International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

The interaction of pressure, in-plane moment

and torque loadings on piping elbows
A.B. Ayoba,*, D.G. Moffatb, J. Mistryb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology Malaysia, UTM Skudai, Johor 81310, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Liverpool, UK
Received 22 January 2003; revised 5 September 2003; accepted 8 September 2003

Abstract
This study concerns the load interaction behaviour of 908 smooth piping elbows with circular cross-section and long straight tangent pipes.
The finite element method is used for stress analysis of elbows having a wide range of bend and pipe factors. The main aim of the study is to
establish the first yield interaction behaviour when an elbow is subjected to a combination loading of in-plane bending, torsion and internal
pressure. The study shows that load interaction is influenced by pipe factor, bend radius and load coupling effect, with thinner elbows being
affected to a larger degree.
q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Load interaction; First yield; Pipe elbow; Finite element method

1. Introduction
This study looks at the main parameters that influence the
performance of piping elbows, namely pipe dimensions and
the applied load combinations. The pipe factor l is chosen
to be between 0.0267 and 1.4 and the bend factor b ¼ 2; 3, 5
and 7. These values represent the range of piping commonly
used in power plants. The main study deals with the first
yield behaviour of elbows when two loads act simul-
taneously, assuming linear behaviour and the absence of a
load coupling effect. The resulting load interaction diagrams
provide the means of assessing the level of conservatism in
present design rules. A geometrically non-linear FE
analysis is then carried out to investigate the extent of
cross-sectional ovalization in two elbow models (thick and
thin). The non-linear analysis is then extended to include
simultaneous application of in-plane bending moment and
internal pressure to evaluate the coupling effect between the
two loads.
The first theoretical treatment of elbows was carried out
by von Karman [1] who developed stress formulae for in-
plane moment on simple elbows. Based on a similar energy
method, Vigness [2] studied the effect of out-of-plane
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 60-7-5534580; fax: þ 60-7-5566159.
E-mail address: amran@fkm.utm.my (A.B. Ayob).
0308-0161/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2003.09.001
bending and Kafka and Dunn [3] studied the influence of
internal pressure on in-plane bending. Rodabaugh and
George [4] made a serious attempt to analyse the effect of
internal pressure on stresses when the elbow is being
subjected to in-plane and out-of-plane moments, and after
some modification for hoop membrane stresses by Gross
[5], the combined analyses form the basis of the stress
indices currently used in the nuclear piping code of ASME
Section III [6]. The BS 806 [7] code is based on studies
carried out by Turner and Ford [8] and Smith [9]. They
accounted for mid-wall strain and did not limit the value of
R=rm ; i.e. two of the limitations of the work by Rodabaugh
and George [4]. Many researches have been devoted to the
study of non-linear combination of pressure and in-plane
moment on elbows. Rodabaugh and George [4] and Spence
and Boyle [13] studied the influence of pressure on stresses
produced by moment loads.
For a combination of loads applied simultaneously, the
ASME [6] and BS [7] formulation is largely based on the
maximum stress intensity (wherever it occurs) being equal
to, or less than, the sum of the maximum stress intensities
due to the loads taken individually. This gives a con-
servative design if the maximum stresses from the
individual loads do not occur at the same location. In this
study the maximum stress is obtained after the stresses from
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Nomenclature P internal pressure

P
non-dimensionalised first yield pressure
r pipe radius
M in-plane moment
d pipe diameter

M non-dimensionalised first yield in-plane moment
R bend radius
s stress
t thickness
Suffices
b bend factor ¼ R=rm
2 u hoop (circumferential) direction
l pipe factor ¼ tR=rm
f axial (meridional) direction
I second moment of area of cross-section
max maximum
f axial (meridional) location (f ¼ 08 at elbow mid-
vM von Mises
section)
n nominal
u hoop (circumferential) location (u ¼ 08 at extra-
i inner
dos)
o outer
T torque
m mean
T
non-dimensionalised first yield torque

