M.

ENGG IN ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

II SEMESTER

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE ENGINEERING

MINI-
MINI-PROJECT REPORT

TOPIC: BJT ANALYSIS

SUBMITTED ON: 23rd April 2010

JOEL GEORGE MATHEW

STUDENT ID NO: W20038984

Lecturer-
Lecturer-in-
in-charge: Philip Walsh

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Task 3

1. Introduction to the design 4

1.1. Circuit Symbol 4

1.2. Circuit level Operation and IV characteristics 5
1.2.1. Transistor Configuration 5
1.2.2. Current Components 6
1.2.3. IV characteristics 8

2. Internal Solid state Operation 10

2.1. Practical structure of a BJT 10
2.2. Transistor Action 10

3. Gain (β) Variation 18

3.1. Variation due to transistor manufacturing mismatch 18
3.2. Variation due to changes in the external circuit 19
3.3. Variation due to temperature 20

4. Design of stabilisation circuit 20

4.1. Need for stabilisation circuit 20
4.2. Voltage divider bias 21
4.3. Stabilisation circuit Analysis 22

5. Conclusion 28

6. Reference 29

2
 TASK

Project Objective: The objective of the mini- project is to expose the student to:

i. The practical use of semiconductor device engineering theory developed in the associated module,
ii. Self-training in application of same.

Executive Summary:

You are required to use your understanding knowledge of basic analog circuits to design, simulate and / or build
a BJT CE amplifier circuit. Then, in the context of your knowledge of semiconductor device engineering
gained during the course, you are required to prepare a report that clearly explains:

Section 1.0: The basic symbol, circuit level operation and IV characteristics of the BJT

Section 2.0: The internal solid state operation of the BJT in the forward active mode.

Section 3.0: The physical mechanism behind the gain variation of a BJT.

Section 4.0: Summary of Learning Outcomes Achieved.

3
 1. INTRODUCTION TO BJT.

1.1. CIRCUIT SYMBOL

The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is an extremely common electronic device to all forms of electronic
circuits. It can be used for a number of useful applications such as an amplifier, a switch, a buffer, an oscillator,
a nonlinear circuit – so forth.

The BJT is a three terminal device [Fig: (1.1.1)] which consists of two PN-junctions connected back-to back.
Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a
BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge
concentrations.
Collector

Base

Emitter

Fig: (1.1.1):- The BJT

The three terminals are Base, Collector and Emitter. The emitter terminal always has an arrow. The collector is
always on the opposite side of the emitter and the base is the other remaining terminal on the left. Note that this
is the conventional schematic diagram of a BJT transistor. Furthermore, there are two types of BJT transistors.
They are the NPN type, and the PNP type. Fig: (1.1.2) illustrates this:

C C
C C
N P
B B P B B N
N P

E E E E

Fig: (1.1.2.a):- NPN Fig: (1.1.2.b):- PNP

Fig: (1.1.2):- The two types of BJT

A NPN transistor consists of a layer of p-type material between two layers of n-type. Its circuit symbol is as
shown in Fig: (1.1.2.a).
A PNP transistor is a sandwich of n-type material between two p-type materials and its circuit symbol is as
shown in Fig: (1.1.2.b).

4
The n-doped regions of the Fig (1.1.2.a):-NPN BJT) shown above are labelled the emitter (E) and the
collector(C), and the p-doped region between the emitter and the collector is called the base (B). The emitter
and collector regions differ in geometry and doping concentration. The emitter is highly doped and possesses a
much smaller surface are than the collector. The base region has a vey narrow dimension between the emitter
and the collector. All these conditions are critical for good transistor operation. Two pn-junctions exist within
each transistor; the collector-base junction (CBJ) and the emitter-base junction (EBJ).

1.2. CIRCUIT LEVEL OPERATION AND ITS I-V CHARATERISTICS

1.2.1. TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

Since transistor is three terminal devices, it can be configured in three different ways. The there types of
transistor configuration are common base (CB), common emitter (CE) and common collector (CC). Its input
and output terminals when these configuration are employed is shown in the Fig (1.2.1) below.

The common emitter is the most typical configuration.

Fig (1.2.1):- Transistor configuration types.

5
 1.2.2. CURRENT COMPONENTS

The current is an important parameter in the whole operation of a transistor and it is carefully controlled for the
better performance. Hence, transistors are current controlled devices. The current flow in an npn and pnp
transistor is as shown below.

