section, arrangement of reinforcing bars which satisfies the structural
details to improve the ductility of an Reinforced Concrete Columns as provided in
Section 10.6 shall be carried out in order to ensure effective deformation performance.
For the upper and lower ends of a column member and both ends of a beam member, it
is required that arrangement of the reinforcing bars shall have to meet these structural
details regardless of whether plastic hinge exists or not from the results of calculation.
Additionally, when there is a haunch, the same considering method for the starting
point of the length of plastic hinge as shown in Fig.C-10.8.3 can be adopted in
measuring the starting point of the range 4 times the length of plastic hinge
corresponding to the gradient of the haunch. However, within the haunch portion not
included in the length of plastic hinge, it shall be noted that the reinforcing bars must
be arranged in the same manner as within the range 4 times the length of plastic hinge.
241
An example of arrangement of the reinforcing bars in the joint section between the
column and beam of an Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents and the section
close to it has been provided in Fig.C-10.8.7.
For beam members, ductility is basically expected only for the in-plane direction in
seismic design but not for the out-of-plane direction. Accordingly, as shown in
Fig.C-10.8.7, considering the convenience of construction at a site, cross ties of beam
members shall be arranged vertically. No arrangement of cross ties is necessary in the
horizontal direction.
In case that the effect of repeated alternative loads appears during an earthquake, in
order to prevent plastic hinge from occurring in the joint portion between the column
and the beam, special attention shall have to be paid to the arrangement of reinforcing
bars in the joint panel portion. The dynamic capacity and deformation performance of
the joint panel portion are presently being studied, but various issues still remain
unclear. Therefore, considering the fact that so far there have been few damage cases
in the joint section found in Japan and for convenience of construction at site, the
arrangement of reinforcing bars in the joint section as shown in Fig.C-10.8.7 may be
taken as the standard. Within in the joint panel portion, although cross ties are not
necessary, it is required that horizontal lateral hoop ties shall be arranged up to the
top of the column at the same spacing as that of the lateral hoop ties of the column
member and vertical hoop ties shall be arranged at the same spacing as that of the
vertical hoop ties of the beam member.
In Fig.C-10.8.7, it is assumed that the joint panel portion of an Reinforced Concrete
ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents is in T shape. In case that it is in reversed L shape, Section 14.4
of Part III Concrete Structures shall be referred to and a separate study shall be
required.
242
Fig.C-10.8.7 Arrangement of Reinforcing Bars in Joint Panel Portion of an Reinforced
Concrete Two Column Bents
243
10.9 Effect of Eccentric Loading of Superstructure
(1) Lateral strength and ductility capacity of an Reinforced Concrete Columns

subjected to an eccentric bending moment caused by superstructural dead load
shall be obtained in the direction of the eccentric moment, from the provisions in
(3) depending on failure mode judged by the requirements in (2) below. In the
direction opposite to that of the eccentric moment, lateral strength and ductility
capacity can be obtained by neglecting the influences of the eccentric moment.
Furthermore, the yield stiffness of an Reinforced Concrete Columns for obtaining
the natural period shall be calculated with provisions shown in (4) below.
(2) Failure mode of an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to an eccentric bending

moment due to structural dead load shall be evaluated according to the criteria in
Section 10.2 (1). However, lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns in
judging failure mode shall be calculated by Equation (10.9.1).
M0
PuE = Pu －･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.9.1)
h
M0 = D e ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.9.2)
where
PuE: Lateral strength of the Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric
bending moment caused by the superstructural dead load (N)
M0: Eccentric bending moment caused by the superstructural dead load (N・mm)
Pu: Lateral strength of the Reinforced Concrete Columns as per Section 10.3 (N)
h: Distance from the bottom of pier to superstructural inertia force (mm)
D: Superstructural dead weight (N)
e: Eccentric distance from the centroid of the pier section to the center of gravity of
the superstructure (mm)
(3) For a pier with flexural failure, lateral strength and ductility capacity shall be
calculated by Equations (10.9.3) and (10.9.4), respectively.
PαE = PuE ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.9.3)

 uE   yE
E 1  ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.9.4)
 ( yE   0E )
244
where
PaE: Lateral strength of an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric
bending moment caused by the superstructural dead load (N)
μ E: Ductility capacity of an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric
bending moment caused by the superstructural dead load
α : Safety factor specified in Section 10.2
δ uE: Ultimate displacement of an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to
eccentric bending moment caused by the superstructural dead load (mm)
δyE: Yield displacement of an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric
bending moment caused by the superstructural dead load (mm)
δ0E: Initial displacement at the height of the superstructural inertia force, caused by
the eccentric bending moment of the superstructural dead load (mm)
In the case of a shear failure after flexural yielding, the lateral strength shall be
obtained from Equation (10.9.3), and the ductility capacity shall be taken as 1.0.
Furthermore, the influences of the eccentric bending moment can be neglected in
the case of a shear failure.
(4) Yield stiffness KyE of an Reinforced Concrete Columns used in calculating the
natural period shall be obtained by Equation (10.9.5).
PuE
k yE  ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (10.9.5)
 yE   0 E
where
KyE: Yield stiffness of an Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric bending
moment caused by the superstructural dead load (N/mm)
(1) When the dead load of the superstructure is eccentric as shown in Fig.C-10.9. 1, an
eccentric bending moment due to the dead load always acts upon the pier. Here, the
application method of the ductility design method to a single-column pier subjected to
eccentric bending moment has been provided.
It has been decided that the lateral strength in the direction opposite to the acting
direction of the eccentric bending moment and the ductility capacity can be calculated
by ignoring the influence of the eccentric bending moment. This is based on the
consideration that in regard to the direction opposite to the acting direction of the
eccentric bending moment, calculation of the lateral strength and the ductility capacity
245
by ignoring the influence of the eccentric bending moment will result in a safe
evaluation and complicated calculation procedures can also be avoided.
In case that the superstructural inertia force is acting with a big eccentricity away
from the centroid of a pier body, since a torsional moment is acting upon the
substructure body due to the earthquake ground motion in the axis direction of the
bridge, a study concerning the safety of the pier is recommended.
Fig.C-10.9.1 An Example of an Reinforced Concrete Columns Subjected to Eccentric

Bending Moment Caused by Superstructural Dead Load
(2) Equation (10.9.1) is the calculation method to obtain the ultimate strength of a
Reinforced Concrete Columns used for determining the failure mode. The
superstructural dead load etc. refers to the weight of the superstructure and the weight
of the overhang portion of a pier.
(3) Fig.C-10.9.2 illustrates the relationship between the horizontal force and horizontal
displacement at the acting position of superstructural inertia force when the pier is
subjected to an eccentric bending moment. When the eccentric bending moment M0
acts on the height of superstructural inertia force, an initial displacement δ0E will occur
at the position. During an earthquake, this initial displacement will become the
starting point of a displacement in the pier. For this reason, in case that the eccentric
bending moment exists, the initial displacement δ0E shall have to be taken into account
during calculation of the ductility capacity μE, the ultimate strength PuE and the yield
stiffness KyE of an Reinforced Concrete Columns.
246
In case that an eccentric bending moment due to the dead load of the superstructure
etc. is acting, the horizontal displacement δ0E occurred at the height of the
superstructural inertia force due to the bending deformation of the pier shall be
calculated by Equation (C10.3.6) provided in the explanation of Section 10.3. In this
calculation, the curvature of each section for the eccentric bending moment M0 due to
the dead load of the superstructure can be used to obtain δ0E.
On the other hand, for calculation of the yield displacement δyE and the ultimate
displacement δuE, as shown in Fig.C-10.9.3, the horizontal displacement shall be
calculated by considering M0 and by using the curvature occurred in each section and
the method specified in Section 10.3 shall be adopted.
In case that the failure mode has been judged to be shear failure, the eccentric
bending moment can be neglected. In addition, during the seismic design of the
foundation of an Reinforced Concrete Columns which is subjected to the eccentric
bending moment due to the dead load of the superstructure etc., for the ultimate
strength of the pier used in Equation (6.4.11), instead of the value obtained by
Equation (10.9.1), the ultimate strength Pu calculated by following the rules in Section
10.3 and by neglecting the influence of the eccentric bending moment shall be adopted.
This is based on the consideration of using a safe design horizontal seismic coefficient
for the seismic design of the pier foundation.
Fig.C-10.9.2 Relationship between Horizontal Force and Horizontal Displacement

When Subjected to the Eccentric Bending Moment Caused by
Superstructural Dead Load
247
Fig.C-10.9.3 How to Obtain Horizontal Displacement δ due to Bending Deformation
When Subjected to the Eccentric Bending Moment Caused by Superstructural Dead
Load
(4) In case that a pier is subjected to the eccentric bending moment due to the
superstructural dead load, as shown in Fig.C-10.9.2, the yield stiffness KyE obtained by
taking into account the eccentric bending moment shall be used in calculating the
natural period of the Reinforced Concrete Columns.
248
Chapter 11 Verification of Seismic Perormance of Steel Colums
11.1 General
(1) Allowable values such as allowable displacements of a steel pier for Seismic
Performance Level 2 or Level 3, and inelastic hysteretic models in a dynamic
analysis shall be determined in accordance with the provisions in Section 11.2.
(2) A steel pier shall be designed in such a manner that a ductile failure can be
prevented, and the required ductility can be ensured. A steel pier designed in
accordance with the structural details specified in Section 11.3 can be regarded as a
satisfactory one.
(3) An anchorage block between a steel pier and an Reinforced Concretefoundation
shall be designed for the Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion without causing the
plastic deformation at the anchorage. An anchorage designed in accordance with
the provisions specified in Section 11.4 can be regarded as satisfactory.
(1) Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 of a bridge with consideration of plastic

behavior of its steel piers shall be fundamentally verified by a dynamic method
specified in Chapter 7, because many problems are still left unsolved, such as response
and resistant mechanism for a hollow steel pier when subjected to a large seismic force,
assessment of ductility. The another reason is the accuracy as well as application of
Energy Conservation Principle used as a primary method to estimate nonlinear
response have not been examined sufficiently. On the other hand, verification of a steel
pier with concrete filling could be performed by applying ductility design method based
on Energy Conservation Principle just like an Reinforced Concrete Columns, as
specified in the old version of Seismic Design published in 1996. Where, skeleton curve
of a steel pier with concrete filling can be modeled as an ideal elasto-plastic model, in
which relationship between horizontal force and horizontal displacement is generally
characterized by allowing an increased horizontal force after yielding, as the same as
model of an Reinforced Concrete Columns with almost unchanged horizontal force after
yielding. Energy Conservation Principle was applicable in this case. In this revision,
249
relationship between horizontal force and horizontal displacement comparably close to
the real characteristics of a steel pier with concrete filling is adopted. As a result, the
seismic performance of a steel pier with concrete filling can be verified by a dynamic
method using a model with an increased horizontal force after yielding.
Although the verification of the seismic performance by a dynamic method is
prescribed in Chapter 7, time-history response analysis using nonlinear hysteretic
model can also be applied in verifying a steel pier.
(2) This provision aims to prevent collapse such as collapse of a pier caused by loss of
vertical strength of superstructural dead load as a stiffening plate or a steel pipe
buckles or breaks under horizontal seismic force, so that a steel pier shall be designed
in such a manner that a ductile failure can be prevented, and the required ductility can
be ensured. Steel piers are generally classified into two types: with concrete filling or
without concrete filling but having structural details for improving ductility so as to
prevent a ductile failure. Before Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in 1995, examples of
investigation especially on the structural details of the steel pier with concrete filling
for preventing a ductile failure and ensuring the required ductility were less reported.
However, knowledge related to these researches was getting accumulated from
experiments of Public Works Research Institute after that. Herein, only the structural
details which effectiveness has been confirmed by these kinds of experiments should be
adopted, as specified in Section 11.3.
(3) For an anchorage block often plays an important role in transferring axial force,
bending moment or shear force acting on a pier to its foundation, it will largely affect
the seismic performance of the pier. If it suffers damage, damage discovery becomes
difficult and a large-scale repair works is needed. For this reason, plastic deformation
is generally not allowed in the anchorage block subjected to Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion.
11.2 Verification of Seismic Performance by Dynamic Analysis
(1) The Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 shall be verified in accordance with the
following provisions.
1) In verification of Seismic Performance Level 2, the maximum response of a
steel pier obtained from a dynamic analysis shall not exceed its allowable value.
In addition, the residual displacement calculated by substituting the maximum
response displacement at the height of the point of the superstructural inertia
250
force into Equation (6.4.9), shall not exceed the allowable residual
displacement. Ratio (r) of the secondary post-yielding stiffness to the yielding
stiffness used in calculation of the residual displacement in Equation (6.4.9),
and residual displacement modification factor (CR) shall be taken as the values
defined in Table 11.2.1.
Table 11.2.1 Ratio (r) of the Secondary Post-Yielding Stiffness to the Yielding Stiffness
Used in Calculation of the Residual Displacement of a Steel Pier,
and Residual Displacement Modification Factor (CR)
Type of steel piers r cR

Steel piers without concrete filling 0.2 0.45
Steel piers with concrete filling 0.05 0.35
2) In verification of Seismic Performance Level 3, the maximum response of a

steel pier obtained from a dynamic analysis shall not exceed its allowable value.
(2) Allowable values such as allowable displacements of a steel pier for verifying the
Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 shall generally be determined in accordance
with the results of repeating load test for specimens having structural details
similar to those of the real pier. Allowable residual displacement shall not exceed
one hundredth of the height from the pier base to the height of the superstructural
inertia force.
(3) An inelastic hysteretic model of a steel pier in a dynamic analysis shall represent
allowable values such as allowable displacements obtained from test results
specified in (2), and elasto-plastic behavior of the steel pier.
(1) This provision is based on the fundamental consideration of verifying the Seismic
Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for a steel pier. The verification of the steel pier by a
dynamic method should be focused on curvature ratio or displacement. In addition, it
also prescribed that the residual displacement of the steel pier after an earthquake
should be verified in the verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 as the same as an
Reinforced Concrete Columns. In the verification of seismic performance by
time-history response analysis, the maximum response curvature ratio or displacement
should be the average value of the analytical results of 3 input earthquake ground
motions waves, as described in Section 7.2.
The residual displacement should be calculated by Equation (6.4.9), as explained in
251
7.4 (2). In this process, ratio (r) of the secondary post-yielding stiffness to the yielding
stiffness used in calculation of the residual displacement and residual displacement
modification factor (CR) shall take the values defined in Table 11.2.1, which is based on
results of the loading test or analytical results of response spectra of the residual
displacement for a single column steel pier. For the single column steel pier and the
steel pier with different plastic behavior such as relation of horizontal force and
horizontal displacement, r and CR should be discussed additionally.
In the verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for a bridge with steel
piers capable of deforming plastically, special attention shall be paid to guaranteeing
the seismic resistance of the bridge as the whole system in accordance with the
provisions of 7.4 (5) because a dynamic method will be applied. As described in the
explanation of 7.4 (5), the steel piers that have satisfied the verification by a dynamic
method should additionally conform to Equation (C7.4.1).
(2) After Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, research on quantitative evaluation of strength
and ductility for a steel pier increased, in addition to extend of abundance of valuable
knowledge related. Since there are many problems still left unsolved, quantitative
evaluation of strength and ductility may be conducted by referring to resistance
mechanism of an inelastic steel pier, which is based on results of repeating load test
with considering effects of repeatability.
Allowable values such as allowable displacements of a steel pier for verifying the
Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 shall be generally determined, as the same as
in the old version of Seismic Design (1996), in accordance with the results of repeating
load test for specimens having structural details similar to those of the real pier. In this
case, however, not all the results can be obtained as expected. Recent research on the
hollow steel pier also clearly proves such a fact that unless horizontal force is reduced
nearby the maximum displacement, plastic behavior obtained from repeating load test
will not show higher precision than that from a proper elasto-plastic finite
displacement analysis capable of considering effects of buckling. For this reason, data
of repeated load test should generally be adopted in this case. When the determination
of allowable values are based on the analytical results capable of expressing plastic
behavior of a steel pier, parameters such as allowable displacements can be also
determined depending on the analytical results. Note that accuracy of analysis method
and analytical model should be confirmed before comparing the analytical results with
experimental ones.
Allowable values such as allowable displacements of a steel pier for verifying the
Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 could be determined in accordance with the
252
relationship between horizontal force and horizontal displacement obtained from
repeating load test for specimens having structural details similar to those of the real
pier. For reference, displacement at the time of maximum horizontal force generating
can be regarded as the allowable displacement, because displacement caused by local
buckling at this point is so small that may hardly affect elasto-plastic behavior, as a
result, stable inelastic hysteretic properties can be obtained without influenced by
number of repeatability. Meanwhile, elasto-plastic behavior can be replicated with a
comparably high precision through a proper analysis, and the allowable displacement
determined in this way is safe enough than a larger one.
(3) This provision stipulated that an inelastic hysteretic model in a dynamic analysis
should represent elasto-plastic behavior of a steel pier obtained from test results. As a
typical inelastic hysteretic model in a dynamic analysis, relationship between
horizontal force and horizontal displacement of a member can be applied, such as
relation between bending moment M and curvature ratio φ in a cross section (called
M-φrelation hereafter) and stress-strain relation, as illustrated in the old version of
Seismic Design (1996). A dynamic analysis with nonlinear behavior shall employ some
suitable inelastic hysteretic models by considering their properties, respectively.
1) Determination of M-φrelation for a steel pier cross section
Based on the provisions of (2), how to determine the M-φrelation for a cross section
with plastic behavior is given in the following. For determining the M-φrelation for a
steel pier cross section, results of repeated alternative loading test conducted by Public
Works Research Institute were adopted as data of loading test specified in (2).
Depending on these data, the M-φrelation could be established in such a manner that
parameters representing elasto-plastic behavior such as allowable displacement of a
steel pier can be properly expressed. For reference, allowable displacement shall be the
horizontal displacement when the maximum horizontal force obtained from the
repeated alternative loading test specified in (2) is attained.
① For a hollow steel pier
The following is the example to show how to determine the M-φrelation for a hollow
steel pier but with plastic behavior.
i) Stress-strain curve of steel shall employ a bilinear model with secondary gradient of
E/100, as illustrated in Fig. C-11.2.1, where, E is Young modulus of the steel. Use of
a bilinear model is based on consideration of effects of strain hardening in the steel
and the maximum horizontal force obtained from loading tests of a steel pier.
ii) Depending on sectional shape of the steel pier, allowable strain εa corresponding
to allowable displacement can be calculated by Equations (C11.2.1) and (C11.2.2).
253
εa
For a rectangular section:  20-25 R F ···················································· (C 11.2.1)
εy
εa
For a circular section:  20-140 R t ························································· (C 11.2.2)
εy
where
εa : Yield strain of steel, equal to quotient of the yield point σy divided by Young
modulus E of the steel
RF : Width-thickness ratio for a steel section with plastic behavior, as defined in
Equation (C4.2.4) of the Part II Steel Bridges
Rt : Radius thickness ratio for a steel section with plastic behavior, as defined in
Equation (C11.3.5)
Here, Equation (C11.2.1) can be applied, if 0.2≦RF≦0.5, 0.3≦RR≦0.5, 0≦N/Ny≦
0.2, 0.2≦λ≦0.4, γl/γl*≧1.0 are almost satisfied, to cross sections of a steel pier
such as an approximate square section with longitudinal stiffener but without
angular stiffener and diaphragm or a rectangular section having almost identical
structural parameters in its flange and web. On the other hand, Equation (C11.2.2) is
only applicable, if 0.03≦Rt≦0.08, 0.2≦λ≦0.4, 0≦N/Ny≦0.2 are almost satisfied, to
a steel pier of circular section without longitudinal ribs. Where, RR is width-thickness
ratio of a steel section with plastic behavior defined in Equation (C4.2.3) of the Part II
Steel Bridges. N denotes an axial force. Ny represents for the axial force when the full
section of a steel member yields and shall be product of its sectional area times yield
point of steel σy. λ stands for slenderness parameter defined in Equation (C3.2.1)
of the Part II Steel Bridges. γl is stiffness ratio of longitudinal stiffener defined in
Section 4.2.5 of Steel Bridges, andγ l* is stiffness ratio of longitudinal stiffener
defined in Equation (C11.2.3).
 2
4 n 1  n 1  

1 2
2
   4 1  n l 
γl* =  n ·································· (C11.2.3)
 n

 2n  1  n   1  1
1 2
1
2
    4 1  n l 
where,
a : Aspect ratio of stiffener defined in Section 4.2.5 of Steel Bridges
n : Number of panels divided by longitudinal stiffeners defined in Section 4.2.5 of
Steel Bridges
δi: Sectional area ratio for one longitudinal stiffener defined in Section 4.2.5 of
Steel Bridges
For a steel pier made of high tensile steel over SM570, if allowable strain εa
254
obtained from Equations (C11.2.1) and (C11.2.2) is used to determine its M- φ
relation, it may be excessively evaluated to be possibly danger. In this case, therefore,
value of allowable strain should be carefully examined.
iii) A trilinear M-φ relation can be obtained by referring to Fig.C11.2.2. At first, with
use of the stress-strain curve defined in i) assuming a calculating section keeping as
a plane and considering varying axial force, finding the first point (φyc, Myc) and
second point (φyt, Myt) when strains in plate thickness center at both compressive
and tensile edge of steel reach their yield strainεy for the first time, respectively.
Then, calculating the third point (φa, Ma) when strain in plate thickness center at
compressive edge of the steel reach its allowable strainεa obtained from ii). Finally,
drawing a line through these points to complete the M-φ relation. If the steel pier
is subjected to an eccentric dead load from superstructure, effects of the eccentric
moment should also be included in its M-φ relation.
Fig. C11.2.1 Stress-Strain Curve of Steel
255
Fig. C11.2.2 M-φ Relation for a Hollow Steel Pier with Plastic Behavior
② For a steel pier with concrete filling

