TITLE; SATURN RAIN .

AUTHOR; ARINY AMOS

DATE; MAY /2018

AUTHOR ; ARINY AMOS
TOPIC; SATURN RAIN.
 FOREWORD.

Ariny Amos

I Ariny Amos was captured by the spirit of the Galileo Galilei , Albert Einstein, Apollo , EVAS program
when I was 3 years old. I had been following the space program through out Neptune and Gemini
flihts, building model kits and watch ing the launches from my mom’s house in Soroti , Uganda . we
had above groud pool in the backyard, and I would put abrick in the back of the my swim trunks to
hold me down on the bottom , suckin air through a garden hose, and lay there with my arms and lega
adrift , pretending I was walking in space. I was off course eagerly anticipating the Apollo missions to
the moon, because that would give me more models to build but it wasn’t until the February
2006, notable events occurring in 2006 in spaceflight, including major

launches and EVAs. 2006 saw Brazil, Iran, and Sweden all get a national
into space for the first time, Ariny Amos was assigned to operate on
facebook website,as an astronaut commander who guides in any accident
accident preventer, when I hope to convey with from the earth to the moon
is what Ariny Amos captured in connection with National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, that going to the moon was no just a technological
endeavor, but and artistic,Chemist, scientific historian one ,like Albert
Einstein on the Sistine chapel ceiling . The same kind of imagination that
allowed Albert Einstein to produce the crowning achievement of his era
helped NASA’s engineers build their moonships, just as Albert Einstein
needed faith in his own abilities to sustain him during ht long year of his
effort, so faith was at htel heart of what it took to put men and their shoes
and socks, and pictures on their children , on the surface of the moon.

Above all EVAS launches 2006 was a voyage of inspiration . the thing that
still fuels me in my day- to- day life, as explorer, and what I want to convey
to my children , and to the audience , is that if mankind can figure out a
way to put twelve men on the moon , then honestly , we can solve anything.
That why I believe the 2006 missions are of greatest stories after.

PREFACE

The eighties so called 1980’s were atime of cultural earth quakes ;the horror of the Bill Gates, Carlos
Slim,Sadam Hesein, Angella Merkel, Bill Clinton, Osama Bin Laden , Barack Obama and king
assassination, The arrival of five mop- topped singers from Washington D.C -USA, The din of protests ,
and – most of all – the violent of the the war in Uganda And something else extraordinary happened
ont the night of February 2006 the space flight major launches 2006 EVA .2006.saw brazil,Sweden and
Iran get a national into space for the first time. Walk on the moon. In what seemed like amiralce of
technology, I witnessed it live computer monitor live on internet.i was at Makerkere University
Kampala, in my first years studies Bachelor of science in Agricultural land use and management.
Across the world that Billions of pEople who had worked to make it happen celebrated their triumph,
TV commentators and editorial writers proclaimed that twenty five years from now our century
would be remembered for those footsteps. When human bings left their planet to explore the
universe.

Ariny Amos.

May 2018
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Author , Ariny Amos thanks God of his Natural parents Father ;

Thomas Edison Alston (January 31, 1926 was a Major League
Baseball first baseman who played for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1954 to
1957, the first African-American to do so. A native of Greensboro, North
Carolina, he stood 6'5" (200 cm) and weighed 210 pounds (95 kg).

Alston was acquired by St. Louis via a trade with the San Diego Padres of
the Pacific Coast League, where he played in 180 games in 1953, on
January 26, 1954, after team president Gussie Busch told manager Eddie
Stanky to find a black player. Not only did Busch think excluding blacks
from baseball was morally wrong, his company Anheuser–Busch, which
had bought the team a year earlier to keep them from moving to Milwaukee,
sold more beer to African-Americans than any other brewery, leading him
to fear the effect of a boycott.

Mother Kimberly Elise Trammel (born April 17, 1967) was professionally
known as Kimberly Elise, is an American film and television actress. She
made her feature film debut in Set It Off (1996), and later received critical
acclaim for her performance in Beloved (1998).

During her career, Elise has appeared in films such as John Q. (2002), The
Manchurian Candidate (2004), Diary of a Mad Black Woman (2005), The
Great Debaters (2007), For Colored Girls (2010), Dope (2015), Almost
Christmas (2016) and Death Wish (2018). She received a nomination
for Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead for her performance in
the 2004 drama film, Woman Thou Art Loosed, and played the leading roles
in a number of made for television movies. Elise also starred in
the CBS crime drama series, Close to Home (2005–07), and in 2013 began
starring in the VH1 comedy-drama series, Hit the Floor. She is four-
time NAACP Image Awards winner.And Ariny Amos thanks
Gravitational wave.
 ABSTRACT.

This book is of afictional character experiment often employs the

laws of physics to produce Saturn rain , Saturn rain is introduced as
the rain of will,Saturn Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that
have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then becomes heavy
enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water
cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the
Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as
well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation.Attained by
linking astronomy and physics which can be repeated.

The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-

dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known
as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present,
precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward
vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can
organize into narrow rainbands, super position principle and Orgone as

scientific and spiritual concept described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical

universal life force, originally proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich, Albert
Einstein, As developed by Reich's in connection with Authorised National
Aeronautics and Space Administration,Astronauts of now applied is of Albert
einstien era, combination of descriptions of rain, the planet Saturn where
condensation and dissolution takes place,

The book is written with an introduction, mechanism of precipitation, literature

review, history of Astronomy, mythology of zeus God, history of physicists,
chemists, biologists,palaeontologists , scope of the study ,linking Astronomy and
physics, Saturn planet description,magnestosphere description, history of
observation of Saturn planet and magnestosphere, experiment , description of
the experiment, rain and drought, apparatus for the Saturn rain, raw materials
description, Geogaphical information system, results of the experiment,
conclusions, recommendation,recommendations on applications and finally
references.
CONTENTS

FOREWORD…….

PREFACE……..

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS…….

ABSTRACT……..

INTRODUCTION………

MECHANISM OF PRECIPITATION……..

LITERATUR REVIEW……..

HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY…….

HISTORY OF VARIOUS PHYSICISTS , CHEMISTS,

BIOLOGISTS, MYTHOLOGISTS,MATHEMATICIANS…..

SCOPE OF THE STUDY, LINKING PHYSICS AND

ASTRONOMY………..

SATURN PLANET……….

MAGNETOSPHERE…….
HISTORY AND OBSERVATIONS OF SATURN AND
MAGNETOSPHERE…..

EXPERIMENT ON SATURN RAIN…….

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT ON SATURN RAIN

AND DROUGHT………

APPARATUS …………

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM………

RESULTS OF THE EXPRIMENT………………..

CONCLUSIONS FROM THE EXPRIMENT…………

RECOMMENDATIONS…………….

RECOMMENDATIONS ON APPLICATIONS OF SATURN

RAIN…..
 INTRODUCTION.

Saturn Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have

condensed from atmosphericwater vapor and then becomes heavy
enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the
water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water
on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of
ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop
irrigation. Precipitation is a vital component of how water
moves through Earth’s water cycle, connecting the ocean,
land, and atmosphere. Knowing where it rains, how much it
rains and the character of the falling rain, snow or hail allows
scientists to better understand precipitation’s impact on
streams, rivers, surface runoff and groundwater. Frequent and
detailed measurements help scientists make models of and
determine changes in Earth’s water cycle.
The description above sounds simple enough. Precipitation,
however, can take other forms in addition to rain and snow.
Sleet, hail, drizzle, and graupel (an amalgamation of hail and
snow that resembles round snow particles) are all forms of
precipitation. Water in its various forms covers most of the
surface of our planet, and this basic element has a profound
impact on life on Earth. Water that falls to the ground from
clouds is essential to all living organisms, but precipitation
can also trigger catastrophes that can harm or even
obliterate life. For these reasons, scientists strive to
understand precipitation when it falls, where it falls, and why
it falls. Greater knowledge of precipitation mechanisms will
allow researchers to increase their understanding of the
global water cycle, which is intimately linked to changes in
Earths climate system. Precipitation data are utilized heavily
in the models that scientists use to predict our weather;
more accurate precipitation data will lead to enhanced
weather prediction, Precipitation data with a high temporal
and spatial sampling rate will enable scientists to improve
life on Earth, and perhaps even help save lives. Scientists
will be able to refine flood and storm forecasts, more
accurately predict the availability of freshwater resources,
formulate agricultural plans that take predicted climate
changes into account, and more. Measurement of
precipitation is deceivingly simple just put a can in the back
yard. However, unlike meteorological parameters such
as pressure and temperature, precipitation is driven by
small-scale processes, meaning that it is highly variable and
rapidly changing. You have probably witnessed evidence of
this complexity yourself, perhaps as a thunderstorm passed
by, with its varying rates of rainfall and even hail during a
brief period of time. Or you may have heard about a storm
that dropped lots of rain in one part of town and only a few
drops in another. As a result, we need to sample the data
relatively frequently (every three hours or better) across the
entire Earth.
In the land areas of most developed countries rain gauges
and radar provide satisfactory data on precipitation.
However, sparsely populated or underdeveloped regions
frequently lack the resources to successfully record and
share precipitation data. Oceans, which cover most of the
Earths surface, are almost entirely devoid of precipitation
measurements.
The only viable means of collecting precipitation data on a
global scale is to utilize satellite observations. A variety of
instruments has flown in orbit since the early 1980s, with
major advances coming in the late 1980s and in 1997, with
the launch of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
(TRMM).

The water cycle describes how water evaporates from the

surface of the earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools and
condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and falls again to the
surface as precipitation. The water falling on land collects in
rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of rock, and much of
it flows back into the oceans, where it will once more
evaporate. The cycling of water in and out of the atmosphere
is a significant aspect of the weather patterns on Earth.
Condensation is the change of the physical state of
matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse
of vapourisation. The word most often refers to the water
cycle.[1] It can also be defined as the change in the state of
water vapour to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or
solid surface or cloud condensation nuclei within
the atmosphere. When the transition happens from the
gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is
called deposition. Condensation is initiated by the formation
of atomic/molecular clusters of that species within its
gaseous volume like rain drop , snow flake formation
within clouds at the contact between such gaseous phase
and a liquid or solid surface. A few distinct reversibility
scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the
surface.

 absorption into the surface of a liquid either of the same

substance or one of its solvents is reversible
as evaporation.[1]
 adsorption (as dew droplets) onto solid surface at
pressures and temperatures higher than the species' triple
point also reversible as evaporation.
 adsorption onto solid surface (as supplemental layers of
solid) at pressures and temperatures lower than the
species' triple point is reversible as sublimation.

Condensation commonly occurs when a vapor is cooled

and/or compressed to its saturation limit when the molecular
density in the gas phase reaches its maximal threshold.
Vapor cooling and compressing equipment that collects
condensed liquids is called
a "condenser".Psychrometry measures the rates of
condensation through evaporation into the air moisture at
various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is
the product of its vapor condensation—condensation is the
process of such phase conversion.

The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-

dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as
weather fronts. enough moisture and upward motion is present,
precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward
vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) which can
organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy
precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within
windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to
condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains. On
the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the
dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying
of the air mass. The movement of the monsoon trough, or
intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to
savannahclimes.

The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in

amounts and intensity, downwind of cities. Global warming is also
causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including
wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier
conditions in the tropics.[citation needed] Antarctica is the driest
continent. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is
715 mm (28.1 in), but over the whole Earth it is much higher at
990 mm (39 in).[1]Climate classification systems such as the Köppen
classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate
between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain
gauges. Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar.
Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be
composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than
water.

In cloud chambers a liquid ,sometimes water, isopropanol

condenses upon contact with a particle of radiation thus
producing an effect similar to contrailsContrails short for
"condensation trails" are line-shaped clouds produced
by aircraft engine exhaust or changes in air pressure,
typically at aircraft cruise altitudes several miles above the
Earth's surface. Contrails are composed primarily of water, in
the form of ice crystals. The combination of water vapor in
aircraft engine exhaust and the low ambient temperatures
that exist at high altitudes allows the formation of the trails.
Impurities in the engine exhaust from the fuel,
including sulfur compounds (0.05% by weight in jet fuel)
provide some of the particles that can serve as sites for
water droplet growth in the exhaust and, if water droplets
form, they might freeze to form ice particles that compose a
contrail.[1] Their formation can also be triggered by changes
in air pressure in wingtip vortices or in the air over the entire
wing surface.[2]Contrails, and other clouds directly resulting
from human activity, are collectively named homogenitus.[3]
Depending on the temperature and humidity at the altitude
the contrails form, they may be visible for only a few seconds
or minutes, or may persist for hours and spread to be several
miles wide, eventually resembling
natural cirrus or altocumulus clouds.[1] Persistent
contrails are of particular interest to scientists because they
increase the cloudiness of the atmosphere.[1] The resulting
cloud forms are formally described as homomutatus,[3] and
may resemble cirrus, cirrocumulus, or cirrostratus, and are
sometimes called cirrus aviaticus.[4] Persistent spreading
contrails are suspected to have an effect on global climate

A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of

air of different densities, and is the principal cause
of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics. In surface
weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored
triangles and half-circles, depending on the type of front. The
air masses separated by a front usually differ
in temperature and humidity.

Cold fronts may feature narrow bands

of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion
be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are
usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The
weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some
fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness,
although there is invariably a wind shift.[1]

Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to

east, while warm fronts move poleward. Because of the
greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold
occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm
occlusions. Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow
the movement of fronts.[2] When a front
becomes stationary—and the density contrast across the
frontal boundary vanishes—the front can degenerate into a
line which separates regions of differing wind velocity,
known as a shea

Cumulonimbus, from the Latin cumulus ("heaped") and

nimbus ("rainstorm"), is a dense, towering vertical cloud[1],
forming from water vapor carried by powerful upward air
currents. If observed during a storm, these clouds may be
referred to as thunderheads. Cumulonimbus can form alone,
in clusters, or along cold front squall lines. These clouds are
capable of producing lightning and other dangerous severe
weather, such as tornadoes. Cumulonimbus progress from
overdeveloped cumulus congestus clouds and may further
develop as part of a supercell. Cumulonimbus is
abbreviated Cb.
Towering cumulonimbus clouds are typically accompanied
by smaller cumulus clouds. The cumulonimbus base may
extend several miles across and occupy low to middle
altitudes - formed at altitude from approximately 200 to
4,000 m (700 to 10,000 ft). Peaks typically reach to as much
as 12,000 m (39,000 ft), with extreme instances as high as
21,000 m (69,000 ft) or more.[2] Well-developed
cumulonimbus clouds are characterized by a flat, anvil-like
top (anvil dome), caused by wind shear or inversion near
the tropopause. The shelf of the anvil may precede the main
cloud's vertical component for many miles, and be
accompanied by lightning. Occasionally, rising air parcels
surpass the equilibrium level (due to momentum) and form
an overshooting top culminating at the maximum parcel
level. When vertically developed, this largest of all clouds
usually extends through all three cloud regions. Even the
smallest cumulonimbus cloud dwarfs its neighbors in
comparison.

Species

 cumulonimbus calvus: cloud with puffy top, similar

to cumulus congestus which it develops from; under the
correct conditions it can become a cumulonimbus
capillatus.
 cumulonimbus capillatus : cloud with cirrus-like, fibrous-
edged top.[3]
Supplementary features
Accessory clouds

 Arcus (including roll and shelf clouds): low, horizontal

cloud formation associated with the leading edge of
thunderstorm outflow.[4]
 Pannus: accompanied by a lower layer of fractus species
cloud forming in precipitation.[5]
 Pileus (species calvus only): small cap-like cloud over
parent cumulonimbus.
 Velum: a thin horizontal sheet that forms around the
middle of a cumulonimbus.[6]
Supplementary features

 Incus (species capillatus only): cumulonimbus with flat

anvil-like cirriform top caused by wind shear where the
rising air currents hit the inversion layer at the
tropopause.[7]
 Mamma or mammatus: consisting of bubble-like
protrusions on the underside.
 Tuba: column hanging from the cloud base which can
develop into a funnel cloud or tornado. They are known to
 drop very low, sometimes just 20 feet (6 m) above ground
level.[6]
 Flanking line is a line of small cumulonimbus or cumulus
generally associated with severe thunderstorms.


Arcus cloud (shelf cloud) leading a thunderstorm

Mammatocumulus with drooping pouches

A cap (pileus) atop a calvus

 

A funnel cloud (tuba) over the Netherlands

Incus with a velum edge

Cumulonimbus calvus against sunlight with rain falling

beneath it as a rain shaft(praecipatio)
 

Rain evaporating before reaching the ground (virga)

Picture of a Cumulonimbus Calvus cloud over Zambales

Mountains, taken from Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway

As seen in the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, seen by a Space

Shuttle(Mission STS-43).
 

Picture of a Cumulonimbus capillatus cloud over Africa

displaying an overshooting top, taken from the International
Space Station

Flanking line in front of a strong thunderstorm

Effects

Precipitation-based supplementary feature

 Rain: precipitation that reaches the ground as liquid, often

in a precipitation shaft.[8]
 Virga: precipitation that evaporates before reaching the
ground.

Effects,
Cumulonimbus storm cells can produce torrential rain of
a convective nature (often in the form of a rain shaft)
and flash flooding, as well as straight-line winds. Most storm
cells die after about 20 minutes, when
the precipitation causes more downdraft than updraft,
causing the energy to dissipate. If there is enough solar
energy in the atmosphere, however (on a hot summer's day,
for example), the moisture from one storm cell
can evaporate rapidly—resulting in a new cell forming just a
few miles from the former one. This can cause
thunderstorms to last for several hours. Cumulonimbus
clouds can also bring dangerous winter storms (called
"blizzards") which bring lightning, thunder, and torrential
snow. However, cumulonimbus clouds are most common in
tropical regions.

[9]Life cycle or stages

In general, cumulonimbus require moisture, an unstable air

mass, and a lifting force (heat) in order to form.
Cumulonimbus typically go through three stages:
the developing stage, the mature stage (where the main
cloud may reach supercell status in favorable conditions),
and the dissipation stage.[10] The average thunderstorm has a
24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present
in the atmosphere, these three stages take an average of 30
minutes to go through.[11]

Stages of a cumulonimbus cloud's life.

Towering vertical cumulonimbus capillatus with anvil-shaped

incus supplementary feature. High layer of cirrus spissatus
near top of image.

Cloud types

Clouds form when the dewpoint of wateris reached in the

presence of condensation nuclei in the troposphere. The
atmosphere is a dynamic system, and the local conditions
of turbulence, uplift and other parameters give rise to many
types of clouds. Various types of cloud occur frequently
enough to have been categorized. Furthermore, some
atmospheric processes can make the clouds organize in
distinct patterns such as wave clouds or actinoform clouds.
These are large-scale structures and are not always readily
identifiable from a single point of view.

An anabatic wind, from the Greek anabatos, verbal

of anabainein meaning moving upward, is a warm wind
which blows up a steep slope or mountain side, driven by
heating of the slope through insolation.[1][2] It is also known
as an upslope flow. These winds typically occur during the
daytime in calm sunny weather. A hill or mountain top will
be radiatively warmed by the Sunwhich in
turn heats the air just above it. Air at a similar altitude over
an adjacent valley or plain does not get warmed so much
because of the greater distance to the ground below it. The
effect may be enhanced if the lower lying ground is shaded
by the mountain and so receives less heat.

The air over the hill top is now warmer than the air at a
similar altitude around it and will rise through convection.
This creates a lower pressure region into which the air at the
bottom of the slope flows, causing the wind. It is common for
the air rising from the tops of large mountains to reach a
height where it cools adiabatically to below its dew point and
forms cumulus clouds. These can then produce rain or
even thunderstorms.[2]

Anabatic winds are particularly useful to soaring glider pilots

who can use them to increase the aircraft's altitude. Anabatic
winds can be detrimental to the maximum downhill speed of
cyclists.

Conversely, Katabatic winds are down-slope winds,

frequently produced at night by the opposite effect, the air
near to the ground losing heat to it faster than air at a similar
altitude over adjacent low-lying land.

The monsoon trough is a portion of the Intertropical

Convergence Zone,[1][2] as depicted by a line on a weather
map showing the locations of minimum sea level
pressure,[1] and as such, is a convergence zone between the
wind patterns of the southern and northern hemispheres.

Westerly monsoon winds lie in its equatorward portion while

easterly trade winds exist poleward of the trough.[3] Right
along its axis, heavy rains can be found which usher in the
peak of a location's respective rainy season. As it passes
poleward of a location, hot and dry conditions develop. The
monsoon trough plays a role in creating many of the
world's rainforests.

The term "monsoon trough" is most commonly used in

monsoonal regions of the Western Pacific such as Asia and
Australia. The migration of the ITCZ/monsoon trough into a
landmass heralds the beginning of the annual rainy season
during summer months. Depressions and tropical
cyclones often form in the vicinity of the monsoon trough,
with each capable of producing a year's worth of rainfall in a
matter of days.

Movement and strength

February position of the ITCZ and monsoon trough in the
Pacific Ocean, depicted by area of convergent streamlines
offshore Australia and in the equatorial eastern Pacific

Source;U.S. Navy, Naval Research

Lab http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/~chu/chap2img/fig204.jpg
Monsoon troughing in the western Pacific reaches its zenith
in latitude during the late summer when the wintertime
surface ridge in the opposite hemisphere is the strongest. It
can reach as far as the 40th parallel in East Asia during
August and the 20th parallel in Australia during February. Its
poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the
summer monsoon which is characterized by the
development of lower air pressure over the warmest part of
the various continents.[4][5][6] In the Southern Hemisphere, the
monsoon trough associated with the Australian monsoon
reaches its most southerly latitude in February,[7] oriented
along a west-northwest/east-southeast axis.

Effect of wind surges

Increases in the relative vorticity, or spin, with the monsoon

trough are normally a product of increased wind
convergence within the convergence zone of the monsoon
trough. Wind surges can lead to this increase in
convergence. A strengthening or equatorward movement in
the subtropical ridge can cause a strengthening of a
monsoon trough as a wind surge moves towards the location
of the monsoon trough. As fronts move through
the subtropics and tropics of one hemisphere during their
winter, normally as shear lines when their temperature
gradient becomes minimal, wind surges can cross the
equator in oceanic regions and enhance a monsoon trough
in the other hemisphere's summer.[8] A key way of detecting
whether a wind surge has reached a monsoon trough is the
formation of a burst of thunderstorms within the monsoon
trough.[9]

Embedded depressions

Monsoon Depression near Bangladesh

If a circulation forms within the monsoon trough, it is able to

compete with the neighboring thermal low over the
continent, and a wind surge will occur at its periphery. Such
a circulation which is broad in nature within a monsoon
trough is known as a monsoon depression. In the Northern
Hemisphere, monsoon depressions are generally
asymmetric, and tend to have their strongest winds on their
eastern periphery.[9] Light and variable winds cover a large
area near their center, while bands of showers and
thunderstorms develop within their area of circulation.[10]

The presence of an upper level jet stream poleward and west

of the system can enhance its development by leading to
increased diverging air aloft over the monsoon depression,
which leads to a corresponding drop in surface
pressure.[11] Even though these systems can develop over
land, the outer portions of monsoon depressions are similar
to tropical cyclones.[12] In India, for example, 6 to 7 monsoon
depressions move across the country yearly,[4] and their
numbers within the Bay of Bengal increase during July and
August of El Niño events.[13] Monsoon depressions are
efficient rainfall producers, and can cause a year's worth of
rainfall when they move through drier areas such as
the outback of Australia.[14]

Roles
In rainy season

View of central Kolkata after a monsoon rain.

Since the monsoon trough is an area of convergence in the
wind pattern, and an elongated area of low pressure at the
surface, the trough focuses low level moisture and is defined
by one or more elongated bands of thunderstorms when
viewing satelliteimagery. Its abrupt movement to the north
between May and June is coincident with the beginning of
the monsoon regime and rainy seasons across South and
East Asia. This convergence zone has been linked to
prolonged heavy rain events in the Yangtze river as well as
northern China.[2] Its presence has also been linked to the
peak of the rainy season in locations within Australia.[15] As it
progresses poleward of a particular location, clear, hot, and
dry conditions develop as winds become westerly.[16] Many
of the world's rainforests are associated with these
climatological low pressure systems.[17]

In tropical cyclogenesis

Months of peak tropical cyclone activity worldwide

Source;

David Roth Hydrometeorological Prediction Center Camp

Springs,
MDhttp://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/TC_QPF_tal
k072007.pp

A monsoon trough is a significant genesis region for tropical

cyclones. Vorticity-rich low level environments, with
significant low level spin, lead to a better than average
chance of tropical cyclone formation due to their inherent
rotation. This is because a pre-existing near-surface
disturbance with sufficient spin and convergence is one of
the six requirements for tropical cyclogenesis.[18] There
appears to be a 15- to 25-day cycle in thunderstorm activity
associated with the monsoon trough, which is roughly half
the wavelength of the Madden–Julian oscillation, or
MJO.[19] This mirrors tropical cyclone genesis near these
features, as genesis clusters in 2–3 weeks of activity
followed by 2–3 weeks of inactivity. Tropical cyclones can
form in outbreaks around these features under special
circumstances, tending to follow the next cyclone to its
poleward and west.[20]
Whenever the monsoon trough on the eastern side of the
summertime Asian monsoon is in its normal orientation
(oriented east-southeast to west-northwest), tropical
cyclones along its periphery will move with a westward
motion. If it is reverse oriented, or oriented southwest to
northeast, tropical cyclones will move more poleward.
Tropical cyclone tracks with S shapes tend to be associated
with reverse-oriented monsoon troughs.[21] The South Pacific
convergence zone and South American convergence zones
are generally reverse oriented.[7] The failure of the monsoon
trough, or ITCZ, to move south of the equator in the eastern
Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean during the southern
hemisphere summer is considered one of the reasons that
tropical cyclones normally do not form in those regions.[9] It
has also been noted that when the monsoon trough lies
near 20 degrees north latitude in the Pacific, the frequency of
tropical cyclones is 2 to 3 times greater than when it lies
closer to 10 degrees north.[2]
Rain falling over desert at sunset

Author;Jessie Eastland - Own work

Rain Falling over Desert at Sunset

Types of rain ,
Four types of rain or precipitation.

In meteorology, "precipitation types" can include the

character or phase of the precipitation which is falling to
ground level. There are three distinct ways that precipitation
can occur. Convective precipitation is generally more
intense, and of shorter duration,
than stratiform precipitation. Orographic precipitation occurs
when moist air is forced upwards over rising terrain, such as
a mountain.

Precipitation can also fall in either liquid or solid phases, or

transition between them. Liquid forms of precipitation
include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle which freezes on
contact within a subfreezing air mass gains the preceding
adjective "freezing", becoming known as freezing rain or
freezing drizzle. Frozen forms of precipitation
include snow, ice needles, sleet, hail, and graupel. Intensity
is classified either by rate of fall, or by visibility restriction.

Phases

Precipitation falls in many forms, or phases. They can be

subdivided into:

 Liquid precipitation:
 Drizzle (DZ)
 Rain (RA)
 Fog condensation on vegetation foliage, dripping
on forest soil.[1]
 Freezing precipitation:
  Freezing drizzle (FZDZ)
 Freezing rain (FZRA)
 Rain and snow mixed / Slush (RASN)
 Sun Shower
 Frozen precipitation:
 Snow (SN)
 Snow grains (SG)
 Ice pellets / Sleet (PL)
 Hail (GR)
 Snow pellets / Graupel (GS)
 Ice crystals (IC)

Virga.

The parenthesized letters are the METAR codes for each

phenomenon.[2]

MECHANISM OF PRECIPITATION.

Precipitation occurs when the air becomes saturated with

water vapor, and can no longer hold all of it in vapor form.
This occurs when moist air cools, usually when an airmass
rises through the atmosphere. However, an airmass can also
cool (e.g. through radiative cooling, or ground contact with
cold terrain) without a change in altitude.
Convective precipitation occurs when air rises vertically
through the (temporarily) self-sustaining mechanism
of convection. Stratiform precipitation occurs when large air
masses rise diagonally as larger-scale atmospheric
dynamics force them to move over each
other. Orographic precipitation is similar, except the upwards
motion is forced when a moving airmass encounters the
rising slope of a landform such as a mountain ridge.

Convectional

Convection occurs when the Earth's surface, within a

conditionally unstable or moist atmosphere, becomes heated
more than its surroundings, leading to significant
evaporation. Convective rain, or showery precipitation,
occurs from convective clouds,
e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as
showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective
precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short
time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent.
Most precipitation in the tropicsappears to be convective;
however, it has been suggested that stratiform and
convective precipitation both occur within the same complex
of convection-generated cumulonimbus cloud.[3][4]
Graupel and hail indicate convection.[5] In mid-latitudes,
convective precipitation is associated with cold fronts (often
behind the front), squall lines, and warm fronts in very moist
air.

A Violent electrical storm results from convective cumulus

congestusclouds.

Author;Jessie Eastland - Own work

Violent electrical storm attacks the California Mojave Desert

Cyclonic

Frontal precipitation is caused by frontal systems

surrounding extratropical cyclonesor lows, which form when
warm and often tropical air meets cooler air. Frontal
precipitation typically falls out of nimbostratus clouds.[6]

When masses of air with different density (moisture and

temperature characteristics) meet, less dense warmer air
overrides colder air. The warmer air is forced to rise and if
conditions are right becomes saturated, causing
precipitation. In turn, precipitation can enhance the
temperature and moisture contrast along a frontal boundary.
Passing weather fronts cause sudden changes in general
temperature, and in the humidity and pressure in the air at
ground level.

Warm fronts occur where the warm air pushes out a

previously lodged cold air mass. The warm air overrides the
cooler air and moves upward. Warm fronts are followed by
extended periods of light rain and drizzle, because, after the
warm air rises above the cooler air (which remains on the
ground), it gradually cools due to the air's expansion while
being lifted, which forms clouds and leads to precipitation.

Cold fronts occur when a mass of cooler air dislodges a

mass of warm air. This type of transition is sharper, since
cold air is more dense than warm air. The rain duration is
shorter, and generally more intense, than that which occurs
ahead of warm fronts.

A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded

front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage
is associated with a drying of the air mass.
: Weather fronts

A weather front is the boundary of two airmasses

Author;Mouagip - Own work, Original NOAA

warm front schematics

Orographic
Orographic or relief rainfall is caused when masses of air
pushed by wind are forced up the side of elevated land
formations, such as large mountains. The lift of the air up the
side of the mountain results in adiabatic cooling, and
ultimately condensation and precipitation. In mountainous
parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds
(for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually
prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on
the leeward (downwind) side. Moisture is removed by
orographic lift, leaving drier air (see Foehn) on the
descending (generally warming), leeward side where a rain
shadow is observed.

Orographic precipitation occurs when moist air is forced

upwards by terrain.

CC BY-SA 3.0

File:Steigungsregen.jpg

Orographic lift

[7]

Post orographic lift isolated towering vertical thunderhead

shower in Mojave Desert, western USA
Author;Jessie Eastland - Own work

Isolated Towering Vertical Thunderhead in the Mojave

Desert.

In Moroto Uganda heavy rains from recorded from March to

August while In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale (Waiʻaleʻale), on
the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall. It has
the highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 460 inches
(12,000 mm) per year.[8] Storm systems affect the region with
heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary
considerably on each island due to their topography,
divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions
based upon location relative to the higher mountains.
Windward sides face the east-to-northeast trade winds and
receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and
sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[9] On the island
of Oahu, clouds and often rain can usually be observed
around the windward mountain peaks, while the southern
parts of the island (including most of Honolulu and Waikiki)
receive dramatically less rainfall throughout the year.

In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific

Ocean moisture that arrives on the continent, resulting in a
desert-like climate just downwind across western
Argentina.[10] The Sierra Nevada range creates the same
effect in North America, causing the Great Basin
Desert,[11] Mojave Desert, and Sonoran Desert.

Intensity

Precipitation is measured using a rain gauge. When

classified according to the rate of precipitation, rain can be
divided into categories. Light rain describes rainfall which
falls at a rate of between a trace and 2.5 millimetres (0.098 in)
per hour. Moderate rain describes rainfall with a precipitation
rate of between 2.6 millimetres (0.10 in) and 7.6 millimetres
(0.30 in) per hour. Heavy rain describes rainfall with a
precipitation rate above 7.6 millimetres (0.30 in) per hour.[12]

Snowfall intensity is classified in terms of visibility. When the

visibility is over 1 kilometre (0.62 mi), snow is determined to
be light. Moderate snow describes snowfall with visibility
restrictions between .5 kilometres (0.31 mi) and 1 kilometre
(0.62 mi). Heavy snowfall describes conditions when visibility
is restricted below .5 kilometres (0.31 mi).
 LITERATURE REVIEW

HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY

In early times, rain was studied in physics , astronomy only

comprised with the observation and predictions of the motions of
objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, early cultures
assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical
purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these observatories
could be employed to determine the seasons, an important factor in
knowing when to plant crops, as well as in understanding the length
of the year.

Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the
stars was conducted using the naked eye. As civilizations developed,
most notably in Mesopotamia, Greece, Persia, India, China, Egypt,
and Central America, astronomical observatories were assembled,
and ideas on the nature of the Universe began to be explored. Most
of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the
stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From
these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were
formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the
Universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was believed to
be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars
rotating around it. This is known as the geocentric model of the
Universe, or the Ptolemaic system, named after Ptolemy.[14]

A particularly important early development was the beginning of

mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the
Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical
traditions that developed in many other civilizations.[15] The
Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a repeating
cycle known as a saros.[16]

Greek equatorial sundial, Alexandria on the Oxus, present-day

Afghanistan 3rd–2nd century BCE. Following the Babylonians,
significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and
the Hellenistic world. Greek astronomy is characterized from the
start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial
phenomena. Early Man -> little recorded information on early
man's impression of the heavens, some drawings of eclipses, comets,
supernovae such as the Pueblo Petrograph. Early man was
frightened/overwhelmed by the sky
The earliest recorded astronomical observation is the Nebra sky
disk from northern Europe dating approximately 1,600 BC (see
above). This 30 cm bronze disk depicts the Sun, a lunar crescent and
stars (including the Pleiades star cluster). The disk is probably a
religious symbol as well as a crude astronomical instrument or
calendar. In the Western hemisphere, similar understanding of
basic stellar and planetary behavior was developing. For example,
Native American culture around the same time were leaving rock
drawings, or petroglyphs, of astronomical phenomenon. The
clearest example is found below, a petroglyph which depicts the
1,006 AD supernova that resulted in the Crab Nebula.
Early man also believed that the heavens held power over earthy
existence (psychology of the unknown) -> origins of astrology as an
attempt to understand, predict and influence events

The earliest written records ( history) were astronomical

observations - Babylonians (~1600 B.C.) recorded position of
planets, times of eclipses, etc. - also evidence from early Chinese,
Central American and North European cultures such
as Stonehenge, which is a big computer for calculating the position
of planets and the Sun , when to have that big blowout Solstice thing
-> thus, Astronomy was the 1st science

Later in history, 5,000 to 20,000 years ago, humankind begins to

organize themselves and develop what we now call culture. A
greater sense of permanence in your daily existences leads to the
development of myths, particularly creation myths to explain the
origin of the Universe.
Most myths maintain supernatural themes, with gods, divine and
semi-divine figures, but there was usually an internal logical
consistence to the narrative. Myths are often attempts at a rational
explanation of the everyday world, their goal is to teach. Even if we
consider some of the stories to be ridiculous, they were, in some
sense, our first scientific theories. They also closely follow a
particular religion, and this time is characterized by a close
marriage of science and religion.
Hellenistic Culture (~500 B.C.):

The ancient Greeks inherited astronomical records from the

Babylonians and applied the data to construct a cosmological
framework. Data was not just used for practical goals, such as
navigation, but also to think of new experiments = natural
philosopher.

Thales (~480 B.C.) used this data to predict eclipses.

Thales of Miletus (/ˈθeɪliːz/; Greek: Θαλῆς (ὁ

Μιλήσιος), Thalēs; c. 624 – c. 546 BC) was a pre-
Socratic Greek philosopher, mathematician,
and astronomerfrom Miletus in Asia Minor (present-
day Milet in Turkey). He was one of the Seven Sages of
Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded him as the
first philosopher in the Greek tradition,[1][2] and he is
otherwise historically recognized as the first individual
in Western civilization known to have entertained and
engaged in scientific philosophy.[3][4]

Thales is recognized for breaking from the use

of mythology to explain the world and the universe, and
instead explaining natural objects and phenomena
by theories and hypotheses, in a precursor to
modern science. Almost all the other Pre-Socratic
philosophers followed him in explaining nature as deriving
from a unity of everything based on the existence of a single
ultimate substance, instead of using mythological
explanations. Aristotle reported Thales' hypothesis that
the originating principle of nature and the nature
of matter was a single material substance: water.

In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the

heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the
shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive
reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries
to Thales' theorem. He is the first known individual to whom
a mathematical discovery has been attributed

Between the cosmological foundation set by the Presocratics and the

world of Ideas introduced by Plato was a set of fundamental
calculations on the size of the Earth, Moon, Sun and the distances
between the nearby planets performed by Eratosthenes

Eratosthenes of Cyrene (/ɛrəˈtɒsθəniːz/; Greek: Ἐρατοσθένης

ὁ Κυρηναῖος, IPA: [eratostʰénɛːs]; c. 276 BC[1] – c. 195/194
BC[2]) was a Greek
mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer, and music
theorist. He was a man of learning, becoming the chief
librarian at the Library of Alexandria. He invented the
discipline of geography, including the terminology used
today.[3]

He is best known for being the first person to calculate

the circumference of the Earth, which he did by comparing
altitudes of the mid-day sun at two places a known North-
South distance apart. His calculation was remarkably
accurate. He was also the first to calculate the tilt of the
Earth's axis (again with remarkable accuracy). Additionally,
he may have accurately calculated the distance from the
Earth to the Sun and invented the leap day.[4] He created the
first map of the world,
incorporating parallels and meridians based on the available
geographic knowledge of his era.
Eratosthenes was the founder of scientific chronology; he
endeavored to revise the dates of the chief literary and
political events from the conquest of Troy. Eratosthenes
dated The Sack of Troy to 1183 BC. In number theory, he
introduced the sieve of Eratosthenes, an efficient method of
identifying prime numbers.

He was a figure of influence in many fields. According to an

entry[5] in the Suda(a 10th-century reference), his critics
scorned him, calling him Beta (the second letter of the Greek
alphabet) because he always came in second in all his
endeavors.[6] Nonetheless, his devotees nicknamed
him Pentathlos after the Olympians who were well rounded
competitors, for he had proven himself to be knowledgeable
in every area of learning. Eratosthenes yearned to
understand the complexities of the entire world

Aristarchus (c. 250 BC). Aristarchus of

Samos (/ˌærəˈstɑːrkəs/; Greek: Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ
Σάμιος, Aristarkhos ho Samios; c. 310 – c. 230 BC) was
an ancient Greek astronomerand mathematician who
presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the
center of the known universe with the Earth revolving around
it (see Solar system). He was influenced by Philolaus of
Croton, but Aristarchus identified the "central fire" with the
Sun, and he put the other planets in their correct order of
distance around the Sun.[1] Like Anaxagoras before him, he
suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the Sun,
albeit further away from Earth. He was also the first one to
deduce the rotation of earth on its axis. His astronomical
ideas were often rejected in favor of the
incorrect geocentric theories
of Aristotleand Ptolemy. Nicolaus Copernicus attributed the
heliocentric theory to Aristarchus, Using some simple geometry,
natural philosophers were able to, for the first time, place some
estimate of the size of the cosmos in Earth terms.

For a long time it was realized that the earth's surface was curved
by people familiar with the behavior of incoming and outgoing
ships. For it was obvious that as a ship passed over the horizon, the
hull disappeared first, then the topmost sailing masts ,although one
could argue this is an effect of refraction in the atmosphere).
Ancient astronomers could see with their eyes that the Sun and the
Moon were round. And the shadow of the Earth, cast on the lunar
surface during a lunar eclipse, is curved. A sphere is the simplest
shape to explain the Earth's shadow (a disk would sometimes
display a shadow shaped like a line or oval.
Eratosthenes used a spherical Earth model, and some simple
geometry, to calculate its circumference. Eratosthenes knows that
on a special day (the summer solstice) at noon in the Egyptian city of
Syene, a stick placed in the ground will cast no shadow (i.e., it is
parallel to the Sun's rays). A stick in the ground at Alexandria, to
the north, will cast a shadow at an angle of 7 degrees. Eratosthenes
realizes that the ratio of a complete circle (360 degrees) to 7 degrees
is the same as the ratio of the circumference of the Earth to the
distance from Alexandria to Swenet. Centuries of surveying by
Egyptian pharaohs scribes gave him the distance between the two
cities of 4900 stadia, approximately 784 kilometers. This resulting in
a circumference of 40,320 kilometers, which is amazingly close to
the modern value of 40,030 kilometers. With this calculation,
Eratosthenes becomes the father of geography eventually drawing
up the first maps of the known world and determining the size of the
most fundamental object in the Universe, our own planet.

Hipparchus (100 B.C.) produced first star catalog and recorded the
names of constellations. Hipparchus of
Nicaea (/hɪˈpɑːrkəs/; Greek: Ἵππαρχος, Hipparkhos; c. 190 –
c. 120 BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer,
and mathematician. He is considered the founder
of trigonometry[1] but is most famous for his incidental
discovery of precession of the equinoxes.[2]

Hipparchus was born in Nicaea, Bithynia (now İznik, Turkey),

and probably died on the island of Rhodes. He is known to
have been a working astronomer at least from 162 to
127 BC.[3] Hipparchus is considered the greatest ancient
astronomical observer and, by some, the greatest overall
astronomer of antiquity. He was the first whose quantitative
and accurate models for the motion of
the Sun and Moon survive. For this he certainly made use of
the observations and perhaps the mathematical techniques
accumulated over centuries by the Babylonians and
by Meton of Athens (5th
century BC), Timocharis, Aristyllus, Aristarchus of
Samos and Eratosthenes, among others.[4]He developed
trigonometry and constructed trigonometric tables, and he
solved several problems of spherical trigonometry. With his
solar and lunar theories and his trigonometry, he may have
been the first to develop a reliable method to predict solar
eclipses. His other reputed achievements include the
discovery and measurement of Earth's precession, the
compilation of the first comprehensive star catalog of the
western world, and possibly the invention of the astrolabe,
also of the armillary sphere, which he used during the
creation of much of the star catalogue.

There were only seven objects visible to the ancients, the Sun and
the Moon, plus the five planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn. It was obvious that the planets were not on the celestial
sphere since the Moon clearly passes in front of the Sun and planets,
plus Mercury and Venus can be seen to transit the Sun. Plato first
proposed that the planets followed perfect circular orbits around the
Earth. Later, Heraclides (330 B.C.) developed the first Solar System
model, placing the planets in order from the Earth it was is now
called the geocentric solar system model and the beginning of the
geocentric versus heliocentric debate.
Note that orbits are perfect circles (for philosophical reasons = all
things in the Heavens are "perfect")

Slightly later, Aristarchus (270 B.C.) proposed an alternative model

of the Solar System placing the Sun at the center with the Earth and
the planets in circular orbit around it. The Moon orbits around the
Earth. This model became known as the heliocentric theory
Aristarchus was the first to propose a Sun centered cosmology and
one of the primary objections to the heliocentric model is that the
stars display no parallax (the apparent shift of nearby stars on the
sky due to the Earth's motion around the Sun). However,
Aristarchus believed that the stars were very distant and, thus,
display parallax's that are too small to be seen with the eye (in fact,
the first parallax will not by measured until 1838 by Friedrich
Bessel). The Sun is like the fixed stars, states Aristarchus, unmoving
on a sphere with the Sun at its center. For Aristarchus it was absurd
that the "Hearth" of the sky, the Sun, should move and eclipses are
easy to explain by the motion of the Moon around the Earth.

Problems for Heliocentric Theory:

While today we know that the Sun is at the center of the solar
system, this was not obvious for the technology of the times per-
1500's. In particular, Aristarchus' model was ruled out by the
philosophers at the time for three reasons:

1. Earth in orbit around Sun means that the Earth is in motion.

Before the discovery of Newton's law of motion, it was
impossible to imagine motion without being able to `feel' it.
Clearly, no motion is detected (although trade winds are due to
the Earth's rotation).
2. If the Earth undergoes a circular orbit, then nearby stars
would have a parallax. A parallax is an apparent shift in the
position of nearby stars relative to distant stars.
 Of course, if all the stars are implanted on the crystal celestial
sphere, then there is no parallax.

3. Lastly, geocentric ideas seem more `natural' to a philosopher.

Earth at the center of the Universe is a very ego-centric idea,
and has an aesthetic appeal.

Ptolemy (200 A.D.) Claudius

Ptolemy (/ˈtɒləmi/; Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaúdios
Ptolemaîos[kláwdios ptolɛmɛ́ːos]; Latin: Claudius
Ptolemaeus; c. AD 100 – c. 170)[2] was a Greco-
Roman[3] mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer
, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.[4][5] He
lived in the city of Alexandriain the Roman province of Egypt,
wrote in Koine Greek, and held Roman citizenship.[6] The
14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes gave his
birthplace as the prominent Greek city Ptolemais
Hermiou (Greek: Πτολεμαΐς ‘Ερμείου) in
the Thebaid (Greek: Θηβαΐδα [Θηβαΐς]). This attestation is
quite late, however, and, according to Gerald Toomer, the
translator of his Almagestinto English, there is no reason to
suppose he ever lived anywhere other than Alexandria.[7] He
died there around AD 168.[8]

Ptolemy wrote several scientific treatises, three of which

were of importance to
later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is
the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest,
although it was originally entitled the Mathematical
Treatise (Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, Mathēmatikē Syntaxis) and
then known as the Great Treatise (Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, Hē
Megálē Syntaxis). The second is the Geography, which is a
thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of
the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise
in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to
the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is
sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika(Ἀποτελεσματικά)
but more commonly known as the Tetrabiblos from
the Greek(Τετράβιβλος) meaning "Four Books" or by the
Latin Quadripartitum.

he was an ancient astronomer, geographer, and mathematician who

took the geocentric theory of the solar system and gave it a
mathematical foundation (called the "Ptolemaic system"). He did
this in order to simultaneously produce a cosmological theory based
on Aristotle's physics (circular motion, no voids, geocentric) and one
that would provide a technically accurate description of planetary
astronomy. Ptolemy's system is one of the first examples of scientists
attempting to "save the phenomena", to develop a combination of
perfect circles to match the irregular motion of the planets, i.e.,
using concepts asserted by pure reason that match the observed
phenomenon.

Ptolemy wrote a great treatise on the celestial sphere and the motion
of the planets call the Almagest. The Almagest is divided into 13
books, each of which deals with certain astronomical concepts
pertaining to stars and to objects in the solar system. It was, no
doubt, the encyclopedic nature of the work that made the Almagest
so useful to later astronomers and that gave the views contained in it
so profound an influence. In essence, it is a synthesis of the results
obtained by Greek astronomy; it is also the major source of
knowledge about the work of Hipparchus.

The Christian Aristotelian cosmos, engraving from Peter Apian's

Cosmographia, 1524
In the first book of the Almagest, Ptolemy describes his geocentric
system and gives various arguments to prove that, in its position at
the center of the universe, the Earth must be immovable. Not least,
he showed that if the Earth moved, as some earlier philosophers had
suggested, then certain phenomena should in consequence be
observed. In particular, Ptolemy argued that since all bodies fall to
the center of the universe, the Earth must be fixed there at the
center, otherwise falling objects would not be seen to drop toward
the center of the Earth. Again, if the Earth rotated once every 24
hours, a body thrown vertically upward should not fall back to the
same place, as it was seen to do. Ptolemy was able to demonstrate,
however, that no contrary observations had ever been obtained.
Ptolemy accepted the following order for celestial objects in the
solar system: Earth (center), Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn. However, when the detailed observations of the
planets in the skies is examined, the planets undergo motion which is
impossible to explain in the geocentric model, a backward track for
the outer planets. This behavior is called retrograde motion.
The solution to retrograde motion was to use a system of circles on
circles to explain the orbits of the planets called epicycles and
deferents. The main orbit is the deferent, the smaller orbit is the
epicycle. Although only one epicycle is shown in the figure below,
over 28 were required to explain the actual orbits of the planets.
In the Ptolemaic system, deferents were large circles centered on the
Earth, and epicycles were small circles whose centers moved around
the circumferences of the deferents. The Sun, Moon, and planets
moved around the circumference of their own epicycles. In the
movable eccentric, there was one circle; this was centered on a point
displaced from the Earth, with the planet moving around the
circumference. These were mathematically equivalent schemes.
Although Ptolemy realized that the planets were much closer to the
Earth than the "fixed" stars, he seems to have believed in the
physical existence of crystalline spheres, to which the heavenly
bodies were said to be attached. Outside the sphere of the fixed
stars, Ptolemy proposed other spheres, ending with the primum
mobile ("prime mover"), which provided the motive power for the
remaining spheres that constituted his conception of the universe.
His resulting solar system model looked like the following, although
the planets had as many as 28 epicycles to account for all the details
of their motion.
This model, while complicated, was a complete description of the
Solar System that explained, and predicted, the apparent motions of
all the planets. The Ptolemic system began the 1st mathematical
paradigm or framework for our understanding of Nature.