Fig (1.2.2):- Current flow in npn and pnp BJTs

The arrows show the direction of DC current flow for both the NPN and PNP cases. In both cases the base
current (IB) is a very small current in the order of micro amps whilst the collector current (IC) and emitter
current (IE) are larger and in the order of milliamps. Note that for the NPN transistor, the base current flows into
the transistor but for the PNP transistor, the base current flows out the transistor. Also note IC and IE always
flow in the same direction and in the direction of the (black) arrow, the same arrow that tells us whether the
transistor is PNP or NPN.

The Fig (1.2.3) shows CB Configuration circuit and Fig (1.2.4) shows a CE Configuration circuit.

Here, in Fig (1.2.3), the emitter- base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reversed
biased. In Fig (1.2.4), the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector emitter junction is reversed
biased. In both the cases, the negative terminal of the battery provides electrons into the emitter region and
6
hence the emitter current direction (IE) which is opposite to the electron flow. The positive terminal of the
battery, VBB provides holes to their respective base region and it gives base current (IB) which is the direction of
the hole flow. And finally the electrons coming out of the collector region is attracted by the positive terminal of
the VCC and it makes the collector current (IC)

Relation of Currents

By applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL- the sum of all currents entering a node (a point) must equal the
sum of all currents leaving the node) in the Fig (1.3.1), we get,

IE = IC + IB --------------- Eqn: (1)

Since the base current is small, the collector current is approximately equal to the emitter current.

IC ≈ IE

and the base current is much smaller than the collector current.

Beta ( )

The DC beta (βDC) of the transistor is defined as the ratio of the dc collector current to the base current.



 

------------------ Eqn: (2)
Therefore,
IC = β.IB ------------------ Eqn: (3)

The “βDC “is also known as the current gain because a small base current produces a much lager collector
current. The value of β for transistors is normally between 50 and 500.

Substitute Eqn: (3) into Eqn: (1)

IE = β.IB + IB, which simplifies to:

β+1) IB
IE = (β ------------------- Eqn: (4)

β, and substituting it in Eqn: (4), we get,

Rearranging Eqn: (3) as IB = IC/β

β+1).IC/β
IE = (β β , and rearrange to obtain:

   


------------------- Eqn: (5)

)
Alpha (

We now define a new parameter αDC (common-base Dc current gain or current transfer ratio) where

   


-------------------- Eqn: (4)

7
Hence, IC = αDC IE ------------------- Eqn: (5))

Since the collector is almost equals the emitter current, the ““α
αDC” is slightly less than one.
1.2.3. I-V V CHARATERISTICS

The Fig (1.2.5), shows the circuit employed for determining the transistor CE characteristics.

The I-V characteristics of a CE BJT configuration are as shown below.

Input characteristics:

To determine the input characteristics, VCE is held constant, and IB levels are recorded fro several levels of VBE.
IB is then plotted Vs VBE and it is similar to that of a forward biased pn junction diode.

Since the constant of the exponential characteristics 1/VT is large, a sharp rise in the curve is observed. For
smaller value of VBE a small current is observed. The collector-emitter voltage VCE has little effect on IB.

Here, IB is only a small portion of the total current IE which flows across the forward biased BEJ. The input
characteristics also show that, for a given value of VBE, less IB flows when higher value of VCE is given. This is
because the higher levels of VCE provide greater CBJ reverse bias, resulting in greater depletion region
penetration into the base, and causing the distance between the C C-B and E-B
B depletion regions to be shortened.
s
Consequently more of the charge carriers from the emitter flow the C C-B
B junction and less flow via the base
terminal.

Fig (1.2.6
1.2.6):- The input I-V
V characteristics of CE configuration.

8
Output characteristics:

Here, IB is maintained constant at several convenient levels. At each fixed levels of IB, VCE is adjusted in steps,
and the corresponding values of IC are recorded.

The CE junction is reverse biased, we know that the current


 
  
  
   
 

depends on the current IB. When, IB = 0, IC = ICEO, the current caused by the minority carriers crossing the pn-
junctions. When IB is increased, IC is correspondingly increased by β fold.

Saturation region

Cut-off region

Fig (1.2.6):- The output I-V characteristics of CE configuration.