the individual loads are summed at the corresponding pipe
locations.
2. The finite element models
The geometrical features of all 16 models, representing a
wide range of b and l; are given in Table 1. The models
have a bend angle of 908 and a mean diameter, dm ¼ 0:2 m:
The choice of dm is irrelevant because the results are
presented in terms of non-dimensional parameters.
The choice of mesh, geometric and load modelling was
based on preliminary exercises performed successfully [10]
on cylinders and branched pipes. A similar FE mesh was
used for all the models so that the node numbering remains
unchanged in all models. This simplified the task of
extracting stress data from results files.
The torsional moment on the elbow was induced by
applying tangential nodal forces at the outer edge of a
tangent pipe free end. The bending moment was induced by
graded axial forces applied on the nodes at the outer edge of
a tangent pipe free end. These loading techniques produced
consistent nominal stresses on the tangent pipe within a
distance of one pipe diameter from the loaded end. The
methods of inducing torsional and in-plane bending loads by
means of nodal forces are shown in Fig. 1. To prevent rigid
Table 1
Geometric dimensions of elbow models
Model b l dm =t Model b l
body motion of the structure, suppression of all displace-
ments was applied at the other tangent pipe free end.
Following a linear stress analysis, a geometrically non-
linear analysis was carried out on two elbow models, EL01
and EL07. Model EL01 represents a thin elbow with a small
bend radius and elbow model EL07 represents a moderate
elbow commonly used in industry. These two models were
subjected to separate loads of torque, in-plane moment and
internal pressure to assess the extent of geometrical non-
linearity.
Finally, an analysis was carried out to determine the
coupling effect between in-plane moment and internal
pressure. Again, elbow models EL01 and EL07 were
selected and they were subjected to internal pressure and
in-plane moment loads acting simultaneously.
3. Linear analysis
The FE model was generated using PATRAN [11]
software and the numerical stress analysis was performed
using the ASAS [12] finite element code. The stress is
expressed in terms of an effective stress factor (ESF), which
is defined as the ratio of the maximum von Mises effective
stress to the nominal maximum stress given by simple
theory for an equivalent straight pipe. For pressure loading,
the nominal stress is the mean diameter hoop stress, Pdm =2t;
and for torque and in-plane moment loading, the nominal
dm =t

EL01 2 0.0267 150 EL09 5 0.0667 150

EL02 2 0.05 80 EL10 5 0.125 80
EL03 2 0.2 20 EL11 5 0.5 20
EL04 2 0.4 10 EL12 5 1.0 10
EL05 3 0.04 150 EL13 7 0.0933 150
EL06 3 0.075 80 EL14 7 0.175 80
EL07 3 0.3 20 EL15 7 0.7 20
EL08 3 0.6 10 EL16 7 1.4 10
Fig. 1. Torsional and in-plane load modelling.
 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869
stress is the maximum bending stress, Mro =I: The ESFs will
be referred to as stress factors in the following text.
The symbols P;
T
and M
are used to denote non-
dimensionalised pressure, torsion and bending moment
loads. If PY is the pressure required to cause first yield in an
elbow and P is the applied pressure, then P
is defined as:
P
¼ P=PY
In the present study where the maximum stress is limited to
the yield stress, the maximum value of applied pressure is
PY and consequently, the maximum value of P
is 1. The
other non-dimensionalised loads T
and M
are similarly
defined.
A general load interaction would be a situation when all
the three loads act simultaneously on the elbow resulting in
a three dimensional P
: T
: M
interaction diagram. The
diagrams would then be presented on a three-orthogonal-
axes system with each axis representing a load. However,
only two-load interactions are studied here because of ease
of presentation and discussion.
Figs. 2 –4 show the first yield interaction for load pairs
M
: T;

T
: P
and M
: P;

which were generated from linear
superposition of individual load effects. The curves in each
diagram show the effect of d=t ratio on first yield. In M
: T

interaction, from Fig. 2(a)– (d), the pipe thickness does not
affect first yield in a particular trend nor does it result in an
appreciable increase or decrease of the maximum ESF. The
bend radius slightly affects the maximum ESF—the larger
the b ratio, the lower the ESF. The interaction is best
represented by a circular relation, M
2 þ T
2 ¼ 1:



Similarly, the T : P load interactions in Fig. 3(a)– (d)
are not much affected by d=t and b except in short radius
bends, where (e.g. when b ¼ 2) the stresses are lower
when internal pressure dominates, giving a slightly larger
yield locus. The interaction is best represented by a linear
relation, T
þ P
¼ 1:
The interaction between pressure and in-plane bending
moment is different from the two previous interactions. The
maximum combined stress can be lower than an individual
stress. From Fig. 4(a) – (d), the bend radius does not
influence maximum stresses as much as the d=t ratio.
Different d=t ratios result in load capacities being increased
beyond their first yield individual values. In thin elbows,
where d=t $ 80; the first yield opening moment capacity is
increased by at least 22% when P
< 0:4: In thick elbows,
where d=t # 10; the closing moment capacity is increased
by as much as 9% when P
< 0:15: In addition, thick elbows
ðd=t # 20Þ show a 15% increase in first yield pressure
capacity when an opening moment of M
< 0:2 is present.
Taking into consideration the behaviour of the wide range of
elbows being studied, the best interaction is a linear relation,
M
þ P
¼ 1:
In reality the load interaction behaviour is more complex
than just superposition of individual stresses. Sometimes the
coupling effect between the two interacting loads plays a
significant role in rendering linear analysis to be invalid.
863
4. Non-linear analysis
The analysis of load coupling between internal pressure
and moment is complex. It is well known that especially in
thin elbows, an in-plane or torsional moment causes severe
ovalization of the pipe cross-section. In Section 3, stresses
from moment load are algebraically summed with those
from pressure load. In reality, if the two loads act
simultaneously, internal pressure stiffens the pipe such
that ovalization due to the moment load is severely
restricted. This results in a non-linear coupling between
the two loads, and consequently in a reduction of flexibility
and, hence, stresses.
The stiffening effect of pressure on combined loading is
demonstrated here by comparing results from two further
studies. In the first study, individual stresses that are
obtained from geometrically non-linear FEA are combined
algebraically and in the second study, the loads are made to
act simultaneously in a geometrically non-linear FEA. The
second study shows the actual effect of load coupling. The
two elbow models used in non-linear analysis are EL01 and
EL07 because they represent ‘thin’ and ‘thick’ pipes,
respectively. The limited choice of models is used merely to
emphasize the presence of geometrically non-linear and
coupling effects and not to determine the overall behaviour
of the effects.
The results show the stiffening effect of internal pressure
on in-plane moment, especially on the thinner model EL01.
A combined loading of pressure and opening moment can
reduce stress by as much as 51% while for a loading of
pressure and closing moment the reduction is about 33%.
The thicker model EL07 shows smaller corresponding stress
reductions of 9.3 and 3.4%.
From geometric non-linear analysis on individual loads,
an in-plane closing moment causes stresses at the crown to
increase progressively with load but an in-plane opening
moment causes a progressive reduction of the stress
increase. Although small, the non-linear effect in model
EL01 is twice that of EL07. However, pressure loading
showed no signs of a geometric non-linear effect.
When the results from both geometric non-linearity and
load coupling analyses are examined closely, the trend
becomes apparent. In geometric non-linear analysis, the
stress increase is due to the tensile stresses from the closing
moment being added to the tensile pressure stresses at the
outer surface of the crown. An opening moment load
produces compressive stresses at the same location, hence
providing a reducing effect to the pressure stresses. When
the load coupling effect is taken into account, the stiffening
effect from internal pressure reduces ovalization and has a
cancelling effect on the stress produced by geometric
deformation. This effect of load coupling is large in the
thinner elbow model.
Fig. 5 shows first yield loci from linear and load coupling
analyses. The yield points at selected load combinations are
plotted to emphasise the effect of load coupling effect on first
864 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869

Fig. 2. (a)–(d) Moment/torque interaction diagrams.

yield at various yield stresses of 200, 300 and 400 MPa. The
load coupling analysis results in lower maximum stresses and
hence the yield envelopes are larger. Elbows with higher
yield points have larger yield envelopes because the stresses
become progressively reduced as the moment is increased.
The M
: P
interaction of the thicker model EL07, shown
in Fig. 6, does not exhibit much load coupling effect. Unlike
the thinner model EL01, the maximum effective stress in the
thicker model occurs at different elbow locations for
the closing and opening moments. For the same magnitude
of these closing and opening moments, the maximum
stresses are nearly identical and the non-linear analysis
gives slightly lower maximum stresses. The linear analysis
first yield envelope is shown to be only slightly more
conservative than the non-linear envelope.
Table 2 shows the maximum increase in the first yield
opening moment carrying capacity of the elbows due to both
non-linear and load coupling effects. The first yield closing
moments ðþMÞ also show increases but not as high as
the opening moments ð2MÞ: For the thinner model EL01
 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869 865

Fig. 3. (a)–(d) Torque/pressure interaction diagrams.

the largest increase in first yield moment occurs when P is
between 0:37PY and 0:5PY ; giving a corresponding increase
in moment capacity of between 160 and 88%. For the
thicker elbow model EL07, there is no significant increase
in the moment carrying capacity. However, the elbow
models do not exhibit any significant increase in pressure
carrying capacity.
The phenomenon of geometric non-linearity and load
coupling effect is similarly encountered in the P
: T

interaction, i.e. the reduction of maximum stress. In the
thinner model EL01, the torque load shows large non-
linear and load coupling effects. From Fig. 7(a) the non-
linear yield envelope of the thinner model is found to be
very conservative compared to the thicker model
(Fig. 7(b)). In model EL01 since the effects of geometric
and load coupling become increasingly large at high
yield stress, the torque-carrying capacity of the elbow
increases with stress limit. At all stress limits, the torque
866 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869

Fig. 4. (a)–(d) Moment/pressure interaction diagrams.

 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869 867

Fig. 5. Moment/pressure interaction, model EL01, linear and load coupling analyses.

Fig. 6. Moment/pressure interaction, model EL07, linear and load coupling analyses.

