TRANSMISSION LINE,» MANUAL we Publication No. 268 Central Board of Irrigation and Power Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi - 110 021 CBI&P Panel of Experts on Transmission Lines Editor Chairman 1. Varma DM Ah f61 INTRODUCTION Tower loading is most important part of tower design. ‘Any mistake or error in the load assessment will make the tower design erroneous. Various types of loads are to be calculated accurately depending on the design parameters. Inthe load calculation the wind plays a vital role. The correct assessment of wind will lead to proper load assessment and reliable design of tower structure. 62 REQUIREMENTS OF LOADS ON TRANS- MISSION LINES Overhead transmission lines are subjected to various loads during ther life span which are classified into three distinct categories: (a) Climatic loads related to reliability requirements (©) Failure containment loads related to security, requirements. (©) Construction and maintenance loads related to safety requirements, 62.1 Reliability Requirements—Climatic Loads under Normal Condition 62.1.1 Wind Loads (Non-Snowy Regions). 6.2.1.2 Wind Loads with Ice (Snowy Regions) 6.2.1.3. Wind loads ithout Tee (Snowy Regions). ‘Transmission lines in snowy regions will be dealt with in a separate document. 62.2 Security Requirements - Failure Containment Loads under Broken Wire Condition 6.2.2.1 Unbalanced Longitudinal Loads and Torsional Loads due to Broken Wires All towers should have inherent strength for resisting the Longitudinal and Torsional Loads resulting from breakage of specified number of conductors and/or earthwire. 6.2.2.2 Anti-Cascading Loads Failure of items such as insulators, hardware joints etc. as well as failure of major components such as towers, foundations and conductors may result in cascading condition, In order to prevent the cascading failures angle CHAPTER VI LOADINGS towers shall be checked for anti-cascading loads for all conductors and earthwires broken in the same span. 623. Safety Requirements - Loads during Construction and Maintenance ‘As an important and essential requirement, Construction and Maintenance Practices should be regulated to eliminate ‘unnecessary and temporary loads which would otherwise demand expensive permanent strengthening of Towers. 623.1 Loads during Construction ‘These are the loads imposed on tower during the construction of transmission line. 6.23.2 Loads during Maintenance ‘These are the loads imposed on tower during the maintenance of transmission line. 6.3 NATURE OF LOADS 63.1 Transverse Loads (T) 63.1.1 Wind load on tower structure, conductor, ground-wire and insulator strings. 63.1.2 Component of mechanical tension of conductor and sground-wire. 6.3.2. Vertical Loads (V) 6.3.2.1 Loads due to weight of each conductor, ground-wire * based on appropriate weight span,weight of insulator strings and fittings. 63.22 Self-weight of structure 6323 Loads during construction and maintenance, 633 Longitudinal Loads (L) Unbalanced Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to mechanical tension of conductor and/or groundwire uring broken wire condition. 64 LOADING CRITERIA Loads imposed on tower due to action of wind are calculated under the following climatic criteria: Every day temperaure and design wind pressure, Citerion II Minimum temperature with 36% of design wind pressure. Criterion I65 TRANSVERSE LOADS (TR) - RELIABILITY CONDITION (NORMAL CONDITION) 6.5.1 Wind Load on Conductor/Ground-Wire ‘The load due to wind on each conductor and ground- wire normal to the line applied at supporting point shall be determined by ihe following expression: Fwe = Pd x Lx d x Ge x Cde where Fwe = Wind load in Newtons Pd = Design wind pressure in Nin (see $3.1. 8 of chapter -5), L_= Wind span in metres d=" Diameter of conductor/groundwire in metres, Loadings Cde = Drag Coefficient which is 1.0 for conduc- tor and 1.2 for ground-wire Ge = Gust response factor which takes into ac- ‘count the turbulance of the wind and the dynamic response of the conductor. Values of Ge for three terrain categories and different height of the conductor/groundwire above Ground Level are given in Table-1. The average height will be taken upto the clamping point of top conductor/groundwire on tower less ‘wo-third the sag at minimum temperature and no windy 6.5.2. Wind Load on Insulator String 6.5.2.1 Wind load on insulator strings shall be determined from the attachment point to the centre-line of the conductor in case of suspension tower and upto the end of clamp in case of tension tower, in the direction of wind as follows:- ‘TABLE - 1 Values of Gust Response Factor Ge for Conductor/Groumdwite