The following is the example to show how to determine the M-φrelation for a steel
pier with concrete filling but with plastic behavior.
i) Stress-strain curve of steel shall employ a bilinear model with secondary gradient of
E/100, as illustrated in Fig. C-11.2.1. Stress-strain curve of concrete is shown in Fig.
C11.2.3.
ii) Depending on sectional shape of the steel pier, allowable strain εa corresponding
to allowable displacement can be calculated by Equations (C11.2.4) and (C11.2.5).
εa
For a rectangular section:  7 ······························································· (C 11.2.4)
εy
εa
For a circular section:  5 ····································································· (C 11.2.5)
εy
where
εy : Yield strain of steel, equal to quotient of the yield point σy divided by Young
modulus E of the steel
Here, if 0.2≦RF≦0.7, 0.3≦RR≦0.7, 0≦N/Ny≦0.2, 0.2≦λ≦0.4 are almost satisfied,
Equation (C11.2.4) can be applied to cross sections of a steel pier such as an
approximate square section with longitudinal stiffener but without angular stiffener
and diaphragm, or a rectangular section having almost identical structural
parameters in its flange and web. On the other hand, if 0.03≦Rt≦0.12, 0.2≦λ≦0.4,
0≦N/Ny≦0.2 are almost satisfied, Equation (C11.2.5) is only applicable to a steel pier
of circular section without longitudinal ribs but with diaphragm. Where, RF is
256
width-thickness ratio of a concrete-filled section with plastic behavior defined in
Equation (C4.2.4) while RR is that of a section with concrete filling defined in
Equation (C4.2.3) of the Part II Steel Bridges. N denotes an axial force. Ny represents
for the axial force when the full section of a steel member yields by neglecting the
concrete filling and shall be product of its sectional area times yield point of steel σy.
λ stands for slenderness parameter defined in Equation (C3.2.1) of the Part II Steel
Bridges.
For a steel pier composed of high tensile steel over SM570, if allowable strain εa
obtained from Equations (C11.2.4) and (C11.2.5) is used to determine its M- φ
relation, it may be excessively evaluated to be possibly danger. In this case, therefore,
value of allowable strain should be carefully examined.
iii) A bilinear M-φ relation can be obtained by referring to Fig.C11.2.4. At first, with
use of the stress-strain curve defined in i) assuming a calculating section keeping as
a plane and considering varying axial force, determining the first point (φy, My) by
taking the small one of (φyc, Myc) and (φyt, Myt), which are curvature rations and
bending moments when strains in plate thickness center at both compressive and
tensile edge of steel reach their yield strainεy for the first time, respectively. Then,
calculating the second point (φ a, Ma) when strain in plate thickness center at
compressive edge of the steel reach allowable strainεa obtained from ii). Finally,
drawing a line through these points to complete the M-φ relation. If the steel pier
is subjected to an eccentric dead load from superstructure while neglecting tensile
stress of concrete, effects of the eccentric moment should be included in its M-φ
relation.
Fig. C11.2.3 Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete

c
257
Fig. C11.2.4 M-φ Relation for a Plastic Steel Pier with Concrete Filling
2) Determining an inelastic hysteretic model according to M-φ relation

Principle of hardening in an inelastic hysteretic model forming skeleton curve of M-
φ relation demonstrated in 1) is movable hardening type (refer to Fig.C11.2.5).
Fig. C11.2.5 Inelastic Hysteretic Model according to M-φ Relation (Example of a

Steel Pier with Concrete Filling)
3) Notices on determining an inelastic hysteretic model

When setting an inelastic hysteretic model such as M-φ relation according to the
methods given in 1) or 2), grounds of setting should be referred, axial force and
application scope of objective sectional shape be noted in accordance with Section 11.3.
In establishing an inelastic hysteretic model for a steel pier with the procedure
258
described in 2), yield displacement δy conforming to Equation (6.4.9) for verifying
residual displacement could be the yield displacement corresponding to either (φyt,
Myt) for a steel pier with concrete filling, or (φy, My) for a hollow steel pier. Either of Pa
– seismic lateral strength in the verification of minimum required strength for a pier
by Equation (C7.4.1), and Pu – lateral strength of a pier supporting by a foundation in
calculation of horizontal seismic coefficient used in verification of a pier foundation by
Equation (C6.4.11), can be quotient (Ma/h) of bending moment Ma at point of allowable
displacement divided by the height h from the pier base to superstructural center of
gravity. When subjected to an eccentric moment, however, Ma should be calculated
without considering its effects as the same as an Reinforced Concrete Columns because
a horizontal force within safe range is employed for the pier foundation.
In in-plane direction of a portal steel rigid-frame pier, if varying axial force in its
columns drops in scope of Equations (C11.2.1), (C11.2.2), (C11.2.4) and (C11.2.5), its
inelastic hysteretic model in this direction could be assumed by applying the procedure
to determine M-φ relation given in 1). In this process, however, special attention
should be paid to application of the inelastic hysteretic model established according to
the method described in 1), if results of a dynamic analysis indicate that response of
bending moment and curvature ratio of over two sections in column reach (φa, Ma).
Similarly, applying the M-φ relation given in 1) to beams of a steel rigid-frame pier
should also be discussed separately.
Response displacement of a pier with an eccentric dead load caused by its
superstructure may probably get larger than the case without eccentric dead load,
because the eccentric moment under normal conditions may repeatedly work during an
earthquake and leads to an inclined deformation. When dead load of superstructure is
eccentric in a steel pier, M-φ relation is advisably determined by a dynamic analysis
considering factors such as effects of the eccentric moment, geometric non-linearity as
needed and eccentric dead load.
Besides, if reliable data could be obtained through some other method instead of ones
described in 1) and 2), such as loading test considering effects of repeatability, or
plastic behavior of a steel pier and allowable displacement can be appropriately
determined with use of an analytical model based on these data, an inelastic hysteretic
model could be established in accordance with investigated results in the above.
259
11.3 Structural Details
(1) Low-strength concrete is recommended for filling concrete inside steel piers.
Concrete shall be filled up to a height capable of preventing the buckling of a steel
section just above the concrete filling.
(2) Structural details of hollow steel piers shall follow the provisions in Sections 4.2
and 14.3 of Part II Steel Bridges, and shall avoid brittle failure, and enhance their
ductile properties.
(1) According to loading test conducted by Public Works Research Institute, it has been
confirmed that the strength and ductility of a steel pier can be improved by properly
filling concrete inside it. In this process, since the concrete filling is to prevent the local
buckling in the steel section, as well as subsequent deformation, use of low-strength
concrete (standard strength is about 18N/mm2) shall be recommended so that the
strength of filling concrete is not significantly greater than that of the steel section.
Concrete shall be filled up to a height capable of ensuring that horizontal strength with
considering yielding horizontal strength or local buckling a steel section just above the
concrete filling is greater than that at the pier base. Accordingly, the height of the
filling concrete should be determined by following Equation (11.3.1).
hc＞(1－Mys/M) h ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････(C11.3.1)
where
hc : Height of filling concrete (mm)
h : Height from the pier base to superstructural inertia force (mm)
Msy : Bending moment of a steel section just above the concrete filling (N・mm), shich
can be calculated by Equation (C11.3.2).
Mys＝(σsy－σsN) Zg ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････(C11.3.2)
σ sy : Stress obtained by multiplying allowable stress to local buckling with an
magnification factor 1.7, or yield point of steel (N/mm2)
σsN : Stress caused by an axial force of a steel section just above the concrete filling
(N/mm2)
Ma : Bending moment of the pier base when calculating allowable displacement in
accordance with the explanation of 11.2 (3) (N・mm)
260
A section with varying slab thickness except of one just above the concrete filling
could be verified by Equation (C11.3.1). ). In addition, when the required concrete
filling height exceeds the length from top of the pier foundation to the lower end of the
crossbeam joint, concrete shall be filled up to the height of the crossbeam joint.
For steel piers subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be designed
capable of avoiding brittle failure and enhancing their ductile properties, the following
matters should be noted in the verification of seismic performance for Level 1
1) In principle, steel piers with concrete filling shall be treated as normal steel piers
by ignoring the effects of filling concrete in the verification of Seismic Performance
Level 1 for the Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. It will not be applied when steel
piers with concrete filling are blueprinted as composite piers that rely on the
composite effects of both the steel section and the concrete section. In this case,
however, attention should be paid to avoiding use of sections that are extremely small
or likely to deform, as well as the structural details of the composite structure, such
as studs and diaphragms. Properties of the filling concrete should also be taken into
consideration.
2) When the plate thickness varies at the middle point of column height, it should be
noted that local buckling at the point where the plate thickness is changed is apt to
occur when the column suffers a lateral seismic force. When the cost savings due to
the plate thickness modification are not so significant as expected, use of sections
with a uniform plate thickness is much more effective to lower the height of concrete
filling. Therefore, plate thickness should be generally kept constant and the modified
section of the column shall have some reserve stress when the steel plate thickness is
modified.
If improvement of seismic resistance has been confirmed through loading tests with
effects of repeatability, other structural details can be applied.
(2) Since hollow steel piers will lose strength and suffer brittle failures lack of ductility
shown in Fig. C-11.3.1 below, they shall be designed capable of avoiding such
behaviors.
① Piers with rectangular sections
State that vertical strength for dead load of the superstructure losses, as the corner
welding part of stiffening plates splits and results in separating of two neighboring
stiffening plates that consist of a rectangular section
② Piers with cylindrical sections
261
State that deformation concentrates after local buckling happens at only one place
at first, resulting in tilting of the column itself and cracking around the column's
circumference due to the increased
Fig.C11.3.1 Brittle Failure mode of a Hollow Steel Pier
Since the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake of 1995, various research and testing have
been carried out on the design details of hollow steel piers in order to enhance their
ductility. As a result, structural details illustrated in the following are proved effective
in preventing brittle failures and increasing the horizontal strength as well as ductility.
1) Structural details for preventing brittle failures (Refer to Fig. C11.3.2)
① Piers with rectangular sections

(a) A structure using a corner plate to reinforce the corner (a type of corner
reinforcement structure).
(b) A structure that eliminates corner welding by rounding off the corner part in a
circular arc.
(c) A structure that applies full penetration groove welding or partial penetration
groove welding by K groove (root face is about 2 mm) to the welding part in the corner,
and uses quality guaranteed steel materials to provide the required mechanical
characteristics along the plate thickness.
Item (a) represents a structure that retains the angle in the corner with use of a
closed section even if considerable deformation develops, resulting in possibility to
prevent cracks in welded corner. Item (b) intends to prevent rupture destruction in
the corner by eliminating the corner welding. Item (c) aims at preventing ruptures
262
originating in the welded part by using a welding joint that allows sufficient
penetration in the corner welding, as well as preventing the steel plate in the corner
from being split by tensile forces along the plate thickness.
② Piers with cylindrical sections

(d) A structure wrapping a steel plate around the pier's outer circumference leaving a
space about one half of the thickness of host material.
(e) A structure reinforcing the steel pipe with longitudinal ribs.
(f) A structure limiting the radius thickness ratio of steel pipes (the ratio of the radius
to the plate thickness).
Item (d) intends to prevent the concentration of deformation or cracks by dispersing

the deformation through multi-stage propagation of the buckling waves, as the local
buckling deformation contacts the outer steel plate when it exceeds a given
deformation level. Item (e) is to prevent lantern buckling caused by vertical ribs, as
well as concentration of the deformation. Item (f) can prevent cracks caused by
concentrated local deformation, and increasing ductility of the steel pipe by limiting
its radius thickness ratio.
2) Structural details to increase ductility
From experiments carried out by Public Works Research Institute, it has been
confirmed that, among the various types of structures shown in 1) above, structures
such as (a) for the rectangular section and (d), (e), and (f) for the cylindrical section
are capable of preventing brittle failures in addition to increasing the ductility. Other
researches have also clearly indicated that lowering the width-thickness ratio of the
stiffening plate and increasing its stiffness can improve the ductility of a pier with a
rectangular section.
263
Fig. C11.3.2 Example of Structural Details for Preventing Brittle Failure
Based on the results of the above researches and tests, additional provisions related
to the buckling parameters for the stiffening plates and steel pipes used in portions
requiring ductility have been introduced in Section 4.2 and 14.3 of the Part II Steel
Bridges. Note that these provisions stipulate requirements for increasing ductility in
applying the structural details to pier (a) with a rectangular section and structure (d)
with a circular section. However, it is necessary to examine the buckling parameters
separately in order to ensure the required ductility when the structural details of (b)
or (c) are adopted.
Fig. C-11.3.3 shows the design details of the (a) corner reinforcing structure that
can satisfy the performance requirements described in 1) and 2) above. The occupied
width of a corner stiffener on each side shall be more than 25%, and the width-
thickness ratio Rc can be determined by Equation (C-11.3.3).
Rc ≦ 0.4 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････· (C11.3.3)
where
bc : Plate width of a corner stiffener (mm)

tc : Plate thickness of a corner stiffener (mm)
264
σy : Standard yield point of steel material (N/mm2)
E : Young modulus (N/mm2)
ν : Poisson's ratio
κ : Buckling coefficient (4.0 in the case of a support plate that supports both edges)
Fig. C11.3.3 Structural Details of Corner Reinforcing Structure
Portion b in Fig.C-11.3.3 should be generally designed by placing longitudinal

stiffeners at same interval in accordance with the provisions on stiffening plates in
Section 4.2 of the Steel Bridges, after taking into consideration the occupied width of
corner stiffener. In the arrangement of longitudinal stiffeners, although dividing b'
evenly might be an alternative, placing these stiffeners adjacent to the corner near
the corner stiffening members, as shown in the above figure, is recommended,
because such arrangement has been confirmed effective to the ductility.
When embedding concrete is filled into neck of a pier with a rectangular section to
prevent deformation caused by the impact of vehicle crash, steel hollow section may
come to cracking in the corner after a deformation mode characterized by bulging all
stiffeners out of the filling concrete happens and results in corner cracks. It is
therefore essential to take measures for preventing brittle failures by filling the
embedding concrete up to diaphragms that will restrict the deformation of the
stiffening plate, or alternatively by using structural details capable of preventing
corner cracks through overlapping on the concrete-filled part.
On the other hand, in a pier with a circular section, brittle failure can be prevented
if radius thickness ratio Pt satisfies the requirements of Equation (C11.3.4).
Where
265
R : Radius at the center of the plate thickness (mm)
T : Plate thickness (mm)
σy : Standard yield point of steel material (N/mm2)
E : Young modulus (N/mm2)
ν : Poisson's ratio (=0.3)
Use of the above structural details is recommended for avoiding brittle failures and
enhancing ductility, except that the ductility has been confirmed by repeated loading
tests in which structures other than the above can be applied instead.
11.4 Design for Anchorage Block
Anchorage block of a steel pier shall generally be designed with strength not less than
the lateral strength of the steel pier. When concrete is filled into the foundation, the
strength of the steel pier shall be calculated by taking the effects of the filled concrete
into account.
There are two methods often used in verifying an anchorage block subjected to Level
1 Earthquake Ground Motion(Refer to Fig. C-11.4.1): (a) a method of resisting both
compression and tensile force by anchor bolts and anchor frames (the pile method); and
(b) a method of resisting compression force by footing concrete underneath the base
plate, and resisting the tensile force by anchor bolts and anchor frames (the Reinforced
Concretemethod). In the verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, lateral strength of the anchorage block in these
structures could be calculated by substituting the footing concrete section underneath
the base plate with an equivalent Reinforced Concretesection in which the anchor bolts
around the section are replaced by reinforcing bars. This process should be based on
stress-strain curves of both concrete and reinforcing bars specified in Section 4.2.4 of
Concrete Structures. The lateral strength of the anchor block shall be a smaller one of
the strengths at yielding of anchor bolts or when compressive concrete strain reaches
0.002. The anchor bolts in design could be modeled as multi-reinforcements for (a) and
single reinforcement for (b). Herein, the lateral strength of a steel pier to be compared
with that of an anchorage block can be the quotient (Ma/h) of bending moment Ma of
266
the pier base when allowable displacement reaches divided by the height from the pier
base to superstructural inertia force h, in which M- φ relation defined in the
explanation of 11.2 (3) is applied in its inelastic hysteretic model. In addition, in case of
filling concrete to prevent deformation caused by vehicle crash in neck of the pier,
effects of filling concrete should be considered by referring to calculation method of
strength of a steel pier with concrete filling. This is because the strength in neck of the
pier becomes larger than the case using steel section only in reality.
Calculation methods other than the above can be used provided that analytical
approaches capable of properly expressing the actual behavior have already been
confirmed.
It is important to ensure that concrete is properly filled underneath the base plate of
a pier foundation, in order to transmit the force acting on the pier to the anchor block
as well as the foundation footing. Special attention must be paid to construction of the
concrete underneath the base plate. With regard to the anchor frame, no design work is
required for the lateral strength of a pier, since the stress generated is generally
extremely small in comparison with the assumed stress at the design stage, provided
that the concrete placement is properly made. Structural details and footing concrete
other than those mentioned above should be examined as needed.
Fig. C11.4.1 Mechanics Model of an Anchorage Block Used in Verification of Seismic

Performance for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
267
Chapter 12 Verification of Seismic Performance of Pier
Foundations
12.1 General
(1) In the verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for a pier foundation
without plastic behavior, sectional forces, subgrade reactions, and displacements
shall be calculated in accordance with Section 12.2. Yielding of the foundation shall
be based on the provisions specified in Section 12.3.
with plastic behavior, response ductility factors and response displacements shall
be calculated in accordance with Section 12.4. Ductility capacitys and allowable
displacements shall be determined in accordance with Section 12.5.
(3) Sectional forces in a pier foundation member shall be verified in accordance with
Section 12.6.
The fundamental philosophy towards verification of a pier foundation by ductility

design method has already been prescribed in Section 6.4.7. The seismic performance,
the limit state of the pier foundation and relationship with detailed verification items
in verifying the limit state are illustrated in Table-C12.1.1.
Verification procedure of a pier foundation by ductility design method is given in Fig.
C-12.1.1. Classification of foundation type, structural details, foundation model for
design and estimation method of soil parameters should conform to the provisions of
the Part IV Substructures. Verification method for a foundation under definite
conditions such as one resting on the slope will be separately discussed.
without plastic behavior, the pier foundation should be ensured to have horizontal
strength equal to or greater than lateral strength of the pier, and be seismically
designed of sufficient ductility. In other words, as shown in Fig.C-12.1.1, primary
plastic behavior is not allowed in the pier foundation, formation of plastic hinges
with the bending damage at the pier base shall be mainly enhanced and the pier
foundation shall be verified so that it does not reach the yield point specified in
268
Section 12.3 when subjected to loads. In this case, sectional forces, subgrade forces
and displacements occurring in the pier foundation should be calculated with basis
of the provisions in Section 12.2.
with plastic behavior, ductility of the pier foundation should be verified by holding
any damages generated within the ranges capable of repair, as explained in
Section 6.4.7. In details, corresponding to horizontal forces equivalent to design
horizontal seismic coefficient prescribed in Section 12.4 (2), response ductility
factors and response displacements shall be calculated in accordance with Section
12.4 (1) and less than the allowable values specified in Section 12.5, as illustrated
in Fig. C-12.1.2 (b).
When considering primary plastic behavior of a pier foundation, however, yield
strength of the foundation must be confirmed not greater than lateral strength of
the pier or sectional force generating at the pier bottom section, as shown in Fig.
C-12.1.2 So that it that the primary plastic behavior can be ensured occurring only
in the pier foundation.
(3) This is the provision about verification of members in a pier foundation. Strength of
each members consisting of the pier foundation should be verified in accordance
with Section 12.6.
269
Table-C12.1.1 Verification Items in the Verification of Pier Foundation
Performance in
Limit State Verification Items
Seismic Design
About stability and ・Foundation does not yield.
Repairability in repairability of ・Sectional forces in foundation members are not
seismic design main structure greater than their strength.
Serviceability in About excessive and ・Satisfied by verifying the verification items
With secondary
seismic design residual about stability and repairability.
plastic behavior
displacement
only
About loss of ・Satisfied by verifying the verification items
Safety in seismic stability about repairability and serviceability in seismic
design About excessive design.
displacement
・Response ductility factor is less than ductility
About stability and
capacity
Repairability in repairability of
・Sectional forces in foundation members are not
Without seismic design main structure
greater than their strength.
excessive Serviceability in
About excessive and ・ Response rotation at top section of the
deformation or seismic design
residual foundation is less than allowable rotation of the
damage to
displacement foundation.
interfere with
About loss of ・Satisfied by verifying the verification items
recovery works
Safety in seismic stability about repairability and serviceability in seismic
design About excessive design.
displacement
270
Start
Determination of structural details

and design for normal loads
Seismic performance verification for

Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion Modification of structural
Seismic lateral strength of pier
Verification of Having additional reserve

Seismic performance verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
Out No
foundation in ultimate horizontal
strength strength of pier
OK Yes
Verification of response
ductility factor and Out
displacement of
foundation
OK
Occurrence of
Reduction in soil
Liquefaction
Yes
No OK Verification of
foundation
strength
Out
Verification of response
ductility factor and Out
displacement of
foundation
OK
End
Fig. C-12.1.1 Verification Procedure of a Pier Foundation Based on Ductility Design

Method
271
Fig. C-12.1.2 Seismic Design of a Pier Foundation Based on Ductility Design Method
12.2 Calculation of Sectional Force, Ground Reaction Force, and