Aristotle (/ˈærɪˌstɒtəl/;[3] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pro

nounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC)[n 1] was an ancient
Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city
of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece. Along
with Plato, Aristotle is considered the "Father of Western
Philosophy", which inherited almost its entire lexicon from
his teachings, including problems and methods of inquiry, so
influencing almost all forms of knowledge.

Little is known for certain about his life. His

father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he
was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen
years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and
remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC).[4] His
writings cover many subjects –
including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic,
ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre,
music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, politics and
government – and constitute the first comprehensive system
of Western philosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left
Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon,
tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC.[5]Teaching
Alexander gave Aristotle many opportunities. He established
a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of
his hundreds of books, which were papyrus scrolls. The fact
that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former
views of Platonism, but, following Plato's death, Aristotle
immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from
Platonism to empiricism.[6] He believed all concepts and
knowledge were ultimately based on perception. Aristotle's
views on natural sciences represent the groundwork
underlying many of his works.

Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped

medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late
Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance,
and were not replaced systematically until the
Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics.
Some of Aristotle's zoologicalobservations, such as on
the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were
disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the
earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval
scholars such as Peter Abelard and John
Buridan. Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Islamic
thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian
theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early
Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.
Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as
"The First Teacher". His ethics, though always influential,
gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue
ethics.

All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the

object of academic study. Though Aristotle wrote many
elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a
third of his original output has survived, none of it intended
for publication.[7] Aristotle has been depicted by major artists
including Raphael and Rembrandt. Early Modern theories
including William Harvey's circulation of the
blood and Galileo Galilei's kinematics were developed in
reaction to Aristotle's. In the 19th century, George
Boole gave Aristotle's logic a mathematical foundation with
his system of algebraic logic. In the 20th century, Martin
Heidegger created a new interpretation of Aristotle's political
philosophy, but elsewhere Aristotle was widely criticised,
even ridiculed by thinkers such as the philosopher Bertrand
Russell and the biologist Peter Medawar. More recently,
Aristotle has again been taken seriously, such as in the
thinking of Ayn Rand and Alasdair MacIntyre, while Armand
Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology. The image
of Aristotle tutoring the young Alexander remains current, as
in the 2004 film Alexander, and the Poetics continues to play
a role in the cinema of the United States.

Alexandria burns, Roman culture collapses, Dark Ages but the

Roman Catholic Church absorbs Aristotle's scientific methods and
Ptolemy's model into its own doctrine. Thus, preserving the
scientific method and Ptolemy's Solar System until then,

The Renaissance, where new ideas were more important than

dogma.

As we know from history, the great library at Alexandria burns in

272 AD, destroying a great deal of the astronomical data for the
time. Roman culture collapses and we enter the Dark Ages. But, the
Roman Catholic Church absorbs Aristotle's scientific methods and
Ptolemy's model into its own doctrine. Thus, preserving the
scientific method and Ptolemy's Solar System. Unfortunately, the
geocentric model was accepted as doctrine and, therefore, was not
subjected to the scientific method for hundreds of years.

Nicolaus Copernicus (/koʊˈpɜːrnɪkəs, kə-

/;[2][3][4] Polish: Mikołaj Kopernik;[5]German: Nikolaus
Kopernikus; Niklas Koppernigk; 19 February 1473 – 24 May
1543) was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer
who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun
rather than the Earth at the center of the universe, likely
independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated
such a model some eighteen centuries earlier.[a]

The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De

revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres), just before his death in 1543, was a major
event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican
Revolution and making an important contribution to
the Scientific Revolution.[8]

Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, a region that

had been part of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466.
A polyglot and polymath, he obtained a doctorate in canon
law and was also
a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics
scholar, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. In
1517 he derived a quantity theory of money – a key concept
in economics – and in 1519 he formulated an economics
principle that later came to be called Gresham's law

Copernicus (1500's) reinvented the heliocentric theory and

challenged Church doctrine. Copernicus (c. 1520) was not the first
astronomer to challenge the geocentric model of Ptolemy, but he was
the first to successfully formulate a heliocentric model and publish
his model. He was able to overcome centuries of resistance to the
heliocentric model for a series of political and scientific reasons.
Politically, the authority of the Church was weakening in Northern
Europe in the 15th century allowing more diversity in scientific
thinking (although the new Protestant faiths were also not quick to
embrace the heliocentric model). Scientifically, a better
understanding of motion (particularly inertia) was undermining the
whole concept of an unmoving Earth. A rotating Earth is a much
simpler explanation for the durnal motion of stars, an Earth that
rotates is only one step away from an Earth that revolves around the
Sun. The heliocentric model had a greater impact than simply an
improvement to solve retrograde motion. By placing the Sun at the
center of the Solar System, Copernicus forced a change in our
worldview = paradigm shift or science revolution.

Copernicus began his quest for an improved solar system model

with some basic principles. Foremost was the postulate that the
Earth was not the center of the Universe, only the center of local
gravity and the Moon. Second, the postulate that the Sun was the
center of the solar system, all planets revolved around the Sun. In
this fashion, retrograde motion is not cause by the planets
themselves, but rather by the orbit of the Earth.

While Copernicus includes a rotating Earth in his heliocentric

model, he continues to cling to Aristotle's celestial motions, i.e.
orbits that are perfect circles (rather than their true shape, an
ellipse). This forces Copernicus to adopt a series of moving sphere's
for each planet to explain longitude motion. While Copernicus has
fewer sphere's, since more of the retrograde motion is accounted
for, his system is still extremely complicated in a computational
sense. It's two greatest advantages is that it places the inferior
planets near the Sun, naturally explaining their lack of large eastern
or western elongations, and removing any extreme motions, such as
that needed to explain durnal changes.

Copernicus also changes the immovable empyrean heaven into a

fixed sphere of stars, severing theology from cosmology. However,
Copernicus fails to produce a mechanically simple scheme for
astrologers to cast horoscopes or astronomers to produce almanacs,
for ultimately the tables he produces are as complicated as
Ptolemy's and he did not publish all his results in the final edition of
his work, "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres".

However, Copernicus, like Ptolemy, also used circular orbits and

had to resort to epicycles and deferents to explain retrograde
motions. In fact, Copernicus was forced to use more epicycles than
Ptolemy, i.e. a more complicated system of circles on circles. Thus,
Copernicus' model would have failed our modern criteria that a
scientific model be as simple as possible (Occam's Razor).

Tycho Brahe (/ˌtaɪkoʊ ˈbrɑːhi, ˈbrɑː, ˈbrɑːə/, born Tyge

Ottesen Brahe(Danish: [ˈtyːə ˈʌdəsn̩ ˈbʁɑː][n 1]); 14 December
1546 – 24 October 1601) was a Danish nobleman,
astronomer, and writer known for his accurate and
comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He
was born in the then Danish peninsula of Scania. Well known
in his lifetime as an astronomer, astrologer and alchemist, he
has been described as "the first competent mind in modern
astronomy to feel ardently the passion for exact empirical
facts."[1] His observations were some five times more
accurate than the best available observations at the time.

An heir to several of Denmark's principal noble families, he

received a comprehensive education. He took an interest in
astronomy and in the creation of more accurate instruments
of measurement. As an astronomer, Tycho worked to
combine what he saw as the geometrical benefits of
the Copernican systemwith the philosophical benefits of
the Ptolemaic system into his own model of the universe,
the Tychonic system. His system correctly saw the Moon as
orbiting Earth, and the planets as orbiting the Sun, but
erroneously considered the Sun to be orbiting the Earth.
Furthermore, he was the last of the major naked-
eyeastronomers, working without telescopes for his
observations. In his De nova stella (On the New Star) of 1573,
he refuted the Aristotelian belief in an unchanging celestial
realm. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars"
(stellae novae, now known as supernovae), in particular that
of 1572, lacked the parallax expected in sublunar phenomena
and were therefore not tailless comets in the atmosphere as
previously believed but were above the atmosphere and
beyond the moon. Using similar measurements he showed
that comets were also not atmospheric phenomena, as
previously thought, and must pass through the supposedly
immutable celestial spheres.

King Frederick II granted Tycho an estate on the island

of Hven and the funding to build Uraniborg, an early research
institute, where he built large astronomical instruments and
took many careful measurements, and later Stjerneborg,
underground, when he discovered that his instruments in
Uraniborg were not sufficiently steady. On the island (where
he behaved autocratically toward the residents) he founded
manufactories, such as a paper mill, to provide material for
printing his results. After disagreements with the new Danish
king, Christian IV, in 1597, he went into exile, and was invited
by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph
II to Prague, where he became the official imperial
astronomer. He built an observatory at Benátky nad Jizerou.
There, from 1600 until his death in 1601, he was assisted
by Johannes Kepler, who later used Tycho's astronomical
data to develop his three laws of planetary motion.

Tycho Brahe (1580's) was astronomy's 1st true observer. He built

the Danish Observatory (using sextant's since telescopes had not
been invented yet) from which he measured positions of planets and
stars to the highest degree of accuracy for that time period (1st
modern database). He showed that the Sun was much farther than
the Moon from the Earth, using simple trigonometry of the angle
between the Moon and the Sun at 1st Quarter.
The Earth's motion, as a simple matter of dynamics, was extremely
perplexing to the medieval thinker. The size and mass of the Earth
was approximately known since Eratosthenes had measured the
circumference of the Earth (thus, the volume is known and one
could simply multiple the volume with the mean density of rock to
obtain a rough mass estimate). The force required to move the
Earth seemed impossible to the average medieval natural
philosopher.

Brahe had additional reason to question the motion of the Earth, for
his excellent stellar positional observations continued to fail to detect
any parallax. This lack of annual parallax implied that the celestial
sphere was "immeasurably large". Brahe had also attempted to
measure the size of stars, not understanding that the apparent size
of a star simply reflects the blurring caused by the passage of
starlight through the atmosphere. Brahe's estimate for the size of
stars would place them larger than the current day estimate of the
size of the Earth's orbit. Such "titanic" stars are absurd according
to Brahe's understanding of stars at the time.

Beyond Tycho Brahe's accomplishments in the observational arena,

he is also remembered for introducing two compromise solutions to
the solar system model now referred to as the geoheliocentric
models. Brahe was strongly influenced by the idea of Mercury and
Venus revolving around the Sun to explain the fact that their
apparent motion across the sky never takes them more than a few
tens of degrees from the Sun (called their greatest elongation). The
behavior of inner worlds differs from the orbital behavior of the
outer planets, which can be found at any place on the elliptic during
their orbital cycle.
Brahe proposed a hybrid solutions to the geocentric model which
preserves the geocentric nature of the Earth at the center of the
Universe, but placed the inner planets (Mercury and Venus) in orbit
around the Sun. This configuration resolves the problem of Mercury
and Venus lack of large angular distances from the Sun, but saves
the key criticism of the heliocentric model, that the Earth is in
motion. In other works, Brahe's geoheliocentric model fit the
available data but followed the philosophical intuition of a non-
moving Earth.

Neither successfully predicts the motion of the planets. The solution

will be discovered by a student of Tycho's, who finally resolves the
heliocentric cosmology with the use of elliptical orbits.
Johannes Kepler (/ˈkɛplər/;[1] German: [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ];
December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a
German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer.

Kepler is a key figure in the 17th-century scientific

revolution. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion,
based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi,
and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also
provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory
of universal gravitation.

Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school

in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich
von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the
astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the
imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two
successors Matthiasand Ferdinand II. He also taught
mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General
Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the
field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting
telescope (the Keplerian telescope), and was mentioned in
the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo
Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia
dei Lincei in Rome.[2]
Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction
between astronomyand astrology, but there was a strong
division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within
the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy).
Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning
into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and
belief that God had created the world according to an
intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light
of reason.[3] Kepler described his new astronomy as
"celestial physics",[4] as "an excursion
into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[5] and as "a supplement to
Aristotle's On the Heavens",[6] transforming the ancient
tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as
part of a universal mathematical physics

Kepler (1600's) a student of Tycho who used Brahe's database to

formulate the Laws of Planetary Motion which corrects the
problems of epicycles in the heliocentric theory by
using ellipses instead of circles for orbits of the planets.
This is a key mathematical formulation because the reason
Copernicus' heliocentric model has to use epicycles is due to the fact
that he assumed perfectly circular orbits. With the use of ellipses,
the heliocentric model eliminates the need for epicycles and
deferents. The orbital motion of a planet is completely described by
six elements: the semi-major axis, the eccentricity, the inclination,
the longitude of the ascending node, the argument of the perihelion
and the time of the perihelion.
The formulation of a highly accurate system of determining the
motions of all the planets marks the beginning of the clockwork
Universe concept, and another paradigm shift in our philosophy of
science.

Galileo Galilei (Italian: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564[3] –

8 January 1642) was an Italian polymath. Galileo is a central
figure in the transition from natural philosophy to modern
science and in the transformation of the scientific
Renaissance into a scientific revolution.

Galileo's championing
of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial
during his lifetime, when most subscribed to
either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[4] He met with
opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism
because of the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[4] The
matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615,
which concluded that heliocentrism was "foolish and absurd
in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly
contradicts in many places the sense of Holy
Scripture."[4][5][6] Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems(1632), which
appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him
and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this
point.[4] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently
suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of
his life under house arrest.[7][8] While under house arrest, he
wrote one of his best-known works, Two New Sciences, in
which he summarized work he had done some forty years
earlier on the two sciences now
called kinematics and strength of materials.[9][10]

Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall,

the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also
worked in applied science and technology, describing the
properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances",
inventing the thermoscope and various military compasses,
and using the telescope for scientific observations of
celestial objects. His contributions to observational
astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases
of Venus, the discovery of the four largest
satellites of Jupiter, the observation of Saturn's
rings (though he could not see them well enough to discern
their true nature) and the analysis of sunspots.

Known for his work

as astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher,
and mathematician, Galileo has been called the "father
of observational astronomy",[11] the "father of modern
physics",[12][13] the "father of the scientific method",[14] and
even the "father of science"

Kepler's laws are a mathematical formulation of the solar system.

But, is the solar system `really' composed of elliptical orbits, or is
this just a computational trick and the `real' solar system is
geocentric. Of course, the answer to questions of this nature is
observation.

The pioneer of astronomical observation in a modern context is

Galileo. Galileo (1620's) developed laws of motion (natural versus
forced motion, rest versus uniform motion). Then, with a small
refracting telescope (3-inches), destroyed the idea of a "perfect",
geocentric Universe with the following 5 discoveries:

spots on the Sun

mountains and "seas" (maria) on the Moon

 Milky Way is made of lots of stars

These first three are more of an aesthetic nature. Plato requires a

`perfect' Universe. Spots, craters and a broken Milky Way are all
features of imperfection and at odds with Plato's ideas on purely
philosophical grounds. However, the laws of motion are as pure as
Plato's celestial sphere, but clearly are not easy to apply in the world
of friction and air currents etc. So these observations, by themselves,
are not fatal to the geocentric theory. The next two are fatal and can
only be explained by a heliocentric model.

Venus has phases

 Jupiter has moons (Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Callisto,
Ganymede)

Notice that planets with phases are possible in a geocentric model.

But for a planet to change in apparent size with its phases, like
Venus is impossible if the planet orbits the same distance from the
Earth. And, lastly, if all bodies orbit around the Earth, then the
moons of Jupiter, which clearly orbit around that planet, are
definitive proof that the geocentric model is wrong.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS (/ˈnjuːtən/;[6] 25 December 1642 – 20
March 1726/27[1]) was an
English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author and p
hysicist(described in his own day as a "natural philosopher")
who is widely recognised as one of the most influential
scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific
revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica("Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations
of classical mechanics. Newton also made pathbreaking
contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus.

Newton's Principia formulated the laws of

motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists'
view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By
deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his
mathematical description of gravity, and using the same
principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides,
the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena,
Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of
the heliocentric model of the Solar System and demonstrated
that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies
could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's
theoretical prediction that the Earth is shaped as an oblate
spheroid was later vindicated by the geodetic measurements
of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, thus convincing
most Continental European scientists of the superiority
of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system
of Descartes.
Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and
developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the
observation that a prismdecomposes white light into the
colours of the visible spectrum. Newton's work on light was
collected in his highly influential book Opticks, first
published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical law of
cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of
sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In
addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton
contributed to the study of power series, generalised
the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed
a method for approximating the roots of a function, and
classified most of the cubic plane curves.

Newton (1680's) developed the law of Universal Gravitation, laws of

accelerated motion, invented calculus (math tool), the 1st reflecting
telescope and theory of light.

In the 18-20th century, with discovery of the outer planets and

where astronomy moves towards discoveries in stellar and galactic
areas, next paradigm shift occurs in early 1960's with NASA deep
space probes
The Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support
to the study of astronomy for over six centuries, from the recovery
of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the
Enlightenment, than any other, and, probably, all other, institutions.
Among the Church's motives was finding the date for Easter with
rain.

The biblical perception of rain as a natural phenomenon differs from

our contemporary scientific view. Any comparison is probably
inadvisable, since the Bible was written long before the rise of the
Western interest in science. Critical scholars, viewing the Bible as a
child of the ancient Near East, conclude that with respect to the
operations of the natural world it corresponds with the mythological
views of the surrounding cultures. The biblical view of rain does not
support that perspective. Rain is a surprisingly complex matter. .
Among the Church's motives was finding the date for Easter.

1. Rain From Heaven: The association of rain with heaven is a

natural one based on observation—rain falls from the sky ("The
land … drinks water from the rain from heaven" [Deut. 11:11]). Ac-
cording to critical scholars, the Hebrews believed in a cosmic ocean
above the solid firmament, and occasionally its windows were
opened and disastrous rain came down (Gen. 7:11; see Isa. 24:18). It
is also argued that other texts refer to places in heaven where rain,
snow, and hail were in storage, from which they came down upon
the earth (cf. Job 38:22). Other texts give the impression that in
heaven are found bottles full of water, and whenever God tilts them
water falls down to earth (Job 38:37). These suggestions need
evaluation.

First, the Bible does not teach that the firmament is a solid dome
holding back cosmic waters. This may be part of ancient mythology,
but it is not biblical. Second, the language of storage rooms, bottles,
and windows is obviously metaphorical. The windows of heaven are
also mentioned in conjunction with blessings, bread, and trouble
coming down from heaven (Mal. 3:10; 2 Kings 7:2; see Ps. 78:23;
Isa. 24:18). As far as I know, no one has suggested that these
windows are to be understood as literal. Third, the Israelites also
knew that rain came during the rainy season (Joel 2:23), and that it
fell from the clouds (Eccl. 11:3; Isa. 5:6). They also knew that the
wind from the north could bring rain (Prov. 25:23).

2. Origin of Rain: How, according to the Bible, does water get to the
sky or to the clouds? Did the Israelites have a natural way of
explaining this phenomenon, or did they simply say, "God does it"?
There is an answer that does not exclude God. First, we should
indicate that clouds "ascend from the ends of the earth" (Ps. 135:7;
Jer. 10:13), which could refer to the ocean (1 Kings 18:44) loaded
with water (Job 26:8). This water comes not from a cosmic ocean
above the firmament, but from the earth. Second, biblical writers
had a basic grasp of the cycle of evaporation: "For he [God] draws
up the drops of water; they distill his mist in rain, which the skies
[Heb. šeúāqîm, "clouds, sky"] pour down and drop on mankind
abundantly" (Job 36:27, 28, ESV).* Notice the process: God draws
up drops of water by transforming them into mist (vaporization),
the mist becomes liquid (condensation), and falls from the
sky/clouds as rain (precipitation). God is not excluded, because it is
through His power that it all takes place.

3. God Does It! Rain in the Bible is simple yet mysterious,

predictable and unpredictable; it nurtures life or destroys it.
Although the Hebrews had a good understanding of it, they always
marveled about it and its significance, crediting this wonder to the
Lord: "[God] does great things, and unsearchable, marvelous things
without number. He gives rain on the earth, and sends waters on the
fields" (Job 5:9, 10). This sense of wonder expressed itself in praises
to the Lord: "Sing to the Lord with thanksgiving . . . who covers the
heavens with clouds, who prepares rain for the earth" (Ps. 147:7, 8).
Even if they were unable to understand all aspects of the
phenomenon, particularly when it took the form of a storm, they
knew that God understood it well (Ps. 29). By saying "God does it,"
they showed gratitude and never took rain for granted. It was
always a gift from the Lord.

* Scripture quotations marked ESV are from The Holy Bible,

English Standard Version, copyright © 2001 by Crossway Bibles, a
division of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights
reserved.

William M. Thomson, author of The Land and the Book, first

published in 1880, wrote: "When I first came to Jerusalem, and for
many years afterward, this plot of ground was open to all whenever
they chose to come and meditate beneath its very old olive trees. The
Latins, however, have within the last few years succeeded in gaining
sole possession, and have built a high wall around it. The Greeks
have invented another site a little to the north of it. My own
impression is that both are wrong. The position is too near the city,
and so close to what must have always been the great thoroughfare
eastward, that our Lord would scarcely have selected it for
retirement on that dangerous and dismal night. I am inclined to
place the garden in the secluded vale several hundred yards to the
north-east of the present Gethsemane
Caloian is a rain ritual in Romania, similar in some ways to
Paparuda. It is mostly found in Wallachia (Southern part of
Romania). The origin of this ritual, as many other local popular
beliefs and practices, precedes the spreading of Christianity,
although it was in time associated with the period of the Orthodox
Easter.

According to the New Testament it was a place that Jesus and his
disciples customarily visited, which allowed Judas to find him on the
night of his arrest.[5]

There are four[6] locations claimed to be the place where Jesus

prayed on the night he was betrayed.

1. The Church of All Nations overlooking a garden with the "Rock of

the Agony."
2. The location near the Tomb of the Virgin Mary to the north.
3. The Greek Orthodox location to the east.
4. The Russian Orthodox orchard, next to the Church of Maria
Magdalene.

The ritual is celebrated in early spring as a fertilization ritual, or

whenever around the year during the time of severe drought or
excessive rain. Young girls make one to several clay dolls,
resembling male figures, most important being either "Father of the
Sun" or the "Mother of the Rain", depending on the purpose of the
ritual. This doll is dressed in common clothes, placed on a wooden
board or in an improvised tree-bark coffin, ornamented with
flowers and so pursuits a mock-up of the traditional burial ritual,
officiated by children. The suite marches through crop fields,
around water courses and wells until the "caloian" gets to be
buried. After three days, the "caloian" is unearthed, returned to the
village and mourned again until it is finally set loose to float on the
water of a river, lake or thrown into a well. This ceremony being
ended, the young girls who had attained the ceremony were baking
a special cake called "ghismán" or "ghizman" (from Ghetsemane,
as this ritual was often related to the Easter period) which was
shared with the rest of the children. Gethsemane (Greek:
Γεθσημανή, Gethsemane; Hebrew: ‫גת שמנים‬, Gat Shmanim;
Classical Syriac: ‫ܓܓܓܓܓ‬, Gaḏ Šmānê, lit. "oil press") is an urban
garden at the foot of the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, most famous
as the place where Jesus prayed and his disciples slept the night
before his crucifixion; i.e. the site recorded as where the agony in
the garden took place. Gethsemane appears in the Greek original of
the Gospel of Matthew[1] and the Gospel of Mark[2] as Γεθσημανή
(Gethsēmanē). The name is derived from the Aramaic‫ܓܓܓܓܓ‬
(Gaḏ-Šmānê), meaning "oil press".[3] Matthew (26:36) and Mark
(14:32) call it χωρἰον (18:1), meaning a place or estate. The Gospel
of John says Jesus entered a garden (κῆπος) with his disciples.[

."

In 1939, Martin Kamen and Samuel Ruben of the Radiation

Laboratory at Berkeley began experiments to determine if any of
the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half-lives
long enough to be of value in biomedical research. They synthesized
14

C using the laboratory's cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered

that the atom's half-life was far longer than had been previously
thought.[1] This was followed by a prediction by Serge A. Korff, then
employed at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, that the
interaction of slow neutrons with 14
N in the upper atmosphere would create 14
C.[2][3] It had previously been thought that 14
C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with
13

C.[1] At some time during World War II, Willard Libby, who was
then at Berkeley, learned of Korff's research and conceived the idea
that it might be possible to use radiocarbon for dating.[2][4]
In 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago where he began
his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in
which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14
C as well as non-radioactive carbon.[5][6] Libby and several
collaborators proceeded to experiment with methane collected from
sewage works in Baltimore, and after isotopically enriching their
samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained
radioactive 14
C. By contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no
radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were
summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, in which the authors
commented that their results implied it would be possible to date
materials containing carbon of organic origin.[5][7]

Libby and James Arnold proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating

theory by analyzing samples with known ages. For example, two
samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings, Zoser and
Sneferu, independently dated to 2625 BC plus or minus 75 years,
were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 BC
plus or minus 250 years. These results were published in Science in
1949.[8][9] Within 11 years of their announcement, more than 20
radiocarbon dating laboratories had been set up worldwide.[10]
Bertram Borden Boltwood (July 27, 1870 Amherst,
Massachusetts – August 15, 1927, Hancock Point, Maine)
was an American pioneer of radiochemistry.

He graduated from Yale University, and taught there 1897-

1900. He established that lead was the final decay product of
uranium, noted that the lead-uranium ratio was greater in
older rocks and, acting on a suggestion by Ernest
Rutherford, was the first to measure the age of rocks by
the decay of uranium to lead, in 1907. He got results of ages
of 400 to 2200 million years, the first successful use of
radioactive decay by Pb/U chemical dating (isotopes not
discovered yet). More recently, older mineral deposits have
been dated to about 4.4 billion years old, close to the best
estimate of the age of earth. Boltwood, Bertram (1907) "The
Ultimate Disintegration Products of the Radio-active
Elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium."
in American Journal of Science series 4, volume 23, pages
77–88.

Boltwoodite is named after him. He was a member of

the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

In his later days, Boltwood suffered from depression and

committed suicide on August 15, 1927. Radiometric
dating or radioactive dating is a technique used
to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace
radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when
they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a
naturally occurring radioactive isotope within the material to
the abundance of its decay products, which form at a known
constant rate of decay.[1] The use of radiometric dating was
first published in 1907 by Bertram Boltwood[2] and is now the
principal source of information about the absolute age of
rocks and other geological features, including the age
of fossilized life forms or the age of the Earth itself, and can
also be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made
materials.

Together with stratigraphic principles, radiometric dating

methods are used in geochronology to establish the geologic
time scale.[3] Among the best-known techniques
are radiocarbon dating, potassium–argon
dating and uranium–lead dating. By allowing the
establishment of geological timescales, it provides a
significant source of information about the ages
of fossilsand the deduced rates of evolutionary change.
Radiometric dating is also used to
date archaeological materials, including ancient artifacts.
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of
Nelson, OM, FRS[2] (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a
New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be known
as the father of nuclear physics.[3]Encyclopædia
Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist
since Michael Faraday (1791–1867).[3]

In early work, Rutherford discovered the concept of

radioactive half-life, proved that radioactivity involved the
nuclear transmutation of one chemical element to another,
and also differentiated and named alphaand beta
radiation.[4] This work was performed at McGill University in
Canada. It is the basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he
was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of
radioactive substances",[5] for which he was the first
Canadian and Oceanian Nobel laureate.

Rutherford performed his most famous work after receiving

the Nobel prize in 1908. Along with Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden in 1909, he carried out the Geiger–Marsden
experiment, which demonstrated the nuclear nature of atoms
by deflecting alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil.
Rutherford was inspired to ask Geiger and Marsden in this
experiment to look for alpha particles with very high
deflection angles, of a type not expected from any theory of
matter at that time. Such deflections, though rare, were
found, and proved to be a smooth but high-order function of
the deflection angle. It was Rutherford's interpretation of this
data that led him to formulate the Rutherford model of the
atom in 1911 – that a very small charged[8] nucleus,
containing much of the atom's mass, was orbited by low-
mass electrons

Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/;[a][1] Greek: Πλάτων[a] Plátōn, pronounced [pl

á.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423[b] – 348/347 BC)
was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of
the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning
in the Western world. He is widely considered the most
pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially
the Western tradition.[2] Unlike nearly all of his philosophical
contemporaries, Plato's entire work is believed to have
survived intact for over 2,400 years.[3] Others believe that the
oldest extant manuscript dates to around AD 895, 1100 years
after Plato's death. This makes it difficult to know exactly
what Plato wrote.[4][5]

Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous

student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western
philosophy and science.[6] Alfred North Whitehead once
noted: "the safest general characterization of the European
philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of
footnotes to Plato."[7] In addition to being a foundational
figure for Western science, philosophy, and mathematics,
Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders
of Western religion and spirituality.[8]

Plato was the innovator of the

written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato
appears to have been the founder of Western political
philosophy, with his Republic, and Laws among other
dialogues, providing some of the earliest extant treatments
of political questions from a philosophical perspective.
Plato's own most decisive philosophical influences are
usually thought to have been
Socrates, Parmenides, Heraclitus and Pythagoras, although
few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of
what we know about these figures today derives from Plato
himself.[9]

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Plato as

"...one of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary
tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and
influential authors in the history of philosophy. ... He was not
the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher”
should be applied. But he was so self-conscious about how
philosophy should be conceived, and what its scope and
ambitions properly are, and he so transformed the
intellectual currents with which he grappled, that the subject
of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and
systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical,
and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive
method—can be called his invention. Few other authors in
the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth
and range: perhaps only Aristotle (who studied with
him), Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of
the same ran

Zeus (/zjuːs/;[3] Greek: Ζεύς, Zeús [zdeǔ̯s])[4] is

the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion, who rules
as king of the gods of Mount Olympus. His name
is cognate with the first element of
his Roman equivalent Jupiter. His mythologies and powers
are similar, though not identical, to those of Indo-European
deities such as Indra, Jupiter, Perkūnas, Perun, Thor,
and Odin.[5][6][7]

Zeus is the child of Cronus and Rhea, the youngest of his

siblings to be born, though sometimes reckoned the eldest
as the others required disgorging from Cronus's stomach. In
most traditions, he is married to Hera, by whom he is usually
said to have fathered Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus.[8] At
the oracle of Dodona, his consort was said to be Dione, by
whom the Iliad states that he fathered Aphrodite.[11] Zeus was
also infamous for his erotic escapades. These resulted in
many godly and heroic offspring,
including Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Persephone, Dio
nysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos, and
the Muses.[8]

He was respected as an allfather who was chief of the

gods[12] and assigned the others to their roles:[13] "Even the
gods who are not his natural children address him as Father,
and all the gods rise in his presence."[14][15] He
was equated with many foreign weather gods,
permitting Pausanias to observe "That Zeus is king in
heaven is a saying common to all men".[16] Zeus' symbols are
the thunderbolt, eagle, bull, and oak. In addition to his Indo-
European inheritance, the classical "cloud-gatherer"
(Greek: Νεφεληγερέτα, Nephelēgereta)[17] also derives certain
iconographic traits from the cultures of the ancient Near
East, such as the scepter. Zeus is frequently depicted by
Greek artists in one of two poses: standing, striding forward
with a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right hand, or seated
in majesty.
The god's name in the nominative is Ζεύς Zeús. It is inflected
as
follows: vocative: ΖεῦZeû; accusative: Δία Día; genitive: Διός
Diós; dative: Διί Dií. Diogenes Laertius quotes Pherecydes
of Syros as spelling the name, Ζάς.[18]

Zeus is the Greek continuation of *Di̯ ēus, the name of

the Proto-Indo-European god of the daytime sky, also called
*Dyeus ph2tēr ("Sky Father").[19][20] The god is known under
this name in the Rigveda (Vedic Sanskrit Dyaus/Dyaus
Pita), Latin (compare Jupiter, from Iuppiter, deriving from
the Proto-Indo-European vocative *dyeu-ph2tēr),[21] deriving
from the root *dyeu- ("to shine", and in its many derivatives,
"sky, heaven, god").[19] Zeus is the only deity in the
Olympic pantheon whose name has such a transparent Indo-
European etymology.[22]

The earliest attested forms of the name are the Mycenaean

Greek 𐀇𐀇, di-we and 𐀇𐀇, di-wo, written in the Linear
B syllabic script.[23]

Plato, in his Cratylus, gives a folk etymology of Zeus

meaning "cause of life always to all things," because of puns
between alternate titles of Zeus (Zen and Dia) with the Greek
words for life and "because of."[24] This etymology, along
with Plato's entire method of deriving etymologies, is not
supported by modern scholarshi

Name

The Chariot of Zeus, from an 1879 Stories from the Greek

Tragedians by Alfred Church.

The god's name in the nominative is Ζεύς Zeús. It is inflected

as
follows: vocative: ΖεῦZeû; accusative: Δία Día; genitive: Διός
Diós; dative: Διί Dií. Diogenes Laertius quotes Pherecydes
of Syros as spelling the name, Ζάς.[18]

Zeus is the Greek continuation of *Di̯ ēus, the name of

the Proto-Indo-European god of the daytime sky, also called
*Dyeus ph2tēr ("Sky Father").[19][20] The god is known under
this name in the Rigveda (Vedic Sanskrit Dyaus/Dyaus
Pita), Latin (compare Jupiter, from Iuppiter, deriving from
the Proto-Indo-European vocative *dyeu-ph2tēr),[21] deriving
from the root *dyeu- ("to shine", and in its many derivatives,
"sky, heaven, god").[19] Zeus is the only deity in the
Olympic pantheon whose name has such a transparent Indo-
European etymology.[22]

The earliest attested forms of the name are the Mycenaean

Greek 𐀇𐀇, di-we and 𐀇𐀇, di-wo, written in the Linear
B syllabic script.[23]

Plato, in his Cratylus, gives a folk etymology of Zeus

meaning "cause of life always to all things," because of puns
between alternate titles of Zeus (Zen and Dia) with the Greek
words for life and "because of."[24] This etymology, along
with Plato's entire method of deriving etymologies, is not
supported by modern scholarship.[25][26]

Mythology
Zeus, at the Getty Villa, A.D. 1 – 100 by unknown.

Birth

"Cave of Zeus", Mount Ida (Crete).

Cronus sired several children

by Rhea: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon, but
swallowed them all as soon as they were born, since he had
learned from Gaiaand Uranus that he was destined to be
overthrown by his son as he had previously overthrown
Uranus, his own father, an oracle that Rhea heard and
wished to avert.

When Zeus was about to be born, Rhea sought Gaia to

devise a plan to save him, so that Cronus would get his
retribution for his acts against Uranus and his own children.
Rhea gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock
wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly
swallowed.[27]

Infancy
Rhea hid Zeus in a cave on Mount Ida in Crete. According to
varying versions of the story:

1. He was then raised by Gaia.

2. He was raised by a goat named Amalthea, while a
company of Kouretes— soldiers, or smaller gods—
danced, shouted and clashed their spears against their
shields so that Cronus would not hear the baby's cry
(see cornucopia). According to some versions of this
story he was reared by Amalthea in a cave
called Dictaeon Andron (Psychro Cave) in Lasithi
plateau.
3. He was raised by a nurse named Amalthea. Since Saturn
(Cronus) ruled over the Earth, the heavens and the sea,
she hid him by dangling him on a ropefrom a tree so he
was suspended between earth, sea and sky and thus,
invisible to his father.
4. He was raised by a nymph named Cynosura. In
gratitude, Zeus placed her among the stars.
5. He was raised by Melissa, who nursed him with goat's
milk and honey.
6. He was raised by a shepherd family under the promise
that their sheep would be saved from wolves.
King of the gods

Colossal seated Marnasfrom Gaza portrayed in the style of

Zeus. Roman period Marnas[28] was the chief divinity of Gaza
(Istanbul Archaeology Museum).

After reaching manhood, Zeus forced Cronus to disgorge

first the stone (which was set down at Pytho under the glens
of Parnassus to be a sign to mortal men, the Omphalos) then
his siblings in reverse order of swallowing. In some
versions, Metis gave Cronus an emetic to force him to
disgorge the babies, or Zeus cut Cronus's stomach open.
Then Zeus released the brothers of Cronus,
the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes, from their dungeon
in Tartarus, killing their guard, Campe.

As a token of their appreciation, the Cyclopes gave

him thunder and the thunderbolt, or lightning, which had
previously been hidden by Gaia. Together, Zeus, his brothers
and sisters, Hecatonchires and Cyclopes overthrew Cronus
and the other Titans, in the combat called the Titanomachy.
The defeated Titans were then cast into a shadowy
underworld region known as Tartarus. Atlas, one of the titans
who fought against Zeus, was punished by having to hold up
the sky.

After the battle with the Titans, Zeus shared the world with
his elder brothers, Poseidon and Hades, by drawing lots:
Zeus got the sky and air, Poseidon the waters, and Hades the
world of the dead (the underworld). The ancient Earth, Gaia,
could not be claimed; she was left to all three, each
according to their capabilities, which explains why Poseidon
was the "earth-shaker" (the god of earthquakes) and Hades
claimed the humans who died (see also Penthus).

Gaia resented the way Zeus had treated the Titans, because
they were her children. Soon after taking the throne as king
of the gods, Zeus had to fight some of Gaia's other children,
the monsters Typhon and Echidna. He vanquished Typhon
and trapped him under Mount Etna, but left Echidna and her
children alive.

Zeus and Hera

: Hera
Zeus was brother and consort of Hera. By Hera, Zeus
sired Ares, Hebe and Hephaestus, though some accounts
say that Hera produced these offspring alone. Some also
include Eileithyia, Eris, Enyo and Angelos as their daughters.
In the section of the Iliad known to scholars as the Deception
of Zeus, the two of them are described as having begun their
sexual relationship without their parents knowing about
it.[29] The conquests of Zeus among nymphs and the mythic
mortal progenitors of Hellenic dynasties are famous.
Olympian mythography even credits him with unions
with Leto, Demeter, Metis, Themis, Eurynome and Mnemosyn
e.[30][31] Other relationships with immortals
included Dione and Maia. Among mortals
were Semele, Io, Europa and Leda (for more details, see
below) and with the young Ganymede (although he was
mortal Zeus granted him eternal youth and immortality).

Many myths render Hera as jealous of his amorous

conquests and a consistent enemy of Zeus's mistresses and
their children by him. For a time, a nymph named Echo had
the job of distracting Hera from his affairs by talking
incessantly, and when Hera discovered the deception, she
cursed Echo to repeat the words of others.

Consorts and offspring

 Semi-divine/mortal
Divine offspring
offspring
Mother Children
Mother Children

Aega Aegipan[32] 1. Aeacus

Aegina 2. Damocrat
Moirai/Fates1
eia[33]
Ananke or Th
1. Atropos Alcmene Heracles
emis
2. Clotho
1. Amphion
3. Lachesis Antiope
2. Zethus
Aphrodite Tyche6 (possibly)
Anaxithea Olenus
Demeter Persephone
Asterope,
Acragas
Dione or Thal Oceanid
Aphrodite
assa
Callisto Arcas
Eris Limos
Aethlius (possi
Calyce
Charites/Graces2 bly)
Eurynome/E
urydome/ 1. Aglaea no known
Callirhoe
Eurymedusa/ 2. Euphrosyne offspring
(daughter
Euanthe 3. Thalia of Achelou
s)
Gaia 1. Manes
Carme Britomartis
1. Angelos
2. Ares3 Cassiopeia Atymnius
3. Eileithyia
1. Solymus
Hera 4. Enyo Chaldene
2. Milye
5. Eris
Danaë Perseus
6. Hebe3
7. Hephaestus3 Dia Pirithous

1. Apollo
Leto Elara 1. Tityos
2. Artemis
1. Dardanus
Maia Hermes
Electra 2. Iasion
Metis Athena4 3. Harmonia

1. Muses (Original 1. Minos

three) 2. Rhadama
Mnemosyne 1. Aoide Europa nthus

2. Melete 3. Sarpedon

3. Mneme 4. Alagonia
 2. Muses (Later 5. Carnus
nine) 6. Dodon[34]
1. Calliope Eurymedo
Myrmidon
2. Clio usa
3. Euterpe
Euryodeia Arcesius
4. Erato
5. Melpomene 1. Kronios
6. Polyhymnia Himalia 2. Spartaios
7. Terpsichore 3. Kytos
8. Thalia
Idaea,
9. Urania Cres
nymph
Nemesis Helen of Troy (possibly)
Iodame Thebe
1. Zagreus
Persephone 1. Epaphus
2. Melinoe Io
2. Keroessa
1. Ersa
Isonoe Orchomenus
Selene 2. Nemean Lion
3. Pandia Lamia Achilleus[35]
Thalia Palici
Lamia
Libyan Sibyl
Themis (daughter
1. Astraea
2. Nymphs of
of Eridanos Poseidon)
3. Nemesis
Laodamia Sarpedon
4. Horae
1. First 1. Pollux
Generation Leda 2. Helen of
1. Auxo Troy5

2. Carpo Maera Locrus

3. Thallo
1. Argus
2. Second Niobe
2. Pelasgus
Generation
1. Dike Othreis Meliteus

2. Eirene
Pandora Graecus
3. Euno
mia Phthia

3. Third (daughter Achaeus (possi

generation of Phoron bly)

eus)
1. Pheru
sa Plouto Tantalus
2. Eupor
ie Podarge 1. Balius
 3. Ortho 2. Xanthus
sie 1. Aethlius(p
Protogenei
4. Adikia ossibly)
a
Eos 1. Carae 2. Opus

Pyrrha Hellen
Unknown
Aletheia
mother Semele Dionysus

Unknown Taygete Lacedaemon

Ate
mother
1. Magnes
Unknown Thyia 2. Makedno
Caerus
mother
s

Unknown Torrhebia Carius

Litae
mother
Nymph
Iarbas
African

Nymph
Samothrac Saon (possibly)
ian

Nymph Megarus
 Sithnid

1. Calabrus
Unknown
2. Geraestus
mother
3. Taenarus

Unknown
Corinthus
mother

Unknown
Crinacus
mother

1The Greeks variously claimed that the Moires/Fates were the

daughters of Zeus and the Titaness Themis or of primordial
beings like Chaos, Nyx, or Ananke.
2The Charites/Graces were usually considered the daughters
of Zeus and Eurynome but they were also said to be
daughters of Dionysus and Aphrodite or of Helios and the
naiad Aegle.
3Some accounts say that Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus were
born parthenogenetically.
4According to one version, Athena is said to be born
parthenogenetically.
5Helen was either the daughter of Leda or Nemesis.
6Tyche is usually considered a daughter of Aphrodite and
Hermes.

Roles and epithets

See also: Category:Epithets of Zeus

Roman marble colossal head of Zeus, 2nd century AD

(British Museum)[36]

Zeus played a dominant role, presiding over

the Greek Olympian pantheon. He fathered many of the
heroes and was featured in many of their local cults. Though
the Homeric "cloud collector" was the god of the sky and
thunder like his Near-Eastern counterparts, he was also the
supreme cultural artifact; in some senses, he was the
embodiment of Greek religious beliefs and
the archetypal Greek deity.
Aside from local epithets that simply designated the deity as
doing something random at some particular place,
the epithets or titles applied to Zeus emphasized different
aspects of his wide-ranging authority:

 Zeus Aegiduchos or Aegiochos: Usually taken as Zeus as

the bearer of the Aegis, the divine shield with the head
of Medusa across it,[37][38][39] although others derive it from
"goat" (αἴξ) and okhē (οχή) in reference to Zeus's nurse,
the divine goat Amalthea.[40][41]
 Zeus Agoraeus: Zeus as patron of the marketplace (agora)
and punisher of dishonest traders.
 Zeus Areius: either "warlike" or "the atoning one".
 Zeus Horkios: Zeus as keeper of oaths. Exposed liars were
made to dedicate a votive statue to Zeus, often at the
sanctuary at Olympia
 Zeus Olympios: Zeus as king of the gods and patron of
the Panhellenic Games at Olympia
 Zeus Panhellenios ("Zeus of All the Greeks"): worshipped
at Aeacus's temple on Aegina
 Zeus Xenios, Philoxenon, or Hospites: Zeus as the patron
of hospitality (xenia) and guests, avenger of wrongs done
to strangers
Additional names and epithets for Zeus are also:

 Abrettenus (Ἀβρεττηνός): surname of Zeus in Mysia[42]

 Apemius: Zeus as the averter of ills
 Apomyius Zeus as one who dispels flies
 Astrapios ("Lightninger"): Zeus as a weather god
 Bottiaeus: Worshipped at Antioch[43]
 Brontios ("Thunderer"): Zeus as a weather god
 Diktaios: Zeus as lord of the Dikte mountain range,
worshipped from Mycenaean times on Crete[44]
 Ithomatas: Worshipped at Mount Ithome in Messenia
 Zeus Adados: A Hellenization of
the Canaanite Hadad and Assyrian Adad, particularly his
solar cult at Heliopolis[45]
 Zeus Bouleus: Worshipped at Dodona, the earliest oracle,
along with Zeus Naos
 Zeus Georgos (Ζεὺς Γεωργός, "Zeus the Farmer"): Zeus as
god of crops and the harvest, worshipped in Athens
 Zeus Helioupolites ("Heliopolite" or "Heliopolitan Zeus"):
A Hellenization of the Canaanite Baʿal (probably Hadad)
worshipped as a sun
god at Heliopolis (modern Baalbek)[45]
 Zeus Kasios ("Zeus of Mount Kasios" the modern Jebel
Aqra): Worshipped at a site on the Syrian–Turkish border,
a Hellenization of the Canaanite mountain and weather
god Baal Zephon
 Zeus Labrandos ("Zeus of Labraunda"): Worshiped
at Caria, depicted with a double-edged axe (labrys), a
Hellenization of the Hurrian weather god Teshub
 Zeus Meilichios ("Zeus the Easily-Entreated"): Worshipped
at Athens, a form of the archaic
chthonic daimon Meilichios
 Zeus Naos: Worshipped at Dodona, the earliest oracle,
along with Zeus Bouleus
 Zeus Tallaios ("Solar Zeus"): Worshipped on Crete

Cults of Zeus
Marble eagle from the sanctuary of Zeus
Hypsistos, Archaeological Museum of Dion.

Panhellenic cults

The major center where all Greeks converged to pay honor to

their chief god was Olympia. Their
quadrennial festival featured the famous Games. There was
also an altar to Zeus made not of stone, but of ash, from the
accumulated remains of many centuries' worth of animals
sacrificed there.

Outside of the major inter-polis sanctuaries, there were no

modes of worshipping Zeus precisely shared across the
Greek world. Most of the titles listed below, for instance,
could be found at any number of Greek temples from Asia
Minor to Sicily. Certain modes of ritual were held in common
as well: sacrificing a white animal over a raised altar, for
instance.

Zeus Velchanos

With one exception, Greeks were unanimous in recognizing

the birthplace of Zeus as Crete. Minoan culture contributed
many essentials of ancient Greek religion: "by a hundred
channels the old civilization emptied itself into the new", Will
Durant observed,[46] and Cretan Zeus retained his youthful
Minoan features. The local child of the Great Mother, "a small
and inferior deity who took the roles of son and
consort",[47] whose Minoan name the Greeks Hellenized as
Velchanos, was in time assumed as an epithet by Zeus, as
transpired at many other sites, and he came to be venerated
in Crete as Zeus Velchanos("boy-Zeus"), often simply
the Kouros.
In Crete, Zeus was worshipped at a number of caves
at Knossos, Ida and Palaikastro. In the Hellenistic period a
small sanctuary dedicated to Zeus Velchanos was founded at
the Hagia Triada site of a long-ruined Minoan palace. Broadly
contemporary coins from Phaistos show the form under
which he was worshiped: a youth sits among the branches of
a tree, with a cockerel on his knees.[48] On other Cretan coins
Velchanos is represented as an eagle and in association with
a goddess celebrating a mystic marriage.[49] Inscriptions
at Gortyn and Lyttos record a Velchania festival, showing
that Velchanios was still widely venerated in Hellenistic
Crete.[50]

The stories of Minos and Epimenides suggest that these

caves were once used for incubatory divination by kings and
priests. The dramatic setting of Plato's Laws is along the
pilgrimage-route to one such site, emphasizing archaic
Cretan knowledge. On Crete, Zeus was represented in art as
a long-haired youth rather than a mature adult and hymned
as ho megas kouros, "the great youth". Ivory statuettes of
the "Divine Boy" were unearthed near
the Labyrinth at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans.[51]With
the Kouretes, a band of ecstatic armed dancers, he presided
over the rigorous military-athletic training and secret rites of
the Cretan paideia.