Terrain Height Category above Values of Ge for conductor of span in metres upto round 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 (metres) & above 1 Upto 10 1.70 1.65 160 156 1.53 150 147 20 1.90 187 1.33; 179 115 1.70 1.66 40 240 2.04 2.00 L95 1.90 1.85 1.80 60 2.24 218 212 207 2.02 196 1.90 80 235 225 218 213 210 2.06 2.03 2. Upto 10 1.83 178 123 169 165 1.60 155 20 242 2.04 195 188, 1.84 1.80 1.80 40 234 227 220 213 2.08 2.05 2.02 60 255 2.46 237 228 223 220 247 80 2.69 2.56 2.48 241 236 232 2.28 3. Upto 10 2,05 1.98 1.93 188 1.83 L7 173 20 244 235 225 215 210 2.06 2.03 40 216 267 258 2.49 2.42 238 234 60 297 287 27 2.67 2.60 2.56 2.52 80 319 3.04 293 2.85 278 2.73 2.69 Notes 3) - Rar intarmadintn towFwi = Pd x Aix Gi x Cdi where Wind load in Newtons Design wind pressure in Nisq, m. Ai = 50% area of insulator string in sq.m, projected on a plane which is parallel to the lopgitudinal axis of the string. Gi = Gust response factor depending upon terrain category and height of insulator attachment above ground. Values of Gi for the three Terrain Categories are given in Table-2. Drag coefficient of insulator is taken as 1.2 ‘TABLE -2 Gust Response Factor for Tower (GT) and for Insulators (GI) Ht above Values of GT and Gi for terrain categories, ground ieee (metre) Upto 2 3 10 1.70 192 20 185 220 301.96 2.30 40 207 240 50 213 248 60220 255 mM 2.26 2.62 80 231 2.69 255 282 298 312 324 3.34 3.46 358 Note: (i) In case of multi-string including V-string no Masking Effect shali be considered. Gi) The total effect of wind on multiple string set shall be taken equal to sum of the wind load on the individual insulator strings. ii) Intermediate interpolated. values may be linearly 65.3 Wind Load on Towers 653.1 In order to determine the wind load on tower, the tower is divided into different panels. ‘These panels should normally be taken between connecting points of the legs and bracings. For square/rectangular lattice tower, the wind load for wind normal to the longitudinal face of tower, on, panel height of ‘h’ applied at the centre of gravity of the panel is:- Fut = Pd x Cét x Ae x GT where Wind Load in Newtons Design Wind Pressure in N/m? Drag Co-efficient pertaining to wind blowing against any face of the tower. Value of Cat forthe different solidity ratios are given in Table - 3. Total net surface area of the legs and bracings including x- arm members and redundants of the panel projected normally on windward face in sq.m. (The projections of the bracing elements of the adjacent faces and of the ‘plan’ and ‘hip* brac- ing members may be neglected while determining the projected surface of a windward face). In single ckt horizontal configuration towers, a part ‘of tower frame above waist level which is not shielded by the windward face shall be taken separately for wind calculation of tower. Gust Responses factor depending upon terrain category and height of CG panel above ground level. Values of GT for the three terrain categories are given in Table- 2. TABLE Drag Coefficient Cat for Towers Solidity Rati Drag Coefficient Cd Upto 0.05, 36 on 34 02 29 03 25 04 22 0.5 and above 20 Note: (i) Solidity ratio is equal to the effective area (Projected area of all the individual elements) of a frame normal to the wind direction divided by the area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction. (ii) Drag Coefficient takes into account the effect of wind load both or. wind ward and leeward faces of the tower, For intermediate value of solidity ratio, drag coefficient will be interpolated. iii)654 Transverse Load from Mechanical Tension of Conductor and Groundwire due to Wind (Deviation Load) 65.4.1 This load acts on the tower as component of Mechanical Tension of Conductor/Groundwire. Fwd = 2x Tx sin @/2 Fwd = Load in Newtons T = Maximum tension of conductor and Groundwire at every day temperature and 100% of Full Wind Pres- sure or at minimum temperature and 36% of Full Wind Pressure whichever is more stringent. = Angle of deviation. 655 Total Transverse Load (TR) under Reliability Condition (TR) Fwe + Fwi + Fwt + Fwd i | (5.1) (6.52) (6.5.3) (6.5.4) ‘Where “Fwe” and “Fwi” and “Fwd” are to be applied on all conductor/Groundwire points. But “Fwt” wind on tower is to be applied on the tower at groundwire peak and cross arm levels. For 400 kV and above, “Fut” will also be applied at any convenient level between Bottom Cross ‘Arm and ground-level. In case of Normal tower with of any voltage rating one more level atthe top of extension panel shall be considered. 6.6 TRANSVERSE LOADS (TS) — SECURITY CONDITION 6.6.1 Suspension Towers 6.6.1.