Displacement of Pier Foundations
Sectional forces, subgrade reactions, and displacements of the pier foundation

subjected to loads specified in Subsection 6.4.7(2), shall be calculated taking into
account ground reaction forces, non-linear properties and uplift of the foundation from
the supporting ground, as well as the foundation type.
272
In determining behavior of a pier foundation subjected to seismic force specified in
Section 6.4.7 (2), as effects of ground reaction force and non-linearity of the foundation
couldn’t be ignored, these phenomena should be properly modeled. Details of coefficient
of subgrade reaction used in verification of a pier foundation based on ductility design
method should be calculated in accordance with the Part IV Substructures, which are
roughly summarized as follows.
1) Caisson foundations
A Caisson foundation shall be modeled into a single column by taking into
consideration of six kinds of resistance coefficients as ground reaction force, as shown
in Fig. C-12.2.1. Here, the relationship between bending moment and curvature ratio
in the axial direction of the caisson foundation shall be a trilinear type illustrated in
Fig. C-12.2.2. Each coefficient may have resistance properties of a bilinear type shown
in Fig. C-12.2.3.
2) Pile foundations
A pile foundation, as shown in Fig.C-12.2.4, shall be modeled as a rigid-frame
structure in which the head of the pile is rigidly connected to a rigid footing. The
resistance properties of the pile in the axial direction or the horizontal resistance
properties of surrounding ground of the pile, as well as the ground in front of the
footing, shall follow a bilinear relation shown in Fig. C-12.2.5. Relationship between
bending moment and curvature ratio related to the pile shall be of a trilinear type, as
shown in Fig. C-12.2.6 (a) for a cast-in-place pile, a PHS pile, an Reinforced
Concretepile, and a SC pile, that of a steel-pipe pile and a steel-pipe soil-cement pile
shall be of a bilinear type, as shown in Fig. C-12.2.6 (b).
3) Steel-pipe sheet pile foundations and diaphragm wall foundations

These foundations shall be modeled into single-column foundations in the same way
as caisson foundations.
For a ground is naturally formed having a special material property and largely
scattered, careful investigation should be made in reference of Chapter 2 of the Part IV
Substructures, and assessment of ground coefficients used in the design should be
carried out.
273
Fig. C-12.2.1 Analytical Model of a Caisson Foundation
Fig. C-12.2.2 Relationship between Bending Moment and Curvature Ratio of the
Caisson Foundation
Fig. C-12.2.3 Model of Ground Reaction Force Surrounding Caisson Foundation
274
Fig. C-12.2.4 Analytical Model of a Pile Foundation
Fig. C-12.2.5 Resistance Properties of Pile
275
Fig. C-12.2.6 Relationship between Bending Moment and Curvature Ratio of Pile
12.3 Yielding of Pier Foundations
Yielding of a foundation shall be defined as a state when a rapid increase in horizontal

displacement at the height of superstructural inertial force begins, as a result of
yielding of foundation members, yielding of the ground, or uplift of the foundation from
the ground.
As a horizontal load acting on a foundation gets larger, relationship between the

horizontal load and the horizontal displacement turns to be nonlinear, as a result of
yielding of foundation members, yielding of the ground. If displacement of the
foundation exceeds a certain point, it begins to increase rapidly with an increased
horizontal acting force, resulting in increased damages in the foundation members and
increased residual displacement. These phenomena can be defined as the yielding of
the foundation. Therefore, yielding of the foundations such as a caisson foundation, a
pile foundation, a steel-pipe sheet pile foundation or a diaphragm wall foundation,
shall be defined as a state when a rapid increase in horizontal displacement at the
height of superstructural inertial force begins, where the horizontal displacement
follows relationship between horizontal force and horizontal displacement obtained
from analysis of each foundation.
It is difficult to define yielding of a foundation because properties of the ground often
change greatly with ground type. For reference, the yielding of a foundation can be
defined as a state when either of the states described in the following is reached
276
depending on the foundation type.
1) Caisson foundations
Yielding of a caisson foundation can be defined as a state when either of the
followings begins first:
① The caisson foundation itself yields.
② Plastic ranges of horizontal ground reactions in the front of the foundation reaches
to 60% of embedment depth of the foundation.
③ Area of upward separation of the foundation from the ground at the bottom of the
foundation reaches to 60% of total bottom area of the foundation.
2) Pile foundations
Yielding of a pile foundation can be defined as a state when either of the followings
begins first:
① All the piles yield.
② Reaction force on top of any piles in a row reaches the upper limit of push-on
bearing capacity.
3) Steel-pipe sheet pile foundations

Yielding of a steel-pipe sheet pile foundation can be defined as a state when either of
the followings begins first:
① Edge stress of the steel-pipe sheet pile within 1/4 of the outer circumference of a
well curb on the push-on side reaches its yield point.
② Vertical ground reaction force at the bottom of more than 1/4 of the steel-pipe sheet
pile reaches the limit of push-on bearing capacity.
③ Vertical reaction force at the bottom of the steel-pipe sheet pile reaching the limit of
push-on bearing capacity plus the force causing upward separation of the
foundation from the supporting ground account for about 60% of the entire
steel-pipe sheet piles.
4) Diaphragm wall foundations

It is generally difficult to define yielding of the foundation for diverse foundation
shapes, so that it should be defined according to relationship between horizontal force
and horizontal displacement of each foundation.
277
12.4 Calculation of Foundation Response in Case of Plastic Hinges
Generating in Pier Foundations
(1) Response ductility factor and response displacement of a pier foundation causing
pier foundation yielding shall be obtained from Equations (12.4.1) and (12.4.2) with
the use of the design horizontal seismic coefficient specified in (2):
μFr =
1
{(1  r )  1  r  r (khcF  khyF ) 2  (r≠0)
r
････････････････････ (12.4.1)
1
μFr = { 1+ (khcF / khyF ) }
2
(r = 0)
2
δFr =μFrδF y ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (12.4.2)
Where
μFr : Response ductility factor of the pier foundation
δFr : Response displacement of a superstructure at the height of its inertia force,
caused by the foundation deformation (m)
δFy : Horizontal displacement at the height of the superstructural inertia force,
caused by the foundation yielding (m)
r : Ratio of secondary stiffness to yielding stiffness of the pier foundation
khyF : Horizontal seismic coefficient when subjected to pier foundation yielding
(rounded to two decimals).
khcF : Design horizontal seismic coefficient of the pier foundation, used in the
verification of the ductility design method specified in (2).
(2) Design horizontal seismic coefficient in calculating ductility factors and response
displacements of a pier foundation shall be determined from Equation (12.4.3).
khcF = cD cz khc0････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (12.4.3)
where
khcF : Design horizontal seismic coefficient when considering plastic behavior of
the pier foundation (rounded to two decimals)
cD : Modification factor for damping ratio
cZ : Modification factor for zones specified in Section 4.4
khc0 : Standard value of design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Subsection 6.4.3
(1) Although many things remain unclear up to now, such as hysteretic properties of
278
various ground reaction forces around the foundation, how to establish such
coefficients, and dynamic characteristics of the ground, response ductility factors as
well as response displacement could be determined in accordance with Energy
Conservation Principle shown in Fig. C-12.4.1. Response of a foundation subjected to
eccentric loads under normal conditions should be calculated based on Section 13.3
with considering effects of such loads.
0YU line in Fig.C-12.4.1 could be established with basis of the relationship between
the horizontal seismic coefficient and the horizontal displacement specified in Section
12.2. Where, point Y is the yield point of a foundation defined in Section 12.3. Point U
can be defined as the time when a caisson foundation reaches a previously defined
ultimate limit, or the time when foundations such as a pile foundation, a steel-pipe
sheet pile foundation or a diaphragm wall foundation reach the ductility capacity
provided in Section 12.5.
Fig. C-12.4.1 Calculation Method of Response Ductility Factor for a Caisson

Foundation, a Pile Foundation, a Steel-pipe Sheet Pile Foundation or a
Diaphragm Wall Foundation, Based on Energy Conservation Principle
(2) Although Type I and Type II of Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion are stipulated in
Section 6.4.3 for the design horizontal seismic coefficients used in ductility design
method, the larger inertia force of the two types should be applied in the verification,
since effects of the number of repeated loads that may affect strength of the entire
foundation have not been well known. When considering effects of liquefaction,
279
however, the smaller reduction coefficient DE of soil parameters obtained from the
provisions of Section 8.2.4 should be used for both Type I and II Earthquake Ground
Motion.
In case of considering plastic behavior of a pier foundation subjected to Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, effects of damping caused by response of the pier
foundation may get considerably larger than that of other damping. This is because the
response of the pier foundation becomes a predominant factor in response of design
vibration unit. Consequently, in calculating response ductility factor and response
displacement of a pier foundation, design horizontal seismic coefficient for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion specified in Section 6.4.3 should be revised by a
modification factor for damping ratio. A rational modification factor can be properly
determined and obtained by taking into account factors such as properties of
earthquake ground motion, parameters of the foundation, foundation type and ground
conditions. Since how to revise design horizontal seismic coefficient is still unclear if
such factors are involved, distribution effects to neighboring grounds are expected in
foundations such as a caisson foundation, a pile foundation, a steel-pipe sheet pile
foundation or a diaphragm wall foundation because of a generally deep embedment
depth. In addition, with consideration of local plastic behavior occurring in the
foundation before it yields as specified in Section 12.3, or effects of nonlinear ground
reaction, the modification factor for damping ratio can be set to 2/3.
As stated in Chapter 10 of the Part IV Substructures, if position of resultant force of
subgrade reactions at bottom of the foundation needs to calculate in verifying strength
of footings in a spread foundation, Equation (12.4.3) should be applied and the
modification factor for damping ratio shall be 1.0. The reason for such assumption is
that it remains unclear for expected damping characteristics in a vibration state that
may cause upward separation of the spread foundation from the supporting ground.
12.5 Ductility and Displacement Capacity of Pier Foundations
(1) Ductility capacity of a pier foundation shall be determined by considering that the
function of a bridge can easily be recovered, even though some failures may occur in
the pier foundation.
(2) Allowable displacements of a pier foundation shall be determined by considering
that the function of a bridge can easily be recovered, even though some failures
may occur in the pier foundation.
280
(1) When the ultimate limit of a foundation like a caisson foundation is defined,
response ductility factor of an Reinforced Concrete Columns can be determined in
accordance with Section 12.3.
It is difficult to define an ultimate state for a pier foundation as a whole, for the fact
that some pile members reach the ultimate state may not cause any decrease in
strength of the entire foundation immediately. For this reason, allowable ductility ratio
can be set to 4 by referring to results of loading tests for a pier satisfied with structural
details of Section 12.6 in the Part IV Substructures.
The same value of allowable ductility ratio can be also applicable to a steel-pipe sheet
pile foundation, because the steel-pipe steel is regarded as having the same ductility as
a steel-pipe pier.
Allowable ductility ratio of a diaphragm wall foundation could be determined by
referring to that of a caisson foundation.
(2) Displacement generating in a pier foundation that may affect bridge functions may
be the residual displacement at the height of superstructure as residual displacement
happens in the pier foundation. If the residual displacement is considerably large and
cannot be easily recovered, the bridge functions may be hard to recover rapidly. As a
result, allowable displacement of the pier foundation could be set as a rotation of 0.02
rad (about 1/60 rad) on the top of the foundation or at the bottom of the footing, so that
remarkable residual displacement at the height of the superstructure due to the
residual displacement of the pier foundation may not generate. For a considerable high
pier or a large-scale foundation, however, appropriate investigation on structure of the
foundation is recommended by considering effects of the foundation displacement.
In the old version of Seismic Design in 1996, allowable displacements of a pier
foundation were set to be a horizontal displacement of 400mm and a rotation of
0.025rad for reference, which were based on the displacements that may affect the
seismic resistance of a bridge through a trial calculation. In fact, design of a bridge
depends scarcely on the displacement of an ordinary pier foundation, so that the
allowable rotation is revised in this revision by involving factors that may affect the
seismic resistance of the bridge through a residual displacement of the pier foundation.
281
12.6 Design of Members of Pier Foundations
A sectional force in a pier foundation member calculated in accordance with Section

12.2 shall not exceed its ultimate strength.
It is necessary to control damages within a recoverable range for each foundation

member such as that of a caisson foundation, a pile foundation, a steel-pipe sheet pile
foundation or a diaphragm wall foundation.
Verification of the bending moment of the foundation members may be omitted when
calculating sectional force and displacement of each foundation member for either a
caisson or a pile specified in Section 12.2, since reduction in stiffness of each members
has been included and measures for controlling damages within a recoverable range
have been taken. On the other hand, it is necessary to ensure shear force or sectional
force occurring in a footing or an upper slab of other foundations to be less than its
strength. Horizontal sectional force in structure of a caisson foundation or a diaphragm
wall foundation also needs to verify.
Verification of a footing in a spread foundation shall be based on the provisions in
Chapter 10 of the Part IV Substructures by calculating vertical subgrade reaction at
the bottom of a foundation and position of resultant force, when nonlinear response
caused by upward separation of the foundation from the supporting ground generated.
Here, verification of each cross section of members in various kinds of foundations and
the assessment of their yield strength just at present section shall depend on the
provisions in the Part IV Substructures.
282
Chapter 13 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Abutment
Foundations at Site Prone to Soil Liquefaction
13.1 General
(1) In the verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for an abutment

foundation on ground likely to liquefy and affect seismic response of the bridge, the
horizontal design seismic coefficient and the response ductility factor shall be
determined in accordance with the provisions in Sections 13.2 and 13.3,
respectively. Also, allowable response ductility factor of the abutment foundation
shall be determined in accordance with the provisions in Section 13.4.
(2) The sectional forces in members of an abutment foundation shall be verified in
accordance with the provisions in Section 13.5.
In the present version, it is stipulated for the first time that for an abutment
foundation on the ground for which liquefaction affecting the bridge has been
estimated, verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion by using the ductility
design method shall be carried out. However, many points remain unclear about the
calculation method of the seismic behaviors of a structure subjected to reciprocated
loading mainly in one direction when it receives eccentric loading due to the earth
pressure at normal time, about the mechanism of the action of the earth pressure
during an earthquake, and about the seismic characteristics and settlement behavior of
the back filling when liquefaction is found in the ground. The verification method
provided in this Chapter is based on the knowledge available up to now and the
relevant evaluations from the point of view of engineering. In case that the seismic
behavior of the abutment under design is considered to be greatly different from the
seismic behavior assumed in this Chapter, a separate study of the specific verification
method is necessary.
The procedures shown in Fig.C-13.1.1 shall be followed in verification of an
abutment foundation by using the ductility design method. During verification of an
abutment foundation, since the influences of the inertia force of the overburden soil on
283
the footing and the seismic earth pressure can be quite substantial, it is required that
careful examinations shall be made to determine such items as the position, type,
supporting condition of the abutment and back filling materials.
In addition, the specifications provided in this Chapter are only the general
principles for some basic items in relation to verification of an abutment foundation.
For verification of the footing of an abutment, modeling of the members of the
abutment foundation, modeling of the ground resistance, yield of the foundation and
some structural details, Chapter 12 and Part IV Substructures shall have to be
referred to.
(1) An abutment is a structure surrounded by soil not only around its foundation but
also behind the abutment. Since the abutment section is dominated by the seating
length specified in Chapter 16.2 its size tends to be big and the stiffness is strong, too.
Therefore, during a strong earthquake, the seismic behavior of the abutment is
generally governed more by the vibration of the backing soil than the vibration of the
abutment itself. During verification by using the ductility design method, the abutment
shall be regarded as a structure resisting the earth pressure from the backing soil and
the abutment footing and the overburden soil shall be treated as a whole. The same
design horizontal seismic coefficient shall be acted upon the abutment, the footing and
the overburden soil. Moreover, the design horizontal seismic coefficient to be used in
calculation of the earth pressure acted on the backing soil shall be identical in value
with the design horizontal seismic coefficient acted upon the abutment.
Since the verification is applicable to the case of liquefaction found in the ground, the
same as verification for a pier foundation, it may not be reasonable to enable the
abutment to absorb energy in the design. Therefore, primary plasticity shall be
considered for the abutment foundation and the response ductility factor obtained in
accordance with the rules specified in Sections 13.2 and 13.3 shall be kept below the
ductility capacity designated in Section 13.4.
In case that liquefaction is assumed for the ground during an earthquake, it is
necessary to take into account the displacement that will possibly occur in the
abutment foundation. In case of liquefaction occurring in the surrounding ground,
settlement of the backing soil should also be considered. In this case, a big residual
displacement may occur to the surrounding ground of the foundation resulting in a
residual displacement of the abutment foundation in the forward direction. If a big
residual displacement occurs in the abutment foundation, it is possible that the girder
of a bridge with a small oblique angle may rotate and a substantial relative
284
displacement may happen between the girder and the abutment. In case of a
continuous multi-span bridge, there is a possibility that the superstructure is pushed
out due to the displacement of the abutment thus causing big displacements of the
piers in the middle, which can bring about an adverse effect on the earthquake
resistance capacity of the whole bridge system. Therefore, when it is considered that
liquefaction is likely to occur, it is recommended that the verification method specified
in the provisions shall be based on. While giving the abutment the desirable strength,
careful studies shall be conducted concerning the continuity of the girder and
unseating prevention system in order to improve the earthquake resistance capacity of
the entire bridge system.
(2) This is a rule for verification of the members of an abutment foundation. The
strengths of the individual members composing the abutment foundation shall be
verified in accordance with Section 13.5.
285
Start
Determine structural elements

Design against loads under normal conditions
Change structural elements
Verify seismic performance

for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
No
Liquefaction occurs
Yes
Reduce geotechnical parameter
corresponding to degree of liquefaction
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
Verification of seismic performance
under Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion
Verify response ductility Out

factor of foundation
for
OK
Verify members of Out

abutment foundation
OK
End
Fig. C-13.1.1 Procedures for Verification of Abutment Foundation Using Ductility

Design Method
13.2 Horizontal Seismic Coefficient for Performance Verification of

Abutment Foundations
286
An abutment section located above the design ground surface, an overburden soil
resting on a footing, and a footing of a pile foundation normally take a large part of
the net weight of the overall foundation. Therefore, inertia forces of such structural
and soil parts and design horizontal seismic coefficients in calculation of the seismic
earth pressures shall be properly determined in accordance with the design horizontal
seismic coefficient at the ground surface defined in Subsection 6.4.3.
The load state assumed for verification of abutment foundation is as shown in

Fig.C-13.2.1. Since it is considered that the seismic behaviors of an abutment and
abutment foundation are dominated by the vibration of the backing soil, the design
horizontal seismic coefficient used for calculation of the inertia force and seismic earth
pressure of the abutment shall be obtained by Equation (C13.2.1) based on the design
horizontal seismic coefficient on the ground surface specified in Section 6.4.3.
k hA  c A k hg ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C13.2.1)
Where,
khA: Design horizontal seismic coefficient used for verification of abutment foundation
by the ductility design method (rounded to two decimals)
cA: Modification factor on the design horizontal seismic coefficient of abutment
foundation. Its value can be set as 1.0.
khg: Design horizontal seismic coefficient on the ground surface for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion specified in Section 6.4.3
The modification factor cA on the design horizontal seismic coefficient of the

abutment foundation is the modification factor in relation to the change in the
acceleration within the range of backing soil. For this modification factor,
considerations have been included such as a strong vibration deformation occurred to
the backing soil itself and the increase or decrease of the response acceleration of the
backing soil due to the acceleration on the ground surface according to the relationship
between backing soil and the supporting ground. However, many issues still remain
unclear about the calculation method of the responses of abutment foundation in the
ductility design method and the change in such acceleration is also unknown.
Furthermore, in case that liquefaction occurs in the surrounding ground, since there
will be a self decrease in the response acceleration of the backing soil, it is thought to
be reasonable to consider such decrease by using this modification factor. Nevertheless,
the modification method in this case is yet to be clarified. On the other hand, if
liquefaction happens, settlement of the back filling may occur, which can be considered
287
to have an impact on the foundation. Based on the above reasons, the modification
factor on the design horizontal seismic coefficient of an abutment foundation can be set
as 1.0 for the time being.
In Section 6.4.3, two different design horizontal seismic coefficients on the ground
surface have been stipulated for Type I and Type II of Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion. For the design horizontal seismic coefficient used in verification of an
abutment foundation, the bigger value of the design horizontal seismic coefficient on
the ground surface for Type II Earthquake Ground Motion can be used. However,
during verification of an abutment foundation, in case that reduction of geotechnical
parameter is carried out, the reduction factor DE shall be whichever smaller value
obtained for Type I and Type II Earthquake Ground Motions by following Section 8.2.4.
The superstructural inertia force acting upon an abutment can be regarded as the
horizontal force shared by the abutment during an earthquake and as the horizontal
reaction force generated in the bearing support.
Fig. C-13.2.1 Loading State Assumed in Verification of Abutment Foundation in