Table 2
Maximum increase in moment carrying capacity of elbows EL01 and EL07—load coupling analysis

Limiting stress (MPa) Magnitudes of pressure and

moment that correspond to
maximum % increase in first yield
moment capacity

Model EL01 Model EL07

Magnitude of pressure and % Increase in first yield Magnitude of pressure and % Increase in first yield
moment moment capacity moment moment capacity

200 P ¼ 0:5PY ; M ¼ 1:88MY 88 P ¼ 0:05PY ; M ¼ 1:05MY ,5

300 P ¼ 0:4PY ; M ¼ 2:3MY 130 P ¼ 0:05PY ; M ¼ 1:05MY ,5
400 P ¼ 0:37PY ; M ¼ 2:6MY 160 P ¼ 0:05PY ; M ¼ 1:05MY ,5

Note: PY denotes the pressure to cause first yield in the respective elbows.
868 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869

Fig. 7. (a) and (b) Linear and non-linear Torsion/Pressure interaction (key to markers in Figs. 5 and 6 applies here).

is increased beyond TY when P # 0:5PY ; as can be seen an upper bound on deformations. Neglecting thermal
from Fig. 7(a). effects, Eq. (10) of ASME is given by:

C1 Po Do =2t þ C2 Do Mi =2I # 3Sm

5. Discussion and code rules p
where the resultant moment Mi ¼ ðMx2 þ My2 þ Mz2 Þ:
5.1. BS 806 The above equations result in a circular Moment/Torque
interaction,
In BS 806 [7] the hoop, axial and shear stresses are based on

2 þ T
2 ¼ 1
M
thin pipe theory. The effects of pressure and moment are not
coupled, thus making the interaction procedure conservative.
and linear torque/pressure and moment/pressure inter-
The load interaction from the Code can easily be derived. The
actions, i.e.
exact and equivalent relations are listed in Table 3.
T
þ P
¼ 1
5.2. ASME III
and
In this section, the ASME III symbols are used. They are
defined as:
þ P
¼ 1:
M

Po range of service pressure In the BS and ASME Codes the maximum hoop stresses due
t nominal wall thickness to the individual loads are summed, regardless of their
C1 ; C2 secondary component stress indices locations on the pipe. In the present method, stresses at
Do outside pipe diameter every nodal point are determined for every load combi-
Mi section bending moment nation and subsequently the maximum stress is located.
Sm allowable stress Hence in this method the maximum stress may not be at the
Mx ; My ; Mz orthogonal moment components locations of maximum stress arising from individual loads.
In the ASME code, the interactions are similar to the finite
Eq. (10) of subsection NB-3653.1 ASME III [6] code is element method (FEM) but in the BS code, the circular T
: P

meant to control primary plus secondary loads so as to place interaction is different from the FEM.

Table 3
Exact and equivalent load interaction relations

Interaction Torque/pressure Moment/pressure Moment/Torque

Exact relation ðpd=2t þ 0:5pÞ2 þ 4½Mt ðd þ 2tÞ=4I2 ¼ Y 2 ðpd=2t þ 0:5p þ rMi FTi =IÞ2 ¼ Y 2 ðrMi FTi =IÞ2 þ 4½Mt ðd þ 2tÞ=4I2 ¼ Y 2
Equivalent relation T
2 þ P
2 ¼ 1 M
þ P
¼ 1 M
2 þ T
2 ¼ 1

Note the BS806 symbols are used in ‘Exact relation’. They are defined as: d; mean diameter; t; mean thickness; p; design pressure; Y; yield stress; Mt ;
torsional moment; Mi ; maximum in-plane moment; and FTi ; in-plane transverse stress intensification factor.
 A.B. Ayob et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 861–869
6. Conclusions
The major conclusions which can be drawn from this
work are:
1. The Moment/Torsion and Torsion/Pressure first yield
load interactions are not significantly affected by R=rm
and d=t ratios. The moment/pressure interaction is not
much affected by R=rm but significantly affected by
d=t:
2. In certain cases, a combined loading of internal pressure
and in-plane moment causes a reduction in maximum ESF,
which can be quite considerable in thin elbows ðd=t . 80Þ:
3. The BS rule shows a serious lack of conservatism
regarding Torsion/Pressure interaction, whereas
the ASME load interaction agrees well with the FEM.
4. The increase in in-plane moment carrying capacity is
mainly due to the load coupling with pressure. In thin
elbows, the peak stresses are greatly reduced by
pressurising the elbows to between P ¼ 0:37PY and P ¼
0:5PY : Consequently, the load carrying capacity can be
increased by as much as 160%.
5. The actual load interaction behaviour of thick elbows
gives satisfactory correlation with linear analysis. Since
all the linear load interaction curves are more conserva-
tive, the plots which are produced for thick elbows can be
used to predict first yield behaviour with high accuracy.
6. It is proposed that the Torsion/Pressure and moment/-
pressure interactions be taken to be linear and
the Moment/Torsion interaction to be circular. For
869
the moment/pressure interaction, some elbows of specific
geometries can be significantly conservative.
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