Since IE is not held constant, the shortening of the distance between the depletion regions (when VCE is
increased) draws more charge carriers from the emitter to the collector. Thus, IC increases to some extent with
the increase in VCE, and there is a slope in each of the CE characteristics.

When VCE ≥ 0: If the base current is zero the transistor is in non-conducting or cut-off. An increase in the base
current increases the IC. When VCE ≥ VBE the NPN transistor is in forward active region and the collector
current (IC) is independent of VCE and is equal to β IB. For VCE ≤ VBE, the transistor enters the saturation region
of operation.

When VCE ≤ 0: In this case if VBE ≤ VCE ≤0,thetransistorremainsinsaturation.

9
 2. INTERNAL SOLID STATE OPERATION OF A BJT

2.1. PRACTICAL STRUCTURE OF A BJT

The cross-sectional view of an analogue, bipolar, integrated circuit transistor is shown in the Fig (1.2.1) below.

Local Interconnect

Fig (2.1.1): Integrated circuit NPN transistor cross-section

The major steps for the fabrication of integrated circuit BJT and the function of its different regions are as
follows:

Start with a p substrate.

1. Implantation of the buried n+ layer

The relatively low doping concentration in a collector of a BJT introduces a large collector series resistance.
This can seriously degrade the electrical performance of the transistor giving rise to a serous reduction the
current carrying capability of the transistor. For this reason, buried n+ layer is corporated below the active
device region as show above. This provides a low resistance path to the collector contact, thereby short
circuiting the highly resistive epitaxial collector.

10
 2. Growth of the epitaxial layer

Epitaxial is a term applied to the growth of a single- crystal layer of semiconductor on a single-crystal substrate.
The epitaxial process offers an important role in controlling the doping profiles so that the device and circuit
performance can be optimised.

3. p+ isolation diffusion

The main function of the isolation wells is to surround the npn BJT around its periphery by a p+-diffusion to
isolate the transistor from other devices.

4. Sinker implantation

The basic BJT has a relatively large parasitic resistance in series with its active collector area. Most of
this resistance is due to the resistivity of the n-type epitaxial region. This parasitic resistance can be
significantly reduced extending the heavily doped (i.e. low resistivity n+-type collector contact region)
all the way down through the epitaxial layer into the n+ type buried layer. This can be accomplished by
means of deep n+-diffusion. The resulting deep diffusion is called an n+ sinker, plug or sidewall
diffusion.

5. Base p-type diffusion

The step provides the p-type base for the NPN BJT.

6. Emitter n+ diffusion
11
 This step implements the n+ emitter of the npn BJT and the ohmic contact to the collector.

7. Contact etching

This step opens up the areas in the dielectric area which metal will contact.

8. Metal deposition and etching

In this step, the metal is deposited over the entire wafer and removed where it is not wanted.

12
 2.2. TRANSISTOR ACTION

It should be noted that the emitter doping ND is much larger than the base doping NA to ensure that the device
has a high current gain, i.e., that a small base current change produces a large current change. The distribution
of the minority carriers in the base region is the critical factor in determining how well a transistor will perform
a specific function. The NPN transistor contains a number of free electrons, while the center P section contains
an excess number of holes. A depletion regions develop at both the junctions and the junction barrier appears as
shown in the Fig (2.2.0.a).

Emitter Base Collector

Fig (2.2.0.a).
WB

n≈ND n≈ND

p≈NA

Fig (2.2.0.b): Band profile of an unbiased NPN BJT

This electron movement make the

Emitter current (IE)

Fig (2.2.0.c): Band profile of a BJT biased in the forward active mode, where the EBJ is
forward biased and CBJ is reversed biased.

13
 1 3
Electrons IC

4
IE
N++ P+ N+
5
Recombination
IC
2
IE

IB Holes
VBE VCB

Fig (2.1.0).