The myth of the death of Cretan Zeus, localised in numerous

mountain sites though only mentioned in a comparatively
late source, Callimachus,[52] together with the assertion
of Antoninus Liberalis that a fire shone forth annually from
the birth-cave the infant shared with a mythic swarm of bees,
suggests that Velchanos had been an annual vegetative
spirit.[53] The Hellenistic writer Euhemerus apparently
proposed a theory that Zeus had actually been a great king
of Crete and that posthumously, his glory had slowly turned
him into a deity. The works of Euhemerus himself have not
survived, but Christian patristic writers took up the
suggestion.

Zeus Lykaios
Further information: Lykaia
Laurel-wreathed head of Zeus on a gold stater, Lampsacus, c
360–340 BC (Cabinet des Médailles).

The epithet Zeus Lykaios ("wolf-Zeus") is assumed by Zeus

only in connection with the archaic festival of the Lykaia on
the slopes of Mount Lykaion ("Wolf Mountain"), the tallest
peak in rustic Arcadia; Zeus had only a formal
connection[54] with the rituals and myths of this primitive rite
of passage with an ancient threat of cannibalism and the
possibility of a werewolf transformation for the ephebes who
were the participants.[55] Near the ancient ash-heap where the
sacrifices took place[56] was a forbidden precinct in which,
allegedly, no shadows were ever cast.[57]

According to Plato,[58] a particular clan would gather on the

mountain to make a sacrifice every nine years to Zeus
Lykaios, and a single morsel of human entrails would be
intermingled with the animal's. Whoever ate the human flesh
was said to turn into a wolf, and could only regain human
form if he did not eat again of human flesh until the next
nine-year cycle had ended. There were games associated
with the Lykaia, removed in the fourth century to the first
urbanization of Arcadia, Megalopolis; there the major temple
was dedicated to Zeus Lykaios.
There is, however, the crucial detail
that Lykaios or Lykeios (epithets of Zeus and Apollo) may
derive from Proto-Greek *λύκη, "light", a noun still attested in
compounds such as ἀμφιλύκη, "twilight", λυκάβας, "year"
(lit. "light's course") etc. This, Cook argues, brings indeed
much new 'light' to the matter as Achaeus, the contemporary
tragedian of Sophocles, spoke of Zeus Lykaios as "starry-
eyed", and this Zeus Lykaios may just be the Arcadian Zeus,
son of Aether, described by Cicero. Again under this new
signification may be seen Pausanias' descriptions of
Lykosoura being 'the first city that ever the sun beheld', and
of the altar of Zeus, at the summit of Mount Lykaion, before
which stood two columns bearing gilded eagles and 'facing
the sun-rise'. Further Cook sees only the tale of Zeus' sacred
precinct at Mount Lykaion allowing no shadows referring to
Zeus as 'god of light' (Lykaios).[59]

Additional cults of Zeus

Although etymology indicates that Zeus was originally a sky

god, many Greek cities honored a local Zeus who lived
underground. Athenians and Sicilians honored Zeus
Meilichios ("kindly" or "honeyed") while other cities
had Zeus Chthonios ("earthy"), Zeus Katachthonios ("under-
the-earth") and Zeus Plousios ("wealth-bringing"). These
deities might be represented as snakes or in human form in
visual art, or, for emphasis as both together in one image.
They also received offerings of black animal victims
sacrificed into sunken pits, as did chthonic deities
like Persephone and Demeter, and also the heroes at their
tombs. Olympian gods, by contrast, usually received white
victims sacrificed upon raised altars.

In some cases, cities were not entirely sure whether

the daimon to whom they sacrificed was a hero or an
underground Zeus. Thus the shrine at Lebadaea
in Boeotia might belong to the hero Trophonius or to Zeus
Trephonius ("the nurturing"), depending on whether you
believe Pausanias, or Strabo. The hero Amphiaraus was
honored as Zeus Amphiaraus at Oropus outside of Thebes,
and the Spartans even had a shrine to Zeus Agamemnon.
Ancient Molossian kings sacrificed to Zeus Areius.

Non-panhellenic cults

In addition to the Panhellenic titles and conceptions listed

above, local cults maintained their own idiosyncratic ideas
about the king of gods and men. With the
epithet Zeus Aetnaeus he was worshiped on Mount Aetna,
where there was a statue of him, and a local festival called
the Aetnaea in his honor.[60] Other examples are listed below.
As Zeus Aeneius or Zeus Aenesius, he was worshiped in the
island of Cephalonia, where he had a temple on Mount
Aenos.[61]

Oracles of Zeus

Roman cast terracotta of ram-horned Jupiter Ammon, 1st

century AD (Museo Barracco, Rome).

Although most oracle sites were usually dedicated to Apollo,

the heroes, or various goddesses like Themis, a few oracular
sites were dedicated to Zeus. In addition, some foreign
oracles, such as Baʿal's at Heliopolis, were associated with
Zeus in Greek or Jupiter in Latin.

The Oracle at Dodona

The cult of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus, where there is evidence

of religious activity from the second millennium BC onward,
centered on a sacred oak. When the Odyssey was composed
(circa 750 BC), divination was done there by barefoot priests
called Selloi, who lay on the ground and observed the
rustling of the leaves and branches.[62] By the
time Herodotus wrote about Dodona, female priestesses
called peleiades ("doves") had replaced the male priests.

Zeus's consort at Dodona was not Hera, but the

goddess Dione — whose name is a feminine form of "Zeus".
Her status as a titaness suggests to some that she may have
been a more powerful pre-Hellenic deity, and perhaps the
original occupant of the oracle.

The Oracle at Siwa

The oracle of Ammon at the Siwa Oasis in the Western

Desert of Egypt did not lie within the bounds of the Greek
world before Alexander's day, but it already loomed large in
the Greek mind during the archaic era: Herodotus mentions
consultations with Zeus Ammon in his account of
the Persian War. Zeus Ammon was especially favored
at Sparta, where a temple to him existed by the time of
the Peloponnesian War.[63]
After Alexander made a trek into the desert to consult the
oracle at Siwa, the figure arose in the Hellenistic imagination
of a Libyan Sibyl.

Zeus and foreign gods

Evolution of Zeus Nikephoros ("Zeus holding Nike") on Indo-

Greekcoinage: from the Classical motif of Nike handing
the wreath of victory to Zeus himself (left, coin of Heliocles
I 145-130 BC), then to a baby elephant (middle, coin
of Antialcidas 115-95 BC), and then to the Wheel of the Law,
symbol of Buddhism (right, coin of Menander II 90–85 BC).
Zeus as Vajrapāni, the protector of the Buddha. 2nd
century, Greco-Buddhist art.[64]

Zeus was identified with the Roman god Jupiter and

associated in the syncretic classical imagination
(see interpretatio graeca) with various other deities, such as
the Egyptian Ammon and the Etruscan Tinia. He, along
with Dionysus, absorbed the role of the
chief Phrygiangod Sabazios in the syncretic deity known in
Rome as Sabazius. The Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV
Epiphaneserected a statue of Zeus Olympios in the Judean
Temple in Jerusalem.[65] Hellenizing Jews referred to this
statue as Baal Shamen (in English, Lord of Heaven).[66]

Zeus and the sun

Zeus is occasionally conflated with the Hellenic sun

god, Helios, who is sometimes either directly referred to as
Zeus' eye,[67] or clearly implied as such. Hesiod, for instance,
describes Zeus's eye as effectively the sun.[68] This
perception is possibly derived from earlier Proto-Indo-
European religion, in which the sun is occasionally
envisioned as the eye of *Dyḗus Pḥatḗr (see Hvare-
khshaeta).[69]
The Cretan Zeus Tallaios had solar elements to his cult.
"Talos" was the local equivalent of Helios.[70]

Zeus in philosophy

In Neoplatonism, Zeus's relation to the gods familiar from

mythology is taught as the Demiurge or Divine Mind.
Specifically within Plotinus's work the Enneads[71] and
the Platonic Theology of Proclus.

Zeus in the Bible

Zeus is mentioned in the New Testament twice, first in Acts

14:8–13: When the people living in Lystra saw the Apostle
Paulheal a lame man, they considered Paul and his
partner Barnabas to be gods, identifying Paul
with Hermes and Barnabas with Zeus, even trying to offer
them sacrifices with the crowd. Two ancient inscriptions
discovered in 1909 near Lystra testify to the worship of these
two gods in that city.[72] One of the inscriptions refers to the
"priests of Zeus", and the other mentions "Hermes Most
Great"" and "Zeus the sun-god".[73]

The second occurrence is in Acts 28:11: the name of the ship

in which the prisoner Paul set sail from the island of Malta
bore the figurehead "Sons of Zeus" aka Castor and Pollux.
The deuterocanonical book of 2 Maccabees 6:1, 2 talks of
King Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), who in his attempt to stamp
out the Jewish religion, directed that the temple at Jerusalem
be profaned and rededicated to Zeus (Jupiter Olympius).[74]

Zeus in the Iliad

Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida by James Barry, 1773 (City

Art Galleries, Sheffield.)

The Iliad is a poem by Homer about the Trojan war and the
battle over the City of Troy. As God of the sky, lightning,
thunder, law, order, justice, Zeus controlled ancient
Greece and all of the mortals and immortalsliving
there.[75] The Iliad covers the Trojan War, in which Zeus plays
a major part.

Notable Scenes that include Zeus[76][77]

 Book 2: Zeus sends Agamemnon a dream and is able to
partially control his decisions because of the effects of the
dream
 Book 4: Zeus promises Hera to ultimately destroy the City
of Troy at the end of the war
 Book 7: Zeus and Poseidon ruin the Achaeans fortress
 Book 8: Zeus prohibits the other Gods from fighting each
other and has to return to Mount Ida where he can think
over his decision that the Greeks will lose the war
 Book 14: Zeus is seduced by Hera and becomes distracted
while she helps out the Greeks
 Book 15: Zeus wakes up and realizes that Poseidon his
own brother has been helping out the Greeks, while also
sending Hector and Apollo to help fight the Trojans
ensuring that the City of Troy will fall
 Book 16: Zeus is upset that he couldn't help save
Sarpedon's life because it would then contradict his
previous decisions
 Book 17: Zeus is emotionally hurt by the fate of Hector
 Book 20: Zeus lets the other Gods help out their
respective sides in the war
 Book 24: Zeus demands that Achilles (his son) release the
corpse of Hector to be buried honourably
A statue of Zeus in a drawing.

A bust of Zeus.

Zeus's notable conflicts

The most notable conflict in Zeus's history was his struggle

for power. Zeus's parents Cronus and Rhea ruled the Ancient
World after taking control from Uranus, Cronus's father.
When Cronus realized that he wanted power for the rest of
time he started to eat his children, Hestia, Demeter, Hera,
Hades, and Poseidon. When Rhea realized what was going
on, she quickly saved their youngest child, Zeus. Having
escaped, Zeus was spared because of the swiftness of Rhea
tricking Cronus into thinking she consumed Zeus. She
wrapped a stone in a blanket, and Cronus swallowed it
thinking he was swallowing his last child.[78] As a result of
this, Zeus was shipped off to live on the island of Crete.

When Zeus was atop Mount Olympus he grew upset with

mankind and the sacrifices they were performing on one
another. Furiously, he decided it would be smart to wipe out
mankind with a gigantic flood using the help of his
brother Poseidon, King of the Seas. Killing every human
except Deucalion and Pyrrha, Zeus flooded the entire planet
but then realized he then had to restore society with new
people. After clearing all the water, he had Deucalion and
Pyrrah create humans to repopulate the earth using stones
that became humans. These stones represented the
"hardness" of mankind and the man life. This story has been
told different ways and in different time periods between
Ancient Greek Mythology and The Bible, although the base of
the story remains true.[79]

Throughout history Zeus has used violence to get his way, or

even terrorize humans. As God of the sky he has the power
 to hurl lightning bolts as his weapon of choice. Since
lightning is quite powerful and sometimes deadly, it is a bold
sign when lightning strikes because it is known that Zeus
most likely threw the bolt.[80]

In modern culture

Depictions of Zeus as a bull, the form he took when

abducting Europa, are found on the Greek 2-euro coin and on
the United Kingdom identity card for visa holders. Mary
Beard, professor of Classics at Cambridge University, has
criticised this for its apparent celebration of rape.[81]

Genealogy of the Olympians

[hide]Olympians' family tree [82]

Uranus Gaia

Uranus' geni
Cronus Rhea
tals

ZEU Hera Poseid Hade Demet Hesti

S on s er a

a[83]

b[84]

Hephaest
Ares
us

Metis

Athena[8
5]

Leto

Apoll
Artemis
o

Maia

Hermes

Semele
 Dionysu
s

Dione

a[86] b[87]

Aphrodi
te

Argive genealogy

Argive genealogy in Greek mythology

 v
 t
 e

Inac Mel
hus ia

Ze Io Pho
 us ron
eus

Epa Me
phu mph
s is

Pos
Liby
eid
a
on

Tele
Belu Ach Age
pha
s iroë nor
ssa

Ph
Aeg
Dan Pie Cad Eur oen
ypt Cilix
aus ria mus opa ix
us
 Z
Hyp
Man Lyn Har e
erm
tine ceu mo u
nest
us s nia s
ra

Poly
doru
s

S Rh
p ada
Lace Sar
a Ocal Aba Aga ma
dae ped
r ea s ve nth
mon on
t us
a

Aut
ono
ë

Eury Acri Ino Min

 dice sius os

Da Se
Zeu
Zeus na mel
s
ë e

Pers Dion
eus ysus

Colour key:

Male
Female
Deity

Louis Jolliet (September 21, 1645 – last seen May 1700) was a
French Canadianexplorer known for his discoveries in North
America.[1] Jolliet and Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette, a Catholic
priest and missionary, were the first non-Natives to explore and map
the Mississippi River in 1673. Dodola (also spelled Doda, Dudulya
and Didilya, pronounced: doh-doh-la, doo-doo-lya, or dee-dee-lya)
also known under the names Paparuda, Perperuna or Preperuša is a
pagan tradition found in the Balkans. A girl, wearing a skirt made
of fresh green knitted vines and small branches, sings and dances
through the streets of the village, stopping at every house, where the
hosts sprinkle water on her. She is accompanied by the people of the
village who dance and shout on the music. The custom has
attributed a specific type of dance and a specific melody.

According to some interpretations, Dodola is a Slavic goddess of

rain,[1] and the wife of the supreme god Perun (who is the god of
thunder). Slavs believed that when Dodola milks her heavenly cows,
the clouds, it rains on earth. Each spring Dodola is said to fly over
woods and fields, and spread vernal greenery, decorating the trees
with blossoms

The custom is known by two names, mostly spelled Dodola (dodole,

dudula, dudulica, dodolă) and Perperuna (peperuda, peperuna,
perperuna, prporuša, preporuša, paparudă, pirpirună). Both names
are used by the South Slavs and Romanians.

The name Perperuna is identified as a feminine personification of

the great god Perun.[ Sorin Paliga suggested that it was a divinity
from the local Thracian substratum.[2] The name of Dodola is
possibly cognate with the Lithuanian word for thunder: dundulis.[2]
D. Decev compared the word "dodola" (also dudula, dudulica, etc.)
with Thracian anthroponyms (personal names) and toponyms (place
names), such as Doidalsos, Doidalses, Dydalsos, Dudis, Doudoupes,
etc.[3] Paliga argued that based on this, the custom most likely
originated from the Thracians.[2]

A much more likely explanation for the variations of the name

Didilya is that this is a title for the spring goddess Lada/Lela that
got turned into the "name" of a goddess. Ralston explains that dido,
means “great” and is usually used in conjunction with the spring
god Lado.[4]

South Slavs used to organise the Dodole (or Perperuna) festival in

times of drought, where they worshipped the goddess and prayed to
her for rain. In the ritual, young women sing specific songs to
Dodola, accompanying it by a dance, while covered in leaves and
small branches. In Croatia Dodole is often performed by folklore
groups.

In folklore of Turopolje on the holidays of St. Juraj called Jurjevo

five most beautiful maidens are picked to portray Dodola goddesses
in leaf-dresses and sing for the village till the end of the holiday.

Croatian ritual chant sung by youngsters going through the village

in the dry, summer months.
Naša dodo Boga moli,

Da orosi sitna kiša,

Oj, dodo, oj dodole!

Mi idemo preko sela,

A kišica preko polja,

Oj, dodo, oj, dodole!

Dodole in Macedonia

The oldest record for Dodole rituals in Macedonia is the song "Oj
Ljule" from Struga region, recorded in 1861

Cat Parade,Rain is important for agriculturists, since they want

water for growing plants. When the rain doesn't fall in a season,
people use traditional means of making rain to solve the problem of
the lack of rainfall. In Thailand, there is a tradition called the "Cat
Parade".[8]

The "Cat Parade" is a ritual of Thai farmers in both the central and
eastern parts of the country. It is performed when close to the rainy
season, if the rain hasn't come. Farmers will often join the "Cat
Parade". The ancients believed that the cat is an animal which is
afraid of rain and water. If it rained, the cat would cry. The ancients
considered that if the cat cries it means that rain is going to fall.
Some people believe that the cat represents drought. If the cat is
wet, the drought will be driven away. Others believed that the cat
has the power to make rain.[9]

To perform a "Cat Parade", you must bring a female cat that has
grey or black fur. The cats are then to be placed in baskets; only one
cat should be put in a basket. You must then walk around in the
village. When the "Cat Parade" goes through someone's house, that
person needs to splash water on the cats. It is believed that rain
would then fall after three to seven days.

Pliny the Elder (born Gaius Plinius Secundus, AD 23–79) was a

Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and
army commander of the early Roman Empire, and friend of
emperor Vespasian.

Spending most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating

natural and geographic phenomena in the field, Pliny wrote the
encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an
editorial model for encyclopedias. His nephew, Pliny the Younger,
wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

For my part I deem those blessed to whom, by favour of the gods, it

has been granted either to do what is worth writing of, or to write
what is worth reading; above measure blessed those on whom both
gifts have been conferred. In the latter number will be my uncle, by
virtue of his own and of your compositions.[1]

Pliny the Younger refers to Tacitus’s reliance upon his uncle's book,
the History of the German Wars. Pliny the Elder died in AD 79,
while attempting the rescue, by ship, of a friend and his family, in
Stabiae, from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which already had
destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.[2] The wind
caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the volcano’s
eruption did not allow his ship to leave port, and Pliny probably

Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a

hydratedphosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical
formulaCuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O. It is rare and valuable in finer
grades and has been prized as a gemstone and ornamental stone for
thousands of years owing to its unique hue. In recent times,
turquoise has been devalued, like most other opaque gems, by the
introduction onto the market of treatments, imitations and
synthetics.

The gemstone has been known by many names. Pliny the Elder
referred to the mineral as callais and the Aztecs knew it as
chalchihuitl.[4] The word turquoise dates to the 17th century and is
derived from the Frenchturquois for "Turkish" because the mineral
was first brought to Europe through Turkey, from mines in the
historical Khorasan Province of Persia.[2][3][4][5]

Pliny's dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79

and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which
would put his birth in AD 23 or 24.

Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife,
Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the
names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1
3442) found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century
Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the
inscription depends on the reconstruction[],[5] but in all cases the
names come through. Whether he was an augur and whether she
was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin
presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was
ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer
and Marcella

William Gilbert (/ˈɡɪlbərt/; 24 May 1544 – 30 November 1603),

also known as Gilberd, was an English physician, physicist
and natural philosopher. He passionately rejected both the
prevailing Aristotelian philosophy and the Scholastic method
of university teaching. He is remembered today largely for
his book De Magnete (1600), and is credited as one of the
originators of the term "electricity". He is regarded by some
as the father of electrical
engineering or electricity and magnetism. His primary
scientific work—much inspired by earlier works of Robert
Norman[5][6]—was De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et
de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic
Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth) published in
1600. In this work, he describes many of his experiments
with his model Earth called the terrella. From these
experiments, he concluded that the Earth was
itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses point
north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star
(Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that
attracted the compass). He was the first to argue, correctly,
that the centre of the Earth was iron, and he considered an
important and related property of magnets was that they can
be cut, each forming a new magnet with north and south
poles.

Study of Earth's magnetosphere began in 1600, when William

Gilbert discovered that the magnetic field on the surface of
Earth resembled that on a terrella, a small, magnetized
sphere.
In Book 6, Chapter 3, he argues in support of diurnal rotation,
though he does not talk about heliocentrism, stating that it is
an absurdity to think that the immense celestial spheres. The
English word "electricity" was first used in 1646 by Sir
Thomas Browne, derived from Gilbert's 1600 New
Latin electricus, meaning "like amber". The term had been in
use since the 13th century, but Gilbert was the first to use it
to mean "like amber in its attractive properties". He
recognized that friction with these objects removed a so-
called "effluvium", which would cause the attraction effect in
returning to the object, though he did not realize that this
substance (electric charge) was universal to all materials.[7]

The electric effluvia differ much from air, and as air is the
earth's effluvium, so electric bodies have their own
distinctive effluvia; and each peculiar effluvium has its own
individual power of leading to union, its own movement to its
origin, to its fount, and to the body emitting the effluvium.

— De Magnete, English translation by Paul Fleury Mottelay,

1893

In his book, he also studied static electricity using amber;

amber is called elektron in Greek, so Gilbert decided to call
its effect the electric force. He invented the first
electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope, in the
form of a pivoted needle he called the versorium.[8]

Like others of his day, he believed that crystal (quartz) was

an especially hard form of water, formed from compressed
ice:

Lucid gems are made of water; just as Crystal, which has

been concreted from clear water, not always by a very great
cold, as some used to judge, and by very hard frost, but
sometimes by a less severe one, the nature of the soil
fashioning it, the humour or juices being shut up in definite
cavities, in the way in which spars are produced in mines.

— De Magnete, English translation by Silvanus Phillips

Thompson, 1900

Gilbert argued that electricity and magnetism were not the

same thing. For evidence, he (incorrectly) pointed out that,
while electrical attraction disappeared with heat, magnetic
attraction did not (although it is proven that magnetism does
in fact become damaged and weakened with heat). Hans
Christian Ørsted and James Clerk Maxwell showed that both
effects were aspects of a single force: electromagnetism.
Maxwell surmised this in his A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism after much analysis.
Gilbert's magnetism was the invisible force that many other
natural philosophers, such as Kepler, seized upon,
incorrectly, as governing the motions that they observed.
While not attributing magnetism to attraction among the
stars, Gilbert pointed out the motion of the skies was due to
earth's rotation, and not the rotation of the spheres, 20 years
before Galileo (but 57 years after Copernicus who stated it
openly in his work "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium"
published in 1543 ) (see external reference below). Gilbert
made the first attempt to map the surface markings on the
Moon in the 1590s. His chart, made without the use of a
telescope, showed outlines of dark and light patches on the
moon's face. Contrary to most of his contemporaries, Gilbert
believed that the light spots on the Moon were water, and the
dark spots land.[9]
Diagram of the universe appearing on p202 of De Mundo

Besides Gilbert's De Magnete, there appeared at Amsterdam

in 1651 a quarto volume of 316 pages entitled De Mundo
Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova (New Philosophy about
our Sublunary World), edited—some say by his brother
William Gilbert Junior, and others say, by the eminent
English scholar and critic John Gruter—from two
manuscripts found in the library of Sir William Boswell.
According to Dr. John Davy, "this work of Gilbert's, which is
so little known, is a very remarkable one both in style and
matter; and there is a vigor and energy of expression
belonging to it very suitable to its originality. Possessed of a
more minute and practical knowledge of natural philosophy
than Bacon, his opposition to the philosophy of the
schools was more searching and particular, and at the same
time probably little less efficient." In the opinion of Prof.
John Robison, De Mundo consists of an attempt to establish
a new system of natural philosophy upon the ruins of the
Aristotelian doctrine.[10]

Dr. William Whewell says in his History of the Inductive

Sciences (1859):[11]

Gilbert, in his work, De Magnete printed in 1600 has only

some vague notions that the magnetic virtue of the earth in
some way determines the direction of the earth's axis, the
rate of its diurnal rotation, and that of the revolution of the
moon about it.[12] Gilbert died in 1603, and in his posthumous
work (De Mundo nostro Sublunari Philosophia nova, 1631)
we have already a more distinct statement of the attraction of
one body by another.[13] "The force which emanates from the
moon reaches to the earth, and, in like manner, the magnetic
virtue of the earth pervades the region of the moon: both
correspond and conspire by the joint action of both,
according to a proportion and conformity of motions, but the
earth has more effect in consequence of its superior mass;
the earth attracts and repels, the moon, and the moon within
certain limits, the earth; not so as to make the bodies come
together, as magnetic bodies do, but so that they may go on
in a continuous course." Though this phraseology is capable
of representing a good deal of the truth, it does not appear to
have been connected... with any very definite notions of
mechanical action in detail.[14]

Lieutenant Colonel William Henry Rankin (October 16, 1920 -

Pittsburgh — July 6, 2009 - Oakdale) was the only known
person to survive a fall from the top of
a cumulonimbus thunderstorm cloud.[1] He was a pilot in
the United States Marine Corps and a World War
II and Korean War veteran. He was flying an F-8 Crusader jet
fighter over a cumulonimbus cloud when the engine failed,
forcing him to eject and parachute into the
cloud.[1] Lieutenant Colonel Rankin wrote a book about his
experience, The Man Who Rode the Thunde On July 26, 1959,
Rankin was flying from Naval Air Station South
Weymouth, Massachusetts to Marine Corps Air Station
Beaufort in South Carolina.[4] He climbed over a thunderhead
that peaked at 45,000 feet (13,716 m), then—at 47,000 feet
(14,326 m) and at mach 0.82—he heard a loud bump and
rumble from the engine. The engine stopped, and a fire
warning light flashed.[1] He pulled the lever to deploy
auxiliary power, and it broke off in his hand. Though not
wearing a pressure suit, at 6:00 pm he ejected into the −50 °C
(−58 °F) air.[1] He suffered immediate frostbite,
and decompression caused his eyes, ears, nose, and mouth
to bleed. His abdomen swelled severely. He did, however,
manage to make use of his emergency oxygen supply.[1] Five
minutes after he abandoned the plane, his parachute hadn't
opened. While in the upper regions of the thunderstorm, with
near-zero visibility, the parachute opened prematurely
instead of at 10,000 feet due to the storm affecting the
barometric parachute switch to open.[5] After ten minutes,
Rankin was still aloft, carried by updrafts and getting hit
by hailstones. Violent spinning and pounding caused him to
vomit. Lightning appeared, which he described as blue
blades several feet thick, and thunder that he could feel. The
rain forced him to hold his breath to keep from drowning.
One lightning bolt lit up the parachute, making Rankin
believe he had died.[1] Conditions calmed, and he descended
into a forest. His watch read 6:40 pm. It had been 40 minutes
since he ejected. He searched for help and eventually was
admitted into a hospital at Ahoskie, North Carolina.[1] He
suffered from frostbite, welts, bruises, and severe
decompression.

Rankin wrote The Man Who Rode the Thunder about his
experience;[3] Floyd C. Gale called the book a "thrilling true
adventure".[6] His story was covered in the March 2, 2017
episode of The Dollop Podcast.[7]

Stephen William Hawking ,CHCBEFRSFRSA (8 January 1942 – 14

March 2018) was an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist,
author, and director of research at the Centre for Theoretical
Cosmology at the University of Cambridge.[16][17] His scientific
works included a collaboration with Roger Penrose on gravitational
singularity theorems in the framework of general relativity and the
theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called
Hawking radiation. Hawking was the first to set out a theory of
cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity
and quantum mechanics. He was a vigorous supporter of the many-
worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics Stephen Hawking is
being remembered today for increasing humanity’s understanding
of our universe and the invisible forces that dictate it. And in this
particular corner of that universe, he’s being remembered as one of
the scientific community’s most recognizable personalities, his
success in popular-science literature having translated to a pop-
culture prominence that bridges the filmography of Errol Morris,
the Star Trek universe, and the animated worlds of Matt Groening.
Between 1999 and 2010, Hawking made four appearances as himself
on The Simpsons. As executive producer and writer Matt Selman
recalls, there was a time when Hawking was an even more frequent
Simpsons presence. Interstellar was right. Falling into a black hole
is not the end, professor Stephen Hawking has claimed.

Although physicists had assumed that all matter must be destroyed

by the huge gravitational forces of a black hole, Hawking told
delegates in Sweden that it could escape and even pop into another
dimension.

The theory solves the ‘information paradox’ which has puzzled

scientists for decades. While quantum mechanics says that nothing
can ever be destroyed, general relativity says it must be.

However under Hawking’s new theory, anything that is sucked into

a black hole is effectively trapped at the event horizon - the sphere
surrounding the hole from which it was thought that nothing can
escape.

And he claims that anything which fell in could re-emerge back into
our universe, or a parallel one, through Hawking radiation - protons
which manage to escape from the black hole because of quantum
fluctuations. “If you feel you are in a black hole, don’t give up,
there’s a way out,” Hawking told an audience held at the KTH
Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm

In the film Interstellar, Cooper, played by Matthew McConaughey,

plunges into the black hole Gargantura.

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a

German-born theoretical physicist[5] who developed
the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern
physics (alongside quantum mechanics).[4][6]:274 His work is
also known for its influence on the philosophy of
science.[7][8] He is best known by the general public for
his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has
been dubbed "the world's most famous equation").[9] He
received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to
theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the
law of the photoelectric effect",[10] a pivotal step in the
evolution of quantum theory.

Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought

that Newtonian mechanicswas no longer enough to reconcile
the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of
the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his special
theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent
Office in Bern (1902–1909), Switzerland. However, he realized
that the principle of relativity could also be extended
to gravitational fields and—with his subsequent theory of
gravitation in 1916—he published a paper on general
relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical
mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his
explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules.
He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid
the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, he
applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-
scale structure of the universe.[11][12]

Between 1895 and 1914, he lived in Switzerland (except for

one year in Prague, 1911–12), where he received his
academic diploma from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in
Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule,
ETH) in 1900. He later taught at that institute as a professor
of theoretical physics between 1912 and 1914 before he left
for Berlin. In 1901, after being stateless for more than five
years, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the
rest of his life. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by
the University of Zürich. The same year, his annus
mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking
papers, which were to bring him to the notice of the
academic world, at the age of 26.

He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to

power in 1933 and—being Jewish—did not go back to
Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin
Academy of Sciences. He settled in the United States,
becoming an American citizen in 1940.[13] On the eve of World
War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of
"extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and
recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This
eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project.
Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally
denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear
fission as a weapon. Later, with the British
philosopher Bertrand Russell, he signed the Russell–
Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear
weapons. He was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced
Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along

with over 150 non-scientific works.[11][14] His intellectual
achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein"
synonymous with "genius".[15] Eugene Wigner wrote of
Einstein in comparison to his contemporaries that
"Einstein's understanding was deeper even than Jansci von
Neumann's. His mind was both more penetrating and more
original than von Neumann's. And that is a very remarkable
statement

Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (2 September 1853 – 4 April 1932)

was a Germanchemist. He received the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1909 for his work on catalysis, chemical
equilibria and reaction velocities. Ostwald, Jacobus Henricus
van 't Hoff, Walther Nernst, and Svante Arrhenius are usually
credited with being the modern founders of the field
of physical chemistry. Ostwald was born ethnically Baltic
German in Riga, to master-cooper Gottfried Wilhelm Ostwald
(1824–1903) and Elisabeth Leuckel (1824–1903). He was the
middle child of three, born after Eugen (1851–1932) and
before Gottfried (1855–1918.

Ostwald is usually credited with inventing the Ostwald

process (patent 1902), used in the manufacture of nitric acid,
although the basic chemistry had been patented some 64
years earlier by Kuhlmann,[2] when it was probably of only
academic interest due to the lack of a significant source of
ammonia. That may have still been the state of affairs in
1902, although things were due to change dramatically in the
second half of the decade as a result
of Haber and Bosch'swork on their nitrogen
fixing process (completed by 1911 or 1913). The date 1908
(six years after the patent) is often given for the invention of
the Ostwald process, and it may be that these developments
motivated him to do additional work to commercialize the
process in that time-frame. Alternatively, six years might
simply have been the bureaucratic interval between filing the
patent and the time it was granted. The combination of these
two breakthroughs soon led to more economical and larger-
scale production of fertilizers and explosives, of which
Germany was to find itself in desperate need during World
War I. Ostwald also did significant work on dilution theory
leading to his discovery of the law of dilutionwhich is named
after him. Ostwald's rule concerns the behaviour of
polymorphs. The word mole, according to Gorin, was
introduced into chemistry around 1900 by Ostwald. Ostwald
defined one mole as the molecular weight of a substance in
mass grams. The concept was linked to the ideal gas,
according to Ostwald. Ironically, Ostwald's development of
the mole concept was directly related to his philosophical
opposition to the atomic theory, against which he (along
with Ernst Mach) was one of the last holdouts. He explained
in a conversation with Arnold Sommerfeld that he was
converted by Jean Perrin's experiments on Brownian Motion.
In 1906 Ostwald was elected a member of the International
Committee on Atomic Weights. As a consequence of World
War Ithis membership ended in 1917 and was not resumed
after the war. The 1917 Annual report of the committee ended
with the unusual note: "Because of the European war the
Committee has had much difficulty in the way of
correspondence. The German member, Professor Ostwald,
has not been heard from in connection with this report.
Possibly the censorship of letters, either in Germany or en
route, has led to a miscarriage".

In addition to his work in chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald was

very productive in an extremely broad range of fields. His
published work, which includes numerous philosophical
writings, contains about forty thousand pages. Ostwald was
also engaged in the peace movement of Berta von Suttner.
[

Robert Brown FRSE FRS FLS MWS (21 December 1773 – 10

June 1858) was a Scottish botanist and palaeobotanist who
made important contributions to botany largely through his
pioneering use of the microscope. His contributions include
one of the earliest detailed descriptions of the cell
nucleus and cytoplasmic streaming; the observation
of Brownian motion; early work on
plant pollination and fertilisation, including being the first to
recognise the fundamental difference
between gymnosperms and angiosperms; and some of the
earliest studies in palynology. He also made numerous
contributions to plant taxonomy, including the erection of a
number of plant families that are still accepted today; and
numerous Australian plant genera and species, the fruit of
his exploration of that continent with Matthew Flinders.
Brownian motion or pedesis (from Ancient
Greek: πήδησις /pέːdεːsis/ "leaping") is the random motion
of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting
from their collision with the fast-moving molecules in the
fluid.[1]

This pattern of motion typically alternates random

fluctuations in a particle's position inside a fluid sub-
domain with a relocation to another sub-domain. Each
relocation is followed by more fluctuations within the new
closed volume. This pattern describes a fluid at thermal
equilibrium, defined by a given temperature. Within such
fluid there exists no preferential direction of flow as
in transport phenomena. More specifically the fluid's
overall linear and angular momenta remain null over time. It
is important also to note that the kinetic energies of the
molecular Brownian motions, together with those of
molecular rotations and vibrations sum up to the caloric
component of a fluid’s internal energy.

Charles Elwood "Chuck" Yeager (/ˈjeɪɡər/; born February 13,

1923) is a retired United States Air Force general
officer, flying ace and record-setting test pilot. In 1947, he
became the first pilot confirmed to have exceeded the speed
of sound in level flight.Positive and negative clouds collision
.

Yeager's career began in World War II as a private in

the United States Army Air Forces.[1] After serving as an
aircraft mechanic, in September 1942 he
entered enlisted pilot training and upon graduation was
promoted to the rank of flight officer (the World War II USAAF
equivalent to warrant officer) and became a P-51 fighter pilot.

After the war, Yeager became a test pilot of many types of

aircraft, including experimental rocket-powered aircraft. As
the first human to officially break the sound barrier,
on October 14, 1947, he flew the experimental Bell X-
1 at Mach 1 at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13,700 m). He then
went on to break several other speed and altitude records.

Yeager later commanded fighter squadrons and wings in

Germany, and in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War, and
in recognition of the outstanding performance ratings of
those units he was promoted to brigadier general. Yeager's
flying career spans more than 60 years and has taken him to
many parts of the world, including the Soviet Unionduring
the height of the Cold War.

Yeager enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army Air

Forces (USAAF) on September 12, 1941, and became an
aircraft mechanic at George Air Force Base, Victorville,
California. At enlistment, Yeager was not eligible for flight
training because of his age and educational background, but
the entry of the U.S. into World War II less than three months
later prompted the USAAF to alter its recruiting standards.
Having unusually sharp vision (a visual acuity rated 20/10),
which once enabled him to shoot a deer at 600 yards
(550 m),[7] Yeager displayed natural talent as a pilot and was
accepted for flight training.

He received his wings and a promotion to flight

officer at Luke Field, Arizona, where he graduated from class
43C on March 10, 1943. Assigned to the 357th Fighter
Group at Tonopah, Nevada, he initially trained as a fighter
pilot, flying Bell P-39 Airacobras (being grounded for seven
days for clipping a farmer's tree during a training
flight),[8] and shipped overseas with the group on November
23, 1943.

Yeager made a cameo appearance in the movie The Right

Stuff (1983). He played "Fred," a bartender at "Pancho's
Place", which was most appropriate, as Yeager said, "if all
the hours were ever totaled, I reckon I spent more time at her
place than in a cockpit over those years."[40] His own role in
the movie was played by Sam Shepard.

For several years in the 1980s, Yeager was connected

to General Motors, publicizing AC Delco, the company's
automotive parts division.[41] In 1986 he was invited to drive
the Chevrolet Corvette pace car for the 70th running of the
Indianapolis 500. In 1988, Yeager was again invited to drive
the pace car, this time at the wheel of an Oldsmobile Cutlass
Supreme. In 1986, President Reagan appointed Yeager to
the Rogers Commission that investigated the explosion of
the Space Shuttle Challenger
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (/ˈlɒrənts/; 18 July 1853 – 4 February
1928) was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize
in Physics with Pieter Zeemanfor the discovery and
theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived
the transformation equations underpinning Albert Einstein's
theory of special relativity.

According to the biography published by the Nobel

Foundation, "It may well be said that Lorentz was regarded
by all theoretical physicists as the world's leading spirit, who
completed what was left unfinished by his predecessors and
prepared the ground for the fruitful reception of the new
ideas based on the quantum theory."[2] He received many
honours and distinctions, including a term as chairman of
the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, the
forerunner of UNESCO.

On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Hendrik Antoon

Lorentz was appointed to the newly established chair in
theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position
had initially been offered to Johan van der Waals, but he
accepted a position at the Universiteit van Amsterdam.[B 2] On
25 January 1878, Lorentz delivered his inaugural lecture
on "De moleculaire theoriën in de natuurkunde" (The
molecular theories in physics). In 1881, he became member
of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[4]

During the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily

interested in the electromagnetic theory of electricity,
magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to
a much wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics.
Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging
from hydrodynamics to general relativity. His most important
contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the
electron theory, and relativity.[B 2]

Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged

particles and suggested that the oscillations of these
charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague
and former student of Lorentz's, Pieter Zeeman, discovered
the Zeeman effect in 1896, Lorentz supplied its theoretical
interpretation. The experimental and theoretical work was
honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz'
name is now associated with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula,
the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, and
the Lorentz transformation.
Electrodynamics and relativity

In 1892 and 1895, Lorentz worked on describing

electromagnetic phenomena (the propagation of light) in
reference frames that move relative to the
postulated luminiferous aether.[5][6] He discovered that the
transition from one to another reference frame could be
simplified by using a new time variable that he called local
time and which depended on universal time and the location
under consideration. Although Lorentz did not give a detailed
interpretation of the physical significance of local time, with
it, he could explain the aberration of light and the result of
the Fizeau experiment. In 1900 and 1904, Henri
Poincarécalled local time Lorentz's "most ingenious idea"
and illustrated it by showing that clocks in moving frames
are synchronized by exchanging light signals that are
assumed to travel at the same speed against and with the
motion of the frame[7][8] (see Einstein
synchronisation and Relativity of simultaneity). In 1892, with
the attempt to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment,
Lorentz also proposed that moving bodies contract in the
direction of motion (see length contraction; George
FitzGerald had already arrived at this conclusion in 1889).[9]
In 1899 and again in 1904, Lorentz added time dilation to his
transformations and published what Poincaré in 1905
named Lorentz transformations.[10][11] It was apparently
unknown to Lorentz that Joseph Larmor had used identical
transformations to describe orbiting electrons in 1897.
Larmor's and Lorentz's equations look somewhat dissimilar,
but they are algebraically equivalent to those presented by
Poincaré and Einstein in 1905.[B 3] Lorentz's 1904 paper
includes the covariant formulation of electrodynamics, in
which electrodynamic phenomena in different reference
frames are described by identical equations with well defined
transformation properties. The paper clearly recognizes the
significance of this formulation, namely that the outcomes of
electrodynamic experiments do not depend on the relative
motion of the reference frame. The 1904 paper includes a
detailed discussion of the increase of the inertial mass of
rapidly moving objects in a useless attempt to make
momentum look exactly like Newtonian momentum; it was
also an attempt to explain the length contraction as the
accumulation of "stuff" onto mass making it slow and
contract.
Lorentz and special relativity[

In 1905, Einstein would use many of the concepts,

mathematical tools and results Lorentz discussed to write
his paper entitled "On the Electrodynamics of Moving
Bodies",[12] known today as the theory of special relativity.
Because Lorentz laid the fundamentals for the work by
Einstein, this theory was originally called the Lorentz-
Einstein theor

Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (/ˈpɔːli/;[5] German: [ˈpaʊli]; 25 April

1900 – 15 December 1958) was an Austrian-
born Swiss and American theoretical physicist and one of
the pioneers of quantum physics. In 1945, after having been
nominated by Albert Einstein,[6] Pauli received the Nobel
Prize in Physics for his "decisive contribution through his
discovery of a new law of Nature, the exclusion principle
or Pauli principle". The discovery involved spin theory,
which is the basis of a theory of the structure of matter.

The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum

mechanical principle which states that two or
more identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin)
cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum
system simultaneously. In the case of electrons in atoms, it
can be stated as follows: it is impossible for two electrons of
a poly-electron atom to have the same values of the
four quantum numbers: n, the principal quantum number, ℓ,
the angular momentum quantum number, mℓ, the magnetic
quantum number, and ms, the spin quantum number. For
example, if two electrons reside in the same orbital, and if
their n, ℓ, and mℓ values are the same, then their ms must be
different, and thus the electrons must have opposite half-
integer spin projections of 1/2 and −1/2. This principle was
formulated by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1925 for
electrons, and later extended to all fermions with his spin–
statistics theorem of 1940.

Particles with an integer spin, or bosons, are not subject to

the Pauli exclusion principle: any number of identical bosons
can occupy the same quantum state, as with, for instance,
photons produced by a laser and Bose–Einstein condensate.

A more rigorous statement is that with respect to exchange

of two identical particles the total wave
function is antisymmetric for fermions, and symmetric for
bosons. This means that if the space and spin co-ordinates
of two identical particles are interchanged the wave function
changes its sign for fermions, and does not change for
bosons.

In quantum mechanics and particle physics, spin is

an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by elementary
particles, composite particles (hadrons), and atomic
nuclei.[1][2]

Spin is one of two types of angular momentum in quantum

mechanics, the other being orbital angular momentum. The
orbital angular momentum operator is the quantum-
mechanical counterpart to the classical angular momentum
of orbital revolution: it arises when a particle executes a
rotating or twisting trajectory (such as when an electron
orbits a nucleus).[3][4] The existence of spin angular
momentum is inferred from experiments, such as the Stern–
Gerlach experiment, in which particles are observed to
possess angular momentum that cannot be accounted for by
orbital angular momentum alone.[5]

In some ways, spin is like a vector quantity; it has a definite

magnitude, and it has a "direction" (but quantization makes
this "direction" different from the direction of an ordinary
vector). All elementary particles of a given kind have the
same magnitude of spin angular momentum, which is
indicated by assigning the particle a spin quantum number
Enrico Fermi (/ˈfɜːrmi/;[1] Italian: [enˈriːko ˈfermi]; 29
September 1901 – 28 November 1954) was an Italian-
American physicist and the creator of the world's
first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He has been called
the "architect of the nuclear age"[2] and the "architect of the
atomic bomb".[3] He was one of the very few physicists in
history to excel both theoretically and experimentally. Fermi
held several patents related to the use of nuclear power, and
was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work
on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment and the
discovery of transuranic elements. He made significant
contributions to the development of quantum
theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical
mechanics.

Fermi's first major contribution was to statistical mechanics.

After Wolfgang Pauli announced his exclusion principle in
1925, Fermi followed with a paper in which he applied the
principle to an ideal gas, employing a statistical formulation
now known as Fermi–Dirac statistics. Today, particles that
obey the exclusion principle are called "fermions". Later
Pauli postulated the existence of an uncharged invisible
particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay, to
satisfy the law of conservation of energy. Fermi took up this
idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated
particle, which he named the "neutrino". His theory, later
referred to as Fermi's interaction and still later as weak
interaction, described one of the four fundamental forces of
nature. Through experiments inducing radioactivity with
recently discovered neutrons, Fermi discovered that slow
neutrons were more easily captured than fast ones, and
developed the Fermi age equation to describe this. After
bombarding thoriumand uranium with slow neutrons, he
concluded that he had created new elements; although he
was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, the new
elements were subsequently revealed to be fission products.

Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that
affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon. He emigrated to the
United States where he worked on the Manhattan
Project during World War II. Fermi led the team that designed
and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December
1942, demonstrating the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear
chain reaction. He was on hand when the X-10 Graphite
Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went critical in 1943, and
when the B Reactor at the Hanford Site did so the next year.
At Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked
on Edward Teller's thermonuclear "Super" bomb. He was
present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, where he used
his Fermi method to estimate the bomb's yield.

After the war, Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on

the General Advisory Committee, which advised the Atomic
Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy.
Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in
August 1949, he strongly opposed the development of a
hydrogen bomb on both moral and technical grounds. He
was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimer's
behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the
latter's security clearance. Fermi did important work in
particle physics, especially related to pions and muons, and
he speculated that cosmic raysarose through material being
accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space. Many
awards, concepts, and institutions are named after Fermi,
including the Enrico Fermi Award, the Enrico Fermi Institute,
the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the Fermi
Gamma-ray Space Telescope, the Enrico Fermi Nuclear
Generating Station, and the synthetic element fermium,
making him one of 16 scientists who have elements named
after them.
During 1921, his third year at the university, Fermi published
his first scientific works in the Italian journal Nuovo Cimento.
The first was entitled "On the dynamics of a rigid system of
electrical charges in translational motion" (Sulla dinamica di
un sistema rigido di cariche elettriche in moto traslatorio). A
sign of things to come was that the mass was expressed as
a tensor—a mathematical construct commonly used to
describe something moving and changing in three-
dimensional space. In classical mechanics, mass is
a scalar quantity, but in relativity it changes with velocity.
The second paper was "On the electrostatics of a uniform
gravitational field of electromagnetic charges and on the
weight of electromagnetic charges" (Sull'elettrostatica di un
campo gravitazionale uniforme e sul peso delle masse
elettromagnetiche). Using general relativity, Fermi showed
that a charge has a weight equal to U/c2, where U was the
electrostatic energy of the system, and c is the speed of
light.[19]

The first paper seemed to point out a contradiction between

the electrodynamic theory and the relativistic one concerning
the calculation of the electromagnetic masses, as the former
predicted a value of 4/3 U/c2. Fermi addressed this the next
year in a paper "Concerning a contradiction
between electrodynamic and the relativistic theory of
electromagnetic mass" in which he showed that the apparent
contradiction was a consequence of relativity. This paper
was sufficiently well-regarded that it was translated into
German and published in the German scientific
journal Physikalische Zeitschrift in 1922.[21] That year, Fermi
submitted his article "On the phenomena occurring near
a world line" (Sopra i fenomeni che avvengono in vicinanza
di una linea oraria) to the Italian journal I Rendiconti
dell'Accademia dei Lincei. In this article he examined
the Principle of Equivalence, and introduced the so-called
"Fermi coordinates". He proved that on a world line close to
the time line, space behaves as if it were a Euclidean space

Wilhelm Reich (24 March 1897 – 3 November 1957) was an

Austrian doctor of medicine and psychoanalyst, a member of the
second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud.[1] The author of
several influential books, most notably Character Analysis (1933),
The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933) and The Sexual
Revolution (1936), Reich became known as one of the most radical
figures in the history of psychiatry A cloudbuster (or cloud buster)
is a pseudoscientific device designed by Austrian
psychoanalystWilhelm Reich (1897–1957), which Reich said could
produce rain by manipulating what he called "orgone energy"
present in the atmosphere.[1]

The cloudbuster was intended to be used in a way similar to a

lightning rod: focusing it on a location in the sky and grounding it in
some material that was presumed to absorb orgone—such as a body
of water—would draw the orgone energy out of the atmosphere,
causing the formation of clouds and rain. Reich conducted dozens of
experiments with the cloudbuster, calling the research "Cosmic
orgone engineering".