Reverse T-Shape (The vertical forces except the seismic earth pressure have been
omitted for simplicity.)
288
13.3 Calculation of Response Ductility Factor of Abutment Foundations
Response ductility factors of an abutment foundation shall be obtained by

appropriately taking into account the nonlinear behavior of the foundation and the
effects of earth pressure.
It is originally expected that verification for an abutment foundation should be

carried out in the same way as for a pier, in which the response ductility factor of the
abutment foundation is estimated and kept below the ductility capacity. However, the
seismic behaviors of an abutment and abutment foundation are dominated more by the
response of the backing soil than by the vibration of the abutment itself because the
abutment is a relatively rigid structure body. Therefore, the response displacement of
the abutment foundation occurred during an earthquake due to the effect of the earth
pressure can be considered as hysteretic characteristics to be accumulated in one
direction. Concerning the estimation method of the dynamic nonlinear response for a
structure on which the seismic earth pressure is acting as an eccentric load as in the
case of an abutment having filling at the back, there are still some issues that remain
unsolved. In regard to the active seismic earth pressure as defined in Section 6.2.4, it is
known that it increases almost in proportion to the acceleration occurred in the
backing soil. Consequently, it is recommended that the response corresponding to the
maximum acceleration during an earthquake can be considered to be the maximum
response. Here, the cases of the Reinforced Concrete Columns subjected to eccentric
bending moment specified in Section 10.9 and the pier foundation as described in
Section 12.4(1) can be based on and the response ductility factor and response
displacement shall be calculated by using the property of energy conservation. With the
initial displacement and sectional force taken into account, the nonlinear response of
an abutment foundation by using the property of energy conservation can be calculated
by the following equations (Please refer to Fig.C-13.3.1).
289
Where,
μAr: Response ductility factor of abutment foundation
δ Ar: Horizontal displacement at the acting point of suprerstructural inertia force,
which is caused by deformation of abutment foundation (m)
δAy : Horizontal displacement at the acting point of suprerstructural inertia force when
abutment foundation has reached the yield (m)
μ‘Ar: Response ductility factor of abutment foundation assuming that kh = 0 and δA =
δ0 are taken as the origin
δ‘Ay : Horizontal displacement at the acting point of suprerstructural inertia force
when abutment foundation has reached the yield assuming that kh = 0 and δA =δ
0 are taken as the origin (m)
δ0: Horizontal displacement at the acting point of suprerstructural inertia force due to
active seismic earth pressure. It shall be calculated by assuming khA = 0
r: Ratio of the second stiffness to yield stiffness of abutment foundation
khyA: Horizontal seismic coefficient when abutment foundation has reached the yield
(rounded to two decimals)
khA: Design horizontal seismic coefficient used for verification of abutment foundation
by using the ductility design method, which shall be calculated by
Equation(C13.2.1) (rounded to two decimals)
Besides, the point U in Fig.C-13.3.1 can be regarded as the point when the abutment
foundation has reached the ductility capacity specified in Section 13.4. Also, the yield of
the foundation shall be in accordance with Section 12.3.
290
Fig. C-13.3.1 Calculation of Response Ductility Factor of Abutment Foundation Using
Property of Energy Conservation
13.4 Ductility Capacity of Abutment Foundations
Ductility capacitys of an abutment foundation shall be determined so that the bridge

function can easily be recovered, even if some failures may occur in the foundation.
In case that the response ductility factor of an abutment foundation is calculated by

Equation (C13-3.1), the value of the ductility capacity of an abutment foundation can
be assumed to be 3 hypothetically. It has been set to be smaller than the ductility
capacity of a pier foundation specified in the explanations of Section 12.5 based on the
following considerations: The repair of the abutment foundation can be large-scaled
due to the existence of the backing soil. Since the foundation is subjected to an
eccentric load even at normal time, it is necessary to keep any slight damages within a
certain scale so as to prevent the stiffness of the foundation from decreasing. The
nonlinear response displacement obtained by using the property of energy conservation
may not necessarily be reflected because of the influence of the displacement
accumulation while the earthquake ground motion is still lasting.
13.5 Design of Members of Abutment Foundation
291
Members of abutment foundations shall be verified so that sectional forces in any
members are less than their ultimate strength.
The same as verification of a member of a pier foundation specified in Section 12.6,

verification for an abutment foundation shall be carried out to ensure that the sectional
force formed in a member of an abutment foundation does not exceed the ultimate
strength of that member. For foundations in various forms, concerning the member
sections to be verified and the evaluation method of the ultimate strength within the
sections of the members, the specifications in Part IV Substructures shall be referred
to.
292
Chapter 14 Verification of Sesmic Performance of
Superstructure
14.1 General
(1) In verifying Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for steel or concrete

superstructures with plastic behavior, the ultimate strength and the allowable
displacement shall be determined in accordance with the provisions in Sections
14.2 and 14.3, respectively.
(2) Verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 or Level 3 for steel or concrete
superstructures without plastic behavior shall be performed in accordance with the
verification methods specified in Chapter 4 of Part II Steel Structures, or those in
Chapter 4 of Part III Concrete Structures.
(3) The ends of the superstructures such as the gap between adjacent decks and
expansion joints, shall be verified in accordance with the provisions in Section
14.4.
(1) This is stipulated to show the method to determine the ultimate strength and the
allowable deformation in case that a superstructure is subjected to dominant effect of
earthquake under Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. Up to recently, due to lack of
sufficient information obtained from researches concerning the ultimate strength and
deformation performance of the superstructure itself, even in case of a superstructure
receiving dominant effect of earthquake as in a rigid-frame bridge, it had been common
that the response of the superstructure was generally designed with the elastic limit
state. However, according to the research results since then, the characteristics and
inelastic hysteretic property of the members of a superstructure subjected to
reciprocated loading have been partly understood. If they are taken into consideration,
it is possible to produce a reasonable design for a rigid-frame bridge. Therefore, for the
present version, the calculation method of the allowable values for a superstructure
with plastic behavior has been provided based on the knowledge obtained from recent
researches.
A superstructure consists of different members including not only the main girder
293
but also the arch ribs and vertical members in case of an arch bridge, and the main
tower and the diagonal cables in case of a cable stayed bridge. Due to a great variety in
the structures and shapes of the sections, many aspects still remain unclear in regard
to their dynamic ultimate strength and deformation performances. Besides, their
serviceability and influences on the safety of the whole structural system are
diversified, too. Therefore, during verification in which plasticity is taken into account,
attention shall be paid to the following points when determining the allowable values.
For the main girder, it is recommended that the allowable plastic deformation should
be determined based on the considerations that it is a member directly supporting live
loads and that due to the pavement and the conditions under the main girder, repair
work may be more difficult compared with a pier. It should also be concerned that
while pursuing improvement of the ductility of the member having a small section and
trying to satisfy the structural details of the arrangement of reinforcement, if the
reinforcing bars are arranged too close to each other, convenience in construction may
be sacrificed.
For the arch ribs of an arch bridge or the main tower of a cable stayed bridge, since a
strong compressive force caused by the dead load is acting upon them, it should be
considered that they have the dynamic ultimate strengths and deformation
performances different from those of an ordinary Reinforced Concrete Columns or a
steel pier. Furthermore, the sectional forces that become dominant during an
earthquake such as the axial force, torsional moment and biaxial bending moment tend
to become complicated. Therefore, in case that the design having considered plasticity
is carried out, careful studies shall have to be conducted on items like the dynamic
ultimate strength in regard to the sectional force acting on the members, the
deformation performance and the residual damage corresponding to the maximum
response.
Concerning the diagonal cables of a cable stayed bridge and the suspension cables of
a Nielsen Lohse bridge, the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake in 1995 and Taiwan Chichi
Earthquake in 1999, cases of the cables coming off from the anchorage were found.
Therefore, for the anchorage device of the cables and anchorage portion of the main
girder and the main tower that are likely to be subjected to big tension changes due to
an earthquake, studies shall be made to ensure that they have sufficient dynamic
ultimate strengths. In addition, for the socket and anchorage structure of cables of a
steel superstructure, the specifications provided in Sections 16.6.1 and 16.6.4 of Part II:
Steel Structures shall be followed.
294
(2) For a superstructure which is likely to be subjected to dominant effect of
earthquake, in case that plastic behavior is not taken into account, verifications of a
steel and a concrete superstructure shall be based on the rules stipulated in Part II
Steel Structures and the relevant parts on the verification of the design load in
Chapter 4 of Part III Concrete Structures respectively.
(3) Between an abutment and the end of a superstructure and between the ends of two
adjacent superstructures, a gap shall be designed. For the basic consideration method
of such gap between the adjacent decks to be designed against an earthquake, Section
14.4.1 shall be referred to.
An expansion joint, as described in the explanations of Section 5.3, shall be designed
to enable traffic to go through after general emergency recovery work even if some
damages have occurred to it. Therefore, verification for an expansion joint shall be
carried out for Seismic Performance Level 1 based on the regulations specified in
Section 14.4.2.
14.2 Steel Superstructure
14.2.1 Strength and Displacement Capacity
Ultimate strength and allowable displacement of a steel superstructure in the plastic

range shall be determined by either experimental results or appropriate analytical
results. These values shall be obtained in terms of limit states of the superstructure
specified in Sections 5.3 and 5.4.
In case that a steel superstructure is subjected to reciprocated loading during an

earthquake, due to lack of accumulated research results and experimental data, many
issues still remain unclear concerning the ultimate strength and deformation
performance of the steel superstructures in the plastic range such as the main girder
and arch ribs. Under this situation, when considering plastic behavior of a steel
superstructure under Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the mechanical
characteristics of the steel superstructure within the plastic range shall be carefully
studied based on some experiments and an appropriate analysis method. This analysis
method should be able to provide proper considerations on the ultimate strength and
deformation performance of a steel superstructure within the plastic range. The
295
applicability of this analysis method shall be examined by a comparison with the
results of the experiments. At the same time, it is necessary to determine properly the
ultimate strength and the allowable deformation corresponding to the limit state of the
superstructure defined according to the specifications in Sections 5.3 and 5.4.
14.2.2 Structural Details
The ends of the superstructures just above a bearing support where local deformation
is likely to occur due to concentrated loads, shall be reinforced by placing reinforcing
steel members to prevent local deformation. In addition, cross beams and diaphragms
shall be set up at these portions to avoid out-of-plane girder deformation possibly
caused by seismic forces in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis.
In a steel superstructure located directly above the end of a bearing support, due to
the inertia force in the bridge axis direction and a couple caused by the height of the
support, a force will be generated in the up and down direction. It is thus possible that
local buckling may occur in the flange and the abdominal plate. In order to prevent this
buckling, as shown in Fig.C-14.2.1, a vertical reinforcing steel member shall be
installed for the abdominal plate of the superstructure directly above the bearing
support.
In addition, if the space at the lower end of a crossbeam or a diaphragm of a girder is
too big, the inertia force in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis cannot be
transmitted to the neighboring girder thus causing a possible out-of-plane deformation
at the end of the girder. Consequently, the lower end of the crossbeam or the
diaphragm shall be lowered to the position as close as possible to the lower flange as
illustrated in Fig.C-14.2.2. At the same time, the crossbeam and the diaphragm shall
be allowed to have sufficient strength. Apart from the structure shown in Fig.C-14.2.2,
there are other ways to prevent deformation at the girder end such as a structure with
the girder end surrounded by concrete.
296
Fig.C-14.2.1 An Example of Reinforcing Abdominal Plate of a Steel Bridge above the
Bearing Support by Using Vertical Reinforcing Steel Members
Fig.C-14.2.2 Structural Examples of Crossbeam in Steel Bridge
14.3 Reinforced Concrete Superstructure
14.3.1 Strength and Displacement Capacity
Ultimate strength and allowable displacement of a concrete superstructure in the

plastic range shall be determined by either experimental results or appropriate
analytical results. These values shall be obtained in terms of limit states of the
superstructure specified in Sections 5.3 and 5.4.
Concerning a concrete superstructure, some progress have been achieved in recent

years in the researches in regard to the ultimate strength and plastic deformation
297
performance when the superstructure is subjected to reciprocated loading.
Experimental data has also been accumulated in this respect. Therefore, the rules
concerning how to determine the allowable deformation of a concrete superstructure,
which is used for verification of Seismic Performance Level 2 and Level 3, have been
provided based on the research results obtained. Besides, as shown in Tables C-5.3.1
and C-5.4.1, even if plastic behavior is taken into account for the superstructure, it is
necessary to ensure that only secondary plasticity is allowed for the superstructure.
The primary plasticity should be considered for the pier. Furthermore, since the
member sections of the main girder are generally small, if the structural details for
improving ductility are satisfied, considerations shall also be made to ensure that
factors like convenience of construction and cost saving are not sacrificed. For a
concrete superstructure, the following limit states shall be established for different
verification conditions respectively: In regard to verification of Seismic Performance
Level 2, it shall be the limit of the state that can be maintained for a long-term service
period within which no permanent repair work need to be carried out. In regard to
verification of Seismic Performance Level 3, it shall be the limit of the state in which
no large-scaled stripping of cover concrete occurs. For both of these limit states,
compared with the limit state set for a pier, since only limited plasticity is being
considered here, it is acceptable that structural details for improving ductility of the
main girder are not applied to the concrete structure.
1) In case of the limit is set for the state that can be maintained for a long-term service
period in which no permanent repair work need to be carried out
For verification of Seismic Performance Level 2, in case that the limit state is set to
be maintained for a long-term service period within which no permanent repair work
need to be carried out, it is recommended that verification shall be done to confirm that
for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the maximum response curvature occurred in
the main girder does not exceed the values provided in Table C-14.3.1. The values
shown in this table are the allowable curvatures of the main girder for which it is
considered that no emergency repair work is necessary. The test results obtained up to
now have revealed that if the maximum response curvature is kept below these
allowable curvatures, the widths of the residual cracks occurred to the main girder
after an earthquake will not exceed 0.2 mm. This is the width of cracks on concrete
surface that is generally considered to be of no harm to the durability of the concrete
structure. Consequently, so long as verification is performed based on the allowable
curvatures provided in Table C-14.3.1, it is possible that the state in which long-term
298
service period is maintained without any permanent repair work can be kept. Here, for
the stress-strain curve to be used in the calculation of the curvature, Equation (10.4.1)
can be applied, but the lateral restraining effect shall be disregarded. Also, for the
stress-strain curve of a reinforcing bar or a PC member, the stress-strain curve
specified in Section 4.2.4 of Part III Concrete Structures can be used.
The values of the allowable curvature as shown in Table C-14.3.1 are considered for
the case of adhesion of concrete with steel members. They are determined based on the
results of the tests in which the ratio of the widths between the outer webs to the width
of the upper flange is assumed to be 0.54. Therefore, in case that there is no adhesion
of steel members or in case that the ratio of the overhang flange is bigger than that of
an ordinary superstructure, it is necessary to conduct a separate study.
Table C-14.3.1 The Allowable Curvature of the Main Girder for Which Emergency
Repair Work is Considered Necessary
When PC steel members are When PC steel members are not

Directions for
installed on the tension side in installed on the tension side in
Verification
regard to response bending moment regard to bending moment
Curvature formed when a PC Curvature formed when the

Bridge Axis Direction member reaches the elastic limit reinforcing bar on the outer edge
state reaches the yield point
Direction perpendicular Curvature formed when the reinforcing bar on the outer edge of web yields
to the Bridge Axis or when a PC member reaches the elastic limit state
(2) In case of the limit is set for the state in which no large-scaled stripping of cover
concrete occurs
For verification of Seismic Performance Level 3, in case that the limit state is set for
the state in which no large-scaled stripping of cover concrete occurs, it is recommended
that verification should be done to ensure that in regard to Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion, the compressive strain of the concrete at the outmost edge occurred to the
main girder does not exceed the allowable compressive strain. Here, the allowable
compressive strain can be taken as 0.002. This value is set according to the test results
obtained up to now. If the compressive strain of the concrete at the outmost edge is
kept below 0.002, no large-scaled stripping of cover concrete will occur to cause a sharp
drop in the ultimate strength. Inside the stress-strain curve of concrete specified in
Section 10.4, this allowable compressive strain is also equivalent to the ultimate strain
299
of the concrete not being restrained by lateral confining reinforcement.
Even if the compression strain of the concrete at the outmost edge has not reached
the allowable compressive strain, fracture of a PC member beforehand is not desirable.
Therefore, besides verification of compressive strain of concrete, examination of the
strain of the PC member shall also be performed. The tensile strain of a PC member
including the initial stain due to prestress shall be kept below the minimum expansion
value of 0.035 as stipulated in JIS G 3109 and JIS G 3536.
For a concrete superstructure, it is specified in Part III Concrete Structures that the
shear strength of the main girder shall be calculated with consideration of the changes
in prestress and the effective height. However, if the main girder is within a large
plastic deformation zone, the effects of these factors on the shear strength still remain
unclear. Therefore, it is suggested that the calculation equation provided in Section
4.3.4 of Part III Concrete Structures shall only be applied to the case when the strains
occurred in the concrete and a PC member are within the range of the limit state
described in the above 2). If these limit states are exceeded, it is required that the
shear strength of the main girder is evaluated through a careful study based on an
experiment or analysis by an appropriate method.
14.3.2 Structural Details
(1) Reinforcements in a concrete superstructure shall be placed by properly selecting

splice structures, and configuration and arrangement of lateral bars, in
consideration of the plastic range estimated in Reinforced Concretemembers.
(2) Bearing supports of a concrete superstructure subjected to horizontal forces
transmitted from bearing shoes and unseating prevention structures shall be
designed in accordance with the provisions in Section 18.2 of Part III Concrete
Structures.
(1) In response to the assumed degree of plasticity in verification of Seismic

Performance Level 2 and Level 3, a concrete superstructure shall have to satisfy the
structural details for which ductility has been taken into account.
Among the members composing a concrete superstructure, the springing portion and
the crown portion of the arch rib of an arch bridge especially, besides the action of a
strong compressive force when subjected to the dead load, a big change in the axial
force tends to occur in these portions during an earthquake. Also, the base of the main
tower of a cable-stayed bridge also belongs to such a portion in which a strong
300
compressive force is acting due to the action of the dead load. In case that plasticity is
assumed for these parts, the arrangement of lateral hoop ties shall have to be designed
based on the confirmation that in order to deal with a large force in the axis direction
or an axial force especially, the buckling restraining effect of the axial reinforcement
and the core concrete confining effect can truly be ensured. In addition, in case that the
vertical members of an arch bridge or the crossbeam of the main tower of a cable
stayed bridge are considered in the same way as the girder members of a Reinforced
Concrete Columns or a Reinforced Concrete ｔwo ｃolumn ｂents, the structural
details can be determined according to the specifications in Section 10.6.
Among the members composing a concrete superstructure, if plasticity is assumed
for the main girder, the fact that the member sections are generally thinner than those
of a concrete pier should be taken into consideration. Also, the structural details for the
members shall be decided with consideration that the axial reinforcement or the PC
steel member are fixed at the positions in the middle of the member. Especially in case
that the reinforcing bar with a relatively big diameter compared with the smaller size
of the member section is arranged in the superstructure, the bond strength may
decrease making it highly possible for cracks to occur in the concrete in the anchorage
portion or the joint portion. Besides, if the compressive strain of concrete at the
outmost edge is below 0.002 and the tensile strain of a PC member is less than 0.035
(Please refer to the explanations of 2) in Section 14.3.1), it has been proved by
experiments that the influences of the factors such as existence of an overlapping joint,
the shape and arrangement of the axial reinforcement upon the ultimate strength and
plastic deformation performance of the member can be neglected. Therefore, the
structural details specified in Chapter 6 of Part III Concrete Structures can be followed
for the arrangement of reinforcement.
In case that plasticity is not assumed for the superstructure, the structural details
specified in Chapter 6 of Part III Concrete Structures can also be observed. However,
especially in the portions in which the sectional forces tend to become substantial
during an earthquake such as the springing portion or crown portion of an arch rib in
case of an arch bridge and the base of the main tower in case of a cable stayed bridge, it
is desirable that considerations are made to avoid a sharp drop in their strengths even
when subjected to a strong seismic force beyond expectation. For the main girder in the
form of a PC structure, near the inflection point etc. while the dead load is acting, there
are cases in which the initial yield moment of reinforcement becomes even smaller
than the cracking moment in the reinforcement arranged for normal conditions.
Therefore, it is suggested that the necessary amount of the axial reinforcement shall be
301
arranged so as to avoid rapid progress of the possible damages when subjected to a
strong seismic force beyond expectation.
(2) Design of the main girder, crossbeam and partition wall at the supporting points
against the horizontal force transmitted from the bearing support and unseating
prevention structure shall conform to the requirements in Section 18.2 of Part III
Concrete Structures.
14.4 Ends of Superstructure
14.4.1 Gap between Two Adjacent Girders
(1) In the design of the ends of the superstructure, necessary gap between the ends of
two adjacent girders shall be taken for preventing a collision between two
adjacent superstructures, a superstructure and an abutment, or a superstructure
and the truncated portion of a pier head, when subjected to Level 1 and Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion. In particular, for seismically-isolated bridges,
sufficient spacing of adjacent girders shall be provided at the ends of
superstructures, in order to ensure the expected effects of seismic isolation.
However, in design of a normal bridge other than seismically-isolated bridges, the
gap between the ends of two adjacent girders can be determined by considering
that the collision does not happen for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, if a
verification confirms that the collision will not affect the sound seismic
performance of the bridge when subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion.
(2) The gap between the ends of two adjacent girders set up for avoiding the collision
between two adjacent superstructures, a superstructure and an abutment, or a
superstructure and a truncated portion of a pier head, shall not be less than the
value obtained from Equation (14.4.1). However, for a complicated bridge in which
the seismic behavior should be obtained by a dynamic method specified in
Chapter 7, a relative displacement derived from the dynamic analysis shall be
taken as us in Equation (14.4.1).
us + LA (between a superstructure and an abutment, or a superstructure
and a truncated portion of a pier head)
SB = ･････････････････ (14.4.1)
cB us + LA (between two adjacent girders)
302
where
SB : Length of spacing of adjacent decks at the ends of superstructures shown in
Fig. 14.4.1 (mm)
us :Maximum relative displacement between a superstructure and a substructure,
generating at a position of calculation of the gap between adjacent decks
when subjected to the Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (mm)
LA : Allowance of adjacent girders (mm)
cB : Gap modification factor on natural period difference. The values in Table
14.4.1 are based on natural period differenceΔT of the two adjacent girders.
Table 14.4.1 Gap Modification Factor on Natural Period Difference of