N++ (E) P+ (B) N+(C)

n = ND =1×1018cm-3 p = NA =1×1016cm-3 n = ND =1×1014cm-3

p = ni2/ ND =1×102cm-3
2 4 -3
p = ni / NA =1×10 cm
p = ni2/ ND =1×102cm-3

Min. Carrier Diffusion

Min. Carrier Diffusion WB length (LB)=(Dp.tp)1/2
length (LE)=(DN.tN)1/2 EBJ Fwd. Biased CBJ Rev. Biased
Fig (2.2.1).
14
The important current components in the forward active mode of an NPN transistor are explained pictorially in
Fig (2.2.0).With the emitter-to-base junction (EBJ) in the figure biased in the forward direction; electrons leave
the negative terminal of the battery and enter the N material (emitter). Since electrons are majority current
carriers in the N material, they pass easily through the emitter, and are injected into the base region (1) across
the forward biased emitter-base junction (EBJ) as these electrons diffuse across the base, some recombine (4)
with the holes majority carriers. For each electron that recombines, another electron moves out through the base
lead as base current (IB) (creating a new hole for eventual combination) and returns to the base supply battery.
The electrons that recombine are lost as far as the collector is concerned. Therefore, to make the transistor more
efficient, the base region is made very thin and lightly doped i.e., the base region (WB) should be less than the
diffusion length (LB) of the minority carriers. This reduces the opportunity for an electron to recombine with a
hole and be lost. Thus, most of the electrons that move into the base region come under the influence of the
large collector reverse bias. This bias acts as forward bias for the minority carriers (electrons) in the base and, as
such, accelerates them through the base-collector junction and on into the collector region. Since the collector is
made of an N-type material, the electrons that reach the collector (3) again become majority current carriers.
Once in the collector, the electrons move easily through the N material and return to the positive terminal of the
collector supply battery VCC as collector current (IC).

Performance parameters of a Transistor.

• Base Transport factor (αT)

Since the injected minority carriers are due to the emitter current, we have,

IC = αT IEn, -------------------- Eqn: (6)

where, IEn is the electron part of the emitter current and the factor αT is called the base transport factor. It
highlights the amount of current flowing to the collector. From Solid State theory, αT can be expressed as,

"#  $ -------------------- Eqn: (7)
'
$%& (  )


This equation shows that heavier doped emitter and thinner base leads to higher αT. For optimum devices, αT
and should be close to unity.

• Emitter Injection Efficiency (*)

At the same time, (referring to Fig (2.1.0) the holes in the P+ base are injected into the N++ emitter (2) to form
a hole current. This hole flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow (1). So, in the absence of the electron–
hole recombination, the emitter current is made up of electrons injected from N++ to P+ side (IEn) and the holes
injected from the P+ to N++ side (IEp). Since the BCJ is reverse biased, the collector current is related only to
the electrons injected and the emitter injection efficiency is defined as,


+
* 

+ 
+
-------------------- Eqn: (8)
Using, Solid State theory, we can derive the equation shown below.
15
 0
+$-

. . .'
*   ,  % /
+$-  ..
.(

-------------------- Eqn: (9)

Where, DE = minority carrier diffusion coefficient in the BJT emitter.

DB = minority carrier diffusion coefficient in the BJT base.
NB = doping concentration in the BJT emitter.
NE = doping concentration in the BJT emitter.
LE = Minority carrier diffusion length in the BJT emitter.

Eqn: (9) states that for high “*”, WB must be very short and NE >> NE (Emitter doping >> Base doping)

• αDC)
CB Dc current gain (α

The ratio between the collector current and the emitter current is the current transfer ratio or the common base

Dc current gain, IC = αDC IE -------------------- Eqn: (9)

 "# .
+
"     "#. *


+ 
+
-------------------- Eqn: (10)

This ratio is close to unity in good bipolar devices.

• DC Current Gain (βDC)

Fig (2.2.2)

In the Fig (2.2.2) shown above, a change in the bias current alters the minority carrier density in the base and
causes a large change in the collector current. The ratio between the collector current and the controlling base
current is of great importance since this represents the current amplification. The base current (IB) is made up of
the hole current injected into the emitter (IEp) and hole current due to the recombination in the base with the
injected electrons from ht emitter. Thus,
16
   
1   2 "# . 
+ -------------- Eqn: (5)

The base to collector current amplification factor (CE DC current gain), denoted by βDC is then

 "#. 
+ "#. 
+ "#. 
+

    
 
1   2 "# . 
+  
1  
+ 2 "#
+ 
 3 "#. 
+

"#. 
+ 4
 "#. * "
  
2 "#. 
+ 4
 2 "#. * 2 "

"

 
0"
-------------------- Eqn: (9)

The factor “βDC” can be quite large for the BJTs.