Reich's work on character contributed to the development of Anna

Freud's The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936), and his
idea of muscular armour – the expression of the personality in the
way the body moves – shaped innovations such as body
psychotherapy, Gestalt therapy, bioenergetic analysis and primal
therapyHis writing influenced generations of intellectuals; he coined
the phrase "the sexual revolution" and according to one historian
acted as its midwife.[7] During the 1968 student uprisings in Paris
and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of
The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police.[8]
After graduating in medicine from the University of Vienna in 1922,
Reich became deputy director of Freud's outpatient clinic, the
Vienna Ambulatorium.[9] Described by Elizabeth Danto as a large
man with a cantankerous style who managed to look scruffy and
elegant at the same time, he tried to reconcile psychoanalysis with
Marxism, arguing that neurosis is rooted in sexual and socio-
economic conditions, and in particular in a lack of what he called
"orgastic potency.

Reich's Contact With Space

https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_reich01.htm

Certain facts about the appearance of the UFOs such as their

noiselessness, their shimmering lights, sometimes bluish in
appearance, rotating discs underlying their motion, fell into place
with some of the facts Reich knew well from cosmic OR functioning:
The 'CORE MEN' (CORE = COSMIC ORGONE ENGINEERS), as he ...
Weather modification is the act of intentionally manipulating or
altering the weather. The most common form of weather
modification, is cloud seeding to increase rain or snow, usually for the
purpose of increasing the local water supply.[1] Weather modification
can also have the goal of preventing damaging weather, such as hail
or hurricanes, from occurring; or of provoking damaging weather
against the enemy, as a tactic of military or economic warfare like
Operation Popeye, where clouds were seeded to prolong the
monsoon in Vietnam. Weather modification in warfare has been
banned by the United
Nations.1303.torrent,http://anticinema.wordpress.com/,http://www
.orgonomy.org/Articles/Baker/Wilhelm_Reich3.html, By 1954, Reich
had solved many problems of cosmic functioning and was nearing the
solution of negative gravity. Gravity, he found, was due to the
reaction of two energy streams; actually, a manifestation of
superimposition.

Orgone is a pseudo-scientific and spiritual concept described as an

esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force, originally
proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich.[8][9][10] As developed by
Reich's student Charles Kelley after Reich's death in 1957, orgone
was conceived as the anti-entropic principle of the universe, a
creative substratum in all of nature comparable to Mesmer's animal
magnetism (1779), to the Odic force (1845) of Carl Reichenbach and
to Henri Bergson's élan vital (1907).[11] Orgone was seen as a
massless, omnipresent substance, similar to luminiferous aether, but
more closely associated with living energy than with inert matter. It
could allegedly coalesce to create organization on all scales, from the
smallest microscopic units—called "bions" in orgone theory—to
macroscopic structures like organisms, clouds, or even galaxies.[12]

Reich stated that deficits or constrictions in bodily orgone were at

the root of many diseases, much as deficits or constrictions in the
libido could produce neuroses in Freudian theory. Reich founded
the Orgone Institute ca. 1942[13] to pursue research into orgone
energy after he immigrated to the US in 1939, and used it to publish
literature and distribute material relating to the topic for more than
a decade. Reich designed special "orgone accumulators"—devices
ostensibly collecting and storing orgone energy from the
environment—for improvement of general health or even for
weather control.[8] Ultimately, the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) obtained a federal injunction barring the
interstate distribution of orgone-related materials, on the grounds
that Reich and his associates were making false and misleading
claims, and later jailed Reich and destroyed all orgone-related
materials at the institute after Reich violated the injunction.[9] Reich
rescinded the claim that accumulator could provide orgastic
potency,[14] but this was not enough to stop the action.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health

lists orgone as a type of "putative energy".[15] There is no empirical
support for the concept of orgone in medicine or the physical
sciences,[4]

Franz Friedrich Anton Mesmer (/ˈmɛzmər/;[1] German: [ˈmɛsmɐ];

May 23, 1734 – March 5, 1815) was a German physician with an
interest in astronomy who theorised that there was a natural
energetic transference that occurred between all animated and
inanimate objects that he called animal magnetism, sometimes later
referred to as mesmerism. The theory attracted a wide following
between about 1780 and 1850, and continued to have some influence
until the end of the century.[2] In 1843 the Scottish physician James
Braid proposed the term hypnosis for a technique derived from
animal magnetism; today this is the usual meaning of mesmerism.
Mesmer was born in the village of Iznang, on the shore of Lake
Constance in Swabia, Germany, a son of master forester Anton
Mesmer (1701—after 1747) and his wife, Maria/Ursula (née Michel;
1701—1770).[3] After studying at the Jesuit universities of Dillingen
and Ingolstadt, he took up the study of medicine at the University of
Vienna in 1759. In 1766 he published a doctoral dissertation with
the Latin title De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum (On the
Influence of the Planets on the Human Body), which discussed the
influence of the moon and the planets on the human body and on
disease. This was not medical astrology. Building largely on Isaac
Newton's theory of the tides, Mesmer expounded on certain tides in
the human body that might be accounted for by the movements of
the sun and moon.[4] Evidence assembled by Frank A. Pattie
suggests that Mesmer plagiarized[5] a part of his dissertation from a
work[6] by Richard Mead, an eminent English physician and
Newton's friend. However, in Mesmer's day doctoral theses were not
expected to be original.[7] Animal magnetism, also known as
mesmerism, was the name given by the German doctor Franz
Mesmer in the 18th century to what he believed to be an invisible
natural force (lebensmagnetismus) possessed by all living/animate
beings (humans, animals, vegetables, etc.). He believed that the force
could have physical effects, including healing. He tried persistently
but without success to achieve scientific recognition of his ideas.[1]

The vitalist theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the

United States and was popular into the 19th century. Practitioners
were often known as magnetizers, rather than mesmerists. For
about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779 it was an important
specialty in medicine, and continued to have some influence for
about another 50 years. Hundreds of books were written on the
subject between 1766 and 1925. Today it is almost entirely
forgotten.[2]
Mesmerism is still practised as a form of alternative medicine in
some countries, but magnetic practices are not recognized as part of
medical science, and are considered by many medical scientists and
practitioners to work by self-suggestion through the universal
process known as response expectancy.[3]

Arnold Alois
Schwarzenegger (/ˈʃvɑːrtsənɛɡər/;[1][a] German: [ˈaɐ̯nɔlt
ˈʃvaɐ̯tsn̩ˌʔɛɡɐ]; born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian-American
actor, producer, businessman, investor, author,
philanthropist, activist, politician, and former professional
bodybuilder. He served two terms as the 38th Governor of
California from 2003 to 2011. Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger
was born on July 30, 1947 in Thal, Styria,[8] to Aurelia
(née Jadrny) and Gustav Schwarzenegger. Gustav was the
local chief of police and had served in World War II as
a Hauptfeldwebel after voluntarily joining the Nazi Partyin
1938,[9] though he was discharged in 1943 following a bout
of malaria. He married Aurelia on October 20, 1945; he was
38 and she was 23. According to Schwarzenegger, both of
his parents were very strict: "Back then in Austria it was a
very different world ... if we did something bad or we
disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared."[10] He grew
up in a Catholic family who attended Mass every Sunday.
Schwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15. He
won the Mr. Universe title at age 20 and went on to win
the Mr. Olympia contest seven times, remaining a prominent
presence in bodybuilding and writing many books and
articles on the sport. The Arnold Sports Festival, considered
one of the best professional bodybuilding competitions in
recent years, is named after him. He is widely considered to
be one of the greatest bodybuilders of all time as well as that
sport's most charismatic ambassador.[2]

Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood

action-film icon. His breakthrough film was the sword-and-
sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, a box-office hit
that resulted in a sequel.[3] In 1984, he appeared in the title
roleof James Cameron's critically and commercially
successful science-fiction thriller film The Terminator. He
subsequently reprised the Terminator character in the
franchise's later installments: Terminator 2: Judgment
Day (1991), Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003),
and Terminator Genisys (2015).[3][4][5] He has appeared in a
number of successful films, such as Commando (1985), The
Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), Twins (1988), Total
Recall (1990), Kindergarten Cop (1990), and True Lies (1994).
As a Republican, Schwarzenegger was first elected on
October 7, 2003, in a special recall election to replace then-
Governor Gray Davis. He was sworn in on November 17, to
serve the remainder of Davis' term. He was then re-elected in
the 2006 California gubernatorial election, to serve a full term
as governor.[6] In 2011, he completed his second term as
governor and returned to acting. Schwarzenegger was
nicknamed "the Austrian Oak" in his bodybuilding days,
"Arnie" during his acting career, and "The Governator"
(a portmanteau of "Governor" and "Terminator") during his
political career.

Nicolas Lémery (or Lemery as his name appeared in his

international publications) (17 November 1645 – 19 June
1715), French chemist, was born at Rouen. He was one of the
first to develop theories on acid-base chemistry. After
learning pharmacy in his native town he became a pupil
of Christophe Glaser in Paris, and then went to Montpellier,
where he began to lecture on chemistry. He next established
a pharmacy in Paris, still continuing his lectures, but
following 1683, being a Calvinist, he was obliged to retire
to England. In the following year he returned to France, and
turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and
resume his lectures. He died in Paris on 19 June 1715.[1]

Lemery did not concern himself much with theoretical

speculations, but holding chemistry to be a demonstrative
science, confined himself to the straightforward exposition
of facts and experiments. In consequence, his lecture-room
was thronged with people of all sorts, anxious to hear a man
who shunned the barren obscurities of the alchemists, and
did not regard the quest of the philosopher's stone and
the elixir of life as the sole end of his science. Of his Cours
de chymie (1675) he lived to see 13 editions, and for a
century it maintained its reputation as a standard work.[1]

In 1680, using the corpuscular theory as a basis, Lemery

stipulated that the acidity of any substance including clouds
, rain consisted in its pointed particles, while alkalis were
endowed with pores of various sizes.[2] A molecule,
according to this view, consisted of corpuscles united
through a geometric locking of points and pores.

His other publications included Pharmacopée

universelle (1697), Traité universel des drogues
simples (1698), Traité de l'antimoine (1707), together with a
number of papers contributed to the French Academy, one of
which offered a chemical and physical explanation of
underground fires, earthquakes, lightning and thunder. He
discovered that heat is evolved when iron filings
and sulphur are rubbed together to a paste with water, and
the artificial volcan de Lemery was produced by burying
underground a considerable quantity of this mixture, which
he regarded as a potent agent in the causation of volcanic
action,

John Evelyn, FRS (31 October 1620 – 27 February 1706) was

an English writer, gardener and diarist.

Evelyn's diaries, or memoirs, are largely contemporaneous

with those of his rival diarist, Samuel Pepys, and cast
considerable light on the art, culture and politics of the time
(the deaths of Charles I and Oliver Cromwell, the last Great
Plague of London, and the Great Fire of London in 1666).
Over the years, Evelyn's Diary has been overshadowed by
Pepys's chronicles of 17th-century life.

In October 1644 John Evelyn visited the Roman ruins

in Fréjus, Provence, before travelling on to Italy.[6] He
attended anatomy lectures in Padua in 1646 and sent
the Evelyn Tables back to London. These are thought to be
the oldest surviving anatomical preparations in Europe;
Evelyn later gave them to the Royal Society, and they are
now in the Hunterian Museum. In 1644, Evelyn visited
the English College at Rome, where Catholic priests were
trained for service in England. In the Veneto he renewed his
acquaintance with the famous art collector Thomas Howard,
21st Earl of Arundel and toured the art collections of Venice
with Arundel's grandson and heir, later Duke of Norfolk. He
acquired an ancient Egyptian stela and sent a sketch back to
Rome, which was published by Father Kircher, SJ in
Kircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1650), albeit without
acknowledgement to Evelyn.[7]

In Florence he commissioned the John Evelyn

Cabinet (1644–46), an elaborate ebony cabinet with pietra
dura and gilt-bronze panels, which is now in the Victoria and
Albert Museum. It was in his London house at his death, then
returned to Wotton, and is very likely the "ebony cabinet" in
which his diaries were later found.[citation needed]

He married Mary Browne, daughter of Sir Richard Browne the

English ambassador in Paris in 1647.[8]

In 1652, Evelyn and his wife settled in Deptford (present-day

south-east London). Their house, Sayes Court (adjacent to
the naval dockyard), was purchased by Evelyn from his
father-in-law, Sir Richard Browne, in 1653; Evelyn soon
began to transform the gardens. In 1671, he encountered
master wood-worker Grinling Gibbons (who was renting a
cottage on the Sayes Court estate) and introduced him to
Sir Christopher Wren. There is now an electoral
ward called Evelyn in Deptford, London Borough of
Lewisham. It was after the Restoration that Evelyn's career
really took off. In 1660, Evelyn was a member of the group
that founded the Royal Society. The following year, he wrote
the Fumifugium (or The Inconveniencie of the Aer and Smoak
of London Dissipated), the first book written on the growing
air pollution problem in London.[citation needed]

He was known for his knowledge of trees, and had a friend

and correspondent, Philip Dumaresq, who "devoted most of
his time to gardening, fruit, and tree culture."[9] Evelyn's
treatise, Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees (1664), was
written as an encouragement to landowners to plant trees to
provide timber for England's burgeoning navy. Further
editions appeared in his lifetime (1670 and 1679), with the
fourth edition (1706) appearing just after his death and
featuring the engraving of Evelyn shown on this page (below)
even though it had been made more than 50 years prior
by Robert Nanteuil in 1651 in Paris. Various other editions
appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries and feature an
inaccurate portrait of Evelyn made by Francesco Bartolozzi.
Evelyn had some training as a draftsman and artist, and
created several etchings. Most of his published work,
produced in the form of drawings to be engraved by others,
was to illustrate his own work. During the Second Anglo-
Dutch War, beginning 28 October 1664, Evelyn served as one
of four Commissioners for taking Care of Sick and Wounded
Seamen and for the Care and Treatment of Prisoners of
War (others included Sir William D'Oyly and Sir Thomas
Clifford)

Lourens Gerhard Marinus Baas Becking (January 4, 1895

in Deventer – January 6, 1963 in Canberra, Australia) was
a Dutch botanist and microbiologist. He is known for the
Baas-Becking hypothesis, which he originally formulated
as "Everything is everywhere, but the environment selects"
Baas Becking was born in Deventer on January 4,
1895.[2] Baas Becking studied microbiology at Delft
University before studying biology at Utrecht University with
a focus on botany.[3] In between completing his studies in
Utrecht and submitting his thesis, Baas Becking worked in
the laboratory of Thomas Hunt Morgan in the United States.
In 1923, Baas Becking accepted the position of professor
at Stanford, where he taught economic botany and plant
physiology. Based on his research in California's salt lakes,
as well as work by others on salt lakes worldwide, Baas
Becking (1934)[1]concluded, "Everything is everywhere, but
the environment selects".[7] Baas Becking attributed the first
half of this hypothesis to his colleague Martinus
Beijerinck (1913).[8][9] Some years before, Schewiakoff (1893)
also theorized about the cosmopolitan habitat of free-living
protozoans.[10]

The application of this hypothesis to microorganisms,

specifically to the dependence of their geographic
distribution over the earth on their metabolic properties,
formed the basis of Baas Becking's research program at
the Leiden Botanical Laboratory.[4]

Baas Becking presented a series of lectures on the subject to

the Diligentia in The Hague, which he published as a book
titled Geobiology in 1934.[4]

[2]

Baas Becking's studies at Stanford heavily influenced his

later work by introducing him to research on extremophiles,
research he conducted himself as the director of the Jacques
Loeb Marine Laboratory in Pacific Grove.[2] In particular,
Baas Becking studied the salt lakes and methane-rich
reservoirs in California.[3]

Baas Becking returned to the Netherlands in 1930 as a

professor of general botany at the University of Leiden[2] and
prefect (director) of the Hortus Botanicus Leiden. It was in
Leiden that Baas Becking formulated the hypothesis known
by his name. In 1934 he published the
book Geobiology [1] after a series of lectures in Pulchri
Studio in The Hague. While in Leiden in 1940, he was
appointed Director of the state-financed Botanical Garden of
Buitenzorg in present-day Bogor, on the island of Java, with
the intention of restoring the garden to its former
glory [4] Under his leadership, a new botanic garden branch
for dry-tropical plant was opened in the town of Purwodadi in
1941

The scientific consensus expressed in the

2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Summary for Policymakers is for the water cycle to continue
to intensify throughout the 21st century, though this does
not mean that precipitation will increase in all regions,
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or
the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement
of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The
mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but
the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of
ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is
variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The
water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from
river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the
physical processes
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surfa
ce runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes
through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which

leads to temperature changes. When water evaporates, it
takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the
environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and
warms the enviro

.[14] In subtropical land areas — places that are already

relatively dry — precipitation is projected to decrease during
the 21st century, increasing the probability of drought. The
drying is projected to be strongest near the poleward
margins of the subtropics (for example, the Mediterranean
Basin, South Africa, southern Australia, and
the Southwestern United States). Annual precipitation
amounts are expected to increase in near-equatorial regions
that tend to be wet in the present climate, and also at high
latitudes. These large-scale patterns are present in nearly all
of the climate model simulations conducted at several
international research centers as part of the 4th Assessment
of the IPCC. There is now ample evidence that increased
hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will
continue to have a profound impact on the water sector
through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water
demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin,
and local levels.[15] Research published in 2012
in Science based on surface ocean salinity over the period
1950 to 2000 confirm this projection of an intensified global
water cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and
fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog
drip, graupel, and sleet.[1]Approximately
505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation
each year, 398,000 km3(95,000 cu mi) of it over the
oceans.[2][better source needed] The rain on land contains
107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing
only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).[3]78% of global precipitation
occurs over the ocean

Louis Gathmann (August 11, 1843 – June 3, 1917) was

a German Americanengineer and an inventor who is best
remembered as the inventor of the Gathamnn gun, Louis
Gathmann in 1891 suggested shooting liquid carbon dioxide
into rain clouds to cause them to rain ,a large howitzer,
Gathmann was born in Hanover, in the Kingdom of
Prussia (now known as Germany).[1] His father was a school
teacher, and instilled in his son a lifelong love
of astronomy.[2]

He moved to the United States in 1864,[3] and eventually

moved to Chicagowhere he lived until the end of the 19th
century, when he moved to Washington, D.C. He started his
career designing equipment for mills and farms,[4] and held
numerous patents. By the 1880s, Gathmann's patents were in
such demand that he had to form a company to help track
and produce his designs. This company, known as the
Garden City Mill Furnishing Company, made milling
machineswhich were sold all over the globe.[2]
By the 1880s, Gathmann had made enough money to have
his family moved to the United States from Prussia.[citation
needed] He also had four mansions built, two in Chicago, one in
Washington D.C., and one in Baltimore, Maryland]Gathmann
was very interested in astronomy and had
three observatories built in the Chicago area during the
1880s, one of which was a domed observatory tower which
he had installed on the side of his mansion on Lincoln
Avenue.[2][3] In the 1890s, Louis had invented a "Sectional
Telescope Lens."[2]

Louis was also involved in 19th century weather modification

projects, and in 1891 received a patent for a rain-making in
which liquid carbon dioxide was released into the
atmosphere by explosion (either from an artillery shell or by
being carried aloft by a balloon).[5] He also wrote a book on
the subject, Rain Produced At Will.[6]

From the 1890s on, Louis Gathmann focused on ordnance

development. The largest gun designed by Gathmann was
the 18-inch Gathmann Gun,[1] which was a coastal defense
gun manufactured by Bethlehem Steel under Emil Gathmann
(head of Bethlehem Steel's Ordnance Section, and one of
Gathmann's sons).[7] The gun was tested at Sandy
Hook,[8] but the projectile performed far worse than
traditional armor-piercing rounds.[9] Louis was also involved
with early aircraft development and had attempted to develop
a helicopter,[10] but his successes came in developing fuses
for high-explosive ordnance.[11] Newspapers reported in the
spring of 1915 that Gathmann invented the German 42-
cm Big Bertha howitzer, and that these plans were
subsequently stolen from the U.S. Patent Office. But these
rumors were false, as no such blueprints were ever filed.[12]

During World War I, Louis conceived a multi-hull naval armor

design which incorporated buffer zones, shocks and
deflectors..[13]

Irving Langmuir /ˈlæŋmjʊər/[3] (January 31, 1881 – August 16,

1957) was an American chemist and physicist. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistryin 1932 for his work
in surface chemistry.

Langmuir's most famous publication is the 1919 article "The

Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which,
building on Gilbert N. Lewis's cubical atom theory
and Walther Kossel's chemical bonding theory, he outlined
his "concentric theory of atomic structure".[4] Langmuir
became embroiled in a priority dispute with Lewis over this
work; Langmuir's presentation skills were largely
responsible for the popularization of the theory, although the
credit for the theory itself belongs mostly to Lewis.[5] While
at General Electric from 1909 to 1950, Langmuir advanced
several fields of physics and chemistry, invented the gas-
filled incandescent lamp and the hydrogen welding
technique. The Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric
Research near Socorro, New Mexico, was named in his
honor, as was the American Chemical Society journal
for surface science called Langmuir

His initial contributions to science came from his study of

light bulbs (a continuation of his Ph.D. work). His first major
development was the improvement of the diffusion pump,
which ultimately led to the invention of the high-vacuum
rectifier and amplifier tubes. A year later, he and
colleague Lewi Tonks discovered that the lifetime of
a tungsten filament could be greatly lengthened by filling the
bulb with an inert gas, such as argon, the critical factor
(overlooked by other researchers) being the need for extreme
cleanliness in all stages of the process. He also discovered
that twisting the filament into a tight coil improved its
efficiency. These were important developments in the history
of the incandescent light bulb. His work in surface chemistry
began at this point, when he discovered that molecular
hydrogen introduced into a tungsten-filament bulb
dissociated into atomic hydrogen and formed a layer one
atom thick on the surface of the bulb.[8]

His assistant in vacuum tube research was his

cousin William Comings White.[9]

As he continued to study filaments in vacuum and different

gas environments, he began to study the emission of
charged particles from hot filaments (thermionic emission).
He was one of the first scientists to work with plasmas, and
he was the first to call these ionized gases by that name
because they reminded him of blood
plasma.[10][11][12] Langmuir and Tonks discovered electron
density waves in plasmas that are now known as Langmuir
waves.[13]

He introduced the concept of electron temperature and in

1924 invented the diagnostic method for measuring both
temperature and density with an electrostatic probe, now
called a Langmuir probe and commonly used in plasma
physics. The current of a biased probe tip is measured as a
function of bias voltage to determine the local plasma
temperature and density. He also discovered
atomic hydrogen, which he put to use by inventing
the atomic hydrogen welding process; the first plasma weld
ever made. Plasma welding has since been developed
into gas tungsten arc welding.

In 1917, he published a paper on the chemistry of oil

films[14] that later became the basis for the award of the 1932
Nobel Prize in chemistry. Langmuir theorized that oils
consisting of an aliphatic chain with a hydrophilic end group
(perhaps an alcohol or acid) were oriented as a film one
molecule thick upon the surface of water, with the
hydrophilic group down in the water and
the hydrophobic chains clumped together on the surface.
The thickness of the film could be easily determined from the
known volume and area of the oil, which allowed
investigation of the molecular configuration
before spectroscopic techniques were available

Alfred Lothar Wegener (/ˈveɪɡənər/;[1] German: [ˈveːgənɐ]; 1

November 1880 – November 1930) was a German polar
researcher, geophysicist and meteorologist.

During his lifetime he was primarily known for his

achievements in meteorology and as a pioneer of polar
research, but today he is most remembered as the originator
of the theory of continental drift by hypothesizing in 1912
that the continents are slowly drifting around the Earth
(German: Kontinentalverschiebung). His hypothesis was
controversial and not widely accepted until the 1950s, when
numerous discoveries such as palaeomagnetism provided
strong support for continental drift, and thereby a substantial
basis for today's model of plate tectonics.[2][3] Wegener was
involved in several expeditions to Greenland to
study polar air circulation before the existence of the jet
stream was accepted. Expedition participants made many
meteorological observations and were the first to overwinter
on the inland Greenland ice sheet and the first to bore ice
cores on a moving Arctic glacier

Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the

different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together
like a jigsaw puzzle. The Continental shelf of the Americas fit
closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India
and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But
Wegener only published his idea after reading a paper in
1911 which criticized the prevalent hypothesis, that a bridge
of land once connected Europe and America, on the grounds
that this contradicts isostasy.[10] Wegener's main interest was
meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland
expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his
Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed
both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological
structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant
similarity between matching sides of the continents,
especially in fossil plants. In his work, Wegener presented a
large amount of observational evidence in support of
continental drift, but the mechanism remained a problem,
partly because Wegener's estimate of the velocity of
continental motion, 250 cm/year, was too high.[15] (The
currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas
from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year).[16]

While his ideas attracted a few early supporters such

as Alexander Du Toit from South Africa, Arthur Holmes in
England [17] and Milutin Milanković in Serbia for
whom continental drift theory was the premise in
investigating polar wandering,[18][19] the hypothesis was
initially met with skepticism from geologists who viewed
Wegener as an outsider, and were resistant to change.[17] The
one American edition of Wegener's work, published in 1925,
which was written in "a dogmatic style that often results from
German translations",[17] was received so poorly that
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists organized
a symposium specifically in opposition to the continental
drift hypothesis.[20] The opponents argued, as did
the Leipziger geologist Franz Kossmat, that the oceanic crust
was too firm for the continents to "simply plough through".

From at least 1910, Wegener imagined the continents once

fitting together not at the current shore line, but 200 m below
this, at the level of the continental shelves, where they match
well.[17] Part of the reason Wegener's ideas were not initially
accepted was the misapprehension that he was suggesting
the continents had fit along the current coastline.[17] Charles
Schuchert commented:

Theodor Escherich (German pronunciation: [ˈteːodɔʁ

ˈɛʃəʁɪç]; 29 November 1857 – 15 February 1911) was
a German-Austrian pediatrician and a professor at
universities in Graz and Vienna. He discovered the
bacterium Escherichia coli, which was named after him in
1919, and determined its properties.In 1886, after intensive
laboratory investigations, Escherich published a monograph
on the relationship of intestinal bacteria to the physiology of
digestion in the infant. This work, presented to the medical
faculty in München and published in Stuttgart, Die
Darmbakterien des Säuglings und ihre Beziehungen zur
Physiologie der Verdauung (1886) (Enterobacteria of infants
and their relation to digestion physiology), was to become
his habilitation treatise and established him as the leading
bacteriologist in the field of paediatrics.
It was also the publication where Escherich described a
bacterium which he called “bacterium coli commune” and
which was later to be called Escherichia coli.[2] For the next
four years, Escherich worked as first assistant to Heinrich
von Ranke at the Munich Von Haunersche Kinderklinik.

The Chapel Hill Consensus Conferences (CHCC) (1994 and

2012) are a pair of international conferences which
addressed the need of standardized classification system
for systemic vasculitides ,2012 Revised International
Chapel Hill Consensus Conference Nomenclature of
Vasculitides

Classification
Diseases
Group

Large-vessel Takayasu Arteritis (TAK); Giant cell

vasculitis (LVV) arteritis (GCA)

Medium-vessel Polyarteritis nodosa (PAN), Kawasaki

vasculitis (MVV) disease (KD)
Small vessel ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV);
vasculitis (SVV) Immune complex SVV

Variable vessel Behcet's disease (BD); Cogan's syndrome

vasculitis (VVV) (CS)

Cutaneous leukocytoclastic agiitis;

Single Organ cutaneous arteritis; primary central
Vasculitis (SOV) nervous system vasculitis; isolated
aortitis; others

Vasculitis
Lupus vasculitis; Rheumatoid vasculitis;
associated with
Sarcoid vasculitis; others
systemic disease

Hepatitis C virus-associated
cryoglobulinemic vasculitis; Hepatitis B
Vasculitis
virus-associated vasculitis; Syphilis-
associated with
associated aortitis; Drug-associated
probable etiology
immune complex vasculitis; Cancer-
associated vasculitis; others
,Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), formerly known
as Wegener's granulomatosis (WG),[1][2][3][4][5] is a long-term
systemic disorder that involves
both granulomatosis and polyangiitis. It is a form
of vasculitis (inflammation of blood vessels) that affects
small- and medium-size vessels in many organs but most
commonly affects the upper respiratory tract and the
kidneys.[6] Therefore, the signs and symptoms of GPA are
highly varied and reflect which organs are supplied by the
affected blood vessels. Typical signs and symptoms
include nosebleeds, stuffy nose and crustiness of nasal
secretions, and inflammation of the uveal layer of the
eye.[3] Damage to the heart, lungs and kidneys can be fatal.

The cause of GPA is unknown.[7] Genetics have been found

to play a role in GPA though the risk of inheritance appears
to be low.[7]

GPA treatment depends on the severity of the

disease.[8] Severe disease is typically treated with a
combination of immunosuppressive medicationssuch
as rituximab or cyclophosphamide and high-
dose corticosteroids to induce remission
and azathioprine, methotrexate, or rituximab to keep the
disease in remission.[1][7][8] Plasma exchange is also used in
severe cases with damage to the lungs, kidneys, or
intestines.[9]

The annual incidence of GPA is estimated to be 2.1-14.4 new

cases per million people in Europe.[3] GPA is rare
in Japaneseand African-American populations but occurs
more often in people of Northern European descent.[7] The
prevalence of GPA in the United States is estimated to be 3
cases per 100,000 people and equally affects men and
women.

Scottish otolaryngologist Peter McBride (1854–1946) first

described the condition in 1897 in a BMJ article entitled
"Photographs of a case of rapid destruction of the nose and
face".[27] Heinz Karl Ernst Klinger (born 1907) added
information on the anatomical pathology. An early name for
the disease was pathergic granulomatosis.[28] The disease is
still sometimes confused with lethal midline
granuloma and lymphomatoid granulomatosis, both
malignant lymphomas.[29]

The full clinical picture was first presented by Friedrich

Wegener (1907–1990), a German pathologist, in two reports
in 1936 and 1939, leading to the name Wegener's
granulomatosis or Wegener
granulomatosis (English: /ˈvɛɡənər/).[10] In 2006, Alexander
Woywodt (Preston, United Kingdom) and Eric Matteson
(Mayo Clinic, US) investigated Wegener's past, and
discovered that he was, at least at some point of his career, a
follower of the Nazi regime. He was a member of
the Sturmabteilung paramilitary group and worked in an
office where medical experiments were conducted
on Jewish people.[30]In addition, their data indicate that
Wegener was wanted by Polish authorities and that his files
were forwarded to the United Nations War Crimes
Commission. Furthermore, Wegener worked in close
proximity to the genocide machinery in Łódź. Their data
raised serious concerns about Wegener's professional
conduct. They suggest that the eponym should be
abandoned and propose "ANCA-associated granulomatous
vasculitis."[31] The authors have since campaigned for other
medical eponyms to be abandoned, too.[32] In 2011,
the American College of Rheumatology (ACR), the American
Society of Nephrology (ASN) and the European League
Against Rheumatism (EULAR) resolved to change the name
to granulomatosis with polyangiitis.[33]Currently, the old
name is still widely used despite the consensus to adopt the
change

Svante August Arrhenius (/ɑːˈreɪniʊs/;[1] 19 February 1859 – 2

October 1927) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist,
originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, and
one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry. He
received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903, becoming the
first Swedish Nobel laureate, and in 1905 became director of
the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death.[2] His
lasting contributions to science are exemplified and
memorialized by the Arrhenius equation, Arrhenius definition
of an acid, lunar crater Arrhenius, the mountain
of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm
University, all named after him. He was the first to use basic
principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the
extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide
increase Earth's surface temperature through the Arrhenius
effect, leading David Keeling to conclude that human-caused
carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global
warming

Ionic disassociation
At the University of Uppsala, he was dissatisfied with the
chief instructor of physics and the only faculty member who
could have supervised him in chemistry, Per Teodor Cleve,
so he left to study at the Physical Institute of the Swedish
Academy of Sciences in Stockholm under the physicist Erik
Edlund in 1881.[citation needed]

His work focused on the conductivities of electrolytes. In

1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-page
dissertation on electrolytic conductivity to Uppsala for
the doctorate. It did not impress the professors, among
whom was Cleve, and he received a fourth-class degree, but
upon his defense it was reclassified as third-class. Later,
extensions of this very work would earn him the 1903 Nobel
Prize in Chemistry.[4]

Arrhenius put forth 56 theses in his 1884 dissertation, most

of which would still be accepted today unchanged or with
minor modifications. The most important idea in the
dissertation was his explanation of the fact that solid
crystalline salts disassociate into paired charged particles
when dissolved, for which he would win the 1903 Nobel Prize
in Chemistry. Arrhenius' explanation was that in forming a
solution, the salt disassociates into charged particles, to
which Michael Faradayhad given the name ions many years
earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in
the process of electrolysis, that is, an external direct current
source of electricity was necessary to form ions. Arrhenius
proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current,
aqueous solutions of salts contained ions. He thus proposed
that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between
ions.[5][6][7]

The dissertation did not impress the professors at Uppsala,

but Arrhenius sent it to a number of scientists in Europe who
were developing the new science of physical chemistry, such
as Rudolf Clausius, Wilhelm Ostwald, and J. H. van 't Hoff.
They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even came to
Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team.
Arrhenius declined, however, as he preferred to stay in
Sweden for a while (his father was very ill and would die in
1885) and had received an appointment at Uppsala.[5][6][7]

In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed

definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He believed that
acids were substances that
produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were
substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution.
Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow
)

Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic

flow (French: Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement
Supersonique Uniforme, CRESU ) is
an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place
at very low temperatures.[1][2][3]

The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of

gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high pressure
reservoir into a vacuum chamber. As it expands, the nozzle
collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam that is
essentially collision free and has a temperature that, in the
centre of mass frame, can be significantly below that of the
reservoir gas. Each nozzle produces a characteristic
temperature. This way, any temperature between room
temperature and about 10K can be achieved.

There are relatively few CRESU [4] apparatuses in existence

for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping
requirements are huge, which makes them expensive to run.
Two of the leading centres have been the University of
Rennes(France) and the University of Birmingham (UK). A
more recent development has been a pulsed version of the
CRESU,[5]which requires far less gas and therefore smaller
pumps.

Kinetics

Most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low

temperatures and this means that they quickly condense on
the sides of the apparatus. Essentially, the CRESU technique
provides a "wall-less flow tube," which allows the kinetics of
gas phase reactions to be investigated at much lower
temperatures than otherwise possible.

Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in

a pump-probe fashion using a laser to initiate the reaction
(for example by preparing one of the reagents
by photolysis of a precursor), followed by observation of that
same species (for example by laser-induced fluorescence)
after a known time delay. The fluorescence signal is captured
by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de
Laval nozzle. The time delay can be varied up to the
maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known
distance. By studying how quickly the reagent species
disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a
(usually stable) co-reagent species the reaction rate
constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be
determined.

Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no

significant activation energy barrier. In the case of neutral-
neutral reactions (i.e., not involving any charged
species, ions), these type of barrier-free reactions usually
involve free radical species such as molecular oxygen (O2),
the cyanide radical (CN) or the hydroxyl radical (OH). The
energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an
attractive long range intermolecular potential.

CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations

from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures: as the
temperature is reduced, the rate constant actually increases.
They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in
the interstellar medium, where many different polyatomic
species have been detected by radio astronomy

Georgius Agricola (/əˈɡrɪkələ/; 24 March 1494 – 21 November

1555) was a German mineralogist and metallurgist. He is
known as "the father of mineralogy",[1] he was born
at Glauchau in Saxony. His birth name was Georg
Pawer (Bauer in modern German);[2] Agricola is
the Latinized version of his name, by which he was known
his entire adult life; Agricola and Bauer mean "farmer" in
their respective languages. He is best known for his book De
Re Metallica (1556). Gifted with a precocious intellect,
Agricola early threw himself into the pursuit of the "new
learning", with such effect that at the age of 24, he was
appointed Rector extraordinarius of Greek at the so-called
Great School of Zwickau, and made his appearance as a
writer on philology. After four years, he gave up his
appointment to pursue his studies at Leipzig, where, as
rector, he received the support of the professor of
classics, Peter Mosellanus (1493–1525), a celebrated
humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in
correspondence. Here, he also devoted himself to the study
of medicine, physics, and chemistry. He went to Italy from
1524 to 1526, where he took his doctor's degree.

He returned to Zwickau in 1527, and was chosen as town

physician at Joachimsthal, a centre of mining and smelting
works, his object being partly "to fill in the gaps in the art of
healing", and partly to test what had been written about
mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the methods
of their treatment. His thorough grounding in philology and
philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and
this enabled him to construct out of his studies and
observations of minerals a logical system which he began to
publish in 1528. Agricola's dialogue Bermannus, sive de re
metallica dialogus [Bermannus; or a dialogue on metallurgy],
(1530) the first attempt to reduce to scientific order the
knowledge won by practical work, brought Agricola into
notice; it contained an approving letter from Erasmus at the
beginning of the book.

He was also elected burgomaster of Chemnitz. His popularity

was, however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of
the Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in
his allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church; he was forced
to resign his office. He now lived apart from the contentious
movements of the time, devoting himself wholly to learning.
His chief interest was still in mineralogy, but he occupied
himself also with medical, mathematical, theological and
historical subjects, his chief historical work being
the Dominatores Saxonici a prima origine ad hanc aetatem,
published at Freiberg. In 1544, he published the De ortu et
causis subterraneorum, in which he laid the first foundations
of a physical geology, and criticized the theories of the
ancients. However, he maintained that a certain 'materia
pinguis' or 'fatty matter,' set into fermentation by heat, gave
birth to fossil organic shapes, as opposed to fossil shells
having belonged to living animals.[3] In 1545, he followed with
the De natura eorum quae effluunt e terra; in 1546 the De
veteribus et novis metallis, a comprehensive account of the
discovery and occurrence of minerals and also more
commonly known as De Natura Fossilium; in 1548, the De
animantibus subterraneis; and in the two following years a
number of smaller works on the metals.

Georges Henri Joseph Édouard

Lemaître, RAS Associate[1] (French: [ʒɔʁʒᵊ ləmɛ:tʁᵊ] (
listen); 17 July 1894 – 20 June 1966) was a Belgian Catholic
Priest, astronomer and professor of physics at the Catholic
University of Leuven.[2] He proposed on theoretical grounds
that the universe is expanding, which was observationally
confirmed soon afterwards by Edwin Hubble.[3][4] He was the
first to derive what is now known as Hubble's law and made
the first estimation of what is now called the Hubble
constant, which he published in 1927, two years before
Hubble's article.[5][6][7][8] Lemaître also proposed what became
known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe,
which he called his "hypothesis of the primeval atom" or the
"Cosmic Egg, In this report, he presented his new idea of an
expanding universe, derived from General Relativity and later
known as Hubble's law, and provided the first observational
estimation of the Hubble constant[12] but not yet that of the
primeval atom. Instead, the initial state was taken as
Einstein's own finite-size static universe model. The paper
had little impact because the journal in which it was
published was not widely read by astronomers outside
Belgium; Arthur Eddington reportedly helped translate his
article into English in 1931, but the part of it pertaining to the
estimation of the "Hubble constant" was not included in the
translation for reasons that have never been properly
explained.[13]

At this time, Einstein, while not taking exception to the

mathematics of Lemaître's theory, refused to accept the idea
of an expanding universe; Lemaître recalled him commenting
"Vos calculs sont corrects, mais votre physique est
abominable"[14]("Your calculations are correct, but your
physics is atrocious.") The same year, Lemaître returned to
MIT to present his doctoral thesis on The gravitational field in
a fluid sphere of uniform invariant density according to the
theory of relativity. Upon obtaining his Ph.D., he was
named ordinary professor at the Catholic University of
Leuven.

In 1930, Eddington published in the Monthly Notices of the

Royal Astronomical Society a long commentary on
Lemaître's 1927 article, in which he described the latter as a
"brilliant solution" to the outstanding problems of
cosmology.[15] The original paper was published in an
abbreviated English translation in 1931, along with a sequel
by Lemaître responding to Eddington's
comments.[16] Lemaître was then invited to London to
participate in a meeting of the British Association on the
relation between the physical universe and spirituality.

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for

the universe[1] from the earliest known periods through its
subsequent large-scale evolution. The model describes how
the universe expanded from a very high-density and high-
temperature state,[5][6] and offers a comprehensive
explanation for a broad range of phenomena, including the
abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave
background (CMB), large scale structure and Hubble's law.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY , LINKING ASTRONOMY AND
PHYSICS.

Astronomy (from Greek: ἀστρονομία) is a natural science that

studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics,
physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those
objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest
include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets; the phenomena
include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic
microwave background radiation. More generally, all phenomena
that originate outside Earth's atmosphere are within the purview of
astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is
concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole.[1]

Astronomy is one of the oldest of the natural sciences. The early

civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks,
Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, Maya, and many
ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas performed methodical
observations of the night sky. Historically, astronomy has included
disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation,
observational astronomy and the making of calendars, but
professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous
with astrophysics ,Rain is condensed and dissolved at Saturn
planet.
SATURN PLANET.

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-
largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with
an average radius about nine times that of Earth.[10][11] It has
only one-eighth the average density of Earth, but with its
larger volume Saturn is over 95 times more
massive.[12][13][14] Saturn is named after the Roman god of
agriculture; its astronomical symbol (♄) represents the
god's sickle.

Saturn's interior is probably composed of a core of iron-

nickel and rock (silicon and oxygen compounds). This core
is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an
intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium, and
finally a gaseous outer layer. Saturn has a pale yellow hue
due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere. Electrical
current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give
rise to Saturn's planetary magnetic field, which is weaker
than Earth's, but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of
Earth due to Saturn's larger size. Saturn's magnetic field
strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter's.[15] The
outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast,
although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on
Saturn can reach 1,800 km/h (1,100 mph; 500 m/s), higher
than on Jupiter, but not as high as those on Neptune.[16]

The planet's most famous feature is its prominent ring

system that is composed mostly of ice particles, with a
smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. At least
62 moons[17] are known to orbit Saturn, of which 53 are
officially named. This does not include the hundreds
of moonlets in the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and
the second-largest in the Solar System, is larger than the
planet Mercury, although less massive, and is the only moon
in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere

Saturn is a gas giantbecause it is predominantly composed

of hydrogen and helium. It lacks a definite surface, though it
may have a solid core.[19] Saturn's rotation causes it to have
the shape of an oblate spheroid; that is, it is flattened at the
poles and bulges at its equator. Its equatorial and polar radii
differ by almost 10%: 60,268 km versus
54,364 km.[5] Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, the other giant
planets in the Solar System, are also oblate but to a lesser
extent. The combination of the bulge and rotation rate means
that the effective surface gravity along the equator, 8.96 m/s2,
is 74% that at the poles and is lower than the surface gravity
of the Earth. However, the equatorial escape velocity of
nearly 36 km/s is much higher than that for the Earth.[20]

Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less

dense than water—about 30% less.[21] Although
Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the
average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3 due to the
atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times the Earth's mass,[22] and
Saturn is 95 times the mass of the Earth.[5] Together, Jupiter
and Saturn hold 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar
System.[23]

Internal structure of Saturn planet.

Diagram of Saturn, to scale

Author ;Kelvin song Own work.

Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of

Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen
becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is
above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius containing
99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and
density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which
causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers.[23]

Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn

is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core
surrounded by hydrogen and helium with trace amounts of
various volatiles.[24] This core is similar in composition to the
Earth, but more dense. Examination of Saturn's gravitational
moment, in combination with physical models of the interior,
has allowed constraints to be placed on the mass of Saturn's
core. In 2004, scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22
times the mass of the Earth,[25][26] which corresponds to a
diameter of about 25,000 km.[27] This is surrounded by a
thicker liquid metallic hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid
layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen that gradually
transitions to a gas with increasing altitude. The outermost
layer spans 1,000 km and consists of gas.[28][29][30]

Saturn has a hot interior, reaching 11,700 °C at its core, and it

radiates 2.5 times more energy into space than it receives
from the Sun. Jupiter's thermal energy is generated by
the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational
compression, but such a process alone may not be sufficient
to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is less
massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be
generation of heat through the "raining out" of droplets of
helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets descend
through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases
heat by friction and leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of
helium.[31][32] These descending droplets may have
accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the
core.[24] Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur
within Saturn, as well as in Jupiter[33] and ice
giants Uranus and Neptune.

DesignationsPronunciation/ˈsætərn/ (

Saturn in natural color approaching equinox, photographed

by Cassini in July 2008. The dot in the bottom left corner
is Titan.

Named after
 SaturnAdjectivesSaturnian, CronianOrbital
characteristics[5]Epoch J2000.0Aphelion1,514.50 million km
(10.1238 AU)Perihelion1,352.55 million km (9.0412 AU)

Semi-major axis

1,433.53 million km (9.5826 AU)Eccentricity0.0565

Orbital period

 29.4571 yr
 10,759.22 d
 24,491.07 Saturnian solar days[2]
Synodic period

378.09 days

Average orbital speed

9.68 km/s (6.01 mi/s)

Mean anomaly

317.020°[3]Inclination

 2.485° to ecliptic[3]
 5.51° to Sun's equator[3]
 0.93° to invariable plane[4]
 Longitude of ascending node

113.665°

Argument of perihelion

339.392°[3]Known satellites62 with formal designations; innumerable

additional moonlets.[5]Physical characteristics[5]

Mean radius

58,232 km (36,184 mi)[a]

Equatorialradius

 60,268 km (37,449 mi)[a]

 9.449 Earths
Polar radius

 54,364 km (33,780 mi)[a]

 8.552 Earths
Flattening0.09796

Surface area

 4.27×1010 km2 (1.65×1010 sq mi)[6][a]

 83.703 Earths
Volume
 8.2713×1014 km3(1.9844×1014 cu mi)[a]
 763.59 Earths
Mass

 5.6834×1026 kg (1.2530×1027 lb)

 95.159 Earths
Mean density

0.687 g/cm3 (0.0248 lb/cu in)[b] (less than water)

Surface gravity

 10.44 m/s2 (34.3 ft/s2)[a]

 1.065 g
Moment of inertia factor

0.210 I/MR2 estimate

Escape velocity

35.5 km/s (22.1 mi/s)[a]

Sidereal rotation period

10.55 hours[7]
(10 hr 33 min)

Equatorial rotation velocity

 9.87 km/s (6.13 mi/s; 35,500 km/h)[a]

Axial tilt

26.73° (to orbit)

North pole right ascension

40.589°; 2h 42m 21s

North pole declination

83.537°Albedo

 0.342 (Bond)
 0.499 (geometric)
Surface temp. min mean max

1 bar 134 K (−139 °C)

0.1 bar 84 K (−189 °C)

Apparent magnitude

+1.47 to −0.24[8]

Angular diameter

14.5″ to 20.1″ (excludes rings)Atmosphere[5]

Surface pressure
140 kPa[9]

Scale height

59.5 km (37.0 mi)Composition by volume

by volume:

96.3%±2.4% hydrogen (H
2)

3.25%±2.4% helium (He)

0.45%±0.2% methane (CH

4)

0.0125%±0.0075% ammonia (NH

3)

0.0110%±0.0058% hydrogen deuteride (HD)

0.0007%±0.00015% ethane (C
2H
6)

Ices:

 ammonia (NH
3)
 water (H
2O)
 ammonium hydrosulfide (NH
4SH)
[34]

Atmosphere

Methane bands circle Saturn. The moon Dione hangs below

the rings to the right.