Adjacent Girders
Ratio of Natural Period Difference to
cB
Longer Natural Period ΔT/T1
0≦ΔT / T1 < 0.1 1
0.1≦ΔT / T1 < 0.8 2
0.8≦ΔT / T1 ≦1.0 1
Notes: Here, ΔT = T1－T2, and T1 and T2 represent the natural periods of two
adjacent girders, respectively. However, T1 is assumed equal to or greater
than T2.
Girder Girder Girder
Pier
Fig. 14.4.1 Gap between Ends of Superstructures
(1) In case that a collision is likely to occur between two adjacent superstructures, a
superstructure and an abutment, or a superstructure and the truncated portion of a
pier crown, a certain gap shall have to be designed properly at the ends of
303
superstructures in the bridge axis direction so as to prevent any loss in the seismic
performance of the bridge caused by the collision. Here, the basic rules have been
provided for the gap between the adjacent decks in the bridge axis direction.
It is a standard that an appropriate width of the gap shall be decided with
considerations of Level 1 and 2. Earthquake Ground Motions Particularly in case of a
seismically-isolated bridge, a gap has to be designed to avoid collision between the ends
of superstructures. This is because the purpose of a seismically-isolated bridge is to
create a long natural period and improve the damping performance of the bridge
through deformation of the isolation bearings. If such deformation in the isolation
bearings fails to occur because the displacement of the superstructure has been
restricted due to a collision, the bridge will show some behaviors that have not been
assumed in design such as a loss of the expected damping effect.
However, in regard to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, if a big gap is kept at the
ends of superstructures in order to avoid collision, the expansion joint is likely to be
designed into a structure being too big to be economical, which may cause problems in
management, driving conditions, vibration and noise. For this reason, in case of a
bridge other than a seismically-isolated bridge, when confirmation is made to ensure
that the collision does not impede the seismic performance of the bridge, it is
acceptable that the gap can be designed to avoid collision in regard to Level 1
If a collision occurs between two adjacent superstructures, a superstructure and an
abutment, or a superstructure and the truncated portion of pier crown, it is possible
that the seismic performance of the whole bridge system may be improved because the
displacement of the superstructure has been restricted by such a collision. However,
attentions shall have to be paid in order to avoid loss of the seismic performance, which
may be caused by damages in the ends of superstructures, the abutment or the
truncated portion of the pier crown after the collision. Therefore, when verification is
carried out to consider the collision, it shall be ensured that an excessively strong force
is not generated at the location of the collision and adoption of a structure that can
reduce the collision effect by using a buffer at the location of possible collision shall be
taken into account. During verification, it is recommended that while considerations
are made in these structural aspects to prevent loss of seismic performance of the
bridge, the seismic behaviors of the entire bridge system shall be properly evaluated
through dynamic analysis. Such verification can be focused on the influence of the
collision on the seismic performance of the whole bridge system. Besides, there are
some other structures available for choice to guarantee the actual gap during a
304
large-scaled earthquake as in the case of a knock-off structure or an absorption system
of big displacements. Studies of these structures can be conducted according to
necessity.
The gap between the ends of superstructures described above refers to the spacing in
the bridge axis direction. Generally, if an expansion joint has suffered some damages,
the displacement of the superstructure is not restricted in the perpendicular direction
to the bridge axis. For this reason, gap is not required in the perpendicular direction to
the bridge axis. However, in case that isolation design is adopted to expect seismic
isolation effect in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis, if there is no damage
in the expansion joint or if some special expansion joint or excessive displacement
stoppers are used to restrict the displacement of the superstructure in the
perpendicular direction to the bridge axis even after the expansion joint has suffered
some damage, a gap shall have to be considered for the members confining the
displacement of the superstructure in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis.
However, in case that an excessive displacement stopper is adopted for the purpose of
restricting the displacement of the superstructure in the perpendicular direction to the
bridge axis, since no relative displacement will occur in the superstructure and
substructure in this direction, expectation of seismic isolation effect shall not be
allowed.
When two superstructures adjacent to each other are greatly different in weights, it
can hardly be avoided that the heavier superstructure will push the lighter
superstructure during a collision between the two. In a case like this, special attention
shall be paid to the gap between them and at the same time, measures shall be taken
to leave sufficient extra seating length for the girder etc. as in a unseating prevention
system.
(2) In order to avoid collisions between two adjacent superstructures, a superstructure

and an abutment or a superstructure and the truncated portion of a pier crown, it is
stipulated that the necessary gap between superstructures shall be obtained as the
sum of the relative displacement occurred at the ends of the superstructures and the
gap allowance between the adjacent decks.
The relative deformation us occurred at the end of a superstructure is basically
regarded as the maximum relative displacement between the superstructure and
substructure that is obtained from the verification of seismic performance in regard to
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. us can generally be calculated by the method
described below:
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1) In case of the supporting point being supported by rubber bearings
In case that the supporting point concerned is sustained by isolation bearings or
seismic horizontal force distributing bearings etc., or the Type B rubber bearing
specified in Section 15.1, the relative displacement occurred between the
superstructure and substructure at the supporting point when Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion is acted on the design vibration unit which includes the supporting
point concerned shall be taken as us. Generally, us can be regarded as the horizontal
displacement occurred in the rubber bearing.
2) In case of the supporting point being supported by moveable bearings

When Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion is acted upon the design vibration units
containing the superstructure and substructure respectively, the maximum relative
displacement occurred at the supporting point shall be taken as us. However, the
displacement of the design vibration unit consisted of an abutment can be regarded as
zero because the deformation of an abutment is generally not big.
In Equation (14.4.1), the relative displacement between the superstructure and
abutment is provided assuming that the abutment has a sufficiently large stiffness and
the relative displacement of two consecutive superstructures on a pier is given based
on the relative displacement response spectrum. When the natural periods of the two
consecutive superstructures are the same, vibrations occur with the same phase for the
same seismic input motions. In this case, the relative displacement becomes zero in
theory. On the contrary, when the natural periods of the two consecutive
superstructures are apart from each other, two superstructures will experience
different vibrations. As a result, a relative displacement occurs between the two
superstructures. Moreover, if the two natural periods are significantly different, the
response displacement of the superstructure with a longer natural period will become
more dominant than the response displacement of the superstructure with a shorter
natural period, bringing the displacement to come closer to that of the superstructure
with the longer natural period. The modification factor CB on the difference between
the natural periods of the gap between the adjacent decks shown in Table 14.4.1 has
been determined by taking these vibration characteristics into consideration and by
referring to the relative displacement spectrum calculated based on the strong
earthquake records of horizontal components of the 63 elements which have been
obtained from the earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 or greater recorded on the ground of
Japan.
306
In case that a pier is supporting two consecutive superstructures, when calculating
the gap allowance by using the modification factor on the difference between two
natural periods, for the relative displacement us between the superstructure and
substructure, the maximum relative displacement with the longer natural period
(natural period T1) shall be used. Since the relative displacement occurred between the
superstructure and substructure changes in response to various conditions, during
verification of seismic performance by using the dynamic method, the relative
displacement between the two structures us shall be determined based on the analysis
results.
When calculating the relative displacement between the superstructure and
substructure, it is not necessary to take the effect of the lateral movement of the
ground into account. This is because lateral movement of the ground generally occurs
during and after an earthquake. According to the property of a earthquake ground
motion, while the response of a superstructure is still being big, the displacement of the
ground caused by the lateral movement is considered to be small. It is also because in
case that a collision happens due to the lateral movement of the ground, the speed of
the collision is thought to be extremely slow.
The gap allowance is designed to deal with the margin of error in the installation of
superstructures during a construction. Generally, the standard of around 15mm shall
be taken for this allowance.
14.4.2 Expansion Joints
(1) An expansion length of an expansion joint shall generally be greater than its design
expansion length for Earthquake Ground Motion Level 1, as specified in (2).
However, this provision may not be applicable if the lateral strength of the
expansion joint necessary for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion is ensured, or a
joint protector specified in Subsection 14.4.3 is installed to protect the expansion
joint.
(2) Design expansion length during an earthquake shall generally be calculated by

Equation (14.4.2). However, if the design expansion length specified in Subsection
4.2.2 of Part I Common Provisions is larger than the calculated one, the design
length during an earthquake shall not be less than the value from the Common
Provisions.
307
δR + LA (between a superstructure and an abutment)
LE = .....(14.4.2)
cBδR + LA (between two adjacent girders)
where
LE : Design expansion length during an earthquake (mm)
LA : Expansion length allowance (mm)
δR : Relative displacement between a superstructure and a substructure, occurring
at the expansion location when subjected to Level 1 Earthquake Ground
Motion (mm)
cB : Gap modification factor on natural period difference. cB takes the values from
Table 14.4.1, depending on the natural period difference Δ T of the two
adjacent girders.
(1) From the point of view of ensuring the serviceability in seismic design, an
expansion joint shall be designed to prevent any damage from occurring when
subjected to Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. That is to say, in order to guarantee
that the bridge functions in the same way as before the earthquake, for the expansion
length, the relative displacement between the adjacent superstructure or between a
superstructure and an abutment shall be taken into consideration and it is essential to
ensure that the expansion length is greater than the maximum relative displacement
occurred under Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. However, in case that the
substructure has a big flexibility, it may no longer be economical to try to guarantee the
maximum relative displacement of the superstructures. Therefore, it is acceptable that
a joint protector specified in Section 14.4.3 is used to limit the displacement during an
earthquake in order to protect the expansion joint. It is also possible to control the
response of the superstructure under Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion by using the
horizontal resistance capacity of the expansion joint itself. In this case, the ultimate
horizontal strength of the expansion joint shall have to be ensured properly.
For an expansion joint, verification of Seismic Performance Level 1 shall be carried
out in response to Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. It is acceptable that no
verifications of Seismic Performances 2 and 3 in response to Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion are performed. The reason for this is that even if the expansion joint
has suffered some damages, the possibility of this to cause fatal damages to the bridge
remains rather low. The damages to the expansion joint can be countered by some
emergency recovery measures for traffic such as covering the road surface with iron
308
boards. However, when it comes to be necessary to guarantee the traffic functions
despite of such temporary repair work after a large-scaled earthquake, it is
recommended that adoption of an expansion joint capable of dealing with a big
displacement or an absorption system of displacement can be considered. Also, in order
to make it easy for the recovery work of the expansion joint, a study shall be made
about a structure with an anchoring device of the expansion joint that can be replaced
simply.
When carrying out a design for which the relative displacement between a
superstructure and a substructure in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis is
taken into account, it is also necessary to consider the design expansion length in the
perpendicular direction to the bridge axis during an earthquake. However, the design
expansion lengths in the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge axis shall
not be considered together. They can be studied separately. When it is not reasonable to
consider the spacing between expansion joints in the perpendicular direction to the
bridge axis, installation of a joint protector is recommended in that direction.
(2) The equation for calculation of the design expansion length during an earthquake
has been provided based on the maximum relative displacement between a
superstructure and a substructure in regard to Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion.
The maximum relative displacement between a superstructure and a substructure δR
at the position of the expansion joint can generally be calculated by the following
methods.
1) In case of the supporting point of the bridge end containing the expansion joint being
supported by rubber bearings
When Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion is acted on the design vibration unit
containing the supporting point at the end of the bridge where an expansion joint is
installed, the maximum relative displacement between the superstructure and
substructure occurred at the supporting pint concerned shall be taken asδR. Generally,
δR can be treated as the design horizontal displacement of the rubber bearing.
2) In case of the supporting point being supported by moveable bearings

When Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion is acted upon the design vibration units
containing the superstructure and substructure respectively, the maximum relative
displacement occurred at the supporting point shall be taken as δR. However, the
displacement of the design vibration unit consisted of an abutment can be regarded as
309
zero because the deformation of an abutment is generally small.
Since the relative displacement occurred between the superstructure and
substructure changes in response to various conditions, during verification of seismic
performance by using the dynamic method, the relative displacement between the two
structures δR can be determined based on the analysis results.
Generally, the standard for the expansion length allowance of an expansion joint can
be set at around 15mm in relation to the respective directions of expansion and
contraction. For the expansion length allowance of an expansion joint which has been
considered for normal loads as stated in Section 4.2.2 of Part I: Common Provisions,
10mm shall be taken as the standard. However, with considerations of the margins of
error in the calculation of the expansion length during an earthquake as well as the
margin of error during construction, it is recommended that 15mm is taken as the
standard for the expansion length allowance.
In order to avoid interference with expansion due to the action of the normal loads, if
the design expansion length during an earthquake which is obtained by Equation
(14.4.2) turns out to be smaller than the design expansion length at normal time, the
design expansion length shall be designed based on the expansion length under normal
conditions. The expansion length under normal conditions can be calculated by
following Section 4.2.2 of Part I: Common Provisions.
14.4.3 Joint Protectors
(1) A joint protector capable of protecting the expansion joints against Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion shall be designed. Also, it shall be set up in such a way
that it does not interfere with the functions of the bearing supports and the
expansion joints.
(2) Design seismic forces in designing a joint protector shall generally be calculated
from Equation (14.4.3). The stresses occurring in the joint protector due to the
design seismic force shall not be greater than 1.5 times the allowable value.
HJ = kh Rd ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････(14.4.3)
where
HJ : Design seismic force of the joint protector (kN)
kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion
specified in Subsection 6.3.3
Rd : Dead load reaction (kN)
310
(3) The gap between adjacent decks of a joint protector in the longitudinal direction to
the bridge axis shall not be less than its design value specified in Subsection 4.2.2
of Part I Common Provisions and also not exceeding the allowable expansion length
of the expansion joint.
A joint protector is installed as one of the protection measures for an expansion joint
in regard to Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion in case that the allowable expansion
length of the expansion joint turns out to be smaller than the design expansion length
during an earthquake calculated by Equation (14.4.2). A joint protector shall have to be
designed in such a way that it does not interfere with the function of the expansion
joint under normal conditions or the function of the bearing both at normal time or
during an earthquake. An example of the structure of a joint protector is as illustrated
in Fig.C-14.4.1.
Apart from the bridge axis direction, a joint protector shall also be designed to be
able to protect the expansion joint against the vibration in the perpendicular direction
to the bridge axis according to necessity. Besides, in regard to the perpendicular
direction to the bridge axis for a multi-span continuous bridge, a joint protector shall be
installed not only for the supporting point at the ends but also for the supporting points
in the middle.
For the purpose of protection of an expansion joint, there are other methods besides
installation of a joint protector. For example, the ultimate strength of the expansion
joint itself can be designed to be bigger than the seismic force of Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion. In this case, it is acceptable not to install a joint protector.
Furthermore, in case that a joint protector is adopted for protection of the expansion
joint of a bridge using Type A bearing support, since a separate displacement
controlling structure is needed, it can be designed into a structure serving two
functions of both an excessive displacement stopper and a joint protector at the same
time.
311
Fig. C-14.4.1 A Structural Example of Joint Protector
(2) Rules for obtaining the design seismic force of a joint protector have been provided.
However, the design seismic force to be acted on the joint protector here is applicable
mainly for the type of the bridges for which the superstructure and substructure are
combined together by a bearing support. An arch deck bridge or a cable stayed bridge
are not included. Therefore, in case that the reaction of the dead loads is extremely
small or even negative, it is suggested that the design seismic force to be acted upon
the joint protector is determined properly taking into account of the result of the
dynamic analysis.
If a joint protector is given an ultimate strength much bigger than the design seismic
force, when a force exceeding the assumed seismic force for Level 1 Earthquake Ground
Motion is acted, the joint protector will restrict the deformation of the bearing support.
It is then possible that the horizontal forces transmitted to the substructure may not be
distributed in the same way as it has been anticipated in design. Consequently, in
order to avoid any effect on the seismic behavior of the bridge even if a force exceeding
the seismic force assumed for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion is acted, it is
desirable that design efforts should be made not to give too much allowance to the
ultimate strength of the joint protector.
(3) The spacing length of a joint protector in the bridge axis direction shall satisfy
Equation (C14.4.1). That is to say, in order to avoid interference with the expansion of
312
the superstructure caused by influence of temperatures, it has to be ensured that the
spacing length of a joint protector is designed to be greater than the design expansion
length specified in Section 4.2.2 of Part I Common Provisions. However, if the spacing
allowance is made excessively big, the expansion joint may be damaged before the joint
protector starts to function. Therefore, the spacing length of the joint protector shall
have to be kept below the allowable spacing length of the expansion joint.
where,
LJ : Spacing length of a joint protector (mm)
Ld: Design Spacing length specified in Section 4.2.2 in Part I: Common Provisions (mm)
LEJa: Allowable spacing length of an expansion joint (mm)
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Chapter 15 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Bearing
Support System
15.1 General
(1) Bearing support system capable of having functions required by Section 4.1 of the
PartⅠCommon Provisions shall be fundamentally designed for horizontal and
vertical forces due to Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (referred as
“Type B bearing supports” hereafter). In particular, the bearing support system of
seismically-isolated bridges and bridges with horizontal force distributed structures
shall conform to the above provision.
However, in the case superstructures which do not mainly vibrate due to the
restraints of abutments, or in the case Type B bearing supports cannot be adopted, a
bearing support system together with excessive displacement stoppers may be
designed in the following manner: Functions of the bearing support system shall be
ensured for horizontal and vertical forces due to Level 1 Earthquake Ground
Motion, and the bearing support system and the excessive displacement stoppers
specified in Section 15.5 shall jointly resist the horizontal forces due to Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion (referred as “Type A bearing supports” hereafter).
(2) Both Type A and Type B bearing supports shall be verified with the provisions
shown in Section 15.3, and the design seismic forces specified in Section 15.2.
(3) In order to fully ensure functions of bearing support system, the bearing support
system shall be designed with consideration of the structural details of the supports
specified in Section 15.4, as well as superstructural details in Subsections 14.2.2 and
14.3.2.
(1) A bearing support serves as a joint between a superstructure and a substructure. As

stated in Section 4.1.1 in Part I Common Provisions, it is necessary to allow a bearing
support to have the functions of being able to transmit the load received from the
superstructure to the substructure effectively and to absorb the relative displacement
between the superstructure and substructure corresponding to the expansion or
rotation of the superstructure, which are caused by the live loads and changes in
temperatures. The bearing support referred here consists of a bearing body installed at
314
the joint section between a superstructure and a substructure to ensure the above
functions, the fastening members such as anchor bolts or set bolts to connect the
bearing body with the superstructure and substructure and the
superstructure-substructure portions being attached to the bearing body including the
bearing seat mortar.
A bearing support has to be capable of transmitting the seismic inertia force acting
upon the superstructure to the substructure effectively. To realize this, the design of a
bearing support shall be basically focused on guarantee of its functions to resist the
seismic force generated from Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions.
Especially, in case of a seismically-isolated bridge or a bridge with a seismic horizontal
force distributed structure, in order to prevent the whole bridge system from behaving
differently from what has been assumed in design, it is required that a bearing support
system shall possess the functions mentioned above even if it is subjected to the
seismic force under Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. For a bridge whose unseating
prevention system needs a careful study as described in the explanations of Section
16.3 (1), since the danger of unseating exists if the bearing supports suffer from some
damages, it shall be a principle that Type B bearing supports are to be adopted for such
a bridge.
As mentioned above, it is expected that a bearing support system should have
various functions such as transmitting loads or following displacements. A conventional
bearing support system in use had all of these functions concentrated and secured in a
single structural portion. However, it may not be necessary to have multiple functions
required for a bearing support concentrated in one kind of structural member. Other
structural examples are also available for choices. For instance, individual bearing
supports with single function can be combined together for use, or the multiple
functions can be divided among different structural portions. If one structural portion
is counted on to maintain multiple functions, the structural design will generally
become complicated. It is also possible that loss of a certain function due to local
damages or decrease in durability may have an impact on the other functions. In a case
like this, it is recommended that depending on the structure and scale of the bridge
and according to necessity, the possibility of adoption of a combined structure made up
of several structural portions of a bearing support with single function or a separated
structure in which the functions of a bearing support are shared by multiple structural
portions shall be carefully studied.
In some opinions, if a bearing support is designed to be too strong, as an excessively
big seismic force is acting from the superstructure to the substructure, it is better to
315
allow the bearing support to have a weak strength so as to minimize the damages to
the whole bridge system. This is the so-called fuse theory on bearing support. However,
by looking at the damages by the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake, many cases
were found in which bearing supports were damaged together with substantial
damages in superstructures and substructures as well. Therefore, it is essential that a
bearing support shall be regarded as one of the major structural members of a bridge.
It has to be designed into a structure capable of transmitting the superstructural
inertia force to the substructure effectively.
In order to achieve the above design goal, the bearing support system shall be
basically designed into a structure capable of resisting the superstructural inertia force.
However, in case that strong vibrations are not likely to occur because of restriction by
the abutment, or in an inevitable situation due to structural constraints of the bearing
support, it is acceptable that the bearing support is designed to work together with an
excessive displacement stopper specified in Section 15.5 to supplement each other in
the resistance against the inertia force. Type A bearing supports can be selected to
work together with an excessive displacement to resist the inertia forces only for those
bridges for which vibration does not easily occur during an earthquake such as a bridge
having two abutments at the ends and the girder length is less than 50m. In case that
the abutment has a weak stiffness i.e. the so-called pier abutment type, Type B bearing
supports shall have to be adopted. Besides, if it is inevitable that Type A bearing
supports have to be selected due to structural limitations of the bearing supports, it is
required that careful studies have to be made on the seismic behaviors of the bridge
and an appropriate unseating prevention system has to be designed.
Fig. C-15.1.1 shows the above general concerns in the selection of bearing supports.
In addition, in regard to detailed design and verification methods for various kinds of
bearing supports, the Handbook of Highway Bridges (Japan Road Association) can be
taken as a reference.
316
Start Bridge with a girder shorter than 50m
supported by abutments at both ends
Bridge with inevitable structural
Ordinary limitations in bearing support
Bridge type
Type B bearing support Type A bearing support
Applicable to seismic Applicable to fixed and

isolation structures Applicability of moveable structures
bearing support
Applicable to seismic
horizontal force
distributed structure
Isolation Rubber bearing (elastic Rubber bearing (fixed Rubber bearing

bearing fixed type) and moveable type) or
or or steel bearing
steel bearing steel bearing (fixed and
(multi-point fixed type) moveable type)
Fig. C-15.1.1 General Considerations in Selection of Bearing Supports
(2) The design seismic force to be used in verification of Type A and Type B bearing
supports by the static method has been provided together with the verification method.
The design seismic force used for verification of bearing supports has been stipulated in
Section 15.2 while the verification method of bearing supports are described in Section
15.3. On the other hand, in case that verification of bearing supports is carried out by
the dynamic method, the maximum response value obtained from the dynamic analysis
shall be used as the design seismic force disregarding the provisions in Section 15.2.
The verification method described in Section 15.3 shall be followed as well in this case.
(3) In order to allow bearing supports to give a full play to their functions, the
structural details that should be satisfied by the bearing body, the joint section as well
as the superstructure-substructure portions attached to the bearing supports have
been provided. Regarding the structural details to be considered, Section 15.4 shall be
referred to for the bearing body and the joint section. Sections 14.2.2 and 14.3.2 shall
be followed for the superstructure portion connected to the bearing supports.
317
15.2 Design Seismic Force for Performance Verification of Bearing Support
System
(1) Design horizontal seismic forces of Type B bearing supports for Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion shall be equal to the lateral strength of piers considering plastic
behavior, or equal to the horizontal forces at the maximum response displacements
of foundations considering plastic behavior.
(2) When Type A bearing supports are used, the design horizontal seismic force for
Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion shall correspond to the inertia force calculated
by using the design horizontal seismic coefficients specified in Section 6.3.3.
(3) Design vertical seismic forces for both Type A and Type B bearing supports shall be
obtained from Equations (15.2.1) and (15.2.2). However, when the RU value obtained
from Equation (15.2.2) does not exceed －0.3 RD for Type B bearing supports, the RU
value shall be taken as － 0.3 RD. Here, both downward seismic forces and
downward reaction forces used in verifying the bearing support system shall be
positive.
RL = RD + RHEQ  RVEQ (15.2.1)