With the help of Solid State theory, βDC can be derived as,

  

.  ' ' $
------------------- Eqn: (9)
 5 6
 .
(
$ ( 

q Beta is constant for a particular transistor

q On the order of 50 - 500 in modern devices

n For high current gain, want small WB, low NB, high NE

17
 3. GAIN ( ) VARIATION

The current gain of the transistor (β) depends on three factors: the transistor, the collector current and the
temperature. For instance, when we replace a transistor with one another of the same type, the current gain
usually changes. Similarly, if the collector current and temperature changes, the current gain will change. So, it
is clear that the current gain of the transistor changes due to the variations in both the manufacturing process
and the as a result of variations at the circuit level.

3.1. Variation of ( ) due transistor manufacturing mis-

mis-match.
match.

From the solid state theory, the performance factors of the transistors can be written as follow.
0
+$-

. . .'
• The emitter efficiency (γ) is given by,*   ,  $ % /
+-  ..
.(

Where, DE = minority carrier diffusion coefficient in the BJT emitter.

DB = minority carrier diffusion coefficient in the BJT base.
NB = doping concentration in the BJT emitter.
NE = doping concentration in the BJT emitter.
LE = Minority carrier diffusion length in the BJT emitter.

• The base transport factor (T) is given by, "#  $
'
 %&  )
$ ( 

Where, LB = Minority carrier diffusion length in the BJT base.

• The CB DC current gain (DC), is given by, "  $
 . ' '

   &  )
 .
(
$ (

The CE DC current gain (βDC) is shown as,
  

.  ' ' $
•
 5 6
 .
(
$ ( 

From the above equations, it is clear that the current gain of the transistor varies from transistor to transistor
as it depends strongly on the ratio of the doping concentration of the emitter and the base and the base width.

From the Fig (3.1.0), when the doping concentration of the majority carriers in the p-type base (holes) is high,
the chance of electron- recombination is high, thereby decreasing the collector current and consequently the
current gain (β). Also, if the base width is large (WB >> LB), then electron coming from the emitter takes a
longer path to reach the collector, whereby electron-hole recombination is maximum which decreases the
collector current (IC) and hence the current gain (β).

18
 NE

WE
NB
WB

Fig (3.1.0)

Therefore, the current gain of the transistor depends on the base width (WB), as well as the doping
concentration. In practise, it is the product of these two terms that controls the current gain, and this is often
referred to as the Gummel Number, GB of the transistor, which is given by the equation,

' .
7 

3.2. Variation
Variation of ( ) due changes in the external circuit.

Base width modulation

As the collector voltage (VBC for CB configuration or VCE for CE configuration) is increased, the width of
the base region (WB) of the BJT. An increase in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes a greater
reverse bias across the collector–emitter junction, increasing the collector–emitter depletion region width,
decreasing the width of the base. This effect is variously called base narrowing, base width modulation and the
Early effect.

This has two consequences:

• There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region.

• The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of minority carriers
injected across the emitter junction increases. This increases the current gain β. Both factors increase the
collector or "output" current of the transistor due to an increase in the collector–emitter voltage rather
than staying constant. The slope introduced by the Early effect is almost linear to IC, and the common-
emitter characteristics extrapolate to an intersection with the voltage axis at VA, called the Early voltage.

19
 Fig (3.1.1):-BJT output characteristics showing the effect of base width modulation

The VA gives an idea how much the gain is affected due to VCE variation and value of the early voltage can be
increased through variations in the transistor fabrication process and therefore, base width modulation can be
reduced

3.3. Variation of current gain due change on temperature.

The temperature dependence of bipolar transistors depends on a multitude of parameters affecting the bipolar
transistor characteristics in different ways. First we will discuss the temperature dependence of the current gain.
Since the current gain depends on both the emitter efficiency and base transport factor, we will discuss these
separately.

The emitter efficiency depends on the ratio of the carrier density, diffusion constant and width of the emitter
and base. As a result, it is not expected to be very temperature dependent. The carrier densities are linked to the
doping densities. Barring incomplete ionization, which can be very temperature dependent, the carrier densities
are independent of temperature as long as the intrinsic carrier density does not exceed the doping density in
either region. The width is very unlikely to be temperature dependent and therefore also the ratio of the emitter
and base width. The ratio of the mobility is expected to be somewhat temperature dependent due to the different
temperature dependence of the mobility in n-type and p-type material.