The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular

hydrogen and 3.25% helium by volume.[35] The proportion of
helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance
of this element in the Sun.[24] The quantity of elements
heavier than helium (metallicity) is not known precisely, but
the proportions are assumed to match the primordial
abundances from the formation of the Solar System. The
total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31
times the mass of the Earth, with a significant fraction
located in Saturn's core region.[36]

Trace amounts of
ammonia, acetylene, ethane, propane, phosphine and metha
nehave been detected in Saturn's atmosphere.[37][38][39] The
upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals, while the
lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium
hydrosulfide (NH
4SH) or water.[40] Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes
methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere, leading to a
series of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting
products being carried downward by eddies and diffusion.
This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn's annual
seasonal cycle.[39]
Cloud layers
A global storm girdles the planet in 2011. The head of the
storm (bright area) passes the tail circling around the left
limb.

Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to

Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands are much fainter and are much
wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to describe
these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud
patterns were not observed until the flybys of
the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-
based telescopy has improved to the point where regular
observations can be made.[41]

The composition of the clouds varies with depth and

increasing pressure. In the upper cloud layers, with the
temperature in the range 100–160 K and pressures extending
between 0.5–2 bar, the clouds consist of ammonia ice.
Water ice clouds begin at a level where the pressure is about
2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures
range from 185–270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of
ammonium hydrosulfide ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6
bar with temperatures of 190–235 K. Finally, the lower layers,
where pressures are between 10–20 bar and temperatures
are 270–330 K, contains a region of water droplets with
ammonia in aqueous solution.[42]
Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits
long-lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter. In
1990, the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an enormous
white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present
during the Voyagerencounters, and in 1994 another smaller
storm was observed. The 1990 storm was an example of
a Great White Spot, a unique but short-lived phenomenon
that occurs once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30
Earth years, around the time of the northern
hemisphere's summer solstice.[43] Previous Great White
Spots were observed in 1876, 1903, 1933 and 1960, with the
1933 storm being the most famous. If the periodicity is
maintained, another storm will occur in about 2020.[44]

The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar
System's planets, after Neptune's. Voyager data indicate
peak easterly winds of 500 m/s (1,800 km/h).[45] In images
from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern
hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus.
The color was most likely caused by Rayleigh
scattering.[46] Thermography has shown that Saturn's south
pole has a warm polar vortex, the only known example of
such a phenomenon in the Solar System.[47] Whereas
temperatures on Saturn are normally −185 °C, temperatures
on the vortex often reach as high as −122 °C, suspected to be
the warmest spot on Saturn.[47]

North pole hexagonal cloud pattern

Saturn's north pole (IR animation)

: Saturn's hexagon

Saturn's hexagon
Saturn - North polar hexagon and vortex as well as rings
(April 2, 2014).

Saturn's hexagon is a persisting hexagonal cloud pattern

around the north pole of Saturn, located at about
78°N.[1][2][3] The sides of the hexagon are about 13,800 km
(8,600 mi) long, which is more than the diameter
of Earth[4] (about 12,700 km (7,900 mi)). It rotates with a
period of 10h 39m 24s, the same period as Saturn's radio
emissions from its interior.[5] The hexagon does not shift in
longitude like other clouds in the visible atmosphere.[6]

Saturn's hexagon was discovered during the Voyager

mission in 1981 and was later revisited by Cassini-
Huygens in 2006. During the Cassinimission, the hexagon
changed from a mostly blue color to more of a golden color.
Saturn's south pole does not have a hexagon, according
to Hubble observations; however, it does have a vortex, and
there is also a vortex inside the northern hexagon.[7] Multiple
hypotheses for the hexagonal cloud pattern have been
developed.

Discovery
Saturn's polar hexagon discovery was made by the Voyager
mission in 1981,[8] and it was revisited in 2006 by
NASA's Cassini mission.[9]

Cassini was able to take only thermal infrared images of the

hexagon until it passed into sunlight in January
2009.[10] Cassini was also able to take a video of the
hexagonal weather pattern while traveling at the same speed
as the planet, therefore recording only the movement of the
hexagon.[11] After its discovery, and after it came back into
the sunlight, amateur astronomers managed to get images
showing the hexagon from Earth.[12]

Color

2013 and 2017: hexagon color changes

Between 2012 and 2016, the hexagon changed from a mostly

blue color to more of a golden color.[13] One theory for this is
that sunlight is creating haze as the pole is exposed to
sunlight due to the change in season. These changes were
observed by the Cassini spacecraft.[13]

Explanations for hexagon shape

False-color image from the Cassini probe

One hypothesis, developed at Oxford University, is that the

hexagon forms where there is a steep latitudinal gradient in
the speed of the atmospheric winds in Saturn's
atmosphere.[14] Similar regular shapes were created in the
laboratory when a circular tank of liquid was rotated at
different speeds at its centre and periphery. The most
common shape was six sided, but shapes with three to eight
sides were also produced. The shapes form in an area
of turbulent flowbetween the two different rotating fluid
bodies with dissimilar speeds.[14][15] A number of stable
vortices of similar size form on the slower (south) side of the
fluid boundary and these interact with each other to space
themselves out evenly around the perimeter. The presence of
the vortices influences the boundary to move northward
where each is present and this gives rise to the polygon
effect.[15] Polygons do not form at wind boundaries unless
the speed differential and viscosity parameters are within
certain margins and so are not present at other likely places,
such as Saturn's south pole or the poles of Jupiter.

Other researchers claim that lab studies exhibit vortex

streets, a series of spiraling vortices not observed in
Saturn's hexagon. Simulations show that a shallow, slow,
localized meandering jetstream in the same direction as
Saturn's prevailing clouds is able to match the observed
behaviors of Saturn's Hexagon with the same boundary
stability.[16]

Developing barotropic instability of Saturn's North Polar

hexagonal circumpolar jet (Jet) plus North Polar vortex (NPV)
system produces a long-living structure akin to the observed
hexagon, which is not the case of the Jet-only system, which
was studied in this context in a number of papers in
literature. The north polar vortex (NPV), thus, plays a
decisive dynamical role to stabilize hexagon jets. The
influence of moist convection, which was recently suggested
to be at the origin of Saturn's north polar vortex system in
the literature, is investigated in the framework of the
barotropic rotating shallow water model and does not alter
the conclusions.[17]

A persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar

vortex in the atmosphere at about 78°N was first noted in the
Voyager images.[48][49][50] The sides of the hexagon are each
about 13,800 km (8,600 mi) long, which is longer than the
diameter of the Earth.[51] The entire structure rotates with a
period of 10h 39m 24s (the same period as that of the
planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to
the period of rotation of Saturn's interior.[52] The hexagonal
feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the
visible atmosphere.[53] The pattern's origin is a matter of
much speculation. Most scientists think it is a standing
wave pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes have been
replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of
fluids.[54][55]
South pole vortex

Saturn's south pole

HST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence

of a jet stream, but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal
standing wave.[56] NASA reported in November 2006
that Cassini had observed a "hurricane-like" storm locked to
the south pole that had a clearly
defined eyewall.[57][58] Eyewall clouds had not previously been
seen on any planet other than Earth. For example, images
from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in
the Great Red Spot of Jupiter.[59]

The south pole storm may have been present for billions of
years.[60] This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth, and it
has winds of 550 km/h.[60]
Other features

Cassini has observed a series of cloud features nicknamed

"String of Pearls" found in northern latitudes. These features
are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers.[61]

Magnetosphere

Magnetosphere of SaturnThe magnetosphere of Saturn is the

cavity created in the flow of the solar windby the planet's
internally generated magnetic field. Discovered in 1979 by
the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, Saturn's magnetosphere is the
second largest of any planet in the Solar System
after Jupiter. The magnetopause, the boundary between
Saturn's magnetosphere and the solar wind, is located at a
distance of about 20 Saturn radii from the planet's center,
while its magnetotail stretches hundreds of Saturn radii
behind it.

Saturn's magnetosphere is filled with plasmas originating

from both the planet and its moons. The main source is the
small moon Enceladus, which ejects as much as 1,000 kg/s
of water vapor from the geysers on its south pole, a portion
of which is ionized and forced to co-rotate with the Saturn’s
magnetic field. This loads the field with as much as 100 kg of
water group ions per second. This plasma gradually moves
out from the inner magnetosphere via the interchange
instability mechanism and then escapes through the
magnetotail.

The interaction between Saturn's magnetosphere and the

solar wind generates bright oval aurorae around the planet's
poles observed in visible, infrared and ultraviolet light. The
aurorae are related to the powerful saturnian kilometric
radiation (SKR), which spans the frequency interval between
100 kHz to 1300 kHz and was once thought to modulate with
a period equal to the planet's rotation. However, later
measurements showed that the periodicity of the SKR's
modulation varies by as much as 1%, and so probably does
not exactly coincide with Saturn’s true rotational period,
which as of 2010 remains unknown. Inside the
magnetosphere there are radiation belts, which house
particles with energy as high as tens of megaelectronvolts.
The energetic particles have significant influence on the
surfaces of inner icy moons of Saturn.

In 1980–1981 the magnetosphere of Saturn was studied by

the Voyagerspacecraft. Up until September 2017 it was a
subject of ongoing investigation by Cassini mission, which
arrived in 2004 and spent over 13 years observing the planet.
 Aurorae on the south pole of Saturn
as viewed by Hubble

Discovery

Internal field[1][2]

Radius of Saturn 60,330 km

Equatorial field 21 μT (0.21 G)

strength

Dipole tilt <0.5°

Rotation period ?

Solar wind parameters[3]

Speed 400 km/s

IMF strength 0.5 nT

Density 0.1 cm−3

Magnetospheric parameters[4][5][6]

Type Intrinsic

Bow shockdistance ~27 Rs

Magnetopausedistance ~22 Rs

Main ions O+, H2O+,

OH+, H3O+,
HO2+ and
O2+ and H+

Plasma sources Enceladus

Mass loading rate ~100 kg/s

Maximum plasma 50–100 cm−3

density

Aurora[7][8]
 Spectrum radio, near-
IR and UV

Total power 0.5 TW

Radio emission 10–1300 k

frequencies

Polar aurorae on Saturn

Auroral lights at Saturn’s north pole[62]

Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple,
symmetric shape – a magnetic dipole. Its strength at the
equator – 0.2 gauss(20 µT) – is approximately one twentieth
of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than
Earth's magnetic field.[15] As a result,
Saturn's magnetosphere is much smaller than
Jupiter's.[63] When Voyager 2entered the magnetosphere,
the solar windpressure was high and the magnetosphere
extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1 million km
(712,000 mi),[64] although it enlarged within several hours,
and remained so for about three days.[65] Most probably, the
magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter – by
currents in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a
metallic-hydrogen dynamo.[63] This magnetosphere is
efficient at deflecting the solar windparticles from the Sun.
The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's
magnetosphere and contributes plasma from
the ionized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere.[15] Saturn's
magnetosphere, like Earth's, produces aurorae.[66]

Discovery of magnetosphere

Immediately after the discovery of Jupiter's decametric radio

emissions in 1955, attempts were made to detect a similar
emission from Saturn, but with inconclusive results.[9] The
first evidence that Saturn might have an internally generated
magnetic field came in 1974, with the detection of weak radio
emissions from the planet at the frequency of about 1 MHz.

These medium wave emissions were modulated with a period

of about 10 h 30 min, which was interpreted as
Saturn's rotation period.[10] Nevertheless, the evidence
available in the 1970s was too inconclusive and some
scientists thought that Saturn might lack a magnetic field
altogether, while others even speculated that the planet
could lie beyond the heliopause.[11] The first definite
detection of the saturnian magnetic field was made only on
September 1, 1979, when it was passed through by
the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, which measured its magnetic
field strength directly.[2]

Structure
Internal field

Like Jupiter's magnetic field, Saturn's is created by a

fluid dynamo within a layer of circulating liquid metallic
hydrogen in its outer core.[1] Like Earth, Saturn's magnetic
field is mostly a dipole, with north and south poles at the
ends of a single magnetic axis.[12] On Saturn, like on Jupiter,
the north magnetic pole is located in the northern
hemisphere, and the south magnetic pole lies in the southern
hemisphere, so that magnetic field lines point away from the
north pole and towards the south pole. This is reversed
compared to the Earth, where the north magnetic pole lies in
the southern hemisphere.[13] Saturn's magnetic field also
has quadrupole, octupole and higher components, though
they are much weaker than the dipole.[12]

The magnetic field strength at Saturn's equator is about

21 μT (0.21 G), which corresponds to a dipole magnetic
moment of about 4.6 × 1018 T•m3.[2] This makes Saturn's
magnetic field slightly weaker than Earth's; however, its
magnetic moment is about 580 times larger.[1] Saturn's
magnetic dipole is strictly aligned with its rotational axis,
meaning that the field, uniquely, is highly
axisymmetric.[12] The dipole is slightly shifted (by 0.037 Rs)
along Saturn's rotational axis towards the north pole.[2]

Size and shape

Saturn's internal magnetic field deflects the solar wind, a

stream of ionized particles emitted by the Sun, away from its
surface, preventing it from interacting directly with its
atmosphere and instead creating its own region, called a
magnetosphere, composed of a plasma very different from
that of the solar wind.[12] The magnetosphere of Saturn is the
second–largest magnetosphere in the Solar System after that
of Jupiter.[3]

As with Earth's magnetosphere, the boundary separating the

solar wind's plasma from that within Saturn's magnetosphere
is called the magnetopause.[2] The magnetopause distance
from the planet's center at the subsolar point[note 1] varies
widely from 16 to 27 Rs (Rs=60,330 km is the equatorial radius
of Saturn).[14][15] The magnetopause's position depends on
the pressure exerted by the solar wind, which in turn
depends on solar activity. The average magnetopause
standoff distance is about 22 Rs.[6] In front of the
magnetopause (at the distance of about 27 Rs from the
planet)[6] lies the bow shock, a wake-like disturbance in the
solar wind caused by its collision with the magnetosphere.
The region between the bow shock and magnetopause is
called the magnetosheath.[16]

At the opposite side of the planet, the solar wind stretches

Saturn's magnetic field lines into a long,
trailing magnetotail,[12]which consists of two lobes, with the
magnetic field in the northern lobe pointing away from
Saturn and the southern pointing towards it.[16] The lobes are
separated by a thin layer of plasma called the tail current
sheet.[13] Like Earth’s, Saturn's tail is a channel through
which solar plasma enters the inner regions of the
magnetosphere.[17] Similar to Jupiter, the tail is the conduit
through which the plasma of the internal magnetospheric
origin leaves the magnetosphere.[17] The plasma moving from
the tail to the inner magnetopshere is heated and forms a
number of radiation belts.[12]

Magnetospheric regions

The structure of Saturn's magnetosphere

e structure of Saturn's magnetosphere

NASA/JPL-Caltech -
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/photos/imagedetails/index.cfm?im
ageId=2177

Regions of saturn's magnetosphere

Saturn's magnetosphere is often divided into four
regions.[18] The innermost region co-located with
Saturn's planetary rings, inside approximately 3 Rs, has a
strictly dipolar magnetic field. It is largely devoid of plasma,
which is absorbed by ring particles, although the radiation
belts of Saturn are located in this innermost region just
inside and outside the rings.[18] The second region between 3
and 6 Rscontains the cold plasma torus and is called the
inner magnetosphere. It contains the densest plasma in the
saturnian system. The plasma in the torus originates from
the inner icy moons and particularly from Enceladus.[18] The
magnetic field in this region is also mostly dipolar.[19] The
third region lies between 6 and 12–14 Rs and is called the
dynamic and extended plasma sheet. The magnetic field in
this region is stretched and non-dipolar,[18] whereas the
plasma is confined to a thin equatorial plasma sheet.[19] The
fourth outermost region is located beyond 15 Rs at high
latitudes and continues up to magnetopause boundary. It is
characterized by a low plasma density and a variable, non-
dipolar magnetic field strongly influenced by the Solar
wind.[18]
In the outer parts of Saturn's magnetosphere beyond
approximately 15–20 Rs[20] the magnetic field near the
equatorial plane is highly stretched and forms a disk-like
structure called magnetodisk.[21] The disk continues up to the
magnetopause on the dayside and transitions into the
magnetotail on the nightside.[22] Near the dayside it can be
absent when the magnetosphere is compressed by the Solar
wind, which usually happens when the magnetopause
distance is smaller than 23 Rs. On the nightside and flanks of
the magnetosphere the magnetodisk is always
present.[21] The Saturn's magnetodisk is a much smaller
analog of the Jovian magnetodisk.[17]

The plasma sheet in the Saturn's magnetosphere has a bowl-

like shape not found in any other known magnetosphere.
When Cassini arrived in 2004, there was a winter in the
northern hemisphere. The measurements of the magnetic
field and plasma density revealed that the plasma sheet was
warped and lay to the north of the equatorial plane looking
like a giant bowl. Such a shape was unexpected.[21]

Dynamics
Image of plasma cloud around Saturn (Cassini)

The processes driving Saturn's magnetosphere are similar to

those driving Earth's and Jupiter's.[23] Just as Jupiter's
magnetosphere is dominated by plasma co–rotation and
mass–loading from Io, so Saturn's magnetosphere is
dominated by plasma co–rotation and mass–loading
from Enceladus. However, Saturn's magnetosphere is much
smaller in size, while its inner region contains too little
plasma to seriously distend it and create a large
magnetodisk.[13][note 2] This means that it is much more
strongly influenced by the solar wind, and that, like Earth's
magnetic field, its dynamics are affected
by reconnection with the wind similar to the Dungey cycle.[13]

Another distinguishing feature of Saturn's magnetosphere is

high abundance of neutral gas around the planet. As
revealed by ultravioletobservation of Cassini, the planet is
enshrouded in a large cloud of hydrogen, water vapor and
their dissociative products like hydroxyl, extending as far as
45 Rs from Saturn. In the inner magnetosphere the ratio of
neutrals to ions is around 60 and it increases in the outer
magnetosphere, which means that the entire magnetospheric
volume is filled with relatively dense weakly ionized gas. This
is different, for instance, from Jupiter or Earth, where ions
dominate over neutral gas, and has consequences for the
magnetospheric dynamics.[24]

Sources and transport of plasma.

The plasma composition in Saturn's inner magnetosphere is

dominated by the water group ions: O+, H2O+, OH+ and
others, hydronium ion (H3O+), HO2+ and
O2+,[4] although protons and nitrogen ions (N+) are also
present.[25][26] The main source of water is Enceladus, which
releases 300–600 kg/s of water vapor from the geysers near
its south pole.[4][27] The released water and hydroxyl (OH)
radicals (a product of water's dissociation) form a rather
thick torus around the moon's orbit at 4 Rswith densities up
to 10,000 molecules per cubic centimeter.[5] At least 100 kg/s
of this water is eventually ionized and added to the co–
rotating magnetospheric plasma.[5] Additional sources of
water group ions are Saturn's rings and other icy
moons.[27]The Cassini spacecraft also observed small
amounts of N+ ions in the inner magnetosphere, which
probably originate from Enceladus as well.[28]

Cassini image of the ring current around Saturn carried by

energetic (20–50 keV) ions

cassini image of the ring current around Saturn carried by

energetic (20–50 keV) ions
NASA/JPL/APL -
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia1
0094.html

A false color map showing intensity of energetic (20-50 keV)

neutral atoms escaping from the magnetosphere of Saturn.
The large Toroidal feature is the ring current carried by
energetic ions.

In the outer parts of the magnetosphere the dominant ions

are protons, which originate either from the Solar wind of
Saturn's ionosphere.[29] Titan, which orbits close to the
magnetopause boundary at 20 Rs, is not a significant source
of plasma.[29][30]

The relatively cold plasma in the innermost region of

Saturn's magnetosphere, inside 3 Rs (near the rings) consists
mainly of O+ and O2+ ions.[25] There ions together with
electrons form an ionosphere surrounding the saturnian
rings.[31]

For both Jupiter and Saturn, transport of plasma from the

inner to the outer parts of the magnetosphere is thought to
be related to interchange instability.[25][32] In the case of
Saturn, magnetic flux tubes loaded with cold, water–rich
plasma interchange with flux tubes filled with hot plasma
arriving from the outer magnetosphere.[25] The instability is
driven by centrifugal force exerted by the plasma on the
magnetic field.[18] The cold plasma is eventually removed
from the magnetosphere by plasmoids formed when the
magnetic field reconnects in the magnetotail.[32] The
plasmoids move down the tail and escape from the
magnetosphere.[32] The reconnection or substorm process is
thought to be under the control of the solar wind and
Saturn's largest moon Titan, which orbits near the outer
boundary of the magnetosphere.[30]

In the magnetodisk region, beyond 6 Rs, the plasma within

the co–rotating sheet exerts a significant centrifugal force on
the magnetic field, causing it to stretch.[33][note 3] This
interaction creates a current in the equatorial plane flowing
azimuthally with rotation and extending as far as 20 Rs from
the planet.[34] The total strength of this current varies from 8
to 17 MA.[33][34] The ring current in the saturnian
magnetosphere is highly variable and depends of the solar
wind pressure, being stronger when the pressure is
weaker.[34] The magnetic moment associated with this current
slightly (by about 10 nT) depresses the magnetic field in the
inner magnetosphere,[35] although it increases the total
magnetic moment of the planet and causing the size of the
magnetosphere to become larger.[34]

Aurorae

The northern aurora of Saturn in the infrared light

Saturn has bright polar aurorae, which have been observed

in the ultraviolet, visible and near infrared light.[36] The
aurorae usually look like bright continuous circles (ovals)
surrounding the poles of the planet.[37] The latitude of auroral
ovals varies in the range of 70–80°;[8] the average position
is 75 ± 1° for the southern aurora, while the northern aurora
is closer to the pole by about 1.5°.[38][note 4] From time to time
either aurorae can assume a spiral shape instead of oval. In
this case it begins near midnight at a latitude of around 80°,
then its latitude decreases to as low as 70° as it continues
into the dawn and day sectors (counterclockwise).[40] In the
dusk sector the auroral latitude increases again, although
when it returns to the night sector it still has a relatively low
latitude and does not connect to the brighter dawn part.[37]

Unlike Jupiter's, the Saturn's main auroral ovals are not

related to the breakdown of the co–rotation of the plasma in
the outer parts of the planet's magnetosphere.[8] The aurorae
on Saturn are thought to be connected to the reconnection of
the magnetic field under the influence of the Solar wind
(Dungey cycle),[13] which drives an upward current (about 10
million amperes) from the ionosphere and leads to the
acceleration and precipitation of energetic (1–10 keV)
electrons into the polar thermosphere of Saturn.[41] The
saturnian aurorae are more similar to those of the Earth,
where they are also Solar wind driven.[37] The ovals
themselves correspond to the boundaries between open and
closed magnetic field lines—so called polar caps, which are
thought to reside at the distance of 10–15° from the poles.[41]

The aurorae of Saturn are highly variable.[37] Their location

and brightness strongly depends on the Solar wind pressure:
the aurorae become brighter and move closer to the poles
when the Solar wind pressure increases.[37] The bright
auroral features are observed to rotate with the angular
speed of 60–75% that of Saturn. From time to time bright
features appear in the dawn sector of the main oval or inside
it.[40] The average total power emitted by the aurorae is about
50 GW in the far ultraviolet(80–170 nm) and 150–300 GW in
the near-infrared (3–4 μm—H3+ emissions) parts of the
spectrum.[8]

Saturn kilometric radiation

The spectrum of Saturn's radio emissions compared with
spectra of four other magnetized planets

Ruslik0 - Own work

The graph shows the spectra of radio emissions of five

magnetized Solar System planets. (DAM—decametric
radiation, HOM—hectormetric radiation, and KOM—
kilometric radiation) Source: Zarka, Philippe; Kurth, W.S.
(1998). "Auroral radio emissions at the outer planets:
Observations and theory". Journal of Geophysical
Research 103 (E9): 20,159–194. DOI:10.1029/98JE01

Saturn is the source of rather strong low frequency radio

emissions called Saturn kilometric radiation (SKR). The
frequency of SKR lies in the range 10–1300 kHz (wavelength
of a few kilometers) with the maximum around 400 kHz.[7] The
power of these emissions is strongly modulated by the
rotation of the planet and is correlated with changes in the
solar wind pressure. For instance, when Saturn was
immersed into the giant magnetotail of Jupiter
during Voyager 2 flyby in 1981, the SKR power decreased
greatly or even ceased completely.[7][42] The kilometeric
radiation is thought to be generated by the Cyclotron Maser
Instability of the electrons moving along magnetic field lines
related to the auroral regions of Saturn.[42] Thus the SKR is
related to the auroras around the poles of the planet. The
radiation itself comprises spectrally diffuse emissions as
well as narrowband tones with bandwidths as narrow as
200 Hz. In the frequency–time plane arc like features are
often observed, much like in the case of the Jovian kilometric
radiation.[42] The total power of the SKR is around 1 GW.[7]

The modulation of the radio emissions by planetary rotation

is traditionally used to determine the rotation period of the
interiors of fluid giant planets.[43] In the case of Saturn,
however, this appears to be impossible, as the period varies
at the timescale of tens years. In 1980–1981 the periodicity in
the radio emissions as measured by Voyager 1 and 2 was 10
h 39 min 24 ± 7 s, which was then adopted as the rotational
period of Saturn. Scientists were surprised when Galileo and
then Cassini returned a different value—10 h 45 min 45 ± 36
s.[43] Further observation indicated that the modulation
period changes by as much as 1% on the characteristic
timescale of 20–30 days with an additional long term trend.
There is a correlation between the period and solar wind
speed, however, the causes of this change remain a
mystery.[43] One reason may be that the saturnian perfectly
axially symmetric magnetic field fails to impose a strict
corotation on the magnetospheric plasma making it slip
relative to the planet. The lack of a precise correlation
between the variation period of SKR and planetary rotation
makes it all but impossible to determine the true rotational
period of Saturn.[44]

Radiation belts

Saturn's radiation belts

Saturn's radiation belts

NASA/JPL/APL -
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia0
6421.html

The radiation belts of Saturn. The main belt as well as the

newly discovered inner belt are visible.

Saturn has relatively weak radiation belts, because energetic

particles are absorbed by the moons and particulate material
orbiting the planet.[45] The densest (main) radiation belt lies
between the inner edge of the Enceladus gas torus at
3.5 Rs and the outer edge of the A Ring at 2.3 Rs. It contains
protons and relativistic electronswith energies from
hundreds of kiloelectronvolts (keV) to as high as tens
of megaelectronvolts (MeV) and possibly other
ions.[46] Beyond 3.5 Rs the energetic particles are absorbed
by the neutral gas and their numbers drop, although less
energetic particles with energies in the range of hundreds
keV appear again beyond 6 Rs—these are the same particles
that contribute to the ring current.[note 3][46] The electrons in
the main belt probably originate in the outer magnetosphere
or Solar wind, from which they are transported by the
diffusion and then adiabatically heated.[47] However, the
energetic protons consist of two populations of particles.
The first population with energies of less than about 10 MeV
has the same origin as electrons,[46] while the second one
with the maximum flux near 20 MeV results from the
interaction of cosmic rays with solid material present in the
Saturnian system (so called cosmic ray albedo neutron
decay process—CRAND).[47] The main radiation belt of Saturn
is strongly influenced by interplanetary solar wind
disturbances.[46]

The innermost region of the magnetosphere near the rings is

generally devoid of energetic ions and electrons because
they are absorbed by ring particles.[46] Saturn, however, has
the second radiation belt discovered by Cassini in 2004 and
located just inside the innermost D Ring.[45] This belt
probably consists of energetic charged particles formed via
the CRAND process or of ionized energetic neutral atoms
coming from the main radiation belt.[46]

The saturnian radiation belts are generally much weaker than

those of Jupiter and do not emit much microwave
radiation (with frequency of a few Gigahertz). Estimates
shows that their decimetric radio emissions (DIM) would be
impossible to detect from the Earth.[48] Nevertherless the
high energy particles cause weathering of the surfaces of the
icy moons and sputter water, water products and oxygen
from them.[47]

Interaction with rings and moons

See also: Moons of Saturn

False-colour composite image showing the glow of auroras

streaking out about 1,000 kilometres from the cloud tops of
Saturn's south polar region

NASA/JPL/University of Arizona/University of Leicester - JPL

PHOTOJOURNAL

This false-colour composite image, constructed from data

obtained by NASA's Cassini spacecraft, shows the glow of
auroras streaking out about 1,000 kilometres from
the cloudtops of Saturn's south polar region. It is among the
first images released from a study that identifies images
showing auroral emissions out of the entire catalogue of
images taken by Cassini's visual and infrared mapping
spectrometer. In this image constructed from data collected
in the near-infrared wavelengths of light, the auroral
emission is shown in green. The data represents emissions
from hydrogen ions in of light between 3 and 4 microns in
wavelength. In general, scientists designated blue to
indicate sunlight reflected at a wavelength of 2 microns,
green to indicate sunlight reflected at 3 microns and red to
indicate thermal emission at 5 microns. Saturn's rings reflect
sunlight at 2 microns, but not at 3 and 5 microns, so they
appear deep blue. Saturn's high altitude haze reflects
sunlight at both 2 and 3 microns, but not at 5 microns, and
so it appears green to blue-green. The heat emission from
the interior of Saturn is only seen at 5 microns wavelength in
the spectrometer data, and thus appears red. The dark spots
and banded features in the image are clouds and
small storms that outline the deeper weather systems and
circulation patterns of the planet. They are illuminated from
underneath by Saturn's thermal emission, and thus appear
in silhouette

The abundant population of solid bodies orbiting Saturn

including moons as well as ring particles exerts a strong
influence on the magnetosphere of Saturn. The plasma in the
magnetosphere co-rotates with the planet, continuously
impinging on the trailing hemispheres of slowly moving
moons.[49] While ring particles and the majority of moons
only passively absorb plasma and energetic charged
particles, three moons – Enceladus, Dione and Titan – are
significant sources of new plasma.[50][51] The absorption of
energetic electrons and ions reveals itself by noticeable gaps
in the radiation belts of Saturn near the moon's orbits, while
the dense rings of Saturn completely eliminate all energetic
electrons and ions closer than 2.2 RS, creating a low
radiation zone in the vicinity of the planet.[46] The absorption
of the co-rotating plasma by a moon disturbs the magnetic
field in its empty wake—the field is pulled towards a moon,
creating a region of a stronger magnetic field in the near
wake.[49]

The three moons mentioned above add new plasma into the
magnetosphere. By far the strongest source is Enceladus,
which ejects a fountain of water vapor, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen through cracks in its south pole region.[27] A fraction
of this gas is ionized by the hot electrons and solar
ultraviolet radiation and is added to the co-rotational plasma
flow.[50] Titan once was thought to be the principal source of
plasma in Saturn's magnetosphere, especially of nitrogen.
The new data obtained by Cassini in 2004–2008 established
that it is not a significant source of nitrogen after
all,[29] although it may still provide significant amounts of
hydrogen (due to dissociation of methane).[52] Dione is the
third moon producing more new plasma than it absorbs. The
mass of plasma created in the vicinity of it (about 6 g/s) is
about 1/300 as much as near Enceladus.[51]However, even
this low value can not be explained only by sputtering of its
icy surface by energetic particles, which may indicate that
Dione is endogenically active like Enceladus. The moons that
create new plasma slow the motion of the co-rotating plasma
in their vicinity, which leads to the pile-up of the magnetic
field lines in front of them and weakening of the field in their
wakes—the field drapes around them.[53] This is the opposite
to what is observed for the plasma-absorbing moons.

The plasma and energetic particles present in the

magnetosphere of Saturn, when absorbed by ring particles
and moons, cause radiolysis of the water ice. Its products
include ozone, hydrogen peroxide and molecular
oxygen.[54] The first one has been detected in the surfaces of
Rhea and Dione, while the second is thought to be
responsible for the steep spectral slopes of moons'
reflectivities in the ultraviolet region.[54] The oxygen
produced by radiolysis forms tenuous atmospheres around
rings and icy moons. The ring atmosphere was detected by
Cassini for the first time in 2004.[55] A fraction of the oxygen
gets ionized, creating a small population of O2+ ions in the
magnetosphere.[54] The influence of Saturn's magnetosphere
on its moons is more subtle than the influence of Jupiter on
its moons. In the latter case, the magnetosphere contains a
significant number of sulfur ions, which, when implanted in
surfaces, produce characteristic spectral signatures. In the
case of Saturn, the radiation levels are much lower and the
plasma is composed mainly of water products, which, when
implanted, are indistinguishable from the ice already
present.[54]

Exploration of Saturn planet,

Exploration of Saturn

As of 2014 the magnetosphere of Saturn has been directly

explored by four spacecraft. The first mission to study the
magnetosphere was Pioneer 11 in September 1979. Pioneer
11 discovered the magnetic field and made some
measurements of the plasma parameters.[2] In November
1980 and August 1981, Voyager 1–2 probes investigated the
magnetosphere using an improved set of
instruments.[2] From the fly-by trajectories they measured the
planetary magnetic field, plasma composition and density,
high energy particle energy and spatial distribution, plasma
waves and radio emissions. Cassini spacecraft was launched
in 1997, and arrived in 2004, making the first measurements
in more than two decades. The spacecraft continued to
provide information about the magnetic field and plasma
parameters of the saturnian magnetosphere until its
intentional destruction on September 15, 2017.

In the 1990s, the Ulysses spacecraft conducted extensive

measurements of the Saturnian kilometric radiation
(SKR),[7] which is unobservable from Earth due to the
absorption in the ionosphere.[56] The SKR is powerful enough
to be detected from a spacecraft at the distance of
several astronomical units from the planet. Ulysses
discovered that the period of the SKR varies by as much as
1%, and therefore is not directly related to the rotation period
of the interior of Saturn

Artist's concepts of the Saturnian ring–moon system

Saturn, its rings and major icy moons—from Mimas to Rhea
Images of several moons of Saturn. From left to right: Mimas,
Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea; Titan in the background;
Iapetus (top right) and irregularly shaped Hyperion (bottom
right). Some small moons are also shown. All to scale.

Moons_of_Saturn_2007.jpg:
User:Kikino Dione3_cassini_big.jpg: NASA/JPL/Space
Science Institute derivative work: - Begoon (Talk) -
Moons_of_Saturn_2007.jpg Dione3_cassini_big.jpg

(this double A4 image was created by Francesco Ruspoli

using public domain Nasa pictures. The Moons are roughly
to scale. Though in the right order the distances between
each moon is NOT to scale.)

The moons of Saturn are numerous and diverse,[1] ranging

from tiny moonlets less than 1 kilometer across to the
enormous Titan, which is larger than the
planet Mercury. Saturn has 62 moons with confirmed orbits,
53 of which have names and only 13 of which have diameters
larger than 50 kilometers, as well as dense ringswith
complex orbital motions of their own.[2][3][4]Seven Saturnian
moons are large enough to be ellipsoidal in shape, yet only
two of those, Titanand Rhea, are currently in hydrostatic
equilibrium. Particularly notable among Saturn's moons are
Titan, the second-largest moon (after Jupiter's Ganymede) in
the Solar System, with a nitrogen-rich Earth-like atmosphere
and a landscape featuring dry river networks
and hydrocarbon lakes found nowhere else in the solar
system;[5] and Enceladus since its chemical composition is
similar to that of comets.[6] In particular, Enceladus emits jets
of gas and dust which could indicate presence of liquid water
under its south pole region and could potentially harbor a
global ocean under its surface.[7]

Twenty-four of Saturn's moons are regular satellites; they

have prograde orbits not greatly inclined to Saturn's
equatorial plane.[8] They include the seven major satellites,
four small moons that exist in a trojan orbit with larger
moons, two mutually co-orbital moons and two moons that
act as shepherds of Saturn's F Ring. Two other known
regular satellites orbit within gaps in Saturn's rings. The
relatively large Hyperion is locked in a resonance with Titan.
The remaining regular moons orbit near the outer edge of
the A Ring, within G Ring and between the major
moons Mimas and Enceladus. The regular satellites are
traditionally named after Titans and Titanesses or other
figures associated with the mythological Saturn.
The remaining 38, all small except one, are irregular
satellites, whose orbits are much farther from Saturn, have
high inclinations, and are mixed between prograde
and retrograde. These moons are probably captured minor
planets, or debris from the breakup of such bodies after they
were captured, creating collisional families. The irregular
satellites have been classified by their orbital characteristics
into the Inuit, Norse, and Gallic groups, and their names are
chosen from the corresponding mythologies. The largest of
the irregular moons is Phoebe, the ninth moon of Saturn,
discovered at the end of the 19th century.

The rings of Saturn are made up of objects ranging in size

from microscopic to moonlets hundreds of meters across,
each in its own orbit around Saturn.[9] Thus a precise number
of Saturnian moons cannot be given, because there is no
objective boundary between the countless small anonymous
objects that form Saturn's ring system and the larger objects
that have been named as moons. Over 150 moonlets
embedded in the rings have been detected by the
disturbance they create in the surrounding ring material,
though this is thought to be only a small sample of the total
population of such objects.

History[edit]
Saturn (overexposed) and the moons Iapetus, Titan, Dione,
Hyperion, and Rhea viewed through a 12.5-inch telescope

Early observations[edit]

Before the advent of telescopic photography, eight moons of

Saturn were discovered by direct observation using optical
telescopes. Saturn's largest moon, Titan, was discovered in
1655 by Christiaan Huygens using a 57-millimeter
(2.2 in) objective lens[11] on a refracting telescope of his own
design.[12] Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus (the "Sidera
Lodoicea") were discovered between 1671 and 1684
by Giovanni Domenico
Cassini.[13] Mimas and Enceladus were discovered in 1789
by William Herschel.[13] Hyperion was discovered in 1848
by W.C. Bond, G.P. Bond[14] and William Lassell.[15]

The use of long-exposure photographic plates made possible

the discovery of additional moons. The first to be discovered
in this manner, Phoebe, was found in 1899 by W.H.
Pickering.[16] In 1966 the tenth satellite of Saturn was
discovered by Audouin Dollfus, when the rings were
observed edge-on near an equinox.[17] It was later
named Janus. A few years later it was realized that all
observations of 1966 could only be explained if another
satellite had been present and that it had an orbit similar to
that of Janus.[17] This object is now known as Epimetheus,
the eleventh moon of Saturn. It shares the same orbit with
Janus—the only known example of co-orbitals in the Solar
System.[18] In 1980, three additional Saturnian moons were
discovered from the ground and later confirmed by
the Voyager probes. They are trojan moons of Dione (Helene)
and Tethys (Telesto and Calypso).[18]

Observations by spacecraft[edit]

Four moons of Saturn can be seen on this image by the

Cassini spacecraft: Huge Titan and Dione at the bottom,
small Prometheus (under the rings) and tiny Telesto above
center.
Five moons in another Cassini image: Rhea bisected in the
far-right foreground, Mimas behind it, bright Enceladus
above and beyond the rings, Pandora eclipsed by the F Ring,
and Janus off to the left.

The study of the outer planets has since been revolutionized

by the use of unmanned space probes. The arrival of
the Voyager spacecraft at Saturn in 1980–1981 resulted in the
discovery of three additional moons—
Atlas, Prometheus and Pandora, bringing the total to 17.[18] In
addition, Epimetheus was confirmed as distinct from Janus.
In 1990, Pan was discovered in archival Voyager images.[18]

The Cassini mission,[1] which arrived at Saturn in the summer

of 2004, initially discovered three small inner moons
including Methone and Pallene between Mimas and
Enceladus as well as the second trojan moon of Dione—
Polydeuces. It also observed three suspected but
unconfirmed moons in the F Ring.[19] In November
2004 Cassini scientists announced that the structure
of Saturn's rings indicates the presence of several more
moons orbiting within the rings, although only one, Daphnis,
had been visually confirmed at the time.[20] In 2007 Anthe was
announced.[21] In 2008 it was reported
that Cassini observations of a depletion of energetic
electrons in Saturn's magnetosphere near Rhea might be the
signature of a tenuous ring system around Saturn's second
largest moon.[22] In March 2009, Aegaeon, a moonlet within
the G Ring, was announced.[23] In July of the same
year, S/2009 S 1, the first moonlet within the B Ring, was
observed.[4] In April 2014, the possible beginning of a
new moon, within the A Ring, was reported.[24] (related
image)

Outer moons[edit]

Quadruple Saturn–moon transit captured by the Hubble

Space Telescope
Study of Saturn's moons has also been aided by advances in
telescope instrumentation, primarily the introduction of
digital charge-coupled devices which replaced photographic
plates. For the entire 20th century, Phoebe stood alone
among Saturn's known moons with its highly irregular orbit.
Beginning in 2000, however, three dozen additional irregular
moons have been discovered using ground-based
telescopes.[25] A survey starting in late 2000 and conducted
using three medium-size telescopes found thirteen new
moons orbiting Saturn at a great distance, in eccentric orbits,
which are highly inclined to both the equator of Saturn and
the ecliptic.[26] They are probably fragments of larger bodies
captured by Saturn's gravitational pull.[25][26] In 2005,
astronomers using the Mauna Kea Observatory announced
the discovery of twelve more small outer moons,[27][28] in
2006, astronomers using the Subaru 8.2 m
telescope reported the discovery of nine more irregular
moons,[29] in April 2007, Tarqeq (S/2007 S 1) was announced
and in May of the same year S/2007 S 2 and S/2007 S 3 were
reported.[30]

Some of the 62 known satellites of Saturn are

considered lost because they have not been observed since
their discovery and hence their orbits are not well-known
enough to pinpoint their current locations. Work has been
done to recover many of them in surveys from 2009 onwards,
but seven – S/2007 S 2, S/2004 S 13, S/2006 S 1, S/2007 S
3, S/2004 S 17, S/2004 S 12, and S/2004 S 7 – still remain lost
today.[31][32]

Naming
Naming of moons

The modern names for Saturnian moons were suggested

by John Herschel in 1847.[13] He proposed to name them after
mythological figures associated with the Roman god of
agriculture and harvest, Saturn (equated to the
Greek Cronus).[13] In particular, the then known seven
satellites were named after Titans, Titanesses and Giants—
brothers and sisters of Cronus.[16] In 1848, Lassell proposed
that the eighth satellite of Saturn be named Hyperion after
another Titan.[15] When in the 20th century the names of
Titans were exhausted, the moons were named after different
characters of the Greco-Roman mythology or giants from
other mythologies.[33] All the irregular moons (except
Phoebe) are named after Inuit and Gallic gods and
after Norse ice giants.[34]

Some asteroids share the same names as moons of

Saturn: 55 Pandora, 106 Dione, 577 Rhea, 1809
Prometheus, 1810 Epimetheus, and 4450 Pan. In addition,
two more asteroids previously shared the names of
Saturnian moons until spelling differences were made
permanent by the International Astronomical
Union (IAU): Calypso and asteroid 53 Kalypso;
and Helene and asteroid 101 Helena.

Sizes

The relative masses of Saturn's moons. Mimas, the rings,

and the small moons are invisible at this scale.

Saturn's satellite system is very lopsided: one moon, Titan,

comprises more than 96% of the mass in orbit around the
planet. The six other planemo (ellipsoidal) moons constitute
roughly 4% of the mass, and the remaining 55 small moons,
together with the rings, comprise only 0.04%.[a]

Saturn's major satellites, compared to the Moon

 Orbital Orbital
Diameter Mass
Name radius period
(km)[35] (kg)[36]
(km)[37] (days)[37]

396 4×1019 185,539

0.9
Mimas (12% Moon (0.05% Moo (48% Moon
(3% Moon)
) n) )

504 1.1×1020 237,948

Enceladu 1.4
(14% Moon (0.2% Moon (62% Moon
s (5% Moon)
) ) )

1,062 6.2×1020 294,619

1.9
Tethys (30% Moon (0.8% Moon (77% Moon
(7% Moon)
) ) )

1,123 1.1×1021 377,396 2.7

Dione (32% Moon (1.5% Moon (98% Moon (10% Moon
) ) ) )

1,527 2.3×1021 527,108 4.5

Rhea
(44% Moon (3% Moon) (137% Moo (20% Moon
 Saturn's major satellites, compared to the Moon

Orbital Orbital
Diameter Mass
Name radius period
(km)[35] (kg)[36]
(km)[37] (days)[37]

) n) )

5,150
1.35×1023 1,221,870 16
(148% Moo
Titan (180% Moo (318% Moo (60% Moon
n)
n) n) )
(75% Mars)

1,470 1.8×1021 3,560,820 79

Iapetus (42% Moon (2.5% Moon (926% Moo (290% Moo
) ) n) n)

Orbital groups[edit]

Although the boundaries may be somewhat vague, Saturn's

moons can be divided into ten groups according to their
orbital characteristics. Many of them, such
as Pan and Daphnis, orbit within Saturn's ring system and
have orbital periods only slightly longer than the planet's
rotation period.[38] The innermost moons and most regular
satellites all have mean orbital inclinations ranging from less
than a degree to about 1.5 degrees (except Iapetus, which
has an inclination of 7.57 degrees) and small orbital
eccentricities.[39] On the other hand, irregular satellites in the
outermost regions of Saturn's moon system, in particular
the Norse group, have orbital radii of millions of kilometers
and orbital periods lasting several years. The moons of the
Norse group also orbit in the opposite direction to Saturn's
rotation.[34]

Ring moonlets
Rings of Saturn

Daphnis in the Keeler gap

During late July 2009, a moonlet was discovered in the B

Ring,[4] 480 km from the outer edge of the ring, by the
shadow it cast. It is estimated to be 300 m in diameter. Unlike
the A Ring moonlets (see below), it does not induce a
'propeller' feature, probably due to the density of the B
Ring.[40]

Possible beginning of a new moon of Saturn imaged on 15

April 2014

Saturn's F Ring along with the moons, Enceladus and Rhea.

In 2006, four tiny moonlets were found in Cassini images of

the A Ring.[41] Before this discovery only two larger moons
had been known within gaps in the A Ring: Pan and Daphnis.
These are large enough to clear continuous gaps in the
ring.[41] In contrast, a moonlet is only massive enough to
clear two small—about 10 km across—partial gaps in the
immediate vicinity of the moonlet itself creating a structure
shaped like an airplane propeller.[42]The moonlets themselves
are tiny, ranging from about 40 to 500 meters in diameter,
and are too small to be seen directly.[10] In 2007, the
discovery of 150 more moonlets revealed that they (with the
exception of two that have been seen outside the Encke gap)
are confined to three narrow bands in the A Ring between
126,750 and 132,000 km from Saturn's center. Each band is
about a thousand kilometers wide, which is less than 1% the
width of Saturn's rings.[10] This region is relatively free from
the disturbances caused by resonances with larger
satellites,[10] although other areas of the A Ring without
disturbances are apparently free of moonlets. The moonlets
were probably formed from the breakup of a larger
satellite.[42] It is estimated that the A Ring contains 7,000–
8,000 propellers larger than 0.8 km in size and millions larger
than 0.25 km.[10]

Similar moonlets may reside in the F Ring.[10] There, "jets" of

material may be due to collisions, initiated by perturbations
from the nearby small moon Prometheus, of these moonlets
with the core of the F Ring. One of the largest F Ring
moonlets may be the as-yet unconfirmed object S/2004 S 6.
The F Ring also contains transient "fans" which are thought
to result from even smaller moonlets, about 1 km in diameter,
orbiting near the F Ring core.[43]

One of the recently discovered moons, Aegaeon, resides

within the bright arc of G Ring and is trapped in the 7:6
mean-motion resonance with Mimas.[23] This means that it
makes exactly seven revolutions around Saturn while Mimas
makes exactly six. The moon is the largest among the
population of bodies that are sources of dust in this ring.[44]

In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible

beginning of a new moon, within the A Ring.[24]

Ring shepherds[edit]
Main article: Rings of Saturn

Shepherd satellites – Atlas, Daphnis and Pan (color).

Shepherd satellites are small moons that orbit within, or just
beyond, a planet's ring system. They have the effect of
sculpting the rings: giving them sharp edges, and creating
gaps between them. Saturn's shepherd moons
are Pan (Encke gap), Daphnis (Keeler gap), Atlas (A
Ring), Prometheus (F Ring) and Pandora (F Ring).[19][23] These
moons together with co-orbitals (see below) probably formed
as a result of accretion of the friable ring material on
preexisting denser cores. The cores with sizes from one-third
to one-half the present day moons may be themselves
collisional shards formed when a parental satellite of the
rings disintegrated.[38]

Co-orbitals
: Co-orbital moon

Janus and Epimetheus are called co-orbital moons.[18] They

are of roughly equal size, with Janus being slightly larger
than Epimetheus.[38] Janus and Epimetheus have orbits with
only a few kilometers difference in semi-major axis, close
enough that they would collide if they attempted to pass
each other. Instead of colliding, however, their gravitational
interaction causes them to swap orbits every four years.[45]

Inner large moons

Tiger stripes on Enceladus

Saturn's rings and moons

Tethys, Hyperion and Prometheus

Tethys and Janus

 Tethys and the rings of Saturn

The innermost large moons of Saturn orbit within its

tenuous E Ring, along with three smaller moons of the
Alkyonides group.