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwires and insulators shall be taken as nil. 6.6.1.2. Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on component of mechanical tension of conductors and ‘groundwires corresponding to everyday temperature and nil wind condition. For brokenwire the component shall be corresponding to 50% of mechanical tension of conductor and 100% of mechanical tension of groundwire at everyday temperature and nil wind, 66.2 Tension and Dead End Towers 66.2.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwires and insulators shall be computed as per clauseG5.1. 60% wind span shall be considered for broken wire and 100% for intact wire Loadings 6.7 TRANSVERSE LOAD (TM) DURING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE— SAFETY CONDITION. 6.7.1 Normal Condition—Suspension, Tension and Dead End Towers 6.7.1.1 ‘Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwires and insulators shall be taken as nil, 6.7.1.2 Transverse loads due to mechanical tension of conductor or groundwire at everyday temperature and nil wind on account of line deviation shall be considered as follows:- TM = 2xTIxsin g2 TM = Load in Newtons TI = Tension in Newton of conductor/ground- /ire at everyday temperature and nil wind « 9 ‘Angle of deviation of the ine 6.1.2, Brokenwire Condition - Suspension, Tension and Dead End Towers 6.7.2.1 Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors, groundwire insulators shall be taken as nil. 6.7.2.2 Transverse load due to mechanical tension of conductor or groundwire at everyday temperature and nil wind-on account of line deviation shall be considered as follows:~ TM=TI xsin 6/2 where TM = Load in Newtons TI = 50% of tension in Newtons of conductor and 100% of tension of groundwire at everyday temperature and nil wind for suspension tower and 100% for angle and dead end towers for both con- ductor and groundwire. 4 = Angle of geviation of the tower. 68 VERTICAL LOADS (VR) — RELIABILITY CONDITION 6.8.1 Loads due to weight of each conductor and groundwire ‘based on appropriate weight span, weight of Insulator strings and accessories. 682 Self weight of structure upto point under wi W 6A ‘ 15Loadings calculated corresponding to minimum design weight span plus weight of insulator strings & accessories only shall be taken. 69 VERTICAL LOADS (VS) — SECURITY CONDITION 69.1 Loads due to weight of each conductor or groundwire based on appropriate weight span, weight of insulator strings and accessories taking broken wire condition where the load due to weight of broken conductor/groundwire shall be considered as 60% of weight span. (For intact wire the vertical load shall be considered as given in clause No. 6.8) 692 Self weight of structure upto point under- consideration of tower pane. 6.10 VERTICAL LOADS DURING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE (VM) — SAFETY CONDITION 6.10.1 Same as Clause 6.9.1 multiplied by overload factor of 2.0 6.10.2 Same as Clause 6.9.2 6.10.3 Load of 1SOON shall be considered acting at each cross-arm tip as a provision of weight uf line anau with (wus, .10.4 Load of 3500N at cross arm tip to be considered for cross-arm design upto 220 kV and 5000 N for 400 kV and higher voltages. 6.10.5 ‘The cross arms of tension towers shall also be designed for the following construction loads: Lifting point distance Tension Tower Vertical with Load,N min. from the tip of ‘cross-arm (mm) EEE eee ee ‘Twin bundle 10,000 600 Conductor Multi- bundle conductor 20,000 1,000 6.10.6 All bracings and redundant members of the, tower which are horizontal or inclined upto 15 deg. from horizontal shall be designed to withstand an ultimate vertical load of 1SOON considered as acting at centre, independent of all other loads. 6.11 LONGITUDINAL LOADS (LR) — RELIABILITY CONDITION 6.11.1 Suspension and Tension Towers . oh i 6.11.1.1" Longitudinal loads for Suspension and. Tension towers hall he taken as nil, Longitudinal loads which might be caused on tension towers by adjacent spans of unequal lengths shall be neglected. 6.11.2 Dead End Towers 6.11.21 Longitudinal loads for Dead End Towers shall be considered corresponding to mechanical tension of conductors and groundwires for loading criteria defined in Clause 6.4. 