The base transport is more likely to be temperature dependent since it depends on the product of the diffusion
constant and carrier lifetime. The diffusion constant in turn equals the product of the thermal voltage and the
minority carrier mobility in the base. The recombination lifetime depends on the thermal velocity. The result is
therefore moderately dependent on temperature. Typically the base transport reduces with temperature,
primarily because the mobility and recombination lifetime are reduced with increasing temperature.
Occasionally the transport factor initially increases with temperature, but then reduces again.

20
 4. DESIGN OF STABILISATION CIRCUIT

4.1. Need for Stabilisation Circuit.

When BJT is to be used as an amplifier, the base emitter junction is forward biased and the collector base
junction is revere biased. But amplification cannot be accomplished by the transistor alone. As mentioned
earlier, the stability of the transistor is always a challenging issue because the current gain (β) of the BJT varies
with the variations in manufacturing, collector current changes (IC) and temperature. In order for a transistor
amplifier to be useful, the circuit must be stable and predictable. This can be achieved through proper biasing of
BJT. Therefore, a variation in “β” from device to device is having only little effect on the circuit performance as
long as the device is biased. So, an amplifier consists of properly biased transistor and set of external
components with values selected in the correct ratios.

Proper biasing of transistor is done by positioning it somewhere in the active region of the transistor
characteristics. That point is called the operating point or the quiescent point or the Q-point. This technique of
configuring a transistor at Q-point is called transistor biasing. There are different types of transistor biasing
schemes and the most widely used and effective stability proven biasing circuit is the voltage divider bias or self
bias or emitter-current bias.

4.2. Voltage-Divider Bias

For a single stage amplifier using voltage-divider bias circuit offers the best resilience against changes in
current gain (β) due to variations in manufacturing, collector current changes (IC) and temperature. The
disadvantage is that a couple of extra resistors are required, but this is outweighed by the advantage of excellent
stability. The circuit is as shown below:

Fig (3.1.2):- Voltage Divider Bias

Here R1 and R2 form a potential divider, which will fix the base potential of the transistor. The current through
this bias chain is usually set at 10 times greater than the base current required by the transistor. The base emitter
voltage drop of the transistor is approximated as 0.6 volt. There will also be a voltage drop across the emitter
resistor, Re, this is generally set to about 10% of the supply voltage. The inclusion of this resistor also helps to
stabilize the bias:

If IC is increased due to increased temperature or β variation, the following happens:

21
IC VE VBE IB IC = β.IB
This is a negative feedback loop which tends to stabilize the operating point due to variation in the current gain
(β), hence the name self bias.

4.3. Stabilisation Circuit (Voltage Divider Bias) Analysis.

The schematic used in PsSpice for analysing how the current gain variation of the transistor can be
minimised is as shown in the figure below.

Fig (3.1.3):- CE Amplifier

Circuit Analysis: The re model of the above circuit is as shown below.

Fig (3.1.4):- The re model.

22
 • Defining input impedance (Zb)

Applying KVL rule to the input side:

Vi = Ib.βre + Ie.RE --------------- Eqn (10)

Vi = Ib.βre + (1+β) Ib.RE --------------- Eqn (11)

:-
89    βre + (1+β) RE
9
--------------- Eqn (12)


Since RE is much greater than re, the above equation can be reduced to

:
89    -  (1+β) RE --------------- Eqn (13)
9

• Calculating the Voltage Gain (Av)

:
We have, Ib = 8 - --------------- Eqn (14)
9
:-
<=
89
also, VO = - IO.RC = -β Ib.RC = -; --------------- Eqn (15)

: 0
<=
therefore, > :  
:- 89
--------------- Eqn (16)

Substitute Eqn (14) in Eqn (16), we get

: 0
<=
>:  :-
  
< --------------- Eqn (17)

And for the approximation, Zb ≈ β.RE

: 0<=
>:  
:- <

--------------- Eqn (18)

23
Observation:

• Theoretical Voltage Gain Calculation: Using the, Eqn (17), calculated the value of Voltage
gain (AV) at different value of current gain (β) and is shown below.

: 0
<= 0?.@A
For, β = 1, > :    
<   2 . B
:-
$ A

: 0
<= 0CD?.@A
For, β = 50, >:  :-
  
<  C  A
 2?. C$

: 0
<= 0 DD?.@A
For, β = 100, >:  :-
  
<   D  A
 2?. C@

: 0
<= 0 CD?.@A
For, β = 150, >:  :-
  
<   C  A
 2?. CE

• Voltage Gain Calculation from the Simulation:

By changing the “β” values in the PsSpice model, calculated the voltage gain (AV) from the output waveform
and is as follows.