2 2
･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････
RU = RD - RHEQ  RVEQ (15.2.2)

2 2
･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････
where
RL : Downward design vertical seismic force used in verification of bearing
support system (kN)
RU : Upward design vertical seismic force used in verification of bearing support
system (kN)
RD : Reaction force in the bearing support caused by the superstructural dead
load (kN).
RHEQ : Vertical reaction force generated in the bearing support system when the
design horizontal seismic force prescribed in the above (1) and (2) is applied
on the bearing support in its axial direction (kN).
318
RVEQ: Vertical seismic force (kN) generated by the design vertical seismic
coefficient kv which is obtained from the following Equation (15.2.3):
RVEQ = ±kv RD ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (15.2.3)
kV : Design vertical seismic coefficient. When Type B bearing supports are used,
kv shall be the product of the design horizontal seismic coefficient on the
ground surface provided in Section 6.4.3 and the coefficient defined in Table
15.2.1. For Type A bearing supports, kv shall be the product of the design
horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.3.3 and the multiplying
coefficients defined in Table 15.2.1.
Table 15.2.1 Multiplying Coefficients (kv can be obtained by multiplying the

Coefficients by the Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficients)
Level 2 Earthquake Ground

Level 1 Earthquake
Motion
Ground Motion
(Type B Bearing Supports)
(Type A Bearing Supports)
Type I Type II
Multiplying
0.5 0.5 0.67
Coefficients
(1) For a Type B bearing support, it is necessary to consider that the assumed functions
of the bearing support have to be ensured in regard to the seismic force generated by
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. The design horizontal seismic force that should be
taken into account during verification of a Type B bearing support has been provided
here. Verification for a Type B bearing support shall have to be carried out for both
Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. However, if the bearing support has
satisfied the verification standards for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, it will also
satisfy those of Level 1. Therefore, the design horizontal seismic force of a bearing
support to be used in verification in regard to Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion has
not been stipulated.
The design horizontal seismic force for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be
regarded as the horizontal force equivalent to the ultimate horizontal strength of a pier
in case that plastic behavior is considered for the pier. On the other hand, it shall be
319
treated as the horizontal force corresponding to the maximum response displacement of
a foundation in case that plastic behavior is considered for the foundation. However,
the design seismic force stipulated here is meant for the bearing support on the
condition that plasticity is has been assumed for either the pier or the foundation. In
case that plasticity is not considered for any of the structural members within a design
vibration unit, or in regard to the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis of a
wall-typed pier or an abutment having a surplus seismic horizontal strength, there are
cases in which the design seismic force for a bearing support becomes too big to result
in a reasonable design. Furthermore, the design of a bearing support is generally based
on the ultimate horizontal strength of a pier. Nevertheless, if the ultimate horizontal
force of each pier is used for the design of the bearing supports as in the case of a
continuous bridge , different design conditions have to be given to the individual piers.
This can cause difficulties in design practice. In these cases as mentioned above, it is
desirable that during the design of a bearing support, the horizontal force acting upon
each bearing support when subjected to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion shall be
considered for each design vibration unit respectively. However, for the sake of
simplicity in design, it is acceptable that the verification of the design horizontal
seismic force of a bearing support can be done by following these procedures: The
ductility ratio used for calculation of the force reduction factor specified in Section 6.4.4
shall be assumed to be 3. Then, the design horizontal seismic coefficient shall be
obtained by Equations (6.4.1) and (6.4.3). The horizontal force equivalent to the inertia
force, which is calculated by using this design horizontal seismic coefficient, shall be
taken as the design seismic force of the bearing support. Based on this assumption, a
value that is more secure than the horizontal force under almost all the design
conditions assumed for a pier can be provided. On the other hand, in relation to the
perpendicular direction to the bridge axis etc. of a wall-typed pier or an abutment, it is
possible that the design ultimate strength of a support may become lower than the
ultimate strength of the substructure body. However, the possibility of unseating of the
bridge in that direction remains small. For the bridges that have fallen into the
categories described in Section 16.5, excessive displacement stoppers shall be designed
in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis. Therefore, the prevention measures
against unseating of the bridge are considered to be sufficient enough.
In case that isolation bearings or rubber bearings used for a seismic horizontal force
distributed structure are adopted for a bridge, verification of seismic performance shall
be carried out for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion by using the dynamic method. In
the design of these bearing supports, the basic sizes can be determined by using the
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reaction force of a bearing support obtained by acting statically the horizontal force
equivalent to the ultimate horizontal strength of a pier or the horizontal force
equivalent to the maximum response displacement of a foundation in response to the
structural portions with plastic behaviors taken into account. However, in this case, it
is understood that due to the difference between the vibration phases of the
superstructure and the pier, it is possible that the reaction force of the bearing support
obtained by acting statically the horizontal force equivalent to the ultimate horizontal
strength of a pier or the horizontal force equivalent to the maximum response
displacement of a foundation will turn out to be smaller than the actual horizontal load
during evaluation. For this reason, when calculating the horizontal force acted
statically on the bearing support, it is recommended that based on a comparison of the
results of both static and dynamic analyses, the horizontal force multiplied by the
dynamic modification factor cm used in the calculation of the design displacement of an
isolation bearing specified in Section 9.3.3 shall be adopted. In case of verification of
seismic performance of a bridge using isolation bearings or having a seismic horizontal
force distributed structure using rubber bearings by the dynamic method, this dynamic
modification factor can be neglected because consideration of such effect can be
included in the dynamic analysis. Nevertheless, even in the dynamic analysis, if the
response spectrum method having used the equivalent linearization method is to be
adopted, it is impossible to consider the effect of such difference in the vibration phases
during the analysis. It is suggested that the dynamic modification is taken into
consideration here.
(2) The design horizontal seismic force that has to be considered during verification of a
Type A bearing support is given here. Since a structure capable of resisting the seismic
force without loss of its functions has been assumed here for Level 1 Earthquake
Ground Motion which is comparatively high in occurrence frequency, it is stipulated
that the horizontal force equivalent to the inertia force obtained by using the design
horizontal seismic coefficient specified in Section 6.3.3 shall be regarded as the design
horizontal seismic force. The seismic force to be acted upon each bearing support has to
be calculated by taking into account the distribution of the forces within a design
vibration unit. If a seismic force exceeds this, it is possible that a Type A bearing
support may suffer from damages. In order to prevent a big relative displacement from
occurring between the superstructure and the substructure, it is required that an
excessive displacement stopper specified in Section 15.5 has to be designed.
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(3) The design vertical seismic force that has to be considered during verification of
bearing supports is given here. The seismic forces in both horizontal and vertical
directions to be acted upon a bearing support shall be considered at the same time.
As shown in Fig.C-15.2.1, since a reaction force in vertical direction RHEQ will occur
even if a horizontal seismic force is acted in the direction of the bearing support line.
Therefore, the effect of the force in vertical direction caused by the seismic force in
horizontal direction shall also be considered besides the seismic force in vertical
direction RVEQ. The possibility remains rather small in that the reaction force RVEQ in
vertical direction formed in a bearing support due to the seismic force in vertical
direction and the reaction force in vertical direction RHEQ due to the seismic force in
horizontal direction reach the maximum value simultaneously. Therefore, the square
root of the square of the sum of these two values shall be adopted.
RHEQ can generally be calculated from Equation (C15.2.1). Although RHEQ changes
according to the position of the bearing support even on the same bearing support line,
the maximum absolute value among the bearing supports on one bearing support line
can be used as RHEQ value.
where,
RHEQi: Reaction force generated in the i-th bearing support when the design horizontal
seismic force is acted in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis (kN)
HB: Design horizontal seismic force of bearing support specified in (1) and (2)
hS : Vertical distance from the bearing seat surface to the center of gravity of the
superstructure (m). When there is a level difference in the seat surfaces on one
bearing support line, the maximum value of hS on the bearing support line shall
be used.
xi : Horizontal distance from the gravity center of the superstructure to the i-th
bearing support.Both positive and negative values shall be considered.
K: A coefficient representing a proportional relationship. It can be obtained from
Equation (C15.2.1).
x0: Distance from the balance point of RHEQi to the center of gravity (m). However, it
becomes 0 when the center of gravity is in the center of the symmetrical section in
the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis.
As shown in Fig.C-15.2.1, when the section including the bearing support line is
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symmetrical, RHEQi value in Equation (C15.2.1) shall be given by Equation (C15.2.2).
Among the values obtained, the maximum absolute value shall be RHEQi. Also, as
shown in Fig.C-15.2.1, in case that the bearing supports are arranged symmetrically in
the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis and there consist of three bearing
supports, the value of RHEQi shall be given by Equation (C15.2.3).
Fig. C-15.2.1 Vertical Reaction Force RHEQ Occurred in Bearing Support due to
Horizontal Seismic Force & Vertical Reaction Force RVEQ Occurred in
Bearing Support due to Vertical Seismic Force
For the design vertical seismic coefficient, in case of verification for Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, the product of the design horizontal seismic coefficient on
the ground surface specified in Section 6.4.3 multiplied by the coefficients shown in
Table 15.2.1 has been considered. Here, the coefficient has been set as 0.67 in case of
Type II design horizontal coefficient. The reason for this is that the possibility of a
strong earthquake ground motion in the vertical direction is considered to exist in the
areas near the hypocentral regions as in the case of Kobe area during the 1995
Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake.
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The lower limit of –0.3Rd has been set for the upward seismic force for a Type B
bearing support. The purpose of this is to fully ensure safety against the earthquake
ground motions in vertical direction in the design of a Type B bearing support. However,
when the value of –0.3Rd is adopted for the upward design vertical seismic force of a
bearing support, it is acceptable that only the seismic force in vertical direction is
considered. The seismic force in horizontal direction may not be taken into account at
the same time. In case that the upward seismic force in vertical direction is not acting
upon the bearing support, that is to say, when the design vertical seismic force RU in
Equation (15.2.2) is positive and when a bearing structure not restricting the vertical
displacement is adopted, it is acceptable that the value of –0.3Rd can be neglected as
the design vertical seismic force. In this case, however, a structure, which can truly
guarantee the functions of a bearing support even when the relative displacement has
occurred in the bearing support in the vertical direction, shall have to be selected. If
Type A support is chosen, in case that a structure restricting vertical displacement is
designed as a measure to counter the upward force, the lower limit for the upward
seismic force can be taken as –0.1RD.
15.3 Performance Verification of Bearing Support System
(1) Verification of Type B bearing supports

Type B bearing supports subjected to the design horizontal seismic forces specified
in Section 15.2 (1) and also the design vertical seismic forces in Section 15.2 (3)
simultaneously, shall be verified in such a manner that the sectional forces
occurring in the bearing support and the attached members do not exceed the
ultimate strength. Here, the ultimate strength can be taken as 1.7 times the
allowable stress.
Furthermore, Type B rubber bearing support or seismic isolation bearings shall be
verified in such a way that in addition to the above provisions, the shear strain
occurring in the bearing support does not exceed the allowable value, and also the
safety of the bearing support against buckling shall be verified. Here, the allowable
shear strain shall be properly determined according to the characteristics of rubber
bearings or base isolation bearings actually used, in order to protect them from
shear failure. Stiffness allowance of the bearing support used shall be within ±10%
of the design value.
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(2) Verification of Type A bearing supports
Type A bearing supports subjected to the design horizontal seismic forces specified
in Section 15.2 (2) and also the design vertical seismic forces in Section 15.2 (3)
simultaneously, shall be verified in such a manner that the sectional forces
occurring in the bearing support and the attached members shall not exceed the
ultimate strength. Here, the ultimate strength can be taken as 1.5 times the
allowable stress.
Furthermore, Type A rubber bearing supports shall be verified in such a way that in
addition to the above the shear strain occurring in the bearing support does not
exceed the allowable value, and also the safety of the bearing support is ensured.
Here, the allowable shear strain shall be properly determined according to the
characteristics of the rubber bearing actually used, in order to protect them from
shear failure.
(1) In case of Type B bearing supports are used, the ultimate strengths of the bearing
support body and the attached members shall be calculated based on the allowable
stress having been multiplied by an increase factor of 1.7. The purpose for this is to
allow the bearing support to have the necessary strength to guarantee the function of
the bearing support of transmitting the superstructural inertia force to the
substructure effectively. For this reason, in regard to the seismic force generated due to
Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion, the standard for the ultimate strength of a
bearing support has been set to be around the yield limit. However, in case that
calculation of the ultimate strength and deformation performance can be done based on
careful studies, verification can be carried out according to the results of such
calculations.
In the previous version of the Seismic Design Specifications (1996), in view of the
serious damages found in bearing supports during the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Earthquake, it was stipulated that in verification for Level 2 Earthquake Ground
Motion, the strength of a bearing support should also be calculated according to the
allowable stress having been multiplied by an increase factor of 1.5 in the same way as
verification for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. However, in regard to Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion, it is not necessary to allow a bearing support to have the
same functions as for Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. So long as the bearing
support possesses the necessary strength to maintain its functions, it is sufficient to
obtain the ultimate strength based on the allowable stress having been multiplied by
an increase factor of 1.7 i.e. the standard yield point. For example, for calculation of the
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tensile strength or shear strength of a steel member, the increase factor of 1.7 can be
considered for both the allowable tensile stress in the axis direction and the allowable
shear stress which are specified in Part II Steel Structures. Concerning the anchor bolt,
based on the considerations that it is highly possible that unreliability in construction
may exist and the chances of being subjected to an external force beyond the
expectations of verification are big, it was stipulated previously that the allowable
shear stress should be about 70% of that for a structure steel member. It is
recommended in this version that the same allowable shear stress as that for a
structural steel member is used for Earthquake Ground Motion of Level 2.
Within a bearing support system, the superstructure-substructure portions attached
to the bearing support shall conform to the specifications of Section 15.4.
The allowable shear strain of the body of a rubber bearing or an isolation bearing,
shall be determined properly in order to guarantee the necessary safety of the bearing
body against shear failure. Generally, it can be a verification standard that the shear
strain of a bearing body calculated by Equation (C15.3.1) is kept below 250%.
This limit value has been set with the considerations that it is within the range
which shows a fairly stable characteristics of the horizontal force - horizontal
displacement relationship of a laminated rubber bearing, which is made of natural
rubber, chloroprene rubber, high damping rubber and that it is a value having taken
into account the allowance for the shear fracture of a rubber bearing or an isolation
bearing. In addition, in case that a certain type of rubber for which no data collection is
available is to be adopted for a rubber bearing or an isolation bearing, it is required
that the allowable shear strain of the rubber bearing or the isolation bearing has to be
determined based on careful studies through tests.
uB
 n
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ (C15.3.1)
t
i 1
ei
where,
r: Shear strain occurred in a rubber bearing or an isolation bearing
uB: Horizontal displacement occurred in a bearing support when subjected to the
design horizontal seismic force (mm)
tei: thickness of the i-th layer of rubber (mm)
n: Number of rubber layers
In the previous version of the Seismic Design Specifications (1996), for the purpose of
preventing local damages to a rubber bearing, it was stipulated that the local shear
strain occurred in a rubber bearing due to the actions of the vertical loads and
326
horizontal force upon it should be kept below the allowable value during verification.
However, revisions have been made this time based on the considerations that the
conventional equation may not be necessarily accurate in the evaluation of the local
failure and that during verification of the shear strain of a bearing support as
mentioned above within the range of vertical loads used generally, it is also possible to
examine the local shear failure at the same time. Furthermore, according to the results
of fatigue tests for rubber bearings carried out recently, when subjected to reciprocated
actions of shear deformation, the fracture of a rubber bearing occurs 300 – 500 times,
10,000 times and 100,000 times in case that the shear strain is assumed to be 300%,
200% and 100% respectively. The designs of rubber bearings can be of a great variety
according to different properties of bridges. Generally speaking, even if a large shear
strain assumed in seismic design has acted dozens of times due to the seismic response,
the possibility of the shear strain to cause fracture in the rubber bearing remains
rather low. Therefore, during verification of a rubber bearing, examination of the local
shear strain shall not be carried out in this version. Nevertheless, for design under
normal conditions, from the point of view of durability, it becomes necessary to verify
the local shear strain. In this case, Section 4.1 of Part I: Common Provisions shall be
followed. For concrete verification methods, the Handbook of Highway Bridges (Japan
Road Association) can be taken as a reference.
An increase in the height of a bearing support may cause buckling in the bearing
support causing a possible overturn. Consequently, safety of a bearing support against
buckling shall also be subject for examination. For verification of buckling of the
bearing body, the Handbook of Highway Bridges (Japan Road Association) is
recommended for reference. In addition, in order to maintain the horizontal force
supporting function of a rubber bearing which is stable even when it is subjected to
seismic deformation, it is suggested that the secondary shape factor is set to be above 4
or so.
In case that a seismic horizontal force distributed structure using a rubber bearing is
adopted, since the stiffness of a rubber bearing can have a big influence on the
strengths of the inertia forces distributed from the superstructure to the substructure,
the stiffness of the rubber bearing used in practice shall be limited within ±10% of the
design value.
During the design of the bolt fixing the upper steel plate and the girder, the fastening
members and the superstructure-substructure portions connected with a bearing
support, due to the superstructural inertia force, a rotation force may occur in the
bearing support which is caused by the height of the support. The effect of this shall
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have to be taken into account during verification. If a shear key is adopted to transmit
seismic force, in order to enable the shear key to function reliably, verification shall
have to be done to ensure that the fixed bolts are able to resist the force in vertical
direction.
(2) For a Type A bearing support, when it is subjected to seismic forces in both
horizontal and vertical directions under Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion, the
sectional forces generated in the bearing body and the fastening members shall have to
be kept below the ultimate strength obtained from the allowable stress having been
multiplied by an increase factor of 1.5. Concerning the superstructure-substructure
portions attached to a bearing support, Section 15.4 shall be followed.
If rubber bearings are used, since it is required that verification has to be performed
to ensure that the bearing is able to function satisfactorily when subjected to Level 1
Earthquake Ground Motion, the shear strain of a bearing body calculated by Equation
(15.3.1) shall be verified to be below the allowable shear strain. Since there is a limit of
200% - 175% for the allowable shear strain for the conventional type of rubber pat
bearing, the standard of 150% can be taken here. In case that a certain type of rubber
for which no data collection is available is adopted for a rubber bearing, it is required
that the allowable shear strain of the rubber bearing shall have to be determined
appropriately based on careful studies through tests.
15.4 Structural Details of Bearing Support System
(1) Type B bearing support shall be positively fixed to the superstructure and
substructure, and therefore be structurally functional.
(2) Sections of the superstructure or substructure connecting with a bearing support

shall be sufficiently strengthened, and therefore be capable of withstanding seismic
forces.
(3) In order to protect a bearing support from brittle failure, highly ductile materials
shall be used in these parts, and stress concentration shall be minimized.
(1) If Type B bearing supports are selected for use, it is necessary that a structure
which can truly guarantee the functions of the bearing support should be adopted for
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the joint section between the bearing body and the superstructure and substructure.
Especially for a seismically-isolated bridge or a bridge with a seismic horizontal force
distributed structure using rubber bearings, in order to connect the bearing body with
the superstructure and substructure firmly, it is a principle that bolts shall be used for
the connection of the upper steel plate and the superstructure. For this joint section, as
specified in Section 15.3 (1), a structure capable of withstanding the seismic forces in
both horizontal and vertical directions shall be chosen.
(2) Concerning the superstructure-substructure portions connected with a bearing