 Mimas is the smallest and least massive of the inner round

moons,[36] although its mass is sufficient to alter the orbit
of Methone.[45] It is noticeably ovoid-shaped, having been
made shorter at the poles and longer at the equator (by
about 20 km) by the effects of Saturn's gravity.[46] Mimas
has a large impact crater one-third its diameter, Herschel,
situated on its leading hemisphere.[47] Mimas has no
known past or present geologic activity, and its surface is
dominated by impact craters. The only tectonic features
known are a few arcuate and linear troughs, which
probably formed when Mimas was shattered by the
Herschel impact.[47]
 Enceladus is one of the smallest of Saturn's moons that is
spherical in shape—only Mimas is smaller[46]—yet is the
only small Saturnian moon that is currently endogenously
active, and the smallest known body in the Solar System
that is geologically active today.[48] Its surface is
morphologically diverse; it includes ancient heavily
cratered terrain as well as younger smooth areas with few
impact craters. Many plains on Enceladus are fractured
and intersected by systems of lineaments.[48] The area
around its south pole was found by Cassini to be
unusually warm and cut by a system of fractures about
130 km long called "tiger stripes", some of which
emit jets of water vapor and dust.[48] These jets form a
large plume off its south pole, which replenishes Saturn's
E ring[48] and serves as the main source of ions in
the magnetosphere of Saturn.[49] The gas and dust are
released with a rate of more than 100 kg/s. Enceladus may
have liquid water underneath the south-polar
surface.[48] The source of the energy for
this cryovolcanism is thought to be a 2:1 mean-motion
resonance with Dione.[48] The pure ice on the surface
makes Enceladus one of the brightest known objects in
 the Solar System—its geometrical albedo is more than
140%.[48]
 Tethys is the third largest of Saturn's inner moons.[36] Its
most prominent features are a large (400 km diameter)
impact crater named Odysseus on its leading hemisphere
and a vast canyon system named Ithaca
Chasma extending at least 270° around Tethys.[47] The
Ithaca Chasma is concentric with Odysseus, and these
two features may be related. Tethys appears to have no
current geological activity. A heavily cratered hilly terrain
occupies the majority of its surface, while a smaller and
smoother plains region lies on the hemisphere opposite to
that of Odysseus.[47] The plains contain fewer craters and
are apparently younger. A sharp boundary separates them
from the cratered terrain. There is also a system of
extensional troughs radiating away from Odysseus.[47] The
density of Tethys (0.985 g/cm3) is less than that of water,
indicating that it is made mainly of water ice with only a
small fraction of rock.[35]
 Dione is the second-largest inner moon of Saturn. It has a
higher density than the geologically dead Rhea, the largest
inner moon, but lower than that of active
Enceladus.[46] While the majority of Dione's surface is
 heavily cratered old terrain, this moon is also covered with
an extensive network of troughs and lineaments,
indicating that in the past it had
global tectonic activity.[50] The troughs and lineaments are
especially prominent on the trailing hemisphere, where
several intersecting sets of fractures form what is called
"wispy terrain".[50] The cratered plains have a few large
impact craters reaching 250 km in diameter.[47] Smooth
plains with low impact-crater counts are also present on a
small fraction of its surface.[51] They were probably
tectonically resurfaced relatively later in the geological
history of Dione. At two locations within smooth plains
strange landforms (depressions) resembling oblong
impact craters have been identified, both of which lie at
the centers of radiating networks of cracks and
troughs;[51] these features may be cryovolcanic in origin.
Dione may be geologically active even now, although on a
scale much smaller than the cryovolcanism of Enceladus.
This follows from Cassini magnetic measurements that
show Dione is a net source of plasma in the
magnetosphere of Saturn, much like Enceladus.[51]
Alkyonides
Cassini image of Methone's leading side taken on 20 May
2012

Three small moons orbit between Mimas and

Enceladus: Methone, Anthe, and Pallene. Named after
the Alkyonides of Greek mythology, they are some of the
smallest moons in the Saturn system. Anthe and Methone
have very faint ring arcs along their orbits, whereas Pallene
has a faint complete ring.[52] Of these three moons, only
Methone has been photographed at close range, showing it
to be egg-shaped with very few or no craters.[53][citation not found]

Trojan moons
: Trojan moon

Trojan moons are a unique feature only known from the

Saturnian system. A trojan body orbits at either the leading
L4 or trailing L5 Lagrange point of a much larger object, such
as a large moon or planet. Tethys has two trojan
moons, Telesto(leading) and Calypso (trailing), and Dione
also has two, Helene (leading)
and Polydeuces (trailing).[19] Helene is by far the largest
trojan moon,[46] while Polydeuces is the smallest and has the
most chaotic orbit.[45] These moons are coated with dusty
material that has smoothened out their surfaces.[54]

Outer large moons[edit]

These moons all orbit beyond the E Ring. They are:

Inktomi or "The Splat", a relatively young crater with

prominent butterfly-shaped ejecta on Rhea's leading
hemisphere

 Rhea is the second-largest of Saturn's moons.[46] In

2005 Cassini detected a depletion of electrons in the
plasma wake of Rhea, which forms when the co-rotating
plasma of Saturn's magnetosphere is absorbed by the
moon.[22] The depletion was hypothesized to be caused by
the presence of dust-sized particles concentrated in a
few faint equatorial rings.[22] Such a ring system would
make Rhea the only moon in the Solar System known to
have rings.[22] However, subsequent targeted observations
of the putative ring plane from several angles
by Cassini's narrow-angle camera turned up no evidence
of the expected ring material, leaving the origin of the
plasma observations unresolved.[55] Otherwise Rhea has
rather a typical heavily cratered surface,[47] with the
exceptions of a few large Dione-type fractures (wispy
terrain) on the trailing hemisphere[56] and a very faint "line"
of material at the equator that may have been deposited by
material deorbiting from present or former rings.[57] Rhea
also has two very large impact basins on its anti-Saturnian
hemisphere, which are about 400 and 500 km
across.[56] The first, Tirawa, is roughly comparable to the
Odysseus basin on Tethys.[47] There is also a 48 km-
diameter impact crater called Inktomi[58][b] at 112°W that is
prominent because of an extended system of
bright rays,[59] which may be one of the youngest craters
on the inner moons of Saturn.[56] No evidence of any
endogenic activity has been discovered on the surface of
Rhea.[56]
Three crescent moons of Saturn: Titan, Mimas and Rhea

 Titan, at 5,151 km diameter, is the second largest moon in

the Solar System and Saturn's largest.[36] Out of all the
large moons, Titan is the only one with a dense (surface
pressure of 1.5 atm), cold atmosphere, primarily made
of nitrogen with a small fraction of methane.[60] The dense
atmosphere frequently produces bright white convective
clouds, especially over the south pole region.[60] On June
6, 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection
of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper
atmosphere of Titan.[61] On June 23, 2014, NASA claimed
to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of
Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated
with comets, and not from the materials that formed
Saturn in earlier times.[62] The surface of Titan, which is
difficult to observe due to persistent atmospheric haze,
shows only a few impact craters and is probably very
 young.[60] It contains a pattern of light and dark regions,
flow channels and possibly cryovolcanos.[60][63] Some dark
regions are covered by longitudinal dune fields shaped by
tidal winds, where sand is made of frozen water or
hydrocarbons.[64] Titan is the only body in the Solar
System beside Earth with bodies of liquid on its surface, in
the form of methane–ethane lakes in Titan's north and
south polar regions.[65] The largest lake, Kraken Mare, is
larger than the Caspian Sea.[66] Like Europa and
Ganymede, it is believed that Titan has a subsurface
ocean made of water mixed with ammonia, which can
erupt to the surface of the moon and lead to
cryovolcanism.[63] On July 2, 2014, NASA reported the
ocean inside Titan may be "as salty as the Earth's Dead
Sea".[67][68]
 Hyperion is Titan's nearest neighbor in the Saturn system.
The two moons are locked in a 4:3 mean-motion
resonancewith each other, meaning that while Titan makes
four revolutions around Saturn, Hyperion makes exactly
three.[36] With an average diameter of about 270 km,
Hyperion is smaller and lighter than Mimas.[69] It has an
extremely irregular shape, and a very odd, tan-colored icy
surface resembling a sponge, though its interior may be
 partially porous as well.[69] The average density of about
0.55 g/cm3[69] indicates that the porosity exceeds 40% even
assuming it has a purely icy composition. The surface of
Hyperion is covered with numerous impact craters—those
with diameters 2–10 km are especially abundant.[69] It is
the only moon besides the small moons of Pluto known to
have a chaotic rotation, which means Hyperion has no
well-defined poles or equator. While on short timescales
the satellite approximately rotates around its long axis at a
rate of 72–75° per day, on longer timescales its axis of
rotation (spin vector) wanders chaotically across the
sky.[69] This makes the rotational behavior of Hyperion
essentially unpredictable.[70]

Equatorial ridge on Iapetus

 Iapetus is the third-largest of Saturn's moons.[46] Orbiting

the planet at 3.5 millionkm, it is by far the most distant of
Saturn's large moons, and also has the largest orbital
inclination, at 15.47°.[37] Iapetus has long been known for
its unusual two-toned surface; its leading hemisphere is
pitch-black and its trailing hemisphere is almost as bright
as fresh snow.[71] Cassini images showed that the dark
material is confined to a large near-equatorial area on the
leading hemisphere called Cassini Regio, which extends
approximately from 40°N to 40°S.[71] The pole regions of
Iapetus are as bright as its trailing
hemisphere. Cassini also discovered a 20 km tall
equatorial ridge, which spans nearly the moon's entire
equator.[71]Otherwise both dark and bright surfaces of
Iapetus are old and heavily cratered. The images revealed
at least four large impact basins with diameters from 380
to 550 km and numerous smaller impact craters.[71] No
evidence of any endogenic activity has been
discovered.[71] A clue to the origin of the dark material
covering part of Iapetus's starkly dichromaticsurface may
have been found in 2009, when NASA's Spitzer Space
Telescope discovered a vast, nearly invisible disk around
Saturn, just inside the orbit of the moon Phoebe—
the Phoebe ring.[72] Scientists believe that the disk
originates from dust and ice particles kicked up by
impacts on Phoebe. Because the disk particles, like
Phoebe itself, orbit in the opposite direction to Iapetus,
Iapetus collides with them as they drift in the direction of
 Saturn, darkening its leading hemisphere slightly.[72] Once
a difference in albedo, and hence in average temperature,
was established between different regions of Iapetus,
a thermal runaway process of water ice sublimation from
warmer regions and deposition of water vapor onto colder
regions ensued. Iapetus's present two-toned appearance
results from the contrast between the bright, primarily ice-
coated areas and regions of dark lag, the residue left
behind after the loss of surface ice.[73][74]
Irregular moons

Diagram illustrating the orbits of the irregular satellites of

Saturn. The inclination and semi-major axis are represented
on the Y and X-axis, respectively. The eccentricity of the
orbits is shown by the segments extending from
the pericenter to apocenter. The satellites with positive
inclinations are prograde, those with negative are retrograde.
The X-axis is labeled in km. The prograde Inuit and Gallic
groups and the retrograde Norse group are identified.

Irregular moons are small satellites with large-radii, inclined,

and frequently retrograde orbits, believed to have been
acquired by the parent planet through a capture process.
They often occur as collisional families or groups.[25] The
precise size as well as albedo of the irregular moons are not
known for sure because the moons are very small to be
resolved by a telescope, although the latter is usually
assumed to be quite low—around 6% (albedo of Phoebe) or
less.[26] The irregulars generally have featureless visible
and near infrared spectra dominated by water absorption
bands.[25]They are neutral or moderately red in color—similar
to C-type, P-type, or D-type asteroids,[34] though they are
much less red than Kuiper beltobjects.[25][c]

Inuit group[edit]
Main article: Saturn's Inuit group of satellites
The Inuit group includes five prograde outer moons that are
similar enough in their distances from the planet (186–297
radii of Saturn), their orbital inclinations (45–50°) and their
colors that they can be considered a group.[26][34] The moons
are Ijiraq, Kiviuq, Paaliaq, Siarnaq, and Tarqeq.[34]The largest
among them is Siarnaq with an estimated size of about
40 km.

Gallic group
: Saturn's Gallic group of satellites

The Gallic group are four prograde outer moons that are
similar enough in their distance from the planet (207–302
radii of Saturn), their orbital inclination (35–40°) and their
color that they can be considered a group.[26][34] They
are Albiorix, Bebhionn, Erriapus, and Tarvos.[34] Tarvos, as of
2009, is the most distant of Saturn's moons with a prograde
orbit. The largest among these moons is Albiorix with an
estimated size of about 32 km.

Norse group
Saturn's rings and moons – Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas.

: Saturn's Norse group of satellites

The Norse (or Phoebe) group consists of 29 retrograde outer

moons.[26][34] They
are Aegir, Bergelmir, Bestla, Farbauti, Fenrir, Fornjot, Greip,
Hati, Hyrrokkin, Jarnsaxa, Kari, Loge, Mundilfari, Narvi, Phoe
be, Skathi, Skoll, Surtur, Suttungr, Thrymr, Ymir, S/2004 S
7, S/2004 S 12, S/2004 S 13, S/2004 S 17, S/2006 S 1, S/2006 S
3, S/2007 S 2, and S/2007 S 3.[34] After Phoebe, Ymir is the
largest of the known retrograde irregular moons, with an
estimated diameter of only 18 km. The Norse group may itself
consist of several smaller subgroups.[34]

 Phoebe, at 213±1.4 km in diameter, is by far the largest of

Saturn's irregular satellites.[25] It has a retrograde orbit and
rotates on its axis every 9.3 hours.[75]Phoebe was the first
moon of Saturn to be studied in detail by Cassini, in June
2004; during this encounter Cassini was able to map
nearly 90% of the moon's surface. Phoebe has a nearly
spherical shape and a relatively high density of about
1.6 g/cm3.[25] Cassini images revealed a dark surface
scarred by numerous impacts—there are about 130 craters
with diameters exceeding 10 km. Spectroscopic
 measurement showed that the surface is made of water
ice, carbon dioxide, phyllosilicates, organics and possibly
iron bearing minerals.[25] Phoebe is believed to be a
captured centaur that originated in the Kuiper belt.[25] It
also serves as a source of material for the largest known
ring of Saturn, which darkens the leading hemisphere of
Iapetus (see above).[72]

List
Confirmed moons
The Saturnian moons are listed here by orbital period (or
semi-major axis), from shortest to longest. Moons massive
enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into
a spheroid are highlighted in bold, Unconfirmed moons

The following objects (observed by Cassini) have not been

confirmed as solid bodies. It is not yet clear if these are real
satellites or merely persistent clumps within the F Ring.[19]

Semi-
Orbital
Imag Diamete major Discover
Name period Position
e r (km) axis y year
(d)[45]
(km)[45]
S/200 ≈ 14013 +0.6180
≈ 3–5 uncertai 2004
4S6 0 1
n
objects
S/200
around
4S ≈ 14030
≈ 3–5 ≈ +0.619 the F 2004
3/S 0
Ring
4[j]

Hypothetical moons

Two moons were claimed to be discovered by different

astronomers but never seen again. Both moons were said to
orbit between Titan and Hyperion.[77]

 Chiron which was supposedly sighted by Hermann

Goldschmidt in 1861, but never observed by anyone
else.[77]
 Themis was allegedly discovered in 1905 by
astronomer William Pickering, but never seen again.
Nevertheless, it was included in numerous almanacs and
astronomy books until the 1960s.[77]

Formation of Saturn moon.

It is thought that the Saturnian system of Titan, mid-sized

moons, and rings developed from a set-up closer to
the Galilean moons of Jupiter, though the details are unclear.
It has been proposed either that a second Titan-sized moon
broke up, producing the rings and inner mid-sized
moons,[78] or that two large moons fused to form Titan, with
the collision scattering icy debris that formed the mid-sized
moons.[79] On June 23, 2014, NASA claimed to have strong
evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from
materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not
from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier
times.[62] Studies based on Enceladus's tidal-based geologic
activity and the lack of evidence of extensive past
resonances in Tethys, Dione, and Rhea's orbits suggest that
the moons inward of Titan may be only 100 million years old.[

Orbit and rotation of Saturn planet.

Saturn and rings as viewed by the Cassini spacecraft (28
October 2016)

The average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1.4
billion kilometers (9 AU). With an average orbital speed of
9.68 km/s,[5] it takes Saturn 10,759 Earth days (or about
29 1⁄2 years)[67] to finish one revolution around the Sun.[5] As a
consequence, it forms a near 5:2 mean-motion
resonance with Jupiter.[68] The elliptical orbit of Saturn is
inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the
Earth.[5]The perihelion and aphelion distances are,
respectively, 9.195 and 9.957 AU, on average.[5][69] The visible
features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on
latitude and multiple rotation periods have been assigned to
various regions (as in Jupiter's case).

Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the

rotation rate of Saturn. System I has a period of 10 hr 14 min
00 sec (844.3°/d) and encompasses the Equatorial Zone, the
South Equatorial Belt and the North Equatorial Belt. The
polar regions are considered to have rotation rates similar
to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes, excluding the north
and south polar regions, are indicated as System II and have
been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 38 min 25.4 sec
(810.76°/d). System III refers to Saturn's internal rotation rate.
Based on radio emissions from the planet in the period of the
Voyager flybys, it has been assigned a rotation period of
10 hr 39 min 22.4 sec (810.8°/d). Because it is close to
System II, it has largely superseded it.[70]

A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains

elusive. While approaching Saturn in 2004, Cassini found
that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased
appreciably, to approximately 10 hr 45 min 45 sec
(± 36 sec).[71][72] The latest estimate of Saturn's rotation (as an
indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole) based on a
compilation of various measurements from
the Cassini, Voyager and Pioneer probes was reported in
September 2007 is 10 hr 32 min 35 sec.[73]

In March 2007, it was found that the variation of radio

emissions from the planet did not match Saturn's rotation
rate. This variance may be caused by geyser activity on
Saturn's moon Enceladus. The water vapor emitted into
Saturn's orbit by this activity becomes charged and creates a
drag upon Saturn's magnetic field, slowing its rotation
slightly relative to the rotation of the planet.[74][75][76]

An apparent oddity for Saturn is that it does not have any

known trojan asteroids. These are minor planets that orbit
the Sun at the stable Lagrangian points, designated L4 and
L5, located at 60° angles to the planet along its orbit. Trojan
asteroids have been discovered for Mars, Jupiter, Uranus,
and Neptune. Orbital resonance mechanisms,
including secular resonance, are believed to be the cause of
the missing Saturnian trojans.[77]

Natural satellites
Moons of Saturn

A montage of Saturn and its

principal moons (Dione, Tethys, Mimas, Enceladus, Rhea and
Titan; Iapetusnot shown). This famous image was created
from photographs taken in November 1980 by the Voyager
1spacecraft.

Saturn has 62 known moons, 53 of which have formal

names.[78][79] In addition, there is evidence of dozens to
hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in
Saturn's rings,[80] which are not considered to be true
moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of
the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the
rings.[81]Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a
tenuous ring system of its own,[82]along with a
tenuous atmosphere.[83][84][85]

Possible beginning of a new moon (white dot) of Saturn

(image taken by Cassini on 15 April 2013)

Many of the other moons are small: 34 are less than 10 km in

diameter and another 14 between 10 and 50 km in
diameter.[86]Traditionally, most of Saturn's moons have been
named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the only
satellite in the Solar Systemwith a major atmosphere,[87][88] in
which a complex organic chemistry occurs. It is the only
satellite with hydrocarbon lakes.[89][90]

On 6 June 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSICreported the

detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper
atmosphereof Titan, a possible precursor for life.[91] On 23
June 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence
that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials
in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the
materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.[92]

Saturn's moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical

makeup to comets,[93] has often been regarded as a
potential habitat for microbial life.[94][95][96][97] Evidence of this
possibility includes the satellite's salt-rich particles having
an "ocean-like" composition that indicates most of
Enceladus's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of
liquid salt water.[98][99][100] A 2015 flyby by Cassini through a
plume on Enceladus found most of the ingredients to sustain
life forms that live by methanogenesis.[101]

In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible

beginning of a new moon within the A Ring, which was
imaged by Cassinion 15 April 2013.[102]

Planetary rings
Rings of Saturn

Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary

rings that makes it visually unique.[29] The rings extend from
6,630 to 120,700 kilometers (4,120 to 75,000 mi) outward from
Saturn's equator and average approximately 20 meters (66 ft)
in thickness. They are composed predominantly of water ice
with trace amounts of tholin impurities, and a peppered
coating of approximately 7% amorphous carbon.[103] The
particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of
dust up to 10 m.[104] While the other gas giants also have ring
systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible.

There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the

rings. One hypothesis is that the rings are remnants of a
destroyed moon of Saturn. The second hypothesis is that the
rings are left over from the original nebular material from
which Saturn formed. Some ice in the E ring comes from the
moon Enceladus's geysers.[105][106][107][108] The water
abundance of the rings vary radially, with the outermost ring
A being the most pure in ice water. This abundance variance
may be explained by meteor bombardment.[109]

The rings of Saturn are the most extensive ring system of

any planet in the Solar System. They consist of countless
small particles, ranging from μm to m in
size,[1] that orbit about Saturn. The ring particles are made
almost entirely of water ice, with a trace component of rocky
material. There is still no consensus as to their mechanism
of formation; some features of the rings suggest a relatively
recent origin, but theoretical models indicate they are likely
to have formed early in the Solar System's history.[2]

Although reflection from the rings increases

Saturn's brightness, they are not visible from Earth
with unaided vision. In 1610, the year after Galileo
Galilei turned a telescope to the sky, he became the first
person to observe Saturn's rings, though he could not see
them well enough to discern their true nature. In
1655, Christiaan Huygenswas the first person to describe
them as a disk surrounding Saturn.[3] Although many people
think of Saturn's rings as being made up of a series of tiny
ringlets (a concept that goes back to Laplace),[3] true gaps
are few. It is more correct to think of the rings as an annular
disk with concentric local maxima and minima in density and
brightness.[2] On the scale of the clumps within the rings
there is much empty space.

The rings have numerous gaps where particle density drops

sharply: two opened by known moons embedded within
them, and many others at locations of known
destabilizing orbital resonances with the moons of Saturn.
Other gaps remain unexplained. Stabilizing resonances, on
the other hand, are responsible for the longevity of several
rings, such as the Titan Ringlet and the G Ring.
Well beyond the main rings is the Phoebe ring, which is tilted
at an angle of 27 degrees to the other rings and, like Phoebe,
orbits in retrograde fashion.

The full set of rings, imaged as Saturn eclipsed the Sun from
the vantage of the Cassini orbiter, 1.2 million km distant,
on 19 July 2013 (brightness is exaggerated). Earth appears
as a dot at 4 o'clock, between the G and E rings.
Voyager 2 view of Saturn casting a shadow across its rings.
Four satellites and ring spokes are visible.
The rings of Saturn (imaged here by Cassini in 2007) are the
most massive and conspicuous in the Solar System.[29]

False-color UV image of Saturn's outer B and A rings; dirtier

ringlets in the Cassini Division and Encke Gap show up red.

Beyond the main rings at a distance of 12 million km from the

planet is the sparse Phoebe ring, which is tilted at an angle
of 27° to the other rings and, like Phoebe, orbits
in retrograde fashion.[110]

Some of the moons of Saturn,

including Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd moons
to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading
out.[111] Pan and Atlascause weak, linear density waves in
Saturn's rings that have yielded more reliable calculations of
their masses.

History[edit]
Galileo's work[edit]

Galileo first observed the rings in 1610.

Galileo Galilei was the first to observe the rings of Saturn in

1610 using his telescope, but was unable to identify them as
such. He wrote to the Duke of Tuscany that "The planet
Saturn is not alone, but is composed of three, which almost
touch one another and never move nor change with respect
to one another. They are arranged in a line parallel to
the zodiac, and the middle one (Saturn itself) is about three
times the size of the lateral ones."[4] He also described the
rings as Saturn's "ears". In 1612 the Earth passed through
the plane of the rings and they became invisible. Mystified,
Galileo remarked "I do not know what to say in a case so
surprising, so unlooked for and so novel."[3]He mused, "Has
Saturn swallowed his children?" — referring to the myth of
the Titan Saturn devouring his offspring to forestall the
prophecy of them overthrowing him.[4] He was further
confused when the rings again became visible in 1613.[3]

Early astronomers used anagrams as a form of commitment

scheme to lay claim to new discoveries before their results
were ready for publication. Galileo
used smaismrmilmepoetaleumibunenugttauiras for Altissimu
m planetam tergeminum observavi("I have observed the
most distant planet to have a triple form") for discovering the
rings of Saturn.[5]

Ring theory, observations and exploration[edit]

Robert Hooke noted the shadows (a and b) cast by both the

globe and the rings on each other in this 1666 drawing of
Saturn.
In 1655, Christiaan Huygens became the first person to
suggest that Saturn was surrounded by a ring. Using a 50×
power refracting telescope that he designed himself, far
superior to those available to Galileo, Huygens observed
Saturn and in 1656, like Galileo, had published an anagram
saying
"aaaaaaacccccdeeeeeghiiiiiiillllmmnnnnnnnnnooooppqrrstttt
tuuuuu". Upon confirming his observations, three years later
he revealed it to mean "Annuto cingitur, tenui, plano,
nusquam coherente, ad eclipticam inclinato"; that is, "It
[Saturn] is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching,
inclined to the ecliptic".[3][6] Robert Hooke was another early
observer of the rings of Saturn, and noted the casting of
shadows on the rings.[7]

In 1675, Giovanni Domenico Cassini determined that Saturn's

ring was composed of multiple smaller rings with gaps
between them; the largest of these gaps was later named
the Cassini Division. This division is a 4,800-km-wide region
between the A ring and B Ring.[8]

In 1787, Pierre-Simon Laplace proved that a uniform solid

ring would be unstable and suggested that the rings were
composed of a large number of solid ringlets.[3][9]
In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that a
nonuniform solid ring, solid ringlets or a continuous fluid
ring would also not be stable, indicating that the ring must be
composed of numerous small particles, all independently
orbiting Saturn.[9]Later, Sofia Kovalevskaya also found that
Saturn's rings cannot be liquid ring-shaped
bodies.[10] Spectroscopic studies of the rings carried out in
1895 by James Keeler of Allegheny
Observatory and Aristarkh Belopolsky of Pulkovo
Observatory showed Maxwell's analysis was correct.

Four robotic spacecraft have observed Saturn's rings from

the vicinity of the planet. Pioneer 11's closest approach to
Saturn occurred in September 1979 at a distance of
20,900 km.[11] Pioneer 11 was responsible for the discovery of
the F ring.[11]Voyager 1's closest approach occurred in
November 1980 at a distance of 64,200 km.[12] A failed
photopolarimeter prevented Voyager 1 from observing
Saturn's rings at the planned resolution; nevertheless,
images from the spacecraft provided unprecedented detail of
the ring system and revealed the existence of the G
ring.[13] Voyager 2's closest approach occurred in August
1981 at a distance of 41,000 km.[12] Voyager 2's working
photopolarimeter allowed it to observe the ring system at
higher resolution than Voyager 1, and to thereby discover
many previously unseen ringlets.[14] Cassini spacecraft
entered into orbit around Saturn in July
2004.[15] Cassini's images of the rings are the most detailed
to-date, and are responsible for the discovery of yet more
ringlets.[16]

The rings are named alphabetically in the order they were

discovered.[17] The main rings are, working outward from the
planet, C, B and A, with the Cassini Division, the largest gap,
separating Rings B and A. Several fainter rings were
discovered more recently. The D Ring is exceedingly faint
and closest to the planet. The narrow F Ring is just outside
the A Ring. Beyond that are two far fainter rings named G
and E. The rings show a tremendous amount of structure on
all scales, some related to perturbations by Saturn's moons,
but much unexplained.[17]

Physical characteristics[edit]
Simulated image using color to present radio-occultation-
derived particle size data. The attenuation of 0.94-, 3.6-, and
13-cm signals sent by Cassini through the rings to Earth
shows abundance of particles of sizes similar to or larger
than those wavelengths. Purple (B, inner A Ring) means few
particles are < 5 cm (all signals similarly attenuated). Green
and blue (C, outer A Ring) mean particles < 5 cm and < 1 cm,
respectively, are common. White areas (B Ring) are too
dense to transmit adequate signal. Other evidence shows
rings A to C have a broad range of particle sizes, up to m
across.
The dark Cassini Division separates the wide inner B
Ring and outer A ring in this image from
the HST's ACS (March 22, 2004). The less prominent C
Ring is just inside the B Ring.

Cassini mosaic of Saturn's rings on August 12, 2009, a day

after equinox. With the rings pointed at the Sun, illumination
is by light reflected off Saturn, except on thicker or out-of-
plane sections, like the F Ring.

Cassini space probe view of the unilluminated side of

Saturn's rings (May 9, 2007).
The dense main rings extend from 7,000 km (4,300 mi) to
80,000 km (50,000 mi) away from Saturn's equator, whose
radius is 60,300 km (37,500 mi) (see Major subdivisions).
With an estimated local thickness of as little as 10 m[18] and
as much as 1 km,[19] they are composed of 99.9% pure
water ice with a smattering of impurities that may
include tholins or silicates.[20] The main rings are primarily
composed of particles ranging in size from 1 cm to 10 m.[21]

Based on Voyager observations, the total mass of the rings

was estimated to be about 3 × 1019 kg. This is a small fraction
of the total mass of Saturn (about 50 ppb) and is just a little
less than the moon Mimas.[22] More recent observations and
computer modeling based on Cassini observations show that
this may be an underestimate due to clumping in the rings
and the mass may be three times this figure.[23]Although the
largest gaps in the rings, such as the Cassini Division
and Encke Gap, can be seen from Earth,
both Voyager spacecraft discovered that the rings have an
intricate structure of thousands of thin gaps and ringlets.
This structure is thought to arise, in several different ways,
from the gravitational pull of Saturn's many moons. Some
gaps are cleared out by the passage of tiny moonlets such
as Pan,[24] many more of which may yet be discovered, and
some ringlets seem to be maintained by the gravitational
effects of small shepherd satellites (similar
to Prometheus and Pandora's maintenance of the F
ring).[citation needed] Other gaps arise from resonances between
the orbital period of particles in the gap and that of a more
massive moon further out; Mimas maintains the Cassini
Division in this manner.[25] Still more structure in the rings
consists of spiral waves raised by the inner moons' periodic
gravitational perturbations at less disruptive
resonances.[citation needed] Data from the Cassini space probe
indicate that the rings of Saturn possess their own
atmosphere, independent of that of the planet itself. The
atmosphere is composed of molecular oxygen gas (O2)
produced when ultraviolet light from the Sun interacts with
water ice in the rings. Chemical reactions between water
molecule fragments and further ultraviolet stimulation create
and eject, among other things, O2. According to models of
this atmosphere, H2 is also present. The O2 and
H2atmospheres are so sparse that if the entire atmosphere
were somehow condensed onto the rings, it would be about
one atom thick.[26] The rings also have a similarly sparse OH
(hydroxide) atmosphere. Like the O2, this atmosphere is
produced by the disintegration of water molecules, though in
this case the disintegration is done by energetic ions that
bombard water molecules ejected by Saturn's
moon Enceladus. This atmosphere, despite being extremely
sparse, was detected from Earth by the Hubble Space
Telescope.[27] Saturn shows complex patterns in its
brightness.[28] Most of the variability is due to the changing
aspect of the rings,[29][30] and this goes through two cycles
every orbit. However, superimposed on this is variability due
to the eccentricity of the planet's orbit that causes the planet
to display brighter oppositions in the northern hemisphere
than it does in the southern.[31]

In 1980, Voyager 1 made a fly-by of Saturn that showed the F-

ring to be composed of three narrow rings that appeared to
be braided in a complex structure; it is now known that the
outer two rings consist of knobs, kinks and lumps that give
the illusion of braiding, with the less bright third ring lying
inside them.[citation needed]

New images of the rings taken around the 11 August 2009

equinox of Saturn by NASA's Cassini spacecraft have shown
that the rings extend significantly out of the nominal ring
plane in a few places. This displacement reaches as much as
4 km (2.5 mi) at the border of the Keeler Gap, due to the out-
of-plane orbit of Daphnis, the moon that creates the gap.[32]
Formation of main rings[edit]

Saturn's rings may be very old, dating to the formation of

Saturn itself. There are two main theories regarding the
origin of Saturn's inner rings. One theory, originally
proposed by Édouard Roche in the 19th century, is that the
rings were once a moon of Saturn (named Veritas, after
a Roman goddess who hid in a well) whose orbit decayed
until it came close enough to be ripped apart by tidal
forces (see Roche limit).[33] A variation on this theory is that
this moon disintegrated after being struck by a
large comet or asteroid.[34] The second theory is that the
rings were never part of a moon, but are instead left over
from the original nebular material from which Saturn
formed.[citation needed]

A 2007 artist impression of the aggregates of icy particles

that form the 'solid' portions of Saturn's rings. These
elongated clumps are continually forming and dispersing.
The largest particles are a few macross.
 Saturn's rings
and moons

Tethys, Hyperion and Prometheus

Tethys and Janus

A more traditional version of the disrupted-moon theory is

that the rings are composed of debris from a moon 400 to
600 km in diameter, slightly larger than Mimas. The last time
there were collisions large enough to be likely to disrupt a
moon that large was during the Late Heavy
Bombardmentsome four billion years ago.[35]
A more recent variant of this type of theory by R. M. Canup is
that the rings could represent part of the remains of the icy
mantle of a much larger, Titan-sized, differentiated moon that
was stripped of its outer layer as it spiraled into the planet
during the formative period when Saturn was still
surrounded by a gaseous nebula.[36][37] This would explain
the scarcity of rocky material within the rings. The rings
would initially have been much more massive (≈1,000 times)
and broader than at present; material in the outer portions of
the rings would have coalesced into the moons of Saturn out
to Tethys, also explaining the lack of rocky material in the
composition of most of these moons.[37] Subsequent
collisional or cryovolcanic evolution of Enceladus might then
have caused selective loss of ice from this moon, raising its
density to its current value of 1.61 g/cm3, compared to values
of 1.15 for Mimas and 0.97 for Tethys.[37]

The idea of massive early rings was subsequently extended

to explain the formation of Saturn's moons out to Rhea.[38] If
the initial massive rings contained chunks of rocky material
(>100 km across) as well as ice, these silicate bodies would
have accreted more ice and been expelled from the rings,
due to gravitational interactions with the rings and tidal
interaction with Saturn, into progressively wider orbits.
Within the Roche limit, bodies of rocky material are dense
enough to accrete additional material, whereas less-dense
bodies of ice are not. Once outside the rings, the newly
formed moons could have continued to evolve through
random mergers. This process may explain the variation in
silicate content of Saturn's moons out to Rhea, as well as the
trend towards less silicate content closer to Saturn. Rhea
would then be the oldest of the moons formed from the
primordial rings, with moons closer to Saturn being
progressively younger.[38]

The brightness and purity of the water ice in Saturn's rings

has been cited as evidence that the rings are much younger
than Saturn, perhaps just 100 million years old, as the infall
of meteoric dust would have led to darkening of the rings.
However, new research indicates that the B Ring may be
massive enough to have diluted infalling material and thus
avoided substantial darkening over the age of the Solar
System. Ring material may be recycled as clumps form
within the rings and are then disrupted by impacts. This
would explain the apparent youth of some of the material
within the rings.[39] Further evidence supporting a young ring
theory has been gathered by researchers analyzing data from
the Cassini Titan Radar Mapper, which focused on analyzing
the proportion of rocky silicates contained within the C
ring.[40]

The Cassini UVIS team, led by Larry Esposito, used stellar

occultation to discover 13 objects, ranging from 27 m to
10 km across, within the F ring. They are translucent,
suggesting they are temporary aggregates of ice boulders a
few m across. Esposito believes this to be the basic
structure of the Saturnian rings, particles clumping together,
then being blasted apart.[41]

Subdivisions and structures within the rings

The densest parts of the Saturnian ring system are the A and
B Rings, which are separated by the Cassini Division
(discovered in 1675 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini). Along
with the C Ring, which was discovered in 1850 and is similar
in character to the Cassini Division, these regions constitute
the main rings. The main rings are denser and contain larger
particles than the tenuous dusty rings. The latter include the
D Ring, extending inward to Saturn's cloud tops, the G and E
Rings and others beyond the main ring system. These
diffuse rings are characterised as "dusty" because of the
small size of their particles (often about a μm); their chemical
composition is, like the main rings, almost entirely water ice.
The narrow F Ring, just off the outer edge of the A Ring, is
more difficult to categorize; parts of it are very dense, but it
also contains a great deal of dust-size particles.

Natural-color mosaic of Cassini narrow-angle camera images

of the unilluminated side of Saturn's D, C, B, A and F rings
(left to right) taken on May 9, 2007.

Physical parameters of the rings[edit]

Notes:
(1) Names as designated by the International Astronomical
Union, unless otherwise noted. Broader separations between
named rings are termed divisions, while narrower
separations within named rings are called gaps.
(2) Data mostly from the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature,
a NASA factsheet and several papers.[42][43][44]
(3) distance is to centre of gaps, rings and ringlets that are
narrower than 1,000 km
(4) unofficial name
The illuminated side of Saturn's rings with the major
subdivisions labeled

Major subdivisions[edit]

Distance
from
Width
Name(1) Saturn's Named after
(km)(2)
center
(km)(2)

66,900 –
D Ring 7,500
74,510
 74,658 –
C Ring 17,500
92,000

92,000 –
B Ring 25,500
117,580

117,580 –
Cassini Division 4,700 Giovanni Cassini
122,170

122,170 –
A ring 14,600
136,775

136,775 –
Roche Division 2,600 Édouard Roche
139,380

30 –
F Ring 140,180 (3)
500

Janus/Epimetheu 149,000 – Janus and Epimethe

5,000
s Ring(4) 154,000 us
 166,000 –
G Ring 9,000
175,000

Methone Ring
194,230 ? Methone
Arc(4)

Anthe Ring Arc(4) 197,665 ? Anthe

211,000 –
Pallene Ring(4) 2,500 Pallene
213,500

180,000 – 300,00
E Ring
480,000 0

~4,000,000
–
Phoebe Ring Phoebe
>13,000,00
0

C Ring structures[edit]

Name(1) Distance Named after

Width
from
 Saturn's (km)(2)
center
(km)(2)

Giuseppe "Bepi"
Colombo Gap 77,870 (3) 150
Colombo

Titan Ringlet 77,870 (3) 25 Titan, moon of Saturn

Maxwell Gap 87,491 (3) 270 James Clerk Maxwell

Maxwell
87,491 (3) 64 James Clerk Maxwell
Ringlet

William Cranch
Bond Gap 88,700 (3) 30 Bond and George
Phillips Bond

1.470RS Ringlet 88,716 (3) 16 its radius

1.495RS Ringlet 90,171 (3) 62 its radius

Dawes Gap 90,210 (3) 20 William Rutter Dawes

Cassini Division structures[edit]

 Source:[45]

Distance from
Width
Name(1) Saturn's Named after
(km)(2)
center (km)(2)

Huygens Christiaan
117,680 (3) 285–400
Gap Huygens

Huygens Christiaan
117,848 (3) ~17
Ringlet Huygens

Herschel
118,234 (3) 102 William Herschel
Gap

Henry Norris
Russell Gap 118,614 (3) 33
Russell

Jeffreys Gap 118,950 (3) 38 Harold Jeffreys

Kuiper Gap 119,405 (3) 3 Gerard Kuiper

Pierre-Simon
Laplace Gap 119,967 (3) 238
Laplace

Bessel Gap 120,241 (3) 10 Friedrich Bessel

Edward Emerson
Barnard Gap 120,312 (3) 13
Barnard

A Ring structures[edit]

Distance from
Width
Name(1) Saturn's Named after
(km)(2)
center (km)(2)

Encke Johann
133,589 (3) 325
Gap Encke

Keeler James
136,505 (3) 35
Gap Keeler
Oblique (4 degree angle) Cassini images of Saturn's C, B,
and A rings (left to right; the F ring is faintly visible in the full
size upper image if viewed at sufficient brightness). Upper
image: natural color mosaic of Cassini narrow-angle camera
photos of the illuminated side of the rings taken on
December 12, 2004. Lower image: simulated view
constructed from a radio occultation observation conducted
on May 3, 2005. Color in the lower image is used to represent
information about ring particle sizes (see the caption of the
article's second image for an explanation).

D Ring[edit]
A Cassini image of the faint D Ring, with the inner C Ring
below

The D Ring is the innermost ring, and is very faint. In

1980, Voyager 1 detected within this ring three ringlets
designated D73, D72 and D68, with D68 being the discrete
ringlet nearest to Saturn. Some 25 years later, Cassini
images showed that D72 had become significantly broader
and more diffuse, and had moved planetward by 200 km.[46]

Present in the D Ring is a finescale structure with waves

30 km apart. First seen in the gap between the C Ring and
D73,[46] the structure was found during Saturn's 2009 equinox
to extend a radial distance of 19,000 km from the D Ring to
the inner edge of the B Ring.[47][48] The waves are interpreted
as a spiral pattern of vertical corrugations of 2 to 20 m
amplitude;[49] the fact that the period of the waves is
decreasing over time (from 60 km in 1995 to 30 km by 2006)
allows a deduction that the pattern may have originated in
late 1983 with the impact of a cloud of debris (with a mass of
≈1012 kg) from a disrupted comet that tilted the rings out of
the equatorial plane.[46][47][50] A similar spiral pattern
in Jupiter's main ring has been attributed to a perturbation
caused by impact of material from Comet Shoemaker-Levy
9 in 1994.[47][51][52]
C Ring[edit]

View of the outer C Ring; the Maxwell Gap with the Maxwell
Ringlet on its right side are above and right of center. The
Bond Gap is above a broad light band towards the upper
right; the Dawes Gap is within a dark band just below the
upper right corner.

The C Ring is a wide but faint ring located inward of the B

Ring. It was discovered in 1850 by William and George Bond,
though William R. Dawes and Johann Galle also saw it
independently. William Lassell termed it the "Crepe Ring"
because it seemed to be composed of darker material than
the brighter A and B Rings.[53]

Its vertical thickness is estimated at 5 m its mass at around

1.1 × 1018 kg, and its optical depth varies from 0.05 to
0.12.[citation needed] That is, between 5 and 12 percent of light
shining perpendicularly through the ring is blocked, so that
when seen from above, the ring is close to transparent. The
30-km wavelength spiral corrugations first seen in the D Ring
were observed during Saturn's equinox of 2009 to extend
throughout the C Ring (see above).

Colombo Gap and Titan Ringlet[edit]

The Colombo Gap lies in the inner C Ring. Within the gap lies
the bright but narrow Colombo Ringlet, centered at
77,883 km from Saturn's center, which is
slightly elliptical rather than circular. This ringlet is also
called the Titan Ringlet as it is governed by an orbital
resonance with the moon Titan.[54] At this location within the
rings, the length of a ring particle's apsidal precession is
equal to the length of Titan's orbital motion, so that the outer
end of this eccentric ringlet always points towards Titan.[54]

Maxwell Gap and Ringlet[edit]

The Maxwell Gap lies within the outer part of the C Ring. It
also contains a dense non-circular ringlet, the Maxwell
Ringlet. In many respects this ringlet is similar to the ε ring
of Uranus. There are wave-like structures in the middle of
both rings. While the wave in the ε ring is thought to be
caused by Uranian moon Cordelia, no moon has been
discovered in the Maxwell gap as of July 2008.[55]
B Ring[edit]

The B Ring is the largest, brightest, and most massive of the

rings. Its thickness is estimated as 5 to 15 m and its optical
depth varies from 0.4 to greater than 5,[56] meaning that >99%
of the light passing through some parts of the B Ring is
blocked. The B Ring contains a great deal of variation in its
density and brightness, nearly all of it unexplained. These
are concentric, appearing as narrow ringlets, though the B
Ring does not contain any gaps.[citation needed]. In places, the
outer edge of the B Ring contains vertical structures
deviating up to 2.5 km from the main ring plane.

A 2016 study of spiral density waves using stellar

occultations indicated that the B Ring's surface density is in
the range of 40 to 140 g/cm2, lower than previously believed,
and that the ring's optical depth has little correlation with its
mass density (a finding previously reported for the A and C
rings).[56][57] The total mass of the B Ring was estimated to be
somewhere in the range of 7 to 24×1018 kg. This compares to
a mass for Mimas of 37.5×1018 kg.[56]
High resolution (about 3 km per pixel) color view of the inner-
central B Ring (98,600 to 105,500 km from Saturn's center).
The structures shown (from 40 km wide ringlets at center to
300-500 km wide bands at right) remain sharply defined at
scales below the resolution of the image.

The B Ring's outer edge, viewed near equinox, where

shadows are cast by vertical structures up to 2.5 km high,
probably created by unseen embedded moonlets. The
Cassini Division is at top.
Spokes[edit]

Dark spokes mark the B ring's sunlit side in low phase

angle Cassini images. This is a low-bitrate video. Full-size
video with high bitrate of 471 kbit/s;
GIF version (400 × 400 pixels, file size: 2.21 MB)

Until 1980, the structure of the rings of Saturn was explained

as being caused exclusively by the action
of gravitational forces. Then images from the Voyager
spacecraft showed radial features in the B Ring, known
as spokes,[58][59] which could not be explained in this manner,
as their persistence and rotation around the rings was not
consistent with gravitational orbital mechanics.[60] The
spokes appear dark in backscattered light, and bright
in forward-scattered light (see images in Gallery); the
transition occurs at a phase angle near 60°. The leading
theory regarding the spokes' composition is that they consist
of microscopic dust particles suspended away from the main
ring by electrostatic repulsion, as they rotate
almost synchronously with the magnetosphere of Saturn.
The precise mechanism generating the spokes is still
unknown, although it has been suggested that the electrical
disturbances might be caused by either lightning bolts in
Saturn's atmosphere or micrometeoroid impacts on the
rings.[60]

The spokes were not observed again until some twenty-five

years later, this time by the Cassini space probe. The spokes
were not visible when Cassini arrived at Saturn in early 2004.
Some scientists speculated that the spokes would not be
visible again until 2007, based on models attempting to
describe their formation. Nevertheless, the Cassini imaging
team kept looking for spokes in images of the rings, and they
were next seen in images taken on 5 September 2005.[61]

The spokes appear to be a seasonal phenomenon,

disappearing in the Saturnian midwinter and midsummer and
reappearing as Saturn comes closer to equinox. Suggestions
that the spokes may be a seasonal effect, varying with
Saturn's 29.7-year orbit, were supported by their gradual
reappearance in the later years of the Cassini mission.[62]

Moonlet[edit]
In 2009, during equinox, a moonlet embedded in the B ring
was discovered from the shadow it cast. It is estimated to be
400 m (1,300 ft) in diameter.[63] The moonlet was given the
provisional designation S/2009 S 1.

Cassini Division[edit]

The Cassini Division imaged from the Cassini spacecraft.

The Huygens Gap lies at its right border; the Laplace Gap is
towards the center. A number of other, narrower gaps are
also present.

The Cassini Division is a region 4,800 km (3,000 mi) in width

between Saturn's A ringand B Ring. It was discovered in 1675
by Giovanni Cassini at the Paris Observatoryusing
a refracting telescope that had a 2.5-inch objective lens with
a 20-foot-long focal length and a
90x magnification.[64][65] From Earth it appears as a thin black
gap in the rings. However, Voyager discovered that the gap
is itself populated by ring material bearing much similarity to
the C Ring.[55] The division may appear bright in views of the
unlit side of the rings, since the relatively low density of
material allows more light to be transmitted through the
thickness of the rings (see second image in gallery).[citation
needed]

The inner edge of the Cassini Division is governed by a

strong orbital resonance. Ring particles at this location orbit
twice for every orbit of the moon Mimas.[66] The resonance
causes Mimas' pulls on these ring particles to accumulate,
destabilizing their orbits and leading to a sharp cutoff in ring
density. Many of the other gaps between ringlets within the
Cassini Division, however, are unexplained.[citation needed]

Huygens Gap[edit]

The Huygens Gap is located at the inner edge of the Cassini

Division. It contains the dense, eccentric Huygens Ringlet in
the middle. This ringlet exhibits irregular azimuthal variations
of geometrical width and optical depth, which may be caused
by the nearby 2:1 resonance with Mimas and the influence of
the eccentric outer edge of the B-ring. There is an additional
narrow ringlet just outside the Huygens Ringlet.[55]

A Ring[edit]
"A Ring" redirects here. For the letter, see Å.