For, β = 1, the output waveform is as shown in the Fig (3.1.4),

Fig (3.1.4):- For β=1

24
Here, 10mV is the amplitude of the input signal and after amplification, the amplitude of the output signal is
0.018V.

: D.D B:
Then the voltage gain, >:  2 2  2 . B
:- DF:

For, β = 50, the output waveform is as shown in the Fig (3.1.5),

Fig (3.1.5):- For β=50

The amplitude of the input signal is 10mV and after amplification, the amplitude of the output signal is 0.03415.

: D.D?G C
Therefore, >:  2  2  2?. G
:- DF:

25
For, β = 100, the output waveform is as shown in the Fig (3.1.5),

Fig (3.1.6):- For β=100

The amplitude of the input signal is 10mV and after amplification, the amplitude of the output signal is 0.0345.

: D.D?GC
Therefore, >:  2  2  2?. GC
:- DF:

For, β = 150, the output waveform is as shown in the Fig (3.1.7),

Fig (3.1.7):- For β=150

The amplitude of the input signal is 10mV and after amplification, the amplitude of the output signal is 0.03435.

: D.D?G?C
Therefore, >:  2  2  2?. G?
:- DF:

26
Result:

• Compared the theoretical voltage gain value and the actual voltage gain value obtained from the
simulation results, found they are approximately equal.

• The Voltage gain (AV) values against different β values are as shown below.

β AV
1 -1.8
50 -3.52
100 -3.56
150 -3.57

It is clear from the analysis that, the gain of the amplifier (AV) is nearly independent of the
changes in the current gain parameter (β).
Thus, the stabilisation circuit (voltage divider bias) employed here found successful in controlling itself against
variation in the current gain (β) of the transistor. So, this circuit is immune to the variations caused by the
collector current, transistor mismatch. The reason behind the increased output stability is the introduction of RE
(the emitter resistor) (refer Fig 3.1.3), which provides a negative feedback in the circuit.

So, if IC is increased due to increased temperature or β variation, the following happens:

IC VE VBE IB IC = β.IB

27
 5. CONCLUSION:

Practically, the gain of the transistor varies from device to device. This is due to variation caused in doping
concentration (NB and NE) and in the width of the base (WB). It will affect the voltage gain of the.
In the circuit level, VCE has strong influence on the current gain parameter of the BJT and hence the voltage
gain. When VCE is increased, the C-E depletion region increases and reduces the base width. The early voltage
gives an idea how much the gain is affected due to VCE variation and value of the early voltage can be increased
through variations in the transistor fabrication process and therefore, base width modulation can be reduced.
The problem in gain variation of the transistor due to these factors can be mitigated by external circuit design.
The introduction of emitter resistance (RE) reduces the effects greatly, which makes the circuit less dependent
on the gain of the transistor (β) and makes the circuit more stable.

This mini-project helped me to review the very basic electronic device, the transistor (BJT). It helped me to
recollect the different types of transistor configuration circuits, their IV characteristics, advantages of using CE
configuration and the internal solid state operation of the transistor.

Moreover, this mini-project helped me to lay good foundation in learning about the fabrication process of a
modern BJT. It was amazing to me how the variation during the fabrication process affected the performance of
the circuit. Learned the importance of the stabilisation circuit and how it fought against the variation in the
transistor current gain (β) due to its fabrication dissimilarity, changes in the collector current (IC) and
temperature.

28
6. REFERENCE USED.

1. Semiconductor Device Physics and Design

By, Umesh K.Mishra and Jasprit Singh

2. Electronic Circuit Analysis- Basic Principles

By, Donald A.Neamen
Roy A. Colclaser
Charles F. Hawkins

3. Semiconductor Devices-Physics and Technology

By, S.M.Sze

4. Electronics Devices and Circuits

By, David Bell

5. VLSI Design
By, Sujata and Manoj Pandey

6. Electronics Principles
By, Albert Paul Malvino

7. Design and Realization of Bipolar Transistors

By, Peter Ashburn

8. Bipolar and Analog Integrated Circuit Design

By, Alan B. Grebene

29