support, since it is necessary to enable them to resist the seismic forces assumed in the
design of a bearing support effectively, verification on their safety shall be carried out
by following the relevant specifications in Part II: Steel Structures and Part III:
Concrete Structures. At the same time, it is required that corresponding to the
structural characteristics of the superstructure and substructure as well as the bearing
support, they shall be strengthened by following the instructions in Sections 14.2.2 and
14.3.2 and other related parts of the specifications.
In case that there is a big difference between the heights of the truncated portions of
a pier crown, it is possible that a collision may occur between the girder and the higher
portion of the pier crown thus generating a very strong seismic force. This may cause
substantial damages to the girder or the base portion of the higher pier crown. In this
case, as demonstrated in Fig.C-15.4.1, effective measures shall be taken such as
unifying the heights of the pier crown portions or reinforcing the higher portion of the
pier crown or the end of the girder.
(3) Since the possibility of an extremely strong seismic force acting upon a bearing
support exists, in order to avoid brittle failure of a bearing support if this happens,
highly ductile materials shall be used for a bearing support. Besides, if steel materials
are selected to ensure the displacement following function of a bearing support, it is
recommended that the materials being strong against abrasion or rust of the moving
section or sliding section are to be adopted to prevent the function of the bearing
support from being weakened.
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Fig. C-15.4.1 Measures for Dealing With Truncated Portion of a Pier Crown
15.5 Excessive Displacement Stopper
(1) Excessive displacement stoppers shall be verified so that the sectional forces due to
design seismic forces obtained from Equation (15.5.1) do not exceed the ultimate
strength. Here, the ultimate strength can be taken as 1.5 times the allowable
stress.
Hs = 3 kh RD ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (15.5.1)
where
Hs : Design seismic force used in the design of the excessive displacement stopper
(kN)
kh : Design horizontal seismic coefficient of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion,
provided in Section 6.3.3.
Rd : Dead load reaction (kN)
(2) Allowance length of an excessive displacement stopper shall be greater than its
design value. The design value shall approximately be equal to the deformation
limit of the bearing support in the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis.
The excessive displacement stopper may have the functions of a joint protector at
the same time, and in this case the design allowance length can be taken as the
movement of the bearing support specified in Section 4.1.3 of Part Ⅰ Common
Provisions. However, the allowance length of the excessive displacement stopper
shall not be greater than the allowable expansion length of the expansion joint.
330
(3) Excessive displacement stoppers shall not interfere with the functions of the
bearing support, such as translational and rotational movements of the support.
(4) Excessive displacement stoppers shall allow easy maintenance and inspection of the
bearing support.
(5) The location of excessive displacement stoppers shall not affect the functions of an
unseating prevention structure specified in Chapter 16.
(1) An excessive displacement stopper can be in the form of a structure connecting the
superstructure and substructure or a structure with a projection (突起) designed in the
superstructure and substructure. An example of an excessive displacement stopper is
shown in Fig.C-15.5.1. The actual structural forms of an excessive displacement
stopper include a structure limiting the relative displacement between the
superstructure and substructure by means of an anchor bar or a steel angle stopper
and a concrete structure installed at the top of the substructure or in a superstructure.
An excessive displacement stopper is designed for the purpose of working together
with the bearing support to resist the seismic forces generated due to Level 2
Eathquake Ground Motion. Considering that the ultimate strength equivalent to that
of Type B bearing support has to be guaranteed, the design seismic force to be used in
the design of an excessive displacement stopper has been provided in Equation (15.5.1).
For the allowable stress, an increase factor of 1.5 has been taken into account. Here,
during the calculation of the design seismic force used for the design of an excessive
displacement stopper, although the design horizontal seismic coefficient correspondent
to the design horizontal seismic coefficient of Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion is
being adopted, in order to guarantee the ultimate strength equivalent to that of Type B
bearing support, the design seismic force shall be determined by Equation (15.5.1).
It is necessary to design the joint section of an excessive displacement stopper into a
structure capable of transmitting the design seismic forces to the superstructure and
substructure. For this purpose, for the joint section of an excessive displacement
stopper, the design seismic force given by Equation (15.5.1) shall be considered and its
safety shall be verified by following the relevant specifications in Part II: Steel
Structures, Part III: Concrete Structures and Part IV: Substructures.
331
Fig. C-15.5.1 Structure of Excessive Displacement Stopper Connecting Superstructure
and Substructure
(2) It is stipulated that the gap distance of an excessive displacement stopper shall
satisfy Equation (C15.5.1). Here, in case that the bearing support suffers from damages,
it is necessary to enable the excessive displacement stopper to function quickly so as to
prevent the relative displacement between the superstructure and substructure from
becoming excessively big. Therefore, the design gap distance of an excessive
displacement stopper has been set to be about the same as the deformation capacity of
a bearing support. However, it is recommended that an allowance for the design gap
distance should be kept to counter the margin of error in installation. Thus, the design
gap distance can be obtained from Equation (C15.5.2). On the other hand, if this
allowance is set to be excessively big, a deformation beyond the deformation capacity of
the bearing may occur making it difficult for the excessive displacement stopper to
display its original function. Therefore, unnecessarily big allowance for the gap
distance shall be avoided. Generally, for the allowance of the gap distance of an
excessive displacement stopper, about 15mm in the directions of positive and negative
sides can be taken as a standard respectively.
where,
LS: Gap distance of an excessive displacement stopper (mm)
LSd: Design gap distance of an excessive displacement stopper (mm)
332
LE: Distance of translational movement under Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion. In
case of a rubber bearing, it is the displacement equivalent to the allowable shear
strain of the rubber (mm)
LA: Allowance for the gap distance of an excessive displacement stopper (mm)
In addition, an excessive displacement stopper can serve the function of a joint

protector as well as stated in Section 14.4.3. In this case, the design gap distance shall
be regarded as the distance of the translational movement of a bearing support as
defined in Section 4.1.3 of Part I Common Provisions. The gap distance can be designed
to satisfy Equation (C15.5.1). Nevertheless, if the gap distance exceeds the allowable
expansion length of the expansion joint, the function of the joint protector can no longer
be expected. Therefore, the gap distance shall not be allowed to exceed the allowable
expansion length of an expansion joint.
(3) It is stipulated that an excessive displacement stopper shall not interfere with the
functions of a bearing support such as the translational and rotational movements,
which are brought about by the temperature changes or live loads of the
superstructure.
(4) Since it is common that an excessive displacement stopper is installed near a

bearing support, it is required that it has to be designed in such a way that it does not
become an obstacle to the maintenance work like inspection or repair of the bearing
support. Besides, in order to ensure the sewage capacity at the top of the substructure,
design of a sewage slope can be one of the effective measures.
(5) An excessive displacement stopper and an unseating prevention structure are

required to play different roles during an earthquake. The deformations and timing to
start their functions differ from each other, too. If they are installed in one
concentrated location, there is a potential risk that the fail-safe function of the
unseating prevention system will not perform effectively. Therefore, in order to avoid
any interference with the function of an unseating prevention system, it is necessary
that the installation position of an excessive displacement stopper shall be carefully
studied.
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Chapter 16 Unseating Prevention System
16.1 General
(1) Unseating prevention systems consist of a seating length of the girder at the
support, unseating prevention structure, excessive displacement stopper, and
structure for protecting superstructure from subsidence. These components shall be
appropriately selected in accordance with the bridge type, type of bearing supports,
ground conditions, and others.
(2) As for unseating prevention systems in the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis,
the seating length specified in Section 16.2 and unseating prevention structure
specified in Section 16.3 shall be provided at the girder-end supports and at the
movement joints. The unseating prevention structure can be omitted for a bridge in
which longitudinal displacement is unlikely to occur in the bridge axis due to its
structural characteristics, except those bridges shown in 2) of Section 16.5 (1), or
those located on seismically unstable ground, as specified in Chapter 8.
(3) As for the unseating prevention systems in the transverse direction to the bridge
axis, excessive displacement stoppers shall be installed at girder-end supports, and
movement joints of a bridge specified in Section 16.5 (1), and at intermediate
supports of a continuous girder of a bridge specified in Section 16.5 (2).
(4) When a tall bearing support is used for Class B bridges specified in Section 2.3,
special consideration, including the introduction of a structure for protecting the
superstructure from subsidence as specified in Section 16.4, shall be given.
(1) There may be unexpected seismic force, displacement or deformation occurred in a

bridge caused by unpredicted earthquake ground motion in the design, destruction of
the surrounding ground, or unexpectedly complicated vibrations in the structural
members. This section corresponds to establishing an unseating prevention system as a
fail-safe structure against these unanticipated situations.
As well known, the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu Earthquake in 1995 experienced various
damages to unseating prevention systems. Based on this experience, this section
clarified what role each components constituting an unseating prevention system shall
334
play, and specified how to determine these components, including seating length,
unseating prevention structure, excessive displacement stopper, and structure for
protecting superstructure from subsidence. The essential functions that each
component shall have are defined as follows.
1) Seating length
The seating length should be long enough to prevent departure and unseating of the
superstructure from top of the substructure even if there is large unexpected relative
generated displacement between the superstructure and the substructure.
2) Unseating prevention structure

When there is large unexpected relative displacement generated between the
superstructure and the substructure, it shall not exceed the seating length.
3) Excessive displacement stopper

As an excessive displacement stopper is designed to resist inertial force of Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion together with Type A bearing supports, relative
displacement between the superstructure and the substructure shall be limited when
bearing supports are damaged.
4) Structure for protecting superstructure from subsidence

It is installed to prevent occurrence of a gap that may hinder traffic over the bridge
when the high bearing supports are damaged.
Fig. C-16.1.1 shows fundamental related to selection of unseating prevention system,
which is mainly applied to bridges in which superstructure and substructure are
jointed through bearing supports, such as some of the deck-type arch bridges and skew
bridges. For these bridges, special attention should be paid to preventing unseating of
their superstructures, taking into account the dynamic behavior of each bridge.
From the experience of past seismic disasters, unseating prevention system of the
following bridges needs to be carefully investigated.
1) Bridges whose substructure locates on ground likely to deform

Substructures in this case may be largely deformed due to liquefaction or
liquefaction-induced ground flow of the ground, and sliding of soft clay layers, so that it
is recommended that the seating length and strength of the unseating prevention
system are determined while referring to results of the dynamic analysis.
335
2) Bridges with substantially different substructure types or ground conditions
When different types of substructure are used in one bridge, or the ground conditions
are substantially different in substructures of the same type, the dynamic behavior of
the bridges during an earthquake may become complicated. Accordingly, the seating
length shall be appropriately determined with reference to the results of dynamic
analysis.
Regarding the selection of structural types, appropriate measures shall be taken in
the basic design phase, as it may be better to choose a continuous structure rather than
having overlapping sections in such a location.
3) Bridges having considerably different types or scales of adjoining superstructures

There may have large relative displacement generated in these bridges, because
every design vibration unit moves at different phase. In this case, an unseating
prevention system that connects the adjoining superstructures together should be
avoided. As specified in Section 16.2, the seating length should be long enough to
involve the effects of possible collision between girders while referring to the results of
dynamic analysis. In addition, these bridges should be at least twice as heavy as the
adjacent ones in weight, or have a ratio greater than 1.5 for natural periods between
the two design vibration units.
4) Bridges with very high piers

Longer seating length may be required for bridges with very high piers owing to a
long natural period. The seating length of these bridges shall be determined by
referring to the results of dynamic analysis in accordance with the provisions of Section
16.2.
5) Skew bridges and curved bridges

With regard to skew bridges, there will be cases in which complex behavior is
observed as a result of the rotation of the superstructure around the vertical axis
during an earthquake. In particular, the ends of superstructure in bridges with smaller
skew angles may become unseated and therefore fall off the top end of the substructure
owing to rotation of the superstructure. Also, bridges with smaller curvature radius
may sustain severe damage due to rotation of the superstructure or displacement
toward the outside of the curve. With regard to bridges of this type, seating length shall
be determined based on the provisions of Section 13.2 while referring to results of
336
dynamic analysis. In addition, unseating prevention systems shall be installed both in
longitudinal and transverse direction to the bridge axis in accordance with Section
16.5.
6) Bridges with substructures narrow at the top

Bridges with substructures narrow at the top, such as those without placing any
cross beams in their piers are not generally preferable to the seismic design, because
unseating may happen in the transverse direction once the bearing supports collapse.
When these kinds of substructure have to be adopted, special examination should be
made in accordance with the provisions of Section 16.2 while referring to the results of
dynamic analysis. In addition, unseating prevention systems shall be installed both in
longitudinal and transverse direction to the bridge axis in accordance with Section
16.5.
7) Bridges with fewer bearing supports on one front line

Bridges supported by one bearing support on one front line should install excessive
displacement stopper both in longitudinal and transverse direction to the bridge axis in
accordance with Section 16.5, for the superstructure may unseat in the transverse
direction once the bearing supports collapse. In case where spacing of Type A bearing
supports on the front line of the bearing support is narrower than height of the girder,
unseating prevention system shall be desirably installed in transverse direction to the
bridge axis even though two bearing supports are placed on one front line.
(2) As for unseating prevention systems in the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis,
seating length and unseating prevention structure shall be provided.
Also, with regard to bridges that can have no displacement longitudinal to the bridge
axis due to their structural characteristics, unseating prevention structures do not
need to be installed. Generally, these bridges are limited to those with a series of
superstructures, each with a length of up to 25 meters, supported at both ends by
high-stiffness abutments, and would not fall under the category of Chapter 16.5 1) or 2).
Also, when the abutments at both ends are supported in Type I ground, this rule will
apply to bridges that have a series of superstructures with a length of up to 50 meters
each. Where, "series of superstructures" means superstructures on a single effective
span or on multiple effective spans of a continuous or connected structure, excluding a
chain of simple bridges. Conversely, skew bridges with smaller skew angles or curve d
bridges with larger intersection angles shall be equipped with unseating prevention
337
systems consisting of appropriately selected elements, for a large displacement may
happen due to the effects of skew angles or intersection angles.
(3) Bridges that require excessive displacement stopper for an unseating prevention
system transverse to the bridge axis are specified here. Bridges that require unseating
prevention measures transverse to the bridge axis include skew bridges, curved bridges,
bridges with substructures narrow at the top, and bridges with fewer bearings on one
bearing line, except that skew bridges and curve bridges consisting of continuous
girders are exempted from the requirement to install excessive displacement stopper at
the middle support, since transverse displacement will not happen when rotation of the
girders is limited at girder-end supports.
(4) When a tall bearing support is used, both superstructure and substructure may
damage once the superstructure drops off the top of the substructure when the bearing
supports are damaged during an earthquake with a large magnitude, resulting in the
development of a gap as large as several hundred mm on the road surface therefore
preventing emergency vehicles and other traffic from passing just after the event. For
this reason, when tall bearing supports are used in bridges like Class B bridges to span
an important route specified in Section 2.3, a special consideration, including an
introduction of a structure for protecting superstructure from subsidence, shall be
given. However, when rubber bearings are used, the height of the bearings is
comparatively small and the surface dimensions are relatively large compared with the
height, a structure for protecting superstructure from subsidence needs not to be
introduced because the occurrence of a large gap in the level of the road surface can be
prevented even if the bearing supports are damaged.
338
Start
Girder end support, Intermediate support of

seated section continuous girder
Support
classification
Type B Type of bearing Type A Type B Type of bearing Type A

support system support system
In longitudinal direction In longitudinal In longitudinal

to the bridge axis direction to the bridge direction to the bridge
・Seating length axis axis
・Unseating prevention ・Seating length ・Excessive
system ・Unseating prevention displacement stopper
system In transverse direction
・Excessive to the bridge axis
displacement stopper ・Excessive
In transverse direction displacement stopper
to the bridge axis
・Excessive
displacement stopper
Bridges specified No Bridges specified No

in 16.5 (1) in 16.5 (2)
Yes Yes
In transverse direction In transverse direction
to the bridge axis to the bridge axis
・Excessive ・Excessive
displacement stopper displacement stopper
End
Fig. C-16.1.1 Fundamental Principles of Unseating Prevention System
339
16.2 Seat Length
(1) The seating length of a girder at its support shall not be less than the value obtained
from Equation (16.2.1). In the case where the length is shorter than that obtained
from Equation (16.2.2), the design seating length shall not be less than the value
from the latter equation. When the direction of soil pressure acting on the
substructure differs from the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis, as in cases of
a skew bridge or a curved bridge, the seat length shall be measured in the direction
perpendicular to the front line of the bearing support.
SE = uR + uG ≧ SEM ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.2.1)
SEM = 0.7+0.005 l ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.2.2)
u G = εG L ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.2.3)
where
SE : Seating length of a girder at the support (m). SE is the girder length from the
girder end to the edge of the substructure crown, or the girder length on the
movement joint, as shown in Fig. 16.2.1.
uR : Maximum relative displacement between the superstructure and the
substructure crown due to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (m). In
calculating uR, the effects of the unseating prevention structure and the
excessive displacement stopper shall not be considered. When soil
liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground flow as specified in Chapter 8
may affect displacement of the bridges, such effects shall be considered.
uG : Relative displacement of the ground caused by seismic ground strain (m)
SEM: Minimum seating length (m)
εG : Seismic ground strain, εG can be assumed as 0.0025, 0.00375 and 0.005 for
Ground Types I, II and III, respectively.
L : Distance between two substructures for determining the seating length (m).
l : Span length (m). When two superstructures with different span lengths are
supported on one bridge pier, the longer one shall be taken as l.
340
Fig16.2.1
Seating Seating Seating Seating Length
Length on Pier Length on Abutment
Length
(a) Girder End Support (b) Movement Joint of Girders
(2) In case of verifying seismic performance of a bridge with complicated dynamic

structural behavior by a dynamic analysis as specified in Chapter 7, the maximum
relative displacement obtained from the dynamic analysis shall be taken as uR in
Equation (16.2.1).
(2) For a skew bridge with superstructural shape meeting Equation (16.5.1), the
seating length shall satisfy the provisions in (1) and be calculated by Equation
(16.2.4). For an asymmetric skew bridge in which the two front lines of the bearing
supports at both ends of the superstructure are oblique, SEθ shall be calculated
with use of a smaller skew angle.
SEθ ≧ (Lθ / 2) (sin θ – sin (θ – αE)) ････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.2.4)

where
SEθ: Seating length for the skew bridge (m)
Lθ : Length of a continuous superstructure (m)
θ : Skew angle (degree)
αE : Limit of unseating rotation angle (degree), αE can generally be taken as 5
degrees.
(4) For a curved bridge with superstructural shape meeting Equation (16.5.2), the
seating length shall satisfy the provisions in (1) and be calculated by Equation
(16.2.5).
sin 
SEφ≧ δE + 0.3 ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.2.5)
cos( / 2)
δE = 0.005φ+ 0.7 ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.2.6)
341
where
SEφ: Seating length for the curved bridge (m)
δE : Displacement of the superstructure toward the outside direction of the curve
(m)
φ: Fan-shaped angle by the two ends of a continuous girder of a curved bridge
(degrees)
(1) The seating length shall be calculated according to the maximum relative
displacement at the end of the girder and ground strain caused by Level 2 Earthquake
Ground Motion. If the seating length calculated by this means is less than the value
obtained from Equation (16.2.2), the seating length greater than the value from
Equation (16.2.2) shall be taken.
As relative displacement will occur at the end of the girder other than deformation of
the bridge as a whole involving bearing supports, piers, foundations, the relative
displacement uR may be generally calculated instead in the following way, depending
on conditions of bearing support at the support where the seating length is to be
calculated.
1) When the support concerned is supported by rubber bearings (Refer to Fig. C-16.2.1
(a))
When the support concerned is elastically supported by rubber bearings of Type B
specified in Section 15.1, such as seismic isolation bearings or horizontal force
distributed bearings, lateral strength of a pier shall be the product of equivalent
horizontal force times dynamic modification factor cm defined in Section 9.3.3 when
considering plastic behavior of the pier. Similarly, when plastic behavior of the
foundation is involved and the support is subjected to a horizontal force equal to
product of a horizontal force equivalent to maximum response displacement times
dynamic modification factor cm, uR can be defined as the relative displacement between
the superstructure and the substructure occurring at the support concerned.
When the substructure containing the support concerned and the superstructure
supported by it are considered to be in the same vibration unit, uR shall be taken as
elastic deformation of the rubber bearings, and be calculated by Equation (C16.2.1).
where
342
uR : Maximum relative displacement between the superstructure and the
substructure crown due to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion (m)
Pu : Horizontal force equivalent to lateral strength of a pier when considering plastic
behavior of the pier; or horizontal force equivalent to maximum response displacement
of a foundation when considering plastic behavior of the foundation (kN)
cm : Dynamic modification factor specified in Section 9.3.3
kB : Spring constant of the bearing support (kN/m)
When Type A rubber bearings specified in Section 15.1 are used, once an inertial force
corresponding to Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion exerts, the bearings may be
damaged, so that seating length shall be calculated in the same way as supported by
movable bearings specified in 3).
2) When the support concerned is supported by fixed supports

When fixed supports of Type B are used at the support concerned, one-half of the
width of the bearing support shall be taken as the relative displacement uR, while the
whole width shall be used in case of fixed supports of Type A. This is for preventing
unseating of the bridge even though the bearing support system is unexpectedly
damaged, although the fixed supports of Type B are designed to be capable of
transferring the superstructural inertia force caused either by horizontal force
equivalent to lateral strength of a pier with plastic behavior, or by horizontal force
equivalent to maximum response displacement of a foundation with plastic behavior,
and there is no relative displacement generating at the bearing support system under
an assumed earthquake ground motion in the design. Providing that the bearing
support may be damaged in case of fixed supports of Type A, uR for Type A is assumed
to be greater than that of Type B.
In addition, the width of the bearing support shall be equal to width of the lower
shoe in the longitudinal direction to the bridge axis in the case of metal bearings, and
width of the bearing support in the same direction for rubber bearings.
3) When the support concerned is supported by movable bearings (Refer to Fig.