The central ringlet of the A Ring's Encke Gap coincides

with Pan's orbit, implying its particles oscillate in horseshoe
orbits.

The A Ring is the outermost of the large, bright rings. Its

inner boundary is the Cassini Division and its sharp outer
boundary is close to the orbit of the small moon Atlas. The A
Ring is interrupted at a location 22% of the ring width from
its outer edge by the Encke Gap. A narrower gap 2% of the
ring width from the outer edge is called the Keeler Gap.

The thickness of the A Ring is estimated to be 10 to 30 m, its

surface density from 35 to 40 g/cm2 and its total mass as 4
to 5×1018 kg[56] (just under the mass of Hyperion). Its optical
depth varies from 0.4 to 0.9.[56]
Similarly to the B Ring, the A Ring's outer edge is maintained
by an orbital resonance, in this case the 7:6 resonance
with Janus and Epimetheus.[citation needed] Other orbital
resonances also excite many spiral density waves in the A
Ring (and, to a lesser extent, other rings as well), which
account for most of its structure. These waves are described
by the same physics that describes the spiral arms of
galaxies. Spiral bending waves, also present in the A Ring
and also described by the same theory, are vertical
corrugations in the ring rather than compression
waves.[citation needed]

In April 2014, NASA scientists reported observing the

possible formative stage of a new moon near the outer edge
of the A Ring.[67][68]

Encke Gap[edit]

The Encke Gap is a 325-km-wide gap within the A ring,

centered at a distance of 133,590 km from Saturn's
center.[69] It is caused by the presence of the small
moon Pan,[70] which orbits within it. Images from
the Cassini probe have shown that there are at least three
thin, knotted ringlets within the gap.[55] Spiral density
waves visible on both sides of it are induced by resonances
with nearby moons exterior to the rings, while Pan induces
an additional set of spiraling wakes (see image in gallery).[55]

Johann Encke himself did not observe this gap; it was

named in honour of his ring observations. The gap itself was
discovered by James Edward Keeler in 1888.[53] The second
major gap in the A ring, discovered by Voyager, was named
the Keeler Gap in his honor.[71]

The Encke Gap is a gap because it is entirely within the A

Ring. There was some ambiguity between the
terms gap and division until the IAU clarified the definitions
in 2008; before that, the separation was sometimes called the
"Encke Division".[72]

Keeler Gap[edit]

Waves in the Keeler gap edges induced by the orbital motion

of Daphnis (see also a stretched closeup view in the gallery).
Near Saturn's equinox, Daphnis and its waves cast shadows
on the A Ring.

The Keeler Gap is a 42-km-wide gap in the A ring,

approximately 250 km from the ring's outer edge. The small
moon Daphnis, discovered 1 May 2005, orbits within it,
keeping it clear.[73] The moon's passage induces waves in the
edges of the gap (this is also influenced by its slight orbital
eccentricity).[55] Because the orbit of Daphnis is slightly
inclined to the ring plane, the waves have a component that
is perpendicular to the ring plane, reaching a distance of
1500 m "above" the plane.[74][75]

The Keeler gap was discovered by Voyager, and named in

honor of the astronomer James Edward Keeler. Keeler had in
turn discovered and named the Encke Gap in honor
of Johann Encke.[53]
Propeller moonlets[edit]

Propeller moonlet Santos-Dumont from lit (top) and unlit

sides of rings

Location of the first four moonlets detected in the A ring.

In 2006, four tiny "moonlets" were found in Cassini images of

the A Ring.[76] The moonlets themselves are only about a
hundred m in diameter, too small to be seen directly;
what Cassinisees are the "propeller"-shaped disturbances
the moonlets create, which are several km across. It is
estimated that the A Ring contains thousands of such
objects. In 2007, the discovery of eight more moonlets
revealed that they are largely confined to a 3,000 km belt,
about 130,000 km from Saturn's center,[77] and by 2008 over
150 propeller moonlets had been detected.[78] One that has
been tracked for several years has been
nicknamed Bleriot.[79]

Roche Division[edit]

The Roche Division (passing through image center) between

the A Ring and the narrow F Ring. Atlas can be seen within it.
The Encke and Keeler gaps are also visible.

The separation between the A ring and the F Ring has been
named the Roche Division in honor of the French
physicist Édouard Roche.[80] The Roche Division should not
be confused with the Roche limit which is the distance at
which a large object is so close to a planet (such as Saturn)
that the planet's tidal forces will pull it apart.[81] Lying at the
outer edge of the main ring system, the Roche Division is in
fact close to Saturn's Roche limit, which is why the rings
have been unable to accrete into a moon.[82]

Like the Cassini Division, the Roche Division is not empty

but contains a sheet of material.[citation needed] The character of
this material is similar to the tenuous and dusty D, E, and G
Rings.[citation needed] Two locations in the Roche Division have a
higher concentration of dust than the rest of the region.
These were discovered by the Cassini probe imaging team
and were given temporary designations: R/2004 S 1, which
lies along the orbit of the moon Atlas; and R/2004 S 2,
centered at 138,900 km from Saturn's center, inward of the
orbit of Prometheus.[83][84]

F Ring[edit]

The small moons Pandora (left) and Prometheus (right) orbit

on either side of the F ring. Prometheus acts as a ring
shepherd and is followed by dark channels that it
has carved into the inner strands of the ring.

The F Ring is the outermost discrete ring of Saturn and

perhaps the most active ring in the Solar System, with
features changing on a timescale of hours.[85] It is located
3,000 km beyond the outer edge of the A ring.[86] The ring was
discovered in 1979 by the Pioneer 11 imaging team.[87] It is
very thin, just a few hundred km in radial extent. While the
traditional view has been that it is held together by
two shepherd moons, Prometheus and Pandora, which orbit
inside and outside it,[70] recent studies indicate that only
Prometheus contributes to the confinement.[88][89] Numerical
simulations suggest the ring was formed when Prometheus
and Pandora collided with each other and were partially
disrupted.[90]

Recent closeup images from the Cassini probe show that the
F Ring consists of one core ring and a spiral strand around
it.[91] They also show that when Prometheus encounters the
ring at its apoapsis, its gravitational attraction creates kinks
and knots in the F Ring as the moon 'steals' material from it,
leaving a dark channel in the inner part of the ring (see video
link and additional F Ring images in gallery). Since
Prometheus orbits Saturn more rapidly than the material in
the F ring, each new channel is carved about 3.2 degrees in
front of the previous one.[85]

In 2008, further dynamism was detected, suggesting that

small unseen moons orbiting within the F Ring are
continually passing through its narrow core because of
perturbations from Prometheus. One of the small moons was
tentatively identified as S/2004 S 6.[85]

A mosaic of 107 images showing 255° (about 70%) of the F

Ring as it would appear if straightened out. The radial width
(top to bottom) is 1,500 km.

Outer rings[edit]
The outer rings seen back-illuminated by the Sun

Janus/Epimetheus Ring[edit]

A faint dust ring is present around the region occupied by

the orbits of Janus and Epimetheus, as revealed by images
taken in forward-scattered light by the Cassini spacecraft in
2006. The ring has a radial extent of about 5,000 km.[92] Its
source is particles blasted off the moons' surfaces by
meteoroid impacts, which then form a diffuse ring around
their orbital paths.[93]

G Ring[edit]

The G Ring (see last image in gallery) is a very thin, faint ring
about halfway between the F Ring and the beginning of the E
Ring, with its inner edge about 15,000 km inside the orbit
of Mimas. It contains a single distinctly brighter arc near its
inner edge (similar to the arcs in the rings of Neptune) that
extends about one sixth of its circumference, centered on the
half-km diameter moonlet Aegaeon, which is held in place by
a 7:6 orbital resonance with Mimas.[94][95] The arc is believed
to be composed of icy particles up to a few m in diameter,
with the rest of the G Ring consisting of dust released from
within the arc. The radial width of the arc is about 250 km,
compared to a width of 9,000 km for the G Ring as a
whole.[94] The arc is thought to contain matter equivalent to a
small icy moonlet about a hundred m in diameter.[94] Dust
released from Aegaeon and other source bodies within the
arc by micrometeoroid impacts drifts outward from the arc
because of interaction
with Saturn's magnetosphere (whose plasmacorotates with
Saturn's magnetic field, which rotates much more rapidly
than the orbital motion of the G Ring). These tiny particles
are steadily eroded away by further impacts and dispersed
by plasma drag. Over the course of thousands of years the
ring gradually loses mass,[96] which is replenished by further
impacts on Aegaeon.

Methone Ring Arc[edit]

A faint ring arc, first detected in September 2006, covering a

longitudinal extent of about 10 degrees is associated with the
moon Methone. The material in the arc is believed to
represent dust ejected from Methone by micrometeoroid
impacts. The confinement of the dust within the arc is
attributable to a 14:15 resonance with Mimas (similar to the
mechanism of confinement of the arc within the G
ring).[97][98] Under the influence of the same resonance,
Methone librates back and forth in its orbit with an amplitude
of 5° of longitude.

Anthe Ring Arc[edit]

The Anthe Ring Arc - the bright spot is Anthe

A faint ring arc, first detected in June 2007, covering a

longitudinal extent of about 20 degrees is associated with the
moon Anthe. The material in the arc is believed to represent
dust knocked off Anthe by micrometeoroid impacts. The
confinement of the dust within the arc is attributable to a
10:11 resonance with Mimas. Under the influence of the same
resonance, Anthe drifts back and forth in its orbit over 14° of
longitude.[97][98]
Pallene Ring[edit]

A faint dust ring shares Pallene's orbit, as revealed by

images taken in forward-scattered light by
the Cassini spacecraft in 2006.[92] The ring has a radial extent
of about 2,500 km. Its source is particles blasted off Pallene's
surface by meteoroid impacts, which then form a diffuse ring
around its orbital path.[93][98]

E Ring[edit]

The E Ring is the second outermost ring and is extremely

wide; it consists of many tiny (micron and sub-micron)
particles of water ice with silicates, carbon dioxide and
ammonia.[99] The E Ring is distributed between the orbits
of Mimas and Titan.[100]Unlike the other rings, it is composed
of microscopic particles rather than macroscopic ice chunks.
In 2005, the source of the E Ring's material was determined
to be cryovolcanic plumes[101][102] emanating from the "tiger
stripes" of the south polar region of the
moon Enceladus.[103] Unlike the main rings, the E Ring is
more than 2,000 km thick and increases with its distance
from Enceladus.[100] Tendril-like structures observed within
the E Ring can be related to the emissions of the most active
south polar jets of Enceladus.[104]
Particles of the E Ring tend to accumulate on moons that
orbit within it. The equator of the leading hemisphere
of Tethys is tinted slightly blue due to infalling
material.[105] The trojan
moons Telesto, Calypso, Helene and Polydeuces are
particularly affected as their orbits move up and down the
ring plane. This results in their surfaces being coated with
bright material that smooths out features.[106]

The backlit E ring, with Enceladus silhouetted against it.

The moon's south polar jets erupt brightly below it.
Close-up of the south polar geysers of Enceladus, the source
of the E Ring.
Side view of Saturn system, showing Enceladus in relation to
the E Ring

E Ring tendrils from Enceladus geysers - comparison of

images (a, c) with computer simulations

Phoebe ring
The Phoebe ring's huge extent dwarfs the main rings. Inset:
24 µm Spitzer image of part of the ring

In October 2009, the discovery of a tenuous disk of material

just interior to the orbit of Phoebe was reported. The disk
was aligned edge-on to Earth at the time of discovery. This
disk can be loosely described as another ring. Although very
large (as seen from Earth, the apparent size of two full
moons[107]), the ring is virtually invisible. It was discovered
using NASA's infraredSpitzer Space Telescope,[108] and was
seen over the entire range of the observations, which
extended from 128 to 207 times the radius of Saturn,[109] with
calculations indicating that it may extend outward up to 300
Saturn radii and inward to the orbit of Iapetus at 59 Saturn
radii.[110] The ring was subsequently studied using
the WISE, Herschel and Cassini spacecraft;[111]WISE
observations show that it extends from at least between 50
and 100 to 270 Saturn radii (the inner edge is lost in the
planet's glare).[112] Data obtained with WISE indicate the ring
particles are small; those with radii of greater than 10 cm
comprise 10% or less of the cross-sectional area.[112]

Phoebe orbits the planet at a distance ranging from 180 to

250 radii. The ring has a thickness of about 40
radii.[113] Because the ring's particles are presumed to have
originated from impacts (micrometeoroid and larger) on
Phoebe, they should share its retrograde orbit,[110] which is
opposite to the orbital motion of the next inner
moon, Iapetus. This ring lies in the plane of Saturn's orbit, or
roughly the ecliptic, and thus is tilted 27 degrees from
Saturn's equatorial plane and the other rings. Phoebe
is inclined by 5° with respect to Saturn's orbit plane (often
written as 175°, due to Phoebe's retrograde orbital motion),
and its resulting vertical excursions above and below the
ring plane agree closely with the ring's observed thickness of
40 Saturn radii.

The existence of the ring was proposed in the 1970s

by Steven Soter.[110] The discovery was made by Anne J.
Verbiscer and Michael F. Skrutskie (of the University of
Virginia) and Douglas P. Hamilton (of the University of
Maryland, College Park).[109][114] The three had studied
together at Cornell University as graduate students.[115]

Ring material migrates inward due to reemission of solar

radiation,[109] with a speed inversely proportional to particle
size; a 3 cm particle would migrate from the vicinity of
Phoebe to that of Iapetus over the age of the Solar
System.[112] The material would thus strike the leading
hemisphere of Iapetus. Infall of this material causes a slight
darkening and reddening of the leading hemisphere of
Iapetus (similar to what is seen on the Uranian
moons Oberon and Titania) but does not directly create the
dramatic two-tone coloration of that moon.[116] Rather, the
infalling material initiates a positive feedback thermal self-
segregation process of ice sublimation from warmer regions,
followed by vapor condensation onto cooler regions. This
leaves a dark residue of "lag" material covering most of the
equatorial region of Iapetus's leading hemisphere, which
contrasts with the bright ice deposits covering the polar
regions and most of the trailing hemisphere.[117][118][119]

Possible ring system around Rhea[edit]

Main article: Rings of Rhea

Saturn's second largest moon Rhea has been hypothesized

to have a tenuous ring system of its own consisting of three
narrow bands embedded in a disk of solid
particles.[120][121] These putative rings have not been imaged,
but their existence has been inferred
from Cassini observations in November 2005 of a depletion
of energetic electrons in Saturn's magnetosphere near Rhea.
The Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI) observed a
gentle gradient punctuated by three sharp drops in plasma
flow on each side of the moon in a nearly symmetric pattern.
This could be explained if they were absorbed by solid
material in the form of an equatorial disk containing denser
rings or arcs, with particles perhaps several dm to
approximately a m in diameter. A more recent piece of
evidence consistent with the presence of Rhean rings is a set
of small ultraviolet-bright spots distributed in a line that
extends three quarters of the way around the moon's
circumference, within 2 degrees of the equator. The spots
have been interpreted as the impact points of deorbiting ring
material.[122]However, targeted observations by Cassini of the
putative ring plane from several angles have turned up
nothing, suggesting that another explanation for these
enigmatic features is needed.[123]

Gallery[edit]
 

Cassini image mosaic of the unlit side of the outer C

Ring(bottom) and inner B Ring (top) near Saturn's equinox,
showing multiple views of the shadow of Mimas. The
shadow is attenuated by the denser B ring. The Maxwell
Gap is below center.
 

A spiral density wave in Saturn's inner B Ring which forms

at a 2:1 orbital resonance with Janus. The wavelength
decreases as the wave propagates away from the resonance,
so the apparent foreshortening in the image is illusory.[n 1]
 

Dark B Ring spokes in a low-phase-angle Cassini image of

the rings' unlit side. Left of center, two dark gaps (the larger
being the Huygens Gap) and the bright (from this viewing
geometry) ringlets to their left comprise the Cassini Division.
 

Cassini image of the sun-lit side of the rings taken in 2009 at

a phase angle of 144°, with bright B Ring spokes.
 

Pan's motion through the A ring's Encke Gap induces edge

waves and (non-self-propagating) spiraling wakes ahead of
and inward of it. The other more tightly wound bands
are spiral density waves.
 

Radially stretched (4x) view of the Keeler Gap edge waves

induced by Daphnis.


 Prometheus near apoapsis carving a dark channel in the F
Ring (with older channels to the right). A movie of the
process may be viewed at the CassiniImaging Team
website[124] or YouTube.[125]

F ring dynamism, probably due to perturbing effects of small

moonlets orbiting close to or through the ring's core.


Prometheus (at center) and Pandora orbit just inside and

outside the F Ring, but only Prometheus acts as a ring
shepherd.
 

Saturn's shadow truncates the backlit G Ring and its bright

inner arc. A video showing the arc's orbital motion may be
viewed on YouTube[126]or the Cassini Imaging Team
website.[127]

HISTORY OF OBSERVATION AND EXPLORATION OF

SATURN PLANET.

There have been three main phases in the observation and

exploration of Saturn. The first era was ancient observations
(such as with the naked eye), before the invention of the
modern telescopes. Starting in the 17th century
progressively more advanced telescopic observations from
Earth have been made. The other type is visitation by
spacecraft, either by orbiting or flyby. In the 21st century
observations continue from the Earth (or Earth-orbiting
observatories) and from the Cassini orbiter at Saturn.

Ancient observations
Saturn (mythology)

Saturn has been known since prehistoric times[113] and in

early recorded history it was a major character in various
mythologies. Babylonian astronomers systematically
observed and recorded the movements of
Saturn.[114] In ancient Roman mythology, the god Saturnus,
from which the planet takes its name, was the god of
agriculture.[115] The Romans considered Saturnus the
equivalent of the Greek god Cronus.[115] The Greeks had
made the outermost planet sacred to Cronus,[116] and the
Romans followed suit. (In modern Greek, the planet retains
its ancient name Cronus—Κρόνος: Kronos.)[117]

The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of

Saturn's orbit on observations he made while it was
in opposition.[118] In Hindu astrology, there are nine
astrological objects, known as Navagrahas. Saturn is known
as "Shani" and judges everyone based on the good and bad
deeds performed in life.[115][118] Ancient Chinese and
Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the "earth
star" (土星). This was based on Five Elements which were
traditionally used to classify natural elements.[119][120][121]

In ancient Hebrew, Saturn is called 'Shabbathai'.[122] Its angel

is Cassiel. Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is Agiel (layga)
and its spirit (darker aspect) is Zazel (lzaz). In Ottoman
Turkish, Urdu and Malay, its name is 'Zuhal', derived
from Arabic ‫زح‬

Saturn (Latin: Saturnus pronounced [saˈtʊr.nʊs]) is a god

in ancient Roman religion, and a character in myth as a god
of generation, dissolution, plenty, wealth, agriculture,
periodic renewal and liberation. In later developments, he
also came to be a god of time. His reign was depicted as
a Golden Age of plenty and peace. The Temple of Saturn in
the Roman Forum housed the state treasury. In December,
he was celebrated at what is perhaps the most famous of
the Roman festivals, the Saturnalia, a time of feasting, role
reversals, free speech, gift-giving and revelry. Saturn the
planet and Saturday are both named after the god .
Mythology[edit]
The Roman soil preserved the remembrance of a very remote
time during which Saturn and Janus reigned on the site of
the city before its foundation: the Capitol was named mons
Saturnius.[1] The Romans identified Saturn with the
Greek Cronus, whose myths were adapted for Latin
literature and Roman art. In particular, Cronus's role in the
genealogy of the Greek gods was transferred to Saturn. As
early as Livius Andronicus (3rd century BC), Jupiter was
called the son of Saturn.[2]

Saturn had two consorts who represented different aspects

of the god. The name of his wife Ops, the Roman equivalent
of Greek Rhea, means "wealth, abundance, resources."[3] The
association with Ops is considered a later development,
however, as this goddess was originally paired
with Consus.[4] Earlier was Saturn's association
with Lua ("destruction, dissolution, loosening"), a goddess
who received the bloodied weapons of enemies destroyed in
war.[5]

Under Saturn's rule, humans enjoyed the spontaneous

bounty of the earth without labour in the "Golden Age"
described by Hesiod and Ovid.

Etymology and epithets

. By Saturn they seek to represent that power which
maintains the cyclic course of times and seasons. This is the
sense that the Greek name of that god bears, for he is
called Kronos, which is the same as Chronos or Time. Saturn
for his part got his name because he was "sated" with years;
the story that he regularly devoured his own children is
explained by the fact that time devours the courses of the
seasons, and gorges itself "insatiably" on the years that are
past. Saturn was enchained by Jupiter to ensure that his
circuits did not get out of control, and to constrain him with
the bonds of the stars.
—

Quintus Lucilius Balbus as recorded by Marcus Tullius

Ciceroand translated by P.G. Walsh, De Natura Deorum (On
the Nature of the Gods), Book II, Part ii, Section c [6]

According to Varro,[7] Saturn's name was derived from satu,

meaning "sowing". Even though this etymology looks
implausible on linguistic grounds (for the long quantity of
the a in Sāturnus and also because of
the epigraphically attested form Saeturnus)[8]nevertheless it
does reflect an original feature of the god.[9] A more probable
etymology connects the name with Etruscan god Satre and
placenames such as Satria, an ancient town of Latium,
and Saturae palus, a marsh also in Latium. This root may be
related to Latin phytonym satureia.[10]

Another epithet, variably Sterculius, Stercutus, and Sterces,

referred to his agricultural functions;[11] this derives
from stercus, "dung" or "manure", referring to re-emergence
from death to life.[12] Agriculture was important to Roman
identity, and Saturn was a part of archaic Roman religion and
ethnic identity. His name appears in the ancient hymn of
the Salian priests,[13] and his temple was the oldest known to
have been recorded by the pontiffs.

Quintus Lucilius Balbus gives a separate etymology

in Cicero's De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods). In
this interpretation, the agricultural aspect of Saturn would be
secondary to his primary relation with time and seasons.
Since Time consumes all things, Balbus asserts that the
name Saturn comes from the Latin word satis; Saturn being
an anthropomorphic representation of Time, which is filled,
or satiated, by all things or all generations. Since agriculture
is so closely linked to seasons and therefore an
understanding of the cyclical passage of time, it follows that
agriculture would then be associated with the deity Saturn.
Temple

The temple of Saturn was located at the base of

the Capitoline Hill, according to a tradition recorded by
Varro[14] formerly known as Saturnius Mons, and a row of
columns from the last rebuilding of the temple still
stands.[15] The temple was consecrated in 497 BC but
the area Saturni was built by king Tullus Hostilius as
confirmed by archaeological studies conducted by E.
Gjerstad.[16] It housed the state treasury (aerarium)
throughout Roman history.

Festival's time

The position of Saturn's festival in the Roman calendar led to

his association with concepts of time, especially the
temporal transition of the New Year. In the Greek tradition,
Cronus was sometimes conflated with Chronus, "Time," and
his devouring of his children taken as an allegory for the
passing of generations. The sickle or scythe of Father
Time is a remnant of the agricultural implement of Cronus-
Saturn, and his aged appearance represents the waning of
the old year with the birth of the new, in antiquity sometimes
embodied by Aion. In late antiquity, Saturn
is syncretized with a number of deities, and begins to be
depicted as winged, as is Kairos, "Timing, Right Time".[17]

In Roman religion
Theology and worship[edit]

Ruins of the Temple of Saturn (eight columns to the far right)

in February 2010, with three columns from the Temple of
Vespasian and Titus(left) and the Arch of Septimius
Severus (center)

Robert Lowe - originally posted to Flickr as Arch of Tiberius

Foro Romano. Da sinistra, in primo piano: le 3 colonne del

tempio di Vespasiano e Tito, l'arco di Settimio Severo, il
tempio di Saturno.

The figure of Saturn is one of the most complex in Roman

religion. G. Dumézil refrained from discussing Saturn in his
work on Roman religion on the grounds of insufficient
knowledge.[18] On the contrary, his follower Dominique
Briquel has attempted a thorough interpretation of Saturn
utilising Dumézil's three-functional theory of Indoeuropean
religion, taking the ancient testimonies and the works of A.
Brelich and G. Piccaluga as his basis.[19]

The main difficulty scholars find in studying Saturn is in

assessing what is original of his figure and what is due to
later hellenising influences. Moreover, some features of the
god may be common to Cronus but are nonetheless very
ancient and can be considered proper to the Roman god,
whereas others are certainly later and arrived after 217 BC,
the year in which the Greek customs of the Kronia were
introduced into the Saturnalia.[20]

Among the features which are definitely authentic of the

Roman god, Briquel identifies:

1. the time of his festival in the calendar, which

corresponds to the date of the consecration of his
temple (the Greek Cronia on the other hand took place
in June–July);
2. his association with Lua Mater, and
 3. the location of his cult on the Capitol, which goes back
to remote times.[21]

These three elements in Briquel's view indicate that Saturn is

a sovereign god. The god's strict relationship with the cults
of the Capitoline Hill and in particular with Jupiter are
highlighted by the legends concerning the refusal of
gods Iuventas and Terminus to leave their abode in the
shrines on the Capitol when the temple of Jupiter was to be
built. These two deities correspond to the helper gods of the
sovereign in Vedic religion (Briquel refers
to Dhritarashtra and Vidura, the figures of the Mahabharata)
and to the Cyclopes and Hecatonchires in Hesiod. Whereas
the helper gods belong to the second divine generation they
become active only at the level of the third in each of the
three instances of India, Greece and Rome, where they
become a sort of continuation of Jupiter.[22])

Dumézil postulated a split of the figure of the sovereign god

in Indoeuropean religion, which is embodied by Vedic
gods Varuna and Mitra.[23] Of the two, the first one shows the
aspect of the magic, uncanny, awe inspiring power of
creation and destruction, while the second shows the
reassuring aspect of guarantor of the legal order in
organised social life. Whereas in Jupiter these double
features have coalesced, Briquel sees Saturn as showing the
characters of a sovereign god of the Varunian type. His
nature becomes evident in his mastership over the annual
time of crisis around the winter solstice, epitomised in the
power of subverting normal codified social order and its
rules, which is apparent in the festival of the Saturnalia, in
the mastership of annual fertility and renewal, in the power of
annihilation present in his paredra Lua, in the fact that he is
the god of a timeless era of plenty and bounty before time,
which he reinstates at the time of the yearly crisis of the
winter solstice. Also, in Roman and Etruscan reckoning
Saturn is a wielder of lightning; no other agricultural god (in
the sense of specialized human activity) is one.[24] Hence the
mastership he has on agriculture and wealth cannot be that
of a god of the third function, i.e. of production, wealth, and
pleasure, but it stems from his magical lordship over
creation and destruction. Although these features are to be
found in Greek god Cronus as well, it appears that those
features were proper to Roman Saturn’s most ancient
aspects, such as his presence on the Capitol and his
association with Jupiter, who in the stories of the arrival of
the Pelasgians in the land of the Sicels[25] and that of
the Argei orders human sacrifices to him.[26]
Sacrifices to Saturn were performed according to "Greek
rite" (ritus graecus), with the head uncovered, in contrast to
those of other major Roman deities, which were
performed capite velato, "with the head covered." Saturn
himself, however, was represented as veiled (involutus), as
for example in a wall painting from Pompeii that shows him
holding a sickle and covered with a white veil. This feature is
in complete accord with the character of a sovereign god of
the Varunian type and is common with German god Odin.
Briquel remarks Servius had already seen that the choice of
the Greek rite was due to the fact that the god himself is
imagined and represented as veiled, thence his sacrifice
cannot be carried out by a veiled man: this is an instance of
the reversal of the current order of things typical of the
nature of the deity as appears in its festival.[27] Plutarch
writes his figure is veiled because he is the father of truth.[28]

Pliny notes that the cult statue of Saturn was filled with oil;
the exact meaning of this is unclear.[29] Its feet were bound
with wool, which was removed only during the
Saturnalia.[30] The fact that the statue was filled with oil and
the feet were bound with wool may relate back to the myth of
"The Castration of Uranus". In this myth Rhea gives Cronus a
rock to eat in Zeus' stead, thus tricking Cronus. Although
mastership of knots is a feature of Greek origin it is also
typical of the Varunian sovereign figure, as apparent e.g. in
Odin. Once Zeus was victorious over Cronus, he sets this
stone up at Delphi and constantly it is anointed with oil and
strands of unwoven wool are placed on it.[31] It wore a red
cloak,[32] and was brought out of the temple to take part
in ritual processions[33] and lectisternia, banquets at which
images of the gods were arranged as guests on
couches.[15] All these ceremonial details identify a sovereign
figure. Briquel concludes that Saturn was a sovereign god of
a time that the Romans perceived as no longer actual, that of
the legendary origins of the world, before civilization.[34]

Little evidence exists in Italy for the cult of Saturn outside

Rome, but his name resembles that of the Etruscan
god Satres.[35]The potential cruelty of Saturn was enhanced
by his identification with Cronus, known for devouring his
own children. He was thus used in translation when referring
to gods from other cultures the Romans perceived as severe;
he was equated with the Carthaginian god Ba'al Hammon, to
whom children were sacrificed, and to Yahweh,
whose Sabbath was referred to as Saturni dies, "Saturn's
day," in a poem by Tibullus, who wrote during the reign
of Augustus; eventually this gave rise to the word "Saturday"
in English.[36] The identification with Ba'al Hammon later gave
rise to the African Saturn, a cult that enjoyed great popularity
until the 4th century. It had a popular but also a mysteric
character and required child sacrifices. It is also considered
as inclining to monotheism.[37] In the ceremony of initiation
the myste intrat sub iugum, ritual that Leglay compares to
the Roman tigillum sororium.[38] Even though their origin and
theology are completely different the Italic and the African
god are both sovereign and master over time and death, fact
that has permitted their encounter. Moreover, here Saturn is
not the real Italic god but his Greek counterpart Cronus.

Saturnalia
Saturnalia

Saturn is associated with a major religious festival in the

Roman calendar, Saturnalia. Saturnalia celebrated the
harvest and sowing, and ran from December 17–23. During
Saturnalia, the social restrictions of Rome were relaxed. The
figure of Saturn, kept during the year with its legs bound in
wool, was released from its bindings for the period of the
festival.[30] The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to
reflect the conditions of the lost "Golden Age" before the rule
of Saturn was overthrown, not all of them desirable except as
a temporary release from civilized constraint. The Greek
equivalent was the Kronia.[39]

Macrobius (5th century AD) presents an interpretation of the

Saturnalia as a festival of light leading to the winter
solstice.[40]The renewal of light and the coming of the new
year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire at the Dies
Natalis of Sol Invictus, the "Birthday of the Unconquerable
Sun," on December 25.[41]

Roman legend

Relief held by the Louvre thought to depict the veiled throne

of Saturn, either a Roman work of the 1st century AD or a
Renaissance copy

It was customary for the Romans to represent divine figures

as kings of Latium at the time of their legendary origins.

Macrobius states explicitly that the Roman legend of Janus

and Saturn is an affabulation, as the true meaning of
religious beliefs cannot be openly expressed.[42] In the
myth[43] Saturn was the original and autochthonousruler of
the Capitolium, which had thus been called the Mons
Saturnius in older times and on which once stood the town
of Saturnia.[44] He was sometimes regarded as the first king
of Latium or even the whole of Italy.[45]At the same time, there
was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant god,
received by Janus after he was usurped by his son Jupiter
and expelled from Greece.[46] In Versnel's view his
contradictions—a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest
sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters
most of the year—indicate Saturn's capacity for obliterating
social distinctions.[47]

Alatri's main gate of the cyclopical walls

The Golden Age of Saturn's reign in Roman mythology
differed from the Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy
"dethroned and fugitive,"[48] but brought agriculture and
civilization for which he was rewarded by Janus with a share
of the kingdom, becoming himself king. As the Augustan
poet Virgildescribed it, "He gathered together the unruly
race" of fauns and nymphs"scattered over mountain heights,
and gave them laws ... . Under his reign were the golden ages
men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled the nations."[49] He
was considered the ancestor of the Latin nation as he
fathered Picus, the first king of Latium, who married Janus'
daughter Canens and in his turn fathered Faunus. Saturn
was also said to have founded the five Saturnian towns of
Latium: Aletrium (today Alatri), Anagnia (Anagni), Arpinum
(Arpino), Atina and Ferentinum (Ferentino, also known as
Antinum) all located in the Latin Valley, province of
Frosinone. All these towns are surrounded by cyclopical
walls; their foundation is traditionally ascribed to
the Pelasgians.[50]

But Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect, as indicated

by the blood shed in his honor during gladiatorial munera.
His consort in archaic Roman tradition was Lua, sometimes
called Lua Saturni ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua
Mater, "Mother Destruction," a goddess in whose honor the
weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps as
expiation.[51]H.S. Versnel, however, proposed that Lua
Saturni should not be identified with Lua Mater, but rather
refers to "loosening"; she thus represents the liberating
function of Saturn.[52]

Gladiatorial munera

Saturn's chthonic nature connected him to the underworld

and its ruler Dis Pater, the Roman equivalent of
Greek Plouton(Pluto in Latin) who was also a god of hidden
wealth.[53] In 3rd-century AD sources and later, Saturn is
recorded as receiving gladiatorial offerings (munera) during
or near the Saturnalia.[54] These gladiator combats, ten days
in all throughout December, were presented by
the quaestors and sponsored with funds from the treasury of
Saturn.[55]

The practice of gladiatorial munera was criticized

by Christian apologists as a form of human
sacrifice.[56] Although there is no evidence of this practice
during the Republican era, the offering of gladiators led to
later theorizing that the primeval Saturn had demanded
human victims. Macrobius says that Dis Pater was placated
with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims
consisting of men (virorum victimis).[57] The figurines that
were exchanged as gifts (sigillaria) during the Saturnalia may
have represented token substitutes.[58]

On coins

Saturn driving a quadriga on the reverse of a denarius issued

by Saturninus

In 104 BC, the plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius

Saturninus issued a denariusdepicting Saturn driving a four-
horse chariot (quadriga), a vehicle associated with
rulers, triumphing generals, and sun gods. Saturninus was
a popularist politician who had proposed reduced-price grain
distribution to the poor of Rome. The head of the goddess
Roma appears on the obverse. The Saturnian imagery played
on the tribune's name and his intent to alter the social
hierarchy to his advantage by basing his political support on
the common people (plebs) rather than the senatorial elite.[59]

European observations (17th–19th centuries)

Robert Hooke noted the shadows (a and b) cast by both the
globe and the rings on each other in this drawing of Saturn in
1666.

Saturn's rings require at least a 15-mm-

diameter telescope[123] to resolve and thus were not known to
exist until Galileo first saw them in 1610.[124][125] He thought of
them as two moons on Saturn's sides.[126][127] It was not
until Christiaan Huygensused greater telescopic
magnification that this notion was refuted. Huygens
discovered Saturn's moon Titan; Giovanni Domenico
Cassini later discovered four other
moons: Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys and Dione. In 1675, Cassini
discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division.[128]

No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789

when William Herscheldiscovered two further
moons, Mimas and Enceladus. The irregularly shaped
satellite Hyperion, which has a resonance with Titan, was
discovered in 1848 by a British team.[129]
In 1899 William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe, a
highly irregular satellite that does not rotate synchronously
with Saturn as the larger moons do.[129] Phoebe was the first
such satellite found and it takes more than a year to orbit
Saturn in a retrograde orbit. During the early 20th century,
research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944 that it had a
thick atmosphere – a feature unique among the Solar
System's moons.[130]

Modern NASA and ESA probes

Exploration of Saturn

Pioneer 11 flyby

Pioneer 11 image of Saturn

Pioneer 11 made the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979,

when it passed within 20,000 km of the planet's cloud tops.
Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons,
although their resolution was too low to discern surface
detail. The spacecraft also studied Saturn's rings, revealing
the thin F-ring and the fact that dark gaps in the rings are
bright when viewed at high phase angle (towards the Sun),
meaning that they contain fine light-scattering material. In
addition, Pioneer 11 measured the temperature of Titan.[131]

Voyager flybys

In November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn

system. It sent back the first high-resolution images of the
planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various
moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a
close flyby of Titan, increasing knowledge of the atmosphere
of the moon. It proved that Titan's atmosphere is
impenetrable in visible wavelengths; therefore no surface
details were seen. The flyby changed the spacecraft's
trajectory out from the plane of the Solar System.[132]

Almost a year later, in August 1981, Voyager 2 continued the

study of the Saturn system. More close-up images of
Saturn's moons were acquired, as well as evidence of
changes in the atmosphere and the rings. Unfortunately,
during the flyby, the probe's turnable camera platform stuck
for a couple of days and some planned imaging was lost.
Saturn's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft's trajectory
towards Uranus.[132]
The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites
orbiting near or within the planet's rings, as well as the
small Maxwell Gap (a gap within the C Ring) and Keeler
gap (a 42 km wide gap in the A Ring).

Cassini–Huygens spacecraft
Cassini–Huygens

The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around

Saturn on 1 July 2004. In June 2004, it conducted a close
flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and
data. Cassini's flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan,
captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines
with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter
completed two Titan flybys before releasing
the Huygens probe on 25 December
2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14
January 2005.[133]

Starting in early 2005, scientists used Cassini to track

lightning on Saturn. The power of the lightning is
approximately 1,000 times that of lightning on Earth.[134]
At Enceladus's south pole geysers spray water from many
locations along the tiger stripes.[135]

In 2006, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of

liquid water reservoirs no more than tens of meters below
the surface that erupt in geysers on Saturn's
moon Enceladus. These jets of icy particles are emitted into
orbit around Saturn from vents in the moon's south polar
region.[136] Over 100 geysers have been identified on
Enceladus.[135] In May 2011, NASA scientists reported that
Enceladus "is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond
Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it".[137][138]

Cassini photographs have revealed a previously

undiscovered planetary ring, outside the brighter main rings
of Saturn and inside the G and E rings. The source of this
ring is hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid
off Janus and Epimetheus.[139] In July 2006, images were
returned of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan's north pole, the
presence of which were confirmed in January 2007. In March
2007, hydrocarbon seas were found near the North pole, the
largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea.[140] In
October 2006, the probe detected an 8,000 km diameter
cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn's south pole.[141]

From 2004 to 2 November 2009, the probe discovered and

confirmed eight new satellites.[142] In April 2013 Cassini sent
back images of a hurricane at the planet's north pole 20
times larger than those found on Earth, with winds faster
than 530 km/h (330 mph).[143] On 15 September 2017,
the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft performed the "Grand
Finale" of its mission: a number of passes through gaps
between Saturn and Saturn's inner
rings.[144][145] The atmospheric entry of Cassini ended the
mission.

Possible future missions

The continued exploration of Saturn is still considered to be

a viable option for NASA as part of their ongoing New
Frontiers program of missions. NASA previously requested
for plans to be put forward for a mission to Saturn that
included an atmospheric entry probe and possible
investigations into the habitability and possible discovery of
life on Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus.[146]
Observation

Amateur telescopic view of Saturn

Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to

the naked eye from Earth, the other four
being Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. (Uranus and
occasionally 4 Vesta are visible to the naked eye in dark
skies.) Saturn appears to the naked eye in the night sky as a
bright, yellowish point of light with an apparent magnitude of
usually between +1 and 0. It takes approximately 29.5 years
for the planet to complete an entire circuit of
the ecliptic against the background constellations of
the zodiac. Most people will require an optical aid (very large
binoculars or a small telescope) that magnifies at least 30
times to achieve an image of Saturn's rings, in which clear
resolution is present.[29][123] Twice every Saturnian year
(roughly every 15 Earth years), the rings briefly disappear
from view, due to the way in which they are angled and
because they are so thin. Such a "disappearance" will next
occur in 2025, but Saturn will be too close to the Sun for any
ring-crossing observation to be possible.[147]

Simulated appearance of Saturn as seen from Earth (at

opposition) during an orbit of Saturn, 2001-2029

Saturn eclipses the Sun, as seen from Cassini. The rings are
visible, including the F Ring.

Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at, or
near, opposition, the configuration of a planet when it is at
an elongation of 180°, and thus appears opposite the Sun in
the sky. A Saturnian opposition occurs every year—
approximately every 378 days—and results in the planet
appearing at its brightest. Both the Earth and Saturn orbit the
Sun on eccentric orbits, which means their distances from
the Sun vary over time, and therefore so do their distances
from each other, hence varying the brightness of Saturn from
one opposition to the next. Saturn also appears brighter
when the rings are angled such that they are more visible.
For example, during the opposition of 17 December 2002,
Saturn appeared at its brightest due to a
favorable orientation of its rings relative to the
Earth,[148] even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and
Sun in late 2003.[148]

From time to time Saturn is occulted by the Moon (that is, the
Moon covers up Saturn in the sky). As with all the planets in
the Solar System, occultations of Saturn occur in "seasons".
Saturnian occultations will take place 12 or more times over
a 12-month period, followed by about a five-year period in
which no such activity is registered.[149] Australian
astronomy experts Hill and Horner explain the seasonal
nature of Saturnian occultations:

This is the result of the fact that the moon’s orbit around the
Earth is tilted to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun – and
so most of the time, the moon will pass above or below
Saturn in the sky, and no occultation will occur. It is only
when Saturn lies near the point that the moon’s orbit crosses
the "plane of the ecliptic" that occultations can happen – and
then they occur every time the moon swings by, until Saturn
moves away from the crossing point.[149]
 Farewell to Saturn and moons
(Enceladus, Epimetheus, Janus, Mimas, Pandora and Promet
heus), by Cassini (21 November 2017).

NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute - Catalog

page · Full-res (JPEG · TIFF)

After more than 13 years at Saturn, and with its fate sealed,
NASA's Cassini spacecraft bid farewell to the Saturnian
system by firing the shutters of its wide-angle camera and
capturing this last, full mosaic of Saturn and its rings two
days before the spacecraft's dramatic plunge into the
planet's atmosphere. During the observation, a total of 80
wide-angle images were acquired in just over two hours. This
view is constructed from 42 of those wide-angle shots, taken
using the red, green and blue spectral filters, combined and
mosaicked together to create a natural-color view. Six of
Saturn's moons -- Enceladus, Epimetheus, Janus, Mimas,
Pandora and Prometheus -- make a faint appearance in this
image. (Numerous stars are also visible in the background.)
A second version of the mosaic is provided in which the
planet and its rings have been brightened, with the fainter
regions brightened by a greater amount. (The moons and
stars have also been brightened by a factor of 15 in this
version.) The ice-covered moon Enceladus -- home to a
global subsurface ocean that erupts into space -- can be
seen at the 1 o'clock position. Directly below Enceladus, just
outside the F ring (the thin, farthest ring from the planet seen
in this image) lies the small moon Epimetheus. Following the
F ring clock-wise from Epimetheus, the next moon seen is
Janus. At about the 4:30 position and outward from the F
ring is Mimas. Inward of Mimas and still at about the 4:30
position is the F-ring-disrupting moon, Pandora. Moving
around to the 10 o'clock position, just inside of the F ring, is
the moon Prometheus. This view looks toward the sunlit side
of the rings from about 15 degrees above the ring plane.
Cassini was approximately 698,000 miles (1.1 million
kilometers) from Saturn, on its final approach to the planet,
when the images in this mosaic were taken. Image scale on
Saturn is about 42 miles (67 kilometers) per pixel. The image
scale on the moons varies from 37 to 50 miles (59 to 80
kilometers) pixel. The phase angle (the Sun-planet-spacecraft
angle) is 138 degrees. The Cassini spacecraft ended its
mission on Sept. 15, 2017. The Cassini mission is a
cooperative project of NASA, ESA (the European Space
Agency) and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of Caltech in Pasadena, manages the
mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard
cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL.
The imaging operations center is based at the Space Science
Institute in Boulder, Colorado. For more information about
the Cassini-Huygens mission
visit https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and https://www.nasa.gov/ca
ssini. The Cassini imaging team homepage is
at https://ciclops.org.

EXPERIMENT ;
DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT. DISASTERS RAIN AND DROUGHT .

Wilhelm Reich (24 March 1897 – 3 November 1957) was an

Austrian doctor of medicine and psychoanalyst, a member of the
second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud.[1] The author of
several influential books, most notably Character Analysis (1933),
The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933) and The Sexual
Revolution (1936), Reich became known as one of the most radical
figures in the history of psychiatry A cloudbuster (or cloud buster)
is a pseudoscientific device designed by Austrian
psychoanalystWilhelm Reich (1897–1957), which Reich said could
produce rain by manipulating what he called "orgone energy"
present in the atmosphere.[1]

A cloudbuster (or cloud buster) is a pseudoscientific device

designed by Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich (1897–
1957), which Reich said could produce rain by manipulating
what he called "orgone energy" present in the atmosphere.

The cloudbuster was intended to be used in a way similar to a

lightning rod: focusing it on a location in the sky and grounding it in
some material that was presumed to absorb orgone—such as a body
of water—would draw the orgone energy out of the atmosphere,
causing the formation of clouds and rain. Reich conducted dozens of
experiments with the cloudbuster, calling the research "Cosmic
orgone engineering".

Reich's work on character contributed to the development of Anna

Freud's The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936), and his
idea of muscular armour – the expression of the personality in the
way the body moves – shaped innovations such as body
psychotherapy, Gestalt therapy, bioenergetic analysis and primal
therapyHis writing influenced generations of intellectuals; he coined
the phrase "the sexual revolution" and according to one historian
acted as its midwife.[7] During the 1968 student uprisings in Paris
and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of
The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police.[8]

After graduating in medicine from the University of Vienna in 1922,

Reich became deputy director of Freud's outpatient clinic, the
Vienna Ambulatorium.[9] Described by Elizabeth Danto as a large
man with a cantankerous style who managed to look scruffy and
elegant at the same time, he tried to reconcile psychoanalysis with
Marxism, arguing that neurosis is rooted in sexual and socio-
economic conditions, and in particular in a lack of what he called
"orgastic potency.
Reich's Contact With Space , Ariny Amos at times gets in contact
with the space, National Aeronautic and space administration who
hold NASA space craft, space craft hold cathode ray tube, video
camera of which several laws of physics are emitted equally to
Physicist Albert Einstein

https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_reich01.htm

Certain facts about the appearance of the UFOs such as their

noiselessness, their shimmering lights, sometimes bluish in
appearance, rotating discs underlying their motion, fell into place
with some of the facts Reich knew well from cosmic OR functioning:
The 'CORE MEN' (CORE = COSMIC ORGONE ENGINEERS), as he ...
Weather modification is the act of intentionally manipulating or
altering the weather. The most common form of weather
modification, is cloud seeding to increase rain or snow, usually for the
purpose of increasing the local water supply.[1] Weather modification
can also have the goal of preventing damaging weather, such as hail
or hurricanes, from occurring; or of provoking damaging weather
against the enemy, as a tactic of military or economic warfare like
Operation Popeye, where clouds were seeded to prolong the
monsoon in Vietnam. Weather modification in warfare has been
banned by the United
Nations.1303.torrent,http://anticinema.wordpress.com/,http://www
.orgonomy.org/Articles/Baker/Wilhelm_Reich3.html, By 1954, Reich
had solved many problems of cosmic functioning and was nearing the
solution of negative gravity. Gravity, he found, was due to the
reaction of two energy streams; actually, a manifestation of
superimposition.

