12.

4 Heat Engine and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

4.1 Describe the work done in heat engine.

4.2 Determine the efficiency of a heat engine.

Weng = Qh - Qc
Weng Qh - Qc Qc
eº = = 1-
Qh Qh Qh

5.1.1 State the second law of thermodynamics

5.1.2 Use the second law of thermodynamics to solve related problems that involve
heat engines
5.2.1 Explain the thermal processes of the Carnot engines
5.2.2 Solve problems related to the Carnot engine such as its efficiency and thermal
processes

Qc Tc
e = 1- = 1-
Qh Th

6.1.1 Define entropy.

6.1.2 Determine the change in entropy in a system.
Q
DS =
T
A heat engine takes in energy by heat and partially converts it to other forms,
such as electrical and mechanical energy.

The steam turbine is an example in which:

1. coal or some other fuel is burned to convert water to steam.

2. The steam is then directed at the blades of a turbine, setting it rotating.
3. the mechanical energy associated with this rotation is used to drive an
electric generator.
4. After the steam is condensed with cooling water, it returns to the boiler, and
the process is repeated.

In general, a heat engine carries some working substance

through a cyclic process during which:

(1) energy is transferred by heat from a source at a high

temperature as (Qh)

(2) work is done by the engine (Weng)

(3) energy is expelled by the engine by heat to a source at

lower temperature (Qc)

As an example, consider the operation of a steam engine in

which the working substance is water. The water in the
engine is carried through a cycle in which it first
evaporates into steam in a boiler and then expands against a piston. After the
steam is condensed with cooling water, it returns to the boiler, and the process is
repeated.

(Note that negative work is done on the engine, so that W = -Weng.)

Because the working substance goes through a cycle, always returning to its initial
thermodynamic state, its initial and final internal energies are equal, so ΔU = 0.
From the first law of thermodynamics, therefore,

ΔU= 0 = Q + W Qnet = -W = Weng

The work Weng done by a heat engine equals the net energy absorbed by the engine.

Weng = |Q h| - |Q c|
Ordinarily, a transfer of thermal energy Q can be either positive or negative, so the
use of absolute value signs makes the signs of Q h and Q c explicit.

The thermal efficiency e of a heat engine is defined as the work done by the
engine, Weng, divided by the energy absorbed during one cycle:

Weng Qh - Qc Qc
eº = = 1-
Qh Qh Qh

We can think of thermal efficiency as the ratio of the benefit received (work) to
the cost incurred (energy transfer at the higher temperature). A heat engine has
100% efficiency (e = 1) only if Qc = 0, meaning no energy is expelled to the cold
reservoir. In other words, a heat engine with perfect efficiency would have to use
all the input energy for doing mechanical work. That isn’t possible.

Example 1:

During one cycle, an engine extracts 2×103J of energy from a hot reservoir and
transfers 1.5×103J to a cold reservoir.

(a) Find the thermal efficiency of the engine.

(b) How much work does this engine do in one cycle?

(c) What average power does the engine generate if it goes through four cycles in
2.50 s?

Example 2:

Can the efficiency of an engine always be improved by increasing the thermal

energy put into the system during a cycle? Explain.

Example 3:

The energy absorbed by an engine is three times as great as the work it performs.
(a) What is its thermal efficiency?

(b) What fraction of the energy absorbed is expelled to the cold reservoir?

(c) What is the average power output of the engine if the energy input is 1650 J
each cycle and it goes through two cycles every 3 seconds?
Example 4:

A heat engine contains an ideal monatomic gas confined to a cylinder by a

movable piston. The gas starts at A.

(a) Name each process.

(b) Find ΔU, Q, and Weng for each process given
that:
(i) A  B, if the internal energy increased by
1520 J during this process.

(ii) B  C if 1670 J absorbed by the gas to

expand.

(iii) C  A (use the graph), if the internal energy decreased by1520 J.

(c) Find the net change in internal energy, ΔUnet, for the cycle.
(d) Find the net thermal energy (Qnet) transferred into the system.
(e) Find the net work
 (Weng) on the environment performed by the engine.
(f) Find the thermal efficiency e.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

States that: no heat engine operating in a cycle can absorb energy from a reservoir
and use it entirely for the performance of an equal amount of work.

This form of the second law means that the efficiency e = Weng/|Q h| of engines
must always be less than 1. Some energy |Qc| must always be lost to the
environment. In other words, it’s theoretically impossible to construct a heat
engine with an efficiency of 100%.
The Carnot Engine
The French engineer Sadi Carnot described a theoretical engine now called a
Carnot engine that is of great importance from both a practical and a theoretical
viewpoint. He showed that a heat engine operating in an ideal, reversible cycle—
now called a Carnot cycle—between two energy reservoirs is the most efficient
engine possible. Carnot’s theorem can be stated as follows:

No real engine operating between two energy reservoirs can be more efficient than
a Carnot engine operating between the same two reservoirs.

In a Carnot cycle, an ideal gas is contained in a cylinder with a movable piston at

one end. The temperature of the gas varies between Tc and Th. The cylinder walls
and the piston are thermally nonconducting. The cycle consists of two adiabatic
and two isothermal processes, all reversible:

1. The process A  B is an isothermal expansion at

temperature Th in which the gas is placed in thermal
contact with a hot reservoir (a large oven, for example)
at temperature Th. During the process, the gas absorbs
energy Qh from the reservoir and does work WAB in
raising the piston.

2. In the process B  C, the base of the cylinder is replaced

by a thermally nonconducting wall and the gas
expands adiabatically, so no energy enters or leaves the system by heat.
During the process, the temperature falls from Th to Tc and the gas does
work WBC in raising the piston.

3. In the process C  D, the gas is placed in thermal contact with a cold

reservoir at temperature Tc and is compressed isothermally at
temperature Tc. During this time, the gas expels energy Qc to the reservoir
and the work done on the gas is WCD.

4. In the final process, D  A, the base of the cylinder is again replaced by a

thermally nonconducting wall, and the gas is compressed adiabatically.
The temperature of the gas increases to Th, and the work done on the gas is
WDA.
For a Carnot engine, the following relationship between the thermal energy
transfers and the absolute temperatures can be derived:

Qc Tc
=
Qh Th

And the efficiency is:

Tc
eC = 1-
Th

where T must be in kelvins.

Important Notes:

 The efficiency is zero if Tc = Th. The efficiency increases as Tc is lowered

and as Th is increased.
 The efficiency can be one (100%), however, only if Tc = 0 K.
Example 5:

Three engines operate between reservoirs separated in temperature by 300 K. The

reservoir temperatures are as follows:

Engine A: Th = 1 000 K, Tc = 700 K

Engine B: Th = 800 K, Tc = 500 K

Engine C: Th = 600 K, Tc = 300 K

Rank the engines in order of their theoretically possible efficiency, from highest to
lowest. (a) A, B, C (b) B, C, A (c) C, B, A (d) C, A, B

12.5 Entropy
Let Qr be the energy absorbed or expelled during a reversible, constant
temperature process between two equilibrium states. Then the change in entropy
during any constant temperature process connecting the two equilibrium states is
defined as
𝑄𝑟
∆𝑆 =
𝑇

SI unit: joules/kelvin (J/K)

Example 6:

a) Find the change in entropy of lead block if it requires 73,500 J to be melted at

327°C.

(b) Suppose the same amount of energy is used to melt a piece of silver, which is
already at its melting point of 961°C. Find the change in the entropy of the silver