C-16.2.1 (b))
The maximum relative displacement, occurring between the two design vibration
units containing both superstructure and substructure at the support concerned,
should be equal to uR, which can be estimated by calculating gap between ends of
superstructure described in the explanation of Section 14.4.1. However, the
343
displacement shall be regarded as zero in case of the design vibration unit consisting of
an abutment only, since high stiffness of the abutment towards back-filling often leads
to a considerably small displacement in this direction due to the back-filling.
Generally, the relative displacement uR can be calculated as follows.
uR  u Ri2 ( i =1,2 ) ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C16.2.2)
u Ri  u Pi  u F i  u B i ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C16.2.3)
u Pi  u Ri  yi ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C16.2.4)
u F i  δ F i  θ F i hoi ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C16.2.5)
u Bi  cm Pui / k Bi ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (C16.2.6)
where
uR: Relative displacement defined in Equation (16.2.1) (m)
uRi: Displacement of the i-th design vibration unit shown in Fig. C-16.2.1 (b) (m)
uPi: Response displacement of the pier representing the i-th design vibration unit (m)
uFi : Horizontal displacement at the height of superstructural inertia due to
displacement of the pier foundation representing the i-th design vibration unit
(m). When liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground flow of the ground
specified in Chapter 8 occur, the calculation shall include these effects.
UBi : Relative displacement at the bearing support system representing the i-th
design vibration unit (m)
μRi : Response ductility factor of the pier representing the i-th design vibration unit
δyi : Yielding displacement of the pier representing the i-th design vibration unit (m)
δFi : Response horizontal displacement of the pier foundation representing the i-th
design vibration unit (m)
θFi : Response rotation angle of the pier foundation representing the i-th design
vibration unit (rad)
h0i : Height from the ground surface of seismic design to the superstructural inertial
force in the pier representing the i-th design vibration unit (m)
Pui : Horizontal force equivalent to lateral strength of a pier with plastic behavior, or
by horizontal force equivalent to maximum response displacement of a
foundation with plastic behavior, representing the i-th design vibration unit
(kN)
344
cm : Dynamic modification factor specified in Section 9.3.3
kBi : Spring constant of the bearing support for the i-th design vibration unit (kN/m)
In the case of bridges with very high piers, though the seating length calculated as
above may be quite large, it should generally be ensured. If the seating length is
unreasonably excessive for the construction of the bridge, other structural
consideration can be applied, including enhancement of the substructure's stiffness,
installation of unseating prevention structures that would control excessive
displacement, or excessive displacement stopper, while taking into account the results
of dynamic analysis.
The relative displacement due to seismic ground strain shall be calculated by
Equation (16.2.3). Equation (16.2.3) is intended to calculate seismic ground strain,
assuming 0.25%, 0.375% and 0.5% for Ground Types I, II and III, respectively. This
assumption is based on the past records of large earthquakes in which large
deformations such as cracks on the surface of the ground occurred once the seismic
ground strain was smaller than the values in the above, therefore additional coverage
is included for safety. The length L between the substructures that may affect the
seating length shall be the distance between the substructure supporting the girder at
the support where the seating length is to be calculated and one that may primarily
affect the vibration of the girder containing the support. Fig. C-16.2.2 shows an
example of this case. For a bridge with different ground conditions, calculations shall
be carried out based on the soft ground conditions than real ones.
When soil liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground flow may affect displacement
of the bridges, the horizontal displacement occurring at the height of the
superstructural inertial force caused by displacement in the pier foundation when the
flow pressure is applied in accordance with the provisions of Section 8.3, shall be
calculated using Equation (C16.2.5). In this case, the seating length shall be calculated
for three cases: 1) liquefaction-induced ground flow occurs, 2) only liquefaction occurs,
and 3) neither liquefaction-induced ground flow nor liquefaction occurs, and the largest
one shall be used for the design. When the horizontal displacement at the edge of the
foundation exceeds the yielding displacement of the foundation, at least 50 cm should
be added to the seating length as measures to cope with unexpected deformation
caused by the flow pressure and its calculation precision, because the displacement
may change sharply with a small change in loads once the foundation yields. In
calculation of the seating length with liquefaction-induced ground flow, deformation of
the bearing support, pier or foundation caused by earthquake ground motion needs not
345
to be considered at a time.
Furthermore, when the direction of the horizontal components of soil pressure is
different from the bridge axis, as in a skew bridge, the seating length shall be
measured in the direction of the horizontal components of soil pressure, as shown in
Fig. C-16.2.3. In a skew bridge, the main axis of the girder is often not the same as that
of the substructure, the vibrations in both longitudinal and transverse direction to the
bridge axis will occur together. As a result, the seismic response behavior of the bridge
becomes complex. For this reason, the seating length in direction of minimum distance
between the girder end and the edge of the top of the substructure, as illustrated in
Fig.C-16.2.3, shall be taken as safety measures.
(2) In case of verifying seismic performance of a bridge by dynamic method specified in

Chapter 7, the relative displacement at the girder end between the superstructure and
substructure obtained from the dynamic analysis shall be applied to the verification of
the seating length.
(3) The seating length of a skew bridge shall be determined by considering the rotation
of the superstructure, for unseating of the bridge may happen as a result of the
structural behavior illustrated in Fig.C-16.2.4. For skew bridges with relation of skew
angle, Length and width of a continuous superstructure meeting Equation (16.5.1),
including both simple girder bridges and continuous bridges, unseating may caused by
the rotation. In this case, the seating length SEθ for rotation shall be determined based
on limit of unseating rotation angleαE, and the larger one obtained from (1) or (2) shall
be taken as the seating length.
In Equation (16.2.4), only the skew bridge rotating around its center of gravity by the
limit of unseating rotation angle is included in which the center of the superstructure
end comes out of the seating length. Limit of unseating rotation angle can generally be
taken as 5 degrees, according to examples of damage during the 1995 Hyogo-Ken
Nanbu Earthquake, and the results of dynamic analysis for various bridge types using
earthquake ground motions obtained from the event.
When the skew angle unavoidably has to be made narrower on a multi-span
continuous bridge, careful studies shall be carried out and an appropriate limit of
unseating rotation angle shall be determined. For a multi-span continuous bridge with
longer length of a continuous superstructure L θ , value of the seating length SE θ
obtained from Equation (16.2.4) may be quite large. In this case, the seating length
may lead to a considerably irrational structure for the entire bridge. As a result,
346
measures against such disadvantage should be taken, such as reexamining an
appropriate limit of unseating rotation angle as described above, or making the
excessive displacement stopper in the transverse direction to the bridge axis having the
same strength as that of unseating prevention structure specified in Section 16.3 so
that the rotational displacement of the superstructure could be surely restrained. In
addition, the seating length in this case should generally be greater than 1.5 times the
value obtained from (1) or (2) corresponding to different structural types and scales of
the bridges.
When the bearing lines on the two sides of the superstructure are not parallel, and
the skew angles at both ends are different, the seating length shall be determined
using the smaller skew angle, assuming the bridge rotating around the center line of
the bridge axis.
(4) For the reason of structural characteristics shown in Fig. C16.2.5, curved bridges
are more prone to unseating due to rotation of the superstructure, or moving toward
the outside of the curve. Consequently, the seating length shall be determined with
taken into consideration these effects. When the relation of the intersection angle, the
length and the width of the series of superstructures satisfies Equation (16.5.2), the
superstructure may start rotating without being restricted by the abutment or the
adjoining superstructures. In addition, the superstructure might move toward the
outside of the curve line due to complex vibrations occurring during an earthquake,
accompanied by a danger of the superstructure falling off the top of the substructure.
As the influence of the intersection angle is dominant during this type of movement,
limit of unseating rotation angle shall be determined from the intersection angle, and
the seating length shall be calculated using equation (16.2.5). Similarly, the seating
length in the skew bridges obtained by this means shall be compared with values from
(1) or (2), and the larger one shall be taken. As for continuous curved bridges, the
intersection angle between the two girders may be larger enough, therefore special
attention should be paid in determining the seating length to prevent rotation or
movement toward the outside of the curve line of the superstructure.
In case that the seating length SEφ obtained from Equation (16.2.5) is large so that a
considerably irrational structure in the entire bridge is formed, measures against such
disadvantage should be taken such as making the excessive displacement stopper in
transverse direction to the bridge axis having the same strength as that of unseating
prevention structure specified in Section 16.3, so that the rotation or movement toward
the outside of the curve line of the curved bridges could be surely restrained. In
347
addition, the seating length in this case should generally be greater than 1.5 times the
value obtained from (1) or (2) corresponding to different structural types and scales of
the bridges.
Fig. C16.2.1 Inertia Forces Used in Calculating Seating Length
348
Fig. C16.2.2 How to Measure Distance L between Substructures that May Affect
Seating Length
349
Fig. C16.2.3 How to Measure Seating Length When Direction of the Horizontal
Component of Soil Pressure is Different from the Bridge Axis
Fig. C16.2.4 Seating Length of a Skew Bridge
350
Fig. C16.2.5 Seating Length of a Curved Bridge
16.3 Unseating Prevention Structure
(1) Ultimate strength of an unseating prevention structure shall not be less than the
design seismic force determined by Equation (16.3.1). Here, the ultimate strength
may be taken as 1.5 times the allowable stress. In addition, the design allowance
length of the unseating prevention structure shall be taken as large as possible, but
within the value given by Equation (16.3.2).
HF = 1.5 Rd ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.3.1)

S F = cF S E ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.3.2)
where
HF : Design seismic force of the unseating prevention structure (kN)
Rd : Dead load reaction (kN). In case of a structure connecting two adjacent
girders, the larger reaction shall be taken.
SF : Maximum design allowance length of unseating prevention structure (m)
351
SE : Seating length specified in Section 16.2 (m).
cF :Design displacement coefficient of unseating prevention structure. The
standard value can be taken as 0.75.
(2) The unseating prevention structure shall not disturb the functions of bearing
supports, such as translational and rotational movements of the supports.
(3) The unseating prevention structure shall be capable of moving in the transverse
direction to the bridge axis and also alleviating the seismic impacts.
(4) A structure for fixing an unseating prevention structure shall be capable of

transferring its design seismic force to both superstructure and substructure.
(5) The unseating prevention structure shall allow for easy maintenance and inspection
of the bearing supports.
(1) Unseating prevention structures are intended to supplement the seating length by
functioning before the seating length is reached, when an unexpected relative
displacement between the superstructure and the substructure occurs as a result of
damage of the substructure or the bearings. Accordingly, the seating length greater
than the displacement when the unseating prevention structure just begins to function
may not be necessary in this case, however, both the unseating prevention structure
and the seating length should be installed so as to provide a fail-safe function against
unexpected foundation failure or unusual structural destruction.
In order to support the superstructure under extraordinary conditions, a horizontal
force of as much as 1.5 times the dead load reaction shall be taken as the design
seismic force of the unseating prevention structure, as determined by Equation (16.3.1).
Here, the ultimate strength of the unseating prevention structure may be taken as 1.5
times the allowable stress during an earthquake.
In addition, the design allowance length of the unseating prevention structure SF
shall be taken as large as possible, but within the value given by Equation (16.3.2).
This is because the overall structural damage to a bridge would be decreased if a
certain amount of displacement in the bridge as a whole were allowed, and SF smaller
than the seating length SE shall be taken simultaneously. For this reason, the standard
value of design displacement coefficient cF of unseating prevention structure can be
taken as 0.75. A smaller cF can be applied, however, when SE obtained from Equation
352
(16.2.1) is large enough to lead to an excessive allowance length of the unseating
prevention structure.
The unseating prevention structure is generally a structure of 1) connecting the
superstructure and the substructure, 2) providing protuberances either in the
superstructure and the substructure, 3) joining two superstructures together.
Examples of the unseating prevention structures are shown in Fig. C-16.3.1 to Fig.
C-16.3.3. Actual examples include a structure connecting the superstructure and the
substructure with PC steel or anchor bars, or a structure providing protuberances or
unseating barrier walls on the top of the substructure and/or the superstructure, and a
structure connecting the two series of with PC steel.
Meanwhile, when the unseating prevention structure and the excessive displacement
stopper tend to have a similar construction, neither shall generally be used for both
purposes because of having different functions. If one structure also serves as another
one, loss of one function may lead to the loss of another so that each function should be
ensured in above case. If the functions of both can be ensured independently, it does not
matter to use these structures for both purposes.
(2) This provision described that unseating prevention structures shall not restrict
functions such as the movement or rotation of the bearing supports caused by an
earthquake, change in temperature of the superstructure, or live load. When Type B
rubber bearings are used, however, movement corresponding to the allowable shear
strain of rubber should be ensured so as to use the ductility of the rubber bearings to
the full during an earthquake with a large magnitude.
(3) According to examples of past disasters, many cases of damage have been observed
accompanied by displacement transverse to the bridge axis, and some seem to have
resulted from the impact of a seismic force in the unseating prevention structure.
Therefore, the unseating prevention structure shall be capable of following the
movement transverse to the bridge axis and of higher impact strength by employing a
shock absorber such as rubber pad to alleviate the impact of the seismic force.
(4) Many broken portions were found not only in unseating prevention structures, but
in where connecting the superstructure and substructure, as a result of the 1995
Hyogo-Ken Nanbu Earthquake. Unless the unseating prevention structures are
confirmed for safety, including the portion at which these are connected to the bridge,
they cannot perform a fail-safe function to prevent the unseating of the bridge. For this
353
reason, the connection structure shall be capable of securely transmitting the design
seismic force applied to the unseating prevention structure, and its safety shall also be
verified in accordance with the provisions of Steel Bridges, Concrete Bridges and
Substructures with consideration of the design seismic force specified in (1). For
instance, when parapet of an abutment is fixed to the unseating prevention structure,
it should be designed in accordance with the explanation of Section 8.4.3 in
Substructures. Similarly, the provisions of Section 18.2 in Concrete Bridges can be
applied to fixing the main girder, cross beam or partition to the unseating prevention
structure in connecting portions of T-girder bridges with concrete superstructure, box
girder bridges or composite bridges. These portions include the connections by PC steel,
protuberance and its connection in case of installation, therefore the superstructure
and the substructure under it. In addition, the portion at which the unseating
prevention structure is connected shall be capable of distributing the seismic force over
as wide an area as possible to prevent stress concentration.
(6) Since most of the unseating prevention structures are installed around or near the
bearing supports, they should allow for easy maintenance and inspection of the
bearing supports. In particular, any structure incorporating protuberances on the
superstructure and/or the substructure or connecting the superstructure with the
substructure shall be installed in such a way so as not to interfere with
maintenance and inspection, including inspection of the expansion joint or bearing
supports. Also, it would be useful to have an incline on the top of the substructure
to enhance water discharge.
(a) Example of steel superstructure (b) Example of concrete superstructure
Fig. C16.3.1 Examples of Unseating Prevention Structures Connecting the

Superstructure with Substructure
354
(a) Unseating prevention structure (b) Unseating prevention structure
using concrete block using steel bracket
Fig. C16.3.2 Examples of Unseating Prevention Structures Providing Protuberance on

the Superstructure and the Substructure
(a) Example of steel superstructure (b) Example of concrete superstructure
Fig. C16.3.3 Examples of Unseating Prevention Structures Connecting the
16.4 Structure for Protecting Superstructure from Subsidence
Structure for protecting a superstructure from settling of an approach bank shall be

capable of keeping the superstructure at an appropriate height, even if the bearing
supports sustain seismic damages.
It is important to keep any gaps on the road surface as smaller as possible after an
355
earthquake with a large magnitude and the bearing support system is damaged, so
that residents can act for emergency evacuation and emergency vehicles can pass as
soon as possible. For this purpose, structure for protecting a superstructure from
settling of an approach bank shall be installed, especially for tall bearings. For example,
installing a reserve rubber bearings or concrete pedestals for purpose of the structure.
It is claimed that if the settlement of the road surface after an earthquake is no more
than 50 ～100 mm, there will be no critical damage to the movement of emergency
vehicles just after the disaster, but it would be better to specify a limit for each route.
When the unseating prevention structures and excessive displacement stoppers are
capable of supporting the superstructure even if the bearings are damaged, or if
foundations for jack operation are installed for construction or maintenance purposes,
it would be better to use these together rather than separately installing structures to
prevent the superstructure from settling, as well as avoiding complications atop the
pier. If structures for preventing the superstructure from settling can resist the vertical
load from the superstructure, there is no need to consider horizontal design seismic
forces.
16.5 Excessive Displacement Stopper
(1) For the following bridges excessive displacement stoppers working in the
perpendicular direction to the bridge axis, shall be installed in the girder-end
supports, in addition to the unseating prevention system working in the longitudinal
direction to the bridge axis.
1) Skew bridges with a small skew angle meeting Equation (16.5.1)

sin 2θ/2 > b / L ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.5.1)
where
L: Length of a continuous superstructure (m)
B: Whole width of the superstructure (m)
θ: Skew angle (degree)
2) Curved bridges satisfying Equation (16.5.2)

115 1  cos
> b/ L ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (16.5.2)
 1  cos
356
where
L: Length of a continuous superstructure (m)
B: Whole width of the superstructure (m)
φ: Fan-shaped angle (degree)
3) Bridges with narrow substructure crown in the bridge axis direction

4) Bridges with a small number of bearing supports on a substructure
5) Bridges with piers likely to move in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis as
a result of liquefaction-induced ground flow specified in Section 8.3.
(2) Bridges specified in 3), 4) and 5) of the above (1) shall have excessive displacement
stoppers installed at intermediate supports.
(3) Excessive displacement stoppers in the perpendicular direction to the bridge axis
shall be designed in accordance with the provisions in Section 15.5.
(1) As unseating of a bridge may hardly happen due to the movement of the girder in
the transverse direction to the bridge axis, there is no need to install a unseating
prevention system in this direction when Type B bearings are used. However, as
indicated in the explanation for Section 16.1, bridges such as skew bridges, curved
bridges, bridges in which the substructure is narrow at the top, bridges with fewer
bearings on one bearing line, or bridges in which unseating due to movement
transverse to the bridge axis may happen because piers may move in this direction
under the effects of liquefaction-induced ground flow, excessive displacement stopper
should be installed if Type B bearings are used. When Type A bearings are used, an
excessive displacement stopper can be applied for supplement the bearing supports,
additional excessive displacement stopper is no need to install.
Equations (16.5.1) and (16.5.2) indicate a condition that the superstructure can
rotate without being restricted by the adjoining girders or the abutment parapets
depending on the geometric conditions of the superstructure, as shown in Fig.C-16.5.1
to Fig.C-13.5.3. From characteristics of the restraints we know whether the
superstructure might rotate or not is little affected by the portions adjoining the two
ends of the superstructure without being restricted by girders or abutment parapets.
Fig.C-16.5.4 and Fig.C-16.5.5 show the relation of Equations (16.5.1) and (16.5.2),
respectively.
357
Fig. C-16.5.1 Conditions in Which a Skew Bridge can Rotate without Being Affected by
Adjoining Girders or Abutment
(2) Bridges such as skew bridges, curved bridges, bridges in which the substructure is
narrow at the top, bridges with fewer bearings on one bearing line, or bridges in which
unseating due to movement transverse to the bridge axis may happen because piers
may move in both longitudinal and transverse directions under the effects of
liquefaction-induced ground flow, excessive displacement stopper should be installed at
intermediate supports in addition to end supports.
358
Fig. C-16.5.2 Conditions in Which a Skew Bridge with Unparallel Bearing Lines at
Two Ends of the Superstructure can Rotate
359
Fig. C-16.5.3 Conditions in which a curved Bridge can Rotate without Being Affected
by Adjoining Girders or Abutment
(3) With the same function as the excessive displacement stopper in the bridge axis
direction, one in the transverse direction to the bridge axis shall be designed in
accordance with Section 15.5. Where design allowance length of excessive displacement
stopper in the transverse direction to the bridge axis shall be the amount of movement
of the bearing support for Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion. If movement in this
direction caused by changes in temperature needs not to anticipate, expansion spacing
can be determined in such a manner that any relative movement in the same direction
between the superstructure and the substructure is not restricted.
360
Fig. C-16.5.4 Conditions in which a Skew Bridge Require an Excessive Displacement
Stopper in the Transverse Direction to the Bridge Axis
Fig. C-16.5.5 Conditions in which a Curved Bridge Require an Excessive Displacement

Stopper in the Transverse Direction to the Bridge Axis
361

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JAPAN ROAD ASSOCIATION

SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES

( MARCH 2002 VERSION )

PART Ⅴ SEISMIC DESIGN

Part V : Seismic Design

Chapter 1 General ...................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Basic Principles for Seismic Design.......................................... 4

Chapter 3 Loads to be considered in Seismic Design .............................. 12

Chapter 4 Design Earthquake Ground Motions...................................... 15

Chapter 5 Verification of Seismic Performance ....................................... 36

Chapter 7 Verification Methods of Sesmic Performance based on Dynamic

Chapter 9 Verification of Seismic Performance of Seismically Isolated

Chapter 10 Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity of Reinforced Concrete

Chapter 11 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Steel Colums .......... 249

Chapter 12 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Pier Foundations ..... 268

Chapter 13 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Abutment Foundations at

Chapter 14 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Superstructure......... 293

Chapter 15 Verification of Sesmic Performance of Bearing Support System

Chapter 16 Unseating Prevention System .............................................. 334

This Part shall apply to the seismic design of highway bridges.

This section clarifies the scope of Part V Seismic Design.

1.2 Definition of Terms

The terms used in this part are defined as below:

(1) Seismic performance

(2) Limit state

(4) Liquefaction-induced ground flow

(5) Ground type for seismic design

(7) Bedrock for seismic design

(8) Seismic coefficient method

(9) Ductility design method

(10) Static verification method

(11) Dynamic verification method

(12) Design vibration unit

(14) Seismic lateral strength

(16) Plastic hinge

(17) Horizontal inertia force distributed structure

(18) Seismiclly-Isolated bridges

(19) Unseating prevention system

2.1 Fundamentals of Seismic Design

Table C-2.2.1 Seismic Performance of Bridges

Seismic Seismic Repairability Design

Earthquake Ground Motions Class A Bridges Class B Bridges

Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion (highly Keeping sound functions of bridges

2.3 Classification of Importance of Bridges

This classification of Class A or Class B bridges is defined in accordance with the

(2) Possibility of secondary disaster

(3) Serviceability and availability of substitute

(4) Difficulty in recovering bridge function

3.1 Loads to be considered in Seismic Design and their Combinations

(2) Combinations of loads shall be as follows:

3.2 Effects of Earthquake

Level 1 and Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motions shall be determined in accordance

4.2 Level 1 Earthquake Ground Motion

S0 : Standard acceleration response spectra (gal) for Level 1 Earthquake

Table 4.2.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra S0

Fig. C-4.2.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra S0

4.3 Level 2 Earthquake Ground Motion

S II  cZ cD SⅡ0 ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ (4.3.2)

Table 4.3.1 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra Type I, SI0

Ground Type SIo (gal) with Fundamental Period T(s)

Table 4.3.2 Standard Acceleration Response Spectra Type II, SII0

Ground Type SIIo (gal) with Fundamental Period T(s)

Table 4.4.1 Modification Factors for Zones, cz

② Tottori Pref. (covering only Yonago City, Kurayoshi City,