6.12 LONGITUDINAL LOADS (LS) - SECURITY CONDITION 6.12.1 Suspension Towers ‘The longitudinal load corresponding to 50 per cent of. the mechanical tension of conductor and 100% of mechanical tension of groundwire shall be considered under everyday temperature and No wind pressure for broken wire only 6.12.2 Tension Towers 6.12.2.1 Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to mechanical tension of conductors and groundwire shall be taken for loading criteria specified in Clause 6.4 for broken wire(s). For intact wires these loads shall be considered as nil 6.12.3 Dead End Towers Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to mechanical tension of conductors and groundwire shall be taken for loading criteria specified in Clause 6.4 for intact wires, however for broken wires these shall be taken as nil, 613 LONGITUDINAL LOADS DURING CONS: TRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE (LM) — SAFETY CONDITION 6.13.1 Normal Condition — Suspension and Tension Towers § ‘These loads shall be taken as nil. 6.13.2 Normal Condition - Dead End Towers 6.13.2.1 These loads for Dead End Towers shall be considered as corresponding to mechanical tension of conductor/groundwire at every day temperature and nil wind. Longitudinal loads due to unequal spans may be neglected. 613.3 Broken Wire Condition 6.13.3.1 Longitudinal loads during construction simulating brokenwire condition will be based on Stringing of One Earthwire or One Complete Phase of sub-conductors at one time.6.13.3.2. Broken Wire Condition for Suspension Tower Longitudinal loads during Stringing on Suspension Tower should be nominally imposed only by the passing restriction imposed during pushing of the running block through the Sheave. It will apply only on one complete phase of Sub-conductors or One Earthwire, It will be taken as 10,000 N on one Sub-conductor or 5,000 N on one Earthwire. 6.13.33 Broken Wire Condition for Tension and Dead End Towers ‘Angle Towers used as dead end during stringing simulating broken wire condition shall be capable of resisting longitudinal loads resulting from load equal to twice the sagging tension (sagging tension is 50 per cent of the tension at every day temperature and no wind) for one earthwire or one complete phase of sub- conductors which is in the process of Stringing. At other earthwire ‘or conductor attachiient points for which stringing has been completed, loads equal to 1.5 times the sagging tension will be considered. However, the structure witl be strengthened by installing temporary guys to neutralise the unbalanced longitudinal tension. These guys shall be anchored as far away as possible to minimise vertical load, | 614 LOADING COMBINATIONS — UNDER RELIABILITY, SECURITY AND SAFETY CONDITIONS 6.14.1 Reliability Condition (Normal Condition) 6.14.1.1 Transverse Loads as per Clause 6.5 } 6.14.1.2 Vertical Loads as per Clause 6.8 6.14.13 Longitudinal Loads as per Clause 6.11. 4 6.142 Security Condition (Broken Wire Con | 6.14.21 Transverse Loads as per Clause 6.6 | 6.14.22 Vertical Loads as per Clause 69 6.14.23 Longitudinal Loads as per Clause 6.12. | 6.143 Safety Condition (Construction and Maintenance) 6143.1 Normal Conditions 1. Transverse Loads as per Clause 6.7.1 Vertical Loads as per Clause 6.10. 3, Longitudinal Loads as per Clause 6.13.1 and 6.13.2 ‘16.14.32 Brokenwire Condition Loadings 2. Vertical Load as per Clause 6.10 3, Longitudinal Load as per Clause 6.13.3 and 6.13.4 6.15 ANTI-CASCADING CHECKS All angle towers shall be checked for the following anti-cascading conditions with all conductors aid GW intact only on one side of the tower. 6.15.1 Transverse Loads ‘These load shall be taken under no wind condition. 6.18.2 Vertical Loads ‘These loads shall be the weight of conductor/ groundwire intact only on one side of tower, weight of insulator strings and accessories. 6.15.3 Longitudinal Loads 6.15.1 These loads shall be the pull of conductor! ‘groundwire at everyday temperature and no wind applied simultaneously at all points on one side with zero degree Tine deviation, 6.16 BROKENWIRE CONDITION 6.16.1 Single Circuit Tower ‘Any one phase or groundwire broken, whichever is more stringent for a particular member. 6.16.2 Double, Triple and Quadruple Circuit Towers 6.16.21 Suspension Towers ‘Any one phase or groundwire broken whichever is more stringent for a particular member. 6.16.22 Small and Medium Angle Towers ‘Any two phases broken on the samne side and same span cr any one phase and one groundwire broken on the same side and same span whichever combination is more stringent for a particular member. 6.16.3 Large Angle/Dead End Towers ‘Any three phases broken on the same side and same span or any two phases and one groundwire broken on the same side and same span whichever combination is more stringent for a particular member. 617 BROKEN LIMB CONDITION FOR ‘V’ INSULATOR STRING 6.17.1. For ‘V’ Insulator strings, in normal condition one limb broken case shall be considered. In such a case the transverse and vertical loads shall be transferred to outer limb