Orgone is a pseudo-scientific and spiritual concept described as an

esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force, originally
proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich.[8][9][10] As developed by
Reich's student Charles Kelley after Reich's death in 1957, orgone
was conceived as the anti-entropic principle of the universe, a
creative substratum in all of nature comparable to Mesmer's animal
magnetism (1779), to the Odic force (1845) of Carl Reichenbach and
to Henri Bergson's élan vital (1907).[11] Orgone was seen as a
massless, omnipresent substance, similar to luminiferous aether, but
more closely associated with living energy than with inert matter. It
could allegedly coalesce to create organization on all scales, from the
smallest microscopic units—called "bions" in orgone theory—to
macroscopic structures like organisms, clouds, or even galaxies.[12]

Reich stated that deficits or constrictions in bodily orgone were at

the root of many diseases, much as deficits or constrictions in the
libido could produce neuroses in Freudian theory. Reich founded
the Orgone Institute ca. 1942[13] to pursue research into orgone
energy after he immigrated to the US in 1939, and used it to publish
literature and distribute material relating to the topic for more than
a decade. Reich designed special "orgone accumulators"—devices
ostensibly collecting and storing orgone energy from the
environment—for improvement of general health or even for
weather control.[8] Ultimately, the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) obtained a federal injunction barring the
interstate distribution of orgone-related materials, on the grounds
that Reich and his associates were making false and misleading
claims, and later jailed Reich and destroyed all orgone-related
materials at the institute after Reich violated the injunction.[9] Reich
rescinded the claim that accumulator could provide orgastic
potency,[14] but this was not enough to stop the action.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health

lists orgone as a type of "putative energy".[15] There is no empirical
support for the concept of orgone in medicine or the physical
sciences,[4]

APPARATUS.
The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of
the executive branch of the United States federal
government responsible for the civilian space program, as well
as aeronautics and aerospace research.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958[10] with a

distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging
peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics
and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's
predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became operational on
October 1, 1958.[11][12]

Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by
NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions,
the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently,
NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is
overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew
Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles.
The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services
Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and
countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through
the Earth Observing System,[13]advancing heliophysics through the
efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research
Program,[14] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with
advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons,[15] and
researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through
the Great Observatories and associated programs.[16] NASA shares
data with various national and international organizations such as
from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite , 2016 Ariny Amos
promoted as an Astronaut.

Seal

Emblem
 Flag

Agency overview

Formed July 29, 1958; 59 years ago

Preceding  NACA (1915–1958)[1]

agency

Jurisdiction United States government

Headquarters Two Independence

Square, Washington, D.C., U.S.

38°52′59″N 77°0′59″WCoordinates:
38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W

Motto For the Benefit of All[2]

Employees 17,381+[3]

Annual US$20.7 billion[4] (2018),[5] also

budget see Budget of NASA

Agency  Jim Bridenstine, Administrator of

executives NASA[6]
 Krista Paquin, Deputy Associate
Administrator[7]
 Jeff DeWit, Chief Financial Officer

Website nasa.gov

Part of a series of articles on the

Space policy of the United States

 NASA
 Space policy of the United States
 Apollo program
SPACE CRAFT,

A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed to fly in outer

space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes,
including communications, earth
observation, meteorology, navigation, space
colonization, planetary exploration,
and transportation of humans and cargo.

On a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and

then returns to the surface, without having gone into
an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed
orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies.
Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board
as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (space stations)
only, whereas those used for robotic space missions operate
either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic
spacecraft used to support scientific research are space
probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a
planetary body are artificial satellites. Only a handful
of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager
1 and 2, and New Horizons, are on trajectories that leave
the Solar System.
Orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method
of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space
capsules and winged spaceplanes.

Humanity has achieved space flight but only a few nations

have the technology for orbital launches: Russia (RSA or
"Roscosmos"), the United States (NASA), the member states
of the European Space Agency
(ESA), Japan (JAXA), China (CNSA), India (ISRO), Taiwan[1][2][
3][4] (National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and
Technology, Taiwan National Space Organization
(NSPO),[5][6][7] Israel (ISA), Iran (ISA), and North Korea(NADA).

More than 100 Soviet and Russian Soyuzmanned spacecraft

(TMA version shown) have flown since 1967 and now support
the International Space Station.
The US Space Shuttle flew 135 times from 1981 to 2011,
supporting Spacelab, Mir, and the ISS. (Columbia's first
launch, which had a white external tank, shown)

NASA - Great Images in NASA (image link)

The April 12 launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7

a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into
an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours,
ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in
California.

 Public Domain
 File:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg
 Created: 12 April 1981

 Manned space capsules

 

Soviet Vostok capsule

Reubenbarton at en.wikipedia - Own work (Original caption:

“I created this diagram in Paint Shop Pro”)

Vostok spacecraft diagram

 Public Domain
 File:Vostok spacecraft diagram.png
 Created: 29 July 2004


American Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft

D. Meltzer (signature on image) -

https://archive.org/details/S64-22331

Illustration of the relative sizes of the one-man Mercury

spacecraft, the two-man Gemini spacecraft, and the three-
man Apollo spacecraft. Also shows line drawing of launch
vehicles (Saturn V, Titan II and Atlas-D) to show their relative
size to each other and the position of the spacecraft at
launch (highlighted at top).
 Public Domain
 File:NASA spacecraft comparison.jpg
 Created: 1 January 1964

Soviet Voskhod (variant of Vostok)

 Reubenbarton at en.wikipedia - Own work (Original caption:
“I created this diagram in Paint Shop Pro”)

Voskhod 1 and 2 spacecraft diagrams

 Public Domain
 File:Voskhod 1 and 2.png
 Created: 30 July 2004

1967 Soviet/Russian Soyuz spacecraft

NASA -
http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/RP1357.pd
f

Soyuz 7K-OK(A) spacecraft with an active docking unit.

 Public Domain
 File:Soyuz 7K-OK(A) drawing.svg
 Uploaded: 16 February 2010

RAW MATERIALS DESCRIPTION .

Nitrocellulose adhesive dispensed from a tube

Adhesives, also known as glue, cement, mucilage,

or paste,[1] is any substance applied to one surface, or both
surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and
resists their separation.[2] Adjectives may be used in
conjunction with the word "adhesive" to describe properties
based on the substance's physical or chemical form, the type
of materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied.[3]

The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding

techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal
bonding, etc. These include the ability to bind different
materials together, to distribute stress more efficiently
across the joint, the cost effectiveness of an easily
mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic design,
and increased design flexibility. Disadvantages of adhesive
use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative
weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding
surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects
during testing.[4] Adhesives are typically organized by the
method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive
and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the
adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively
they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural
or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase.

Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically.

The earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was
approximately 200,000 years ago,[5] when Neanderthals
produced tar from the dry distillation of birch bark for use in
binding stone tools to wooden handles[6].The first references
to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately
2000 BC. The Greeks and Romans made great contributions
to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not
widely used until the period AD 1500–1700. From then until
the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were
relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the
development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, and
innovation in the field continues to the present.

History

A reconstruction of Ötzi's axe, which used pitch as an

adhesive

The earliest use of adhesives was discovered in central Italy

when two stone flakes partially covered with birch-
bark tar and a third uncovered stone from the Middle
Pleistocene era (circa 200,000 years ago) were found. This is
thought to be the oldest discovered human use of tar-
hafted stones.[5]

The birch-bark-tar adhesive is a simple, one-component

adhesive. Although sticky enough, plant-based adhesives
are brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions. The
first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu,
South Africa. Here, 70,000-year-old stone segments that were
once inserted in axe hafts were discovered covered with an
adhesive composed of plant gum and red ochre (natural iron
oxide) as adding ochre to plant gum produces a stronger
product and protects the gum from disintegrating under wet
conditions.[7]The ability to produce stronger adhesives
allowed middle stone age humans to attach stone segments
to sticks in greater variations, which led to the development
of new tools.[8]

More recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric

humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes.
Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately
6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together
with food found in broken clay pots repaired with tree
resins.[9] Another investigation by archaeologists uncovered
the use of bituminouscements to fasten ivory eyeballs to
statues in Babylonian temples dating to approximately 4000
BC.[10]

In 2000, a paper revealed the discovery of a 5,200-year-old

man nicknamed the "Tyrolean Iceman" or "Ötzi", who was
preserved in a glacier near the Austria-Italy border. Several
of his belongings were found with him including two arrows
with flint arrowheads and a copper hatchet, each with
evidence of organic glue used to connect the stone or metal
parts to the wooden shafts. The glue was analyzed as pitch,
which requires the heating of tar during its production. The
retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by
means of heat, in a process known as pyrolysis.[11]

The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared

in approximately 2000 BC. Further historical records of
adhesive use are found from the period spanning 1500–1000
BC. Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting
wood gluing operations and a casket made of wood and glue
in King Tutankhamun's tomb.[12] Other ancient Egyptian
artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination. Such
lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have
extended their life and was accomplished using casein (milk
protein)-based glues. The ancient Egyptians also developed
starch-based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing
and a plaster of Paris-like material made of calcined
gypsum.[13]

From AD 1 to 500 the Greeks and Romans made great

contributions to the development of adhesives. Wood
veneering and marquetry were developed, the production of
animal and fish glues refined, and other materials utilized.
Egg-based pastes were used to bond gold leaves
incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood,
bone, hide, milk, cheese, vegetables, and grains.[12] The
Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the
Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with
volcanic ash and sand. This material, known as pozzolanic
cement, was used in the construction of the Roman
Colosseum and Pantheon.[13] The Romans were also the first
people known to have used tar and beeswax as caulk and
sealant between the wooden planks of their boats and
ships.[12]

Beeswax
Modern slaked lime factory in Ukraine

In Central Asia, the rise of the Mongols in approximately AD

1000 can be partially attributed to the good range and power
of the bows of Genghis Khan's hordes. These bows were
constructed with laminated lemonwood and bullhorn bonded
by an unknown adhesive.[14]

In Europe, glue fell into disuse until the period AD 1500–

1700. At this time, world-renowned cabinet and furniture
makers such as Thomas Chippendale and Duncan
Phyfe began to use adhesives to hold their products
together.[12]

The development of modern adhesives began in 1690 with

the founding of the first commercial glue plant in Holland.
This plant produced glues from animal hides.[15]

Liquid animal glue

In 1750, the first British glue patent was issued for fish glue.
The following decades of the next century witnessed the
manufacture of casein glues in German and Swiss
factories.[12] In 1876, the first US patent (number 183,024) was
issued to the Ross brothers for the production of casein
glue.[12][16]

Casein glue preparation

The first US postage stamps used starch-based adhesives

when issued in 1840. The first US patent (number 61,991) on
dextrin (a starch derivative) adhesive was issued in 1867.[12]

Natural rubber was first used as material for adhesives

starting in 1830.[17] In 1839, Charles Goodyear discovered
that a rubber and sulfur mixture, when heated, becomes
elastic. In 1843, Thomas Hancock named this
process vulcanization. In 1862, a British patent (number
3288) was issued for the plating of metal with brass
by electrodeposition to obtain a stronger bond to
rubber.[15] The development of the automobile and the need
for rubber shock mounts required stronger and more durable
bonds of rubber and metal. This spurred the development of
cyclized rubber treated in strong acids. By 1927, this process
was used to produce solvent-based thermoplastic rubber
cements for metal to rubber bonding.[18]

Natural rubber-based sticky adhesives were first used on a

backing by Henry Day (US Patent 3,965) in 1845.[18] Later
these kinds of adhesives were used in cloth backed surgical
and electric tapes. By 1925, the pressure-sensitive tape
industry was born.[4] Today, sticky notes, Scotch tape, and
other tapes are examples of PSA (pressure-sensitive
adhesives).[19]

A key step in the development of synthetic plastics was the

introduction of a thermoset plastic known
as Bakelite phenolic in 1910.[20] Within two years, phenolic
resin was applied to plywood as a coating varnish. In the
early 1930s, phenolics gained importance as adhesive
resins.[21]

The 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s witnessed great advances in the

development and production of new plastics and resins due
to the First and Second World Wars. These advances greatly
improved the development of adhesives by allowing the use
of newly developed materials that exhibited a variety of
properties. With changing needs and ever evolving
technology, the development of new synthetic adhesives
continues to the present.[20] However, due to their low cost,
natural adhesives are still more commonly used.[22]

Economic importance

In the course of time and during their development,

adhesives have gained a stable position in an increasing
number of production processes. There is hardly any
product in our surroundings that does not contain at least
one adhesive—be it the label on a beverage bottle, protective
coatings on automobiles, or profiles on window frames.
Market researchers forecast a turnover of almost US$50
billion for the global adhesives market in 2019. In particular,
the economic development of emerging countries such as
China, India, Russia, and Brazil will cause a rising demand
for adhesives in the future.[23]

Types

List of glues

Adhesives are typically organized by the method of

adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-
reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the
adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively
they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural,
or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase.
By reactiveness
Non-reactive
Drying

There are two types of adhesives that harden by

drying: solvent-based adhesives and polymer dispersion
adhesives, also known as emulsion adhesives. Solvent-
based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients
(typically polymers) dissolved in a solvent. White glue,
contact adhesives and rubber cements are members of
the drying adhesive family. As the solvent evaporates, the
adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition
of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to
greater or lesser degrees.

Polymer dispersion adhesives are milky-white dispersions

often based on polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). They are used
extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries.
They are also used with fabrics and fabric-based
components, and in engineered products such as
loudspeaker cones.

Pressure-sensitive
Pressure-sensitive adhesive
Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA) form a bond by the
application of light pressure to marry the adhesive with the
adherend. They are designed to have a balance between flow
and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the adhesive
is soft enough to flow (i.e., "wet") to the adherend. The bond
has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist
flow when stress is applied to the bond. Once the adhesive
and the adherend are in close proximity, molecular
interactions, such as van der Waals forces, become involved
in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength.

PSAs are designed for either permanent or removable

applications. Examples of permanent applications include
safety labels for power equipment, foil tape for HVAC duct
work, automotive interior trim assembly, and sound/vibration
damping films. Some high performance permanent PSAs
exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of
weight per square centimeter of contact area, even at
elevated temperatures. Permanent PSAs may initially be
removable (for example to recover mislabeled goods) and
build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or
days.

Removable adhesives are designed to form a temporary

bond, and ideally can be removed after months or years
without leaving residue on the adherend. Removable
adhesives are used in applications such as surface
protection films, masking tapes, bookmark and note papers,
barcodes labels, price marking labels, promotional graphics
materials, and for skin contact (wound care dressings, EKG
electrodes, athletic tape, analgesic and transdermal drug
patches, etc.). Some removable adhesives are designed to
repeatedly stick and unstick.[24] They have low adhesion, and
generally cannot support much weight. Pressure-sensitive
adhesive is used in Post-it notes.

Pressure-sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a

liquid carrier or in 100% solid form. Articles are made from
liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the
solvent or water carrier. They may be further heated to
initiate a cross-linkingreaction and increase molecular
weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that
are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase
molecular weight and form the adhesive, or they may be high
viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity
enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form.
Major raw material for PSA's are acrylate-based polymers.
Contact

Contact adhesives are used in strong bonds with high shear-

resistance like laminates, such as bonding Formica to a
wooden counter, and in footwear, as in attaching outsoles to
uppers.

Natural rubber and polychloroprene (Neoprene) are

commonly used contact adhesives. Both of these elastomers
undergo strain crystallization. In the construction industry a
specialised proprietary adhesive known as "liquid nails" is
used.[25] This also copes with tasks such as sealing artificial
turf.[26]

Contact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and

allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed
together. Some contact adhesives require as long as 24
hours to dry before the surfaces are to be held
together.[27] Once the surfaces are pushed together, the bond
forms very quickly.[28] It is usually not necessary to apply
pressure for a long time, so there is less need for clamps.
Hot

A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive

Hot-melt adhesive

Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives,

are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C
range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds
between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-
based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of
their ease of use and the wide range of common materials
they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of
applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid
adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel
onto the material, where it solidifies.

Thermoplastic glue may have been invented around 1940

by Procter & Gamble as a solution to the problem that water-
based adhesives, commonly used in packaging at that time,
failed in humid climates, causing packages to open.
Reactive
Multi-part

Multi-component adhesives harden by mixing two or more

components which chemically react. This reaction causes
polymers to cross-link[29] into acrylics, urethanes, and
epoxies - See thermosetting polymers.

There are several commercial combinations of multi-

component adhesives in use in industry. Some of these
combinations are:

 Polyester resin – polyurethane resin

 Polyols – polyurethane resin
 Acrylic polymers – polyurethane resins

The individual components of a multi-component adhesive

are not adhesive by nature. The individual components react
with each other after being mixed and show full adhesion
only on curing. The multi-component resins can be either
solvent-based or solvent-less. The solvents present in the
adhesives are a medium for the polyester or the
polyurethane resin. The solvent is dried during the curing
process.
Pre-mixed and frozen adhesives

Pre-mixed and frozen adhesives (PMFs) are adhesives that

are mixed, deaerated, packaged, and frozen.[30] As it is
necessary for PMFs to remain frozen before use, once they
are frozen at -80 °C they are shipped with dry ice and are
required to be stored at or below -40 °C.[31] PMF adhesives
eliminate mixing mistakes by the end user and reduce
exposure of curing agents that can contain irritants or
toxins.[32] PMFs were introduced commercially in the 1960s
and are commonly used in aerospace and defense.[33]

One-part

One-part adhesives harden via a chemical reaction with an

external energy source, such as radiation, heat,
and moisture.

Ultraviolet (UV) light curing adhesives, also known as light

curing materials (LCM), have become popular within the
manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and
strong bond strength. Light curing adhesives can cure in as
little as one second and many formulations can bond
dissimilar substrates (materials) and withstand harsh
temperatures. These qualities make UV curing adhesives
essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial
markets such as electronics, telecommunications, medical,
aerospace, glass, and optical. Unlike traditional adhesives,
UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together
but they can also be used to seal and coat products. They
are generally acrylic-based.

Heat curing adhesives consist of a pre-made mixture of two

or more components. When heat is applied the components
react and cross-link. This type of adhesive
includes thermoset epoxies, urethanes, and polyimides.

Moisture curing adhesives cure when they react with

moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air. This
type of adhesive includes cyanoacrylates and urethanes.

See also: List of polyurethane applications § Adhesives

By origin
Natural

Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as

vegetable starch (dextrin), natural resins, or animals (e.g. the
milk protein casein[34] and hide-based animal glues). These
are often referred to as bioadhesives.

One example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in

water. Starch-based adhesives are used in corrugated
board and paper sack production, paper tube winding,
and wallpaper adhesives. Casein glue is mainly used to
adhere glass bottle labels. Animal glues have traditionally
been used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other
areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues except
in specialist applications like the production and repair of
stringed instruments. Albumenmade from the protein
component of blood has been used in
the plywood industry. Masonite, a wood hardboard, was
originally bonded using natural wood lignin, an organic
polymer, though most modern particle boards such
as MDF use synthetic thermosetting resins.

Synthetic

Synthetic adhesives are based

on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions, and thermosets.
Examples of thermosetting adhesives
are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymer
s. The first commercially produced synthetic adhesive
was Karlsons Klister in the 1920s.[35]

Application

Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to

the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the
adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either
one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are
aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the
bond of air bubbles.

Common ways of applying an adhesive include brushes,

rollers, using films or pellets, spray guns and applicator
guns (e.g., caulk gun). All of these can be used manually or
automated as part of a machine.

Mechanisms of adhesion
Adhesion

For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main

properties. It must be able to wet the substrate. It must
harden [note: notall adhesives harden] and finally it must be able to
transmit load between the two surfaces/substrates being
adhered.[36]

Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate

may occur either by mechanical means, in which the
adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or
by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of
adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by
which it occurs.

In some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between

adhesive and substrate. In others, electrostatic forces, as in
static electricity, hold the substances together. A third
mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop
between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-
aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by
hardening.

Methods to improve adhesion

The quality of adhesive bonding depends strongly on the

ability of the adhesive to efficiency cover (wet) the substrate
area. This happens when the surface energy of the substrate
is greater than the surface energy of the adhesive. However,
high strength adhesives have high surface energy. Thus,
their application is problematic for low energy materials such
as polymers. To solve this problem, surface treatment can be
used to increase the surface energy as a preparation step
before adhesive bonding. Importantly, surface preparation
provides a reproducible surface allowing consistent bonding
results. The commonly used surface activation techniques
include plasma activation, flame treatment and wet chemistry
priming.[37]

Failure[edit]
Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations

There are several factors that could contribute to the failure

of two adhered surfaces. Sunlight and heat may weaken the
adhesive. Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive.
Physical stresses may also cause the separation of surfaces.
When subjected to loading, debonding may occur at different
locations in the adhesive joint. The major fracture types are
the following:

Cohesive fracture

Cohesive fracture is obtained if a crack propagates in the

bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the
surfaces of both adherends after debonding will be covered
by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the center
of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the
cohesive fracture can be said to be "cohesive near the
interface".

Adhesive fracture

Adhesive fracture (sometimes referred to as interfacial

fracture) is when debonding occurs between the adhesive
and the adherend. In most cases, the occurrence of adhesive
fracture for a given adhesive goes along with smaller fracture
toughness.

Other types of fracture

Other types of fracture include:

 The mixed type, which occurs if the crack propagates at

some spots in a cohesive and in others in an interfacial
manner. Mixed fracture surfaces can be characterised by a
certain percentage of adhesive and cohesive areas.
 The alternating crack path type which occurs if the cracks
jump from one interface to the other. This type of fracture
appears in the presence of tensile pre-stresses in the
adhesive layer.
 Fracture can also occur in the adherend if the adhesive is
tougher than the adherend. In this case, the adhesive
remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and
 remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a
price label, the adhesive usually remains on the label and
the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of
paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not
failed. Another example is when someone tries to pull
apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side;
this is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure.

Design of adhesive joints

Modes of failure

As a general design rule, the material properties of the object

need to be greater than the forces anticipated during its use.
(i.e. geometry, loads, etc.). The engineering work will consist
of having a good model to evaluate the function. For most
adhesive joints, this can be achieved using fracture
mechanics. Concepts such as the stress concentration factor
and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict
failure. In such models, the behavior of the adhesive layer
itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered.

Failure will also very much depend on the opening mode of

the joint.

 Mode I is an opening or tensile mode where the loadings

are normal to the crack.
 Mode II is a sliding or in-plane shear mode where the crack
surfaces slide over one another in direction perpendicular
to the leading edge of the crack. This is typically the mode
for which the adhesive exhibits the highest resistance to
fracture.
 Mode III is a tearing or antiplane shear mode.

As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will

result from combination of a material selection procedure
and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively
bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed
by structural considerations and the design procedure
focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on
local changes on the geometry.

Increasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by

designing its geometry so that:

 The bonded zone is large

 It is mainly loaded in mode II
 Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a
local failure.

Shelf life

Some glues and adhesives have a limited shelf life. Exposure

to heat, oxygen, water vapor, etc. can degrade the adhesive
over time, preventing it from functioning properly.

OFFICE GLUE AND CHEMISTRY

. Phase (matter) of office glue.

Not to be confused with State of matter.

In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space

(a thermodynamic system), throughout which all physical
properties of a material are essentially
uniform.[1][2]:86[3]:3 Examples of physical properties
include density, index of refraction, magnetization and
chemical composition. A simple description is that a phase is
a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically
distinct, and (often) mechanically separable. In a system
consisting of ice and water in a glass jar, the ice cubes are
one phase, the water is a second phase, and the humid air is
a third phase over the ice and water. The glass of the jar is
another separate phase. (See state of matter#Glass)

The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of

matter, but there can be several immiscible phases of the
same state of matter. Also, the term phase is sometimes
used to refer to a set of equilibrium states demarcated in
terms of state variables such as pressure and temperature by
a phase boundary on a phase diagram. Because phase
boundaries relate to changes in the organization of matter,
such as a change from liquid to solid or a more subtle
change from one crystal structure to another, this latter
usage is similar to the use of "phase" as a synonym for state
of matter. However, the state of matter and phase diagram
usages are not commensurate with the formal definition
given above and the intended meaning must be determined
in part from the context in which the term is used.
A small piece of rapidly melting argon ice shows the
transition from solid to liquid.

No machine-readable author provided. Deglr6328~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright

claims).- No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims).

From en wiki: A small (~2 cm long) piece of rapidly melting argon

ice (the liquid is flowing off at the bottom) which has been frozen
by allowing a slow stream of the gas to flow into a small graduated
cylinder which was immersed into a cup of liquid nitrogen. Auto-
contrast and unsharp mask applied in photoshop. Image taken by
me.
Types of phases

Distinct phases may be described as different states of

mattersuch as gas, liquid, solid, plasma or Bose–Einstein
condensate. Useful mesophases between solid and liquid
form other states of matter.

Types of phases

Distinct phases may also exist within a given state of matter.

As shown in the diagram for iron alloys, several phases exist
for both the solid and liquid states. Phases may also be
differentiated based on solubility as in polar (hydrophilic) or
non-polar (hydrophobic). A mixture of water (a polar liquid)
and oil (a non-polar liquid) will spontaneously separate into
two phases. Water has a very low solubility (is insoluble) in
oil, and oil has a low solubility in water. Solubility is the
maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent
before the solute ceases to dissolve and remains in a
separate phase. A mixture can separate into more than two
liquid phases and the concept of phase separation extends
to solids, i.e., solids can form solid solutions or crystallize
into distinct crystal phases. Metal pairs that are mutually
soluble can form alloys, whereas metal pairs that are
mutually insoluble cannot.

As many as eight immiscible liquid phases have been

observed.[a] Mutually immiscible liquid phases are formed
from water (aqueous phase), hydrophobic organic solvents,
perfluorocarbons (fluorous phase), silicones, several
different metals, and also from molten phosphorus. Not all
organic solvents are completely miscible, e.g. a mixture
of ethylene glycol and toluenemay separate into two distinct
organic phases.[b]

Phases do not need to macroscopically separate

spontaneously. Emulsions and colloids are examples of
immiscible phase pair combinations that do not physically
separate.
Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions
necessary to form different phases.

The original uploader was User A1 at English Wikipedia - Transferred

from en.wikipedia to Commons byPieter Kuiper using CommonsHelper.

Steel phase diagram Iron-carbon phase diagram under atmospheric

pressure This diagram is limited by pure iron on the left and by iron
carbide on the right. The mains phases are: * α iron: ferrite, ferritic
steel * γ iron: austenite, austenitic steel * iron carbide: cementite,
Fe3C. We can see a eutectic and a eutectoid; these phases crystallise
as a stacking of fine strips of pure phases (iron and cementite) in
case of the eutectoid, or a pure iron containing small balls of
cementite for the eutectic. Although it is heterogeneous, these phases
behave like homogeneous pure bodies. Steel is between 0 and 2.06
mass percent of carbon. Cast iron is between 2.06 and 6.67%. Note
that this diagram is for illustrative purposes only, and is not
thermodynamically accurate. SVG Author : en:User:User A1 Original
Author : Christophe Dang Ngoc Chan

Phase equilibrium

Left to equilibration, many compositions will form a uniform

single phase, but depending on the temperature and
pressure even a single substance may separate into two or
more distinct phases. Within each phase, the properties are
uniform but between the two phases properties differ.

Water in a closed jar with an air space over it forms a two

phase system. Most of the water is in the liquid phase, where
it is held by the mutual attraction of water molecules. Even at
equilibrium molecules are constantly in motion and, once in
a while, a molecule in the liquid phase gains enough kinetic
energy to break away from the liquid phase and enter the gas
phase. Likewise, every once in a while a vapor molecule
collides with the liquid surface and condenses into the liquid.
At equilibrium, evaporation and condensation processes
exactly balance and there is no net change in the volume of
either phase.
At room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches
equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of
about 3%. This percentage increases as the temperature
goes up. At 100 °C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is
not reached until the air is 100% water. If the liquid is heated
a little over 100 °C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur
not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid volume: the
water boils.

Number of phases
: Multiphasic liquid
A typical phase diagram for a single-component material,
exhibiting solid, liquid and gaseous phases. The solid green
line shows the usual shape of the liquid–solid phase line.
The dotted green line shows the anomalous behavior of
water when the pressure increases. The triple point and
the critical point are shown as red dots.

Matthieumarechal

A modification of File:Phase-diag.svg with an adjusted water solid-

liquid coexistence: A typical phase diagram for a single-component
material, exhibiting solid, liquid and gaseous phases. The solid
green line shows the usual shape of the liquid-solid phase line. The
dotted green line shows the anomalous behavior of water.

For a given composition, only certain phases are possible at

a given temperature and pressure. The number and type of
phases that will form is hard to predict and is usually
determined by experiment. The results of such experiments
can be plotted in phase diagrams.

The phase diagram shown here is for a single component

system. In this simple system, which phases that are
possible depends only on pressureand temperature. The
markings show points where two or more phases can co-
exist in equilibrium. At temperatures and pressures away
from the markings, there will be only one phase at
equilibrium.

In the diagram, the blue line marking the boundary between

liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely, but terminates
at a point called the critical point. As the temperature and
pressure approach the critical point, the properties of the
liquid and gas become progressively more similar. At the
critical point, the liquid and gas become indistinguishable.
Above the critical point, there are no longer separate liquid
and gas phases: there is only a generic fluid phase referred
to as a supercritical fluid. In water, the critical point occurs at
around 647 K (374 °C or 705 °F) and 22.064 MPa.

An unusual feature of the water phase diagram is that the

solid–liquid phase line (illustrated by the dotted green line)
has a negative slope. For most substances, the slope is
positive as exemplified by the dark green line. This unusual
feature of water is related to ice having a lower density than
liquid water. Increasing the pressure drives the water into the
higher density phase, which causes melting.

Another interesting though not unusual feature of the phase

diagram is the point where the solid–liquid phase line meets
the liquid–gas phase line. The intersection is referred to as
the triple point. At the triple point, all three phases can
coexist.

Experimentally, the phase lines are relatively easy to map

due to the interdependence of temperature and pressure that
develops when multiple phases forms. See Gibbs' phase
rule. Consider a test apparatus consisting of a closed and
well insulated cylinder equipped with a piston. By charging
the right amount of water and applying heat, the system can
be brought to any point in the gas region of the phase
diagram. If the piston is slowly lowered, the system will trace
a curve of increasing temperature and pressure within the
gas region of the phase diagram. At the point where gas
begins to condense to liquid, the direction of the temperature
and pressure curve will abruptly change to trace along the
phase line until all of the water has condensed.

Interfacial phenomena
Surface science

Between two phases in equilibrium there is a narrow region

where the properties are not that of either phase. Although
this region may be very thin, it can have significant and
easily observable effects, such as causing a liquid to
exhibit surface tension. In mixtures, some components may
preferentially move toward the interface. In terms of
modeling, describing, or understanding the behavior of a
particular system, it may be efficacious to treat the interfacial
region as a separate phase.

Crystal phases

A single material may have several distinct solid states

capable of forming separate phases. Water is a well-known
example of such a material. For example, water ice is
ordinarily found in the hexagonal form ice Ih, but can also
exist as the cubic ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many
other forms. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in
more than one crystal form. For pure chemical elements,
polymorphism is known as allotropy. For
example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different
allotropes of carbon.

Phase transitions
Phase transition

When a substance undergoes a phase transition (changes

from one state of matter to another) it usually either takes up
or releases energy. For example, when water evaporates, the
increase in kinetic energy as the evaporating molecules
escape the attractive forces of the liquid is reflected in a
decrease in temperature. The energy required to induce the
phase transition is taken from the internal thermal energy of
the water, which cools the liquid to a lower temperature;
hence evaporation is useful for cooling. See Enthalpy of
vaporization. The reverse process, condensation, releases
heat. The heat energy, or enthalpy, associated with a solid to
liquid transition is the enthalpy of fusion and that associated
with a solid to gas transition is the enthalpy of sublimation.

Office glue offers energy called esotericism in motor

neurones neurosciece,
The term energy is used by writers and practitioners of
various esoteric forms of spirituality and alternative medicine to refer to a
variety of phenomena.[1][2]There is no scientific evidence for the existence of
such energy.[1][2][3]

Therapies that purport to use, modify, or manipulate unknown energies are

thus among the most contentious of all complementary and alternative
medicines. Claims related to energy therapies are most
often anecdotal (from single stories), rather than being based on
repeatable empirical evidence.

Concepts such as "life force" and "élan vital" existed from antiquity and
emerged from the debate over vitalism in the 18th and 19th centuries with
Mesmer and the magnetism. They continued to be discussed in the 20th
century by some thinkers and practitioners in the modern New
Age movement.[1][2]

As biologists studied embryology and developmental biology, particularly

before the discovery of genes, a variety of organisational forces were
posited to account for their observations. German biologist Hans
Driesch (1867–1941), proposed entelechy, an energy which he believed
controlled organic processes ] However such ideas are discredited and
modern science has all but abandoned the attempt to associate additional
energetic properties with life.[6]

According to Brian Dunning, the scientific term energy is, in fact, misused
in the context of spirituality and alternative medicine:

That's all that energy is: a measurement of work capability. But in popular
culture, 'energy' has somehow become a noun. "Energy" is often spoken of
as if it is a thing unto itself, like a region of glowing power, that can be
contained and used. Here's a good test. When you hear the word "energy"
used, substitute the phrase "measurable work capability." Does the usage
still make sense? Remember, energy itself is not the thing being measured:
energy is the measurement of work performed or of potential... Thus, this
New Age concept of the body having an "energy field" is fatally doomed.
There is no such thing as an energy field; they are two unrelated
concepts.[7]

Despite the lack of scientific support, spiritual writers and thinkers have
maintained ideas about energy and continue to promote them either as
useful allegories or as fact.[8] The field of energy medicine purports to
manipulate energy, but there is no credible evidence to support this.[3]

The concept of "qi" (energy) appears throughout traditional East

Asian culture, such as in the art of feng shui and Chinese martial arts.[9] Qi
philosophy also includes the notion of "negative qi", typically understood
as introducing negative moods like outright fear or more moderate
expressions like social anxiety or awkwardness.[10] Deflecting this negative
qi through geomancy is a preoccupation in feng shui.[11] The traditional
explanation of acupuncture states that it works by manipulating the
circulation of qi through a network of meridians.

Locations
There are various sacred natural sites that people of various belief systems
find numinous or having an "energy" with significance to humans.[13] The
idea that some kind of "negative energy" is responsible for creating or
attracting ghosts or demons appears in contemporary paranormal culture
and beliefs as exemplified in the TV shows Paranormal State and Ghost
Hunters.

Roger F. Tomlinson, OC (17 November 1933 – 7 February 2014)[2] was an

English geographer and the primary originator of modern
computerised geographic information systems (GIS), and has been

acknowledged as the "father of GIS.Biography

Dr. Tomlinson was a native of Cambridge (England) and prior to attending

university, he served in the Royal Air Force from 1951–1954 as a pilot and
flying officer.
After his military service, Dr. Tomlinson attended the University of
Nottinghamand Acadia University for two separate undergraduate degrees
in geography and geology, respectively. He received a master's degree in
geography from McGill University where he specialised in the
glacial geomorphology of Labrador. His Doctoral thesis at University
College London was titled: The application of electronic computing
methods and techniques to the storage, compilation, and assessment of
mapped data.

Dr. Tomlinson's early career included serving as an assistant professor at

Acadia, working as the manager of the computer mapping division at
Spartan Air Services in Ottawa, Ontario (following his studies at McGill),
and work with the Government of Canada first as a consultant and later as
a director of regional planning systems with the Department of Forestry
and Rural Development.

It was during his tenure in the 1960s with Ottawa-based aerial survey
company Spartan Air Services that Dr. Tomlinson conceptualized
combining land use mapping with emerging computer technology. This
pioneering work led him to initiate, plan and direct the development of
the Canada Geographic Information System, the first computerised GIS in
the world.

From the 1970s until his death, Dr. Tomlinson worked in geographic
consulting and research for a variety of private sector, government, and
non-profit organisations, largely through his Ottawa-based company,
Tomlinson Associates Ltd., which has branches of consulting geographers
in Canada, the United States, and Australia.

He was Chairman of the International Geographical Union GIS Commission

for 12 years. He pioneered the concepts of worldwide geographical data
availability as Chairman of the IGU Global Database Planning Project in
1988. He was also a president of the Canadian Association of Geographers.

Awards and honours

He was recipient of Canadian Association of Geographers rare award for
Service to the Profession. The Association of American Geographers in the
United States awarded him the James R. Anderson Medal of Honor for
Applied Geography in 1995 and he was the first recipient of the Robert T.
Aangeenbrug Distinguished Career Award in 2005.

Dr. Tomlinson was an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Geographical

Society and winner of their Murchison Award for the Development
of Geographic Information Systems. In 1996 he was awarded the GIS World
Lifetime Achievement Award for a lifetime of work with GIS, and he was the
first recipient of the ESRI Lifetime Achievement Award in 1997. In 2004, in
recognition of his numerous achievements in the industry, the GIS
Certification Institute awarded Dr. Tomlinson the GISP Certificate for
Lifetime GIS Achievement and he was inducted into URISA's GIS Hall of
Fame[4] and awarded lifetime membership. In 2010 Tomlinson received
the Alexander Graham Bell Medal of the National Geographic
Society (together with Jack Dangermond).[5] In 2011, he was presented with
an Honorary Membership in the Association of Ontario Land Surveyors.
Tomlinson also received the Geospatial Information & Technology
Association Lifetime Achievement Award.[6] In 2013, Tomlinson was
awarded a UCGIS Fellow.[7]

More recently, he was made a fellow of University College London and

received honorary Doctorates of Science from the University of
Nottingham, Acadia University, McGill University, and the University of
Lethbridge. He was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Canadian
Geographical Society and was awarded the Order of Canada by the
Governor General for "changing the face of geography as a discipline." In
2013, he was promoted to Officer of the Order of Canada by the Governor
Genera.

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture,

store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic
data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographic information
science (GIScience) to refer to the academic discipline that studies
geographic information systems[1] and is a large domain within the broader
academic discipline of geoinformatics.[2] What goes beyond a GIS is
a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive
boundaries.

In general, the term describes any information system that integrates,

stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographicinformation. GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-
created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and
present the results of all these operations.[3][4] Geographic information
science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and
systems.[5]

GIS can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and

methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications
related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics,
insurance, telecommunications, and business.[4] For that reason, GIS
and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many
location-enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization.
GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index
variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as
dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and
z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively.
All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should be
relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or
extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of
scientific inquiry.selection of locations for drought and rain applications.

History of development
The first known use of the term "geographic information system" was
by Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper "A Geographic
Information System for Regional Planning".[6] Tomlinson is also
acknowledged as the "father of GIS".[7]
E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's 1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak
showafter John Snow - Unknown Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.

A variant of the original map drawn by Dr. John Snow (1813-1858),

a British physician who is one of the founders of medical
epidemiology, showing cases of cholera in the London epidemics
of 1854, clustered around the locations of water pumps
ing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854
Previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis
in epidemiology is the 1832 "Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra
dans Paris et le département de la Seine".[8] The French geographer Charles
Picquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color
gradient according to the number of deaths
by choleraper 1,000 inhabitants. In 1854 John Snow determined the source
of a cholera outbreak in London by marking points on a map depicting
where the cholera victims lived, and connecting the cluster that he found
with a nearby water source. This was one of the earliest successful uses of
a geographic methodology in epidemiology. While the basic elements
of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the John Snow
map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to
analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena.

The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which

allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation
and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours –
drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate
layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse
the draughtsman. This work was originally drawn on glass plates but
later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter,
using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the
layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large
process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used
for creating separate printing plates for each color. While the use of layers
much later became one of the main typical features of a contemporary GIS,
the photographic process just described is not considered to be a GIS in
itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.
Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led
to general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.[9]

The year 1960 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS
in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and
Rural Development. Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called
the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store,
analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory – an
effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping
information about soils, agriculture, recreation,
wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating
classification factor was also added to permit analysis.

CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it

provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It
supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded
lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute
and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson
has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of
overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic
data.[10]

CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database
in Canada. It was developed as a mainframe-based system in support of
federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was
continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was never available
commercially.

In 1964 Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics

and Spatial Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA
1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial
data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed
seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and
ODYSSEY – that served as sources for subsequent commercial
development—to universities, research centers and corporations
worldwide.[11]

By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems (MOSS and GRASS GIS)
were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing
(later Intergraph) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for
the CAD platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute
(ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System), MapInfo
Corporation and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged
as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many
of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation
of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to
organizing attribute data into database structures.[12]

In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop
GIS product[was released for the DOSoperating system. This was renamed
in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the Microsoft
Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the
research department into the business environment.

By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had
been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users
were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring
data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number
of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems
and can be customized to perform specific tasks. Increasingly geospatial
data and mapping applications are being made available via the World
Wide Web (see List of GIS software § GIS as a service).[13]

Several articles on the history of GIS have been published.[14][15]

GIS techniques and technology
Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various
digitized data creation methods are used. The most common method of
data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is
transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and
geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of ortho-rectified
imagery (from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is
becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted.
Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top
of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the
geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing).[

Relating information from different sources

GIS uses spatio-temporal (space-time) location as the key index variable

for all other information. Just as a relational database containing text or
numbers can relate many different tables using common key index
variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location
as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-
time.

Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally,
can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time
may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and
z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively.
These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-
spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station,
highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street
intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, POS or CAD drawing
origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary
widely (even when using exactly the same data, see map projections), but
all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should,
ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical
location or extent in space–time.

Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world

and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and
represented.[16] This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new
avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world
information that previously had not been systematically correlated.

GIS uncertainties

GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data
referenced. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of
positional accuracy utilizing the GPS-derived positions.[17] High-resolution
digital terrain and aerial imagery,[18] powerful computers and Web
technology are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to
serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source
data that affect overall GIS accuracy like paper maps, though these may be
of limited use in achieving the desired accuracy.

In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical

maps are the main source, and aerial photography and satellite imagery are
extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be
mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale. The scale of a map and
geographical rendering area representation type[are very important aspects
since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and
resulting locatability of the map's representations. In order to digitize a
map, the map has to be checked within theoretical dimensions, then
scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a
theoretical dimension by a rubber sheeting/warping technology process.
A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The
electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far
more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All
geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will
propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.

Data representation
GIS file formats

GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation, trees,
waterways, etc.) with digital data determining the mix. Real objects can be
divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (e.g., a house) and
continuous fields (such as rainfall amount, or elevations). Traditionally,
there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of
abstractions mapping references: raster images and vector. Points, lines,
and polygons are the stuff of mapped location attribute references. A new
hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which
combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point,
returning a "3D color image". GIS thematic maps then are becoming more
and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or
determine.

For a list of popular GIS file formats, such as shapefiles, see GIS file
formats § Popular GIS file formats.

Data capture

Example of hardware for mapping (GPS and laser rangefinder) and data collection
(rugged computer). The current trend for geographical information system (GIS) is
that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field. Depicted
hardware (field-maptechnology) is used mainly for forest inventories, monitoring and
mapping.

Data capture—entering information into the system—consumes much of

the time of GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter
data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format.[19]

Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or

scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an
operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a
map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed
to produce vector data.

Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection
systems on survey instruments using a technique called coordinate
geometry (COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system
(GNSS) like Global Positioning System can also be collected and then
imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the
ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using
wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions.[20] This has been
enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with
decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process,
import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected.
This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser
rangefinder. New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as
analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping
more accurate.

Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and
consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital
scanners and lidar, while platforms usually consist of aircraft
and satellites. In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons
called helikites first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras
as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software,
accurate to 0.4 mm was used to link the photographs and measure the
ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than
aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns
where unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are banned.

Recently aerial data collection is becoming possible with miniature UAVs.

For example, the Aeryon Scout was used to map a 50-acre area with
a ground sample distance of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes.[21]

The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of

aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features
directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data
to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured
directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Analog
aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy
system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped.

Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data.

Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the
reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that
were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing
collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to
identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.

When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be
captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this
could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the
cost of data capture.
After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove
errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made
"topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis.
For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an
intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be
removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be
removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might
connect two lines that should not be connected.

Raster-to-vector translation

Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different

formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map
to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same
classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as
adjacency or inclusion.

More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a

technique developed in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to
provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other
techniques including use of two dimensional Fourier transforms. Since
digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources
may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to
convert geographic data from one structure to another. In so doing, the
implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications
require analysis.[22] Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence
as a consequence of object-oriented programming and sustained work
by Barry Smith and co-workers.

Projections, coordinate systems, and registration

Map projection
The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may
provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for
any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume
the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have
accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and
more accurate. In fact, there are models called datums that apply to
different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like NAD83 for
U.S. measurements, and the World Geodetic System for worldwide
measurements.

Spatial analysis with geographical information

system (GIS)
Spatial analysis

GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are
increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as
optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are
provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or
collaborative non commercial development teams), while in other cases
facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties.
Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs),
programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or
special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The
website "Geospatial Analysis" and associated book/ebook attempt to
provide a reasonably comprehensive guide to the subject.[23] The increased
availability has created a new dimension to business intelligencetermed
"spatial intelligence" which, when openly delivered via intranet,
democratizes access to geographic and social network data. Geospatial
intelligence, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element
for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial
representation or to any other digitisation process.

Slope and aspect

Slope can be defined as the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain,

usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage. Aspect can be
defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually
expressed in degrees from north. Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in
terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using
elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours.[24] Slope is a function of
resolution, and the spatial resolution used to calculate slope and aspect
should always be specified.[25] Various authors have compared techniques
for calculating slope and aspect.

The following method can be used to derive slope and aspect:

The elevation at a point or unit of terrain will have perpendicular tangents
(slope) passing through the point, in an east-west and north-south
direction. These two tangents give two components, ∂z/∂x and ∂z/∂y, which
then be used to determine the overall direction of slope, and the aspect of
the slope. The gradient is defined as a vector quantity with components
equal to the partial derivatives of the surface in the x and y directions.[29]

The calculation of the overall 3x3 grid slope S and aspect A for methods
that determine east-west and north-south component use the following
formulas respectively:
Zhou and Liu[28] describe another formula for calculating aspect, as follows:

Data analysis

It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at

different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS,
however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics
of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information
points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map
with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.
Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many
sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a
limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map
created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be
overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area.
This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the
viability of water powerpotential as a renewable energy source. Similarly,
GIS can be used to compare other renewable energy resources to find the
best geographic potential for a region.[30]

Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation

model, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated,
along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products.
Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of
the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly,
an expected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in
intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data
in the GIS.

Topological modeling

A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within
digitally stored spatial data. These topologicalrelationships allow complex
spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships
between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins
what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close
something is to something else).

Geometric networks

Geometric networks are linear networks of objects that can be used to

represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis
on them. A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected
at junction points, similar to graphs in mathematics and computer science.
Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges,
which can be used to represent various interconnected features more
accurately. Geometric networks are often used to model road networks
and public utility networks, such as electric, gas, and water networks.
Network modeling is also commonly employed in transportation
planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling.

Hydrological modeling

GIS hydrological models can provide a spatial element that other

hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope,
aspect and watershed or catchment area.[31] Terrain analysis is fundamental
to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope.[31] As basic terrain
analysis of a digital elevation model (DEM) involves calculation of slope
and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and
aspect can then be used to determine direction of surface runoff, and
hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and lakes.
Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of
a catchment. Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been
created, queries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal
areas at a certain point.[31] More detail can be added to the model, such as
terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence
infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface
flow. One of the main uses of hydrological modeling is in environmental
contamination research. Other applications of hydrological modeling
include groundwater and surface water mapping, as well as flood risk
maps.

Cartographic modeling
An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest-cover
layer (light green) forms the bottom layer, with the topographic layer (contour lines)
over it. Next up is a standing water layer (pond, lake) and then a flowing water layer
(stream, river), followed by the boundary layer and finally the road layer on top. The
order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the
ponds are layered under the streams, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one
of the ponds

Jaknouse at English Wikipedia

Example of layers used in GIS work. This map is of an Athens

County, Ohio property, and was made using ArcView GIS 3.3, by
John Knouse

Hillshade model derived from a Digital Elevation Model of the

Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)

Dana Tomlin probably coined the term "cartographic modeling" in his PhD
dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book, Geographic
Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling (1990).[32]Cartographic
modeling refers to a process where several thematic layersof the same
area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but
the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on
map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into
simulation or optimization models.

Map overlay

The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or polygons)

creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several
maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn
diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic features and
attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay
defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute
fields for each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that
includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.

Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be

used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the
properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a
"clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within the
spatial extent of another dataset.

In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a

process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "map algebra",
through a function that combines the values of each raster's matrix. This
function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an
"index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a
geographic phenomenon.

Geostatistics
Geostatistics
Geostatistics is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data
with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation,
and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation).

When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the

accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g.
traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the Pacific
Ocean), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the
measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and
distribution of the data collection.

To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is

determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate
measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This
is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection
methods, and interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles,
points, and locations that are not directly measurable.

Hillshade model derived from a Digital Elevation Model of the Valestra area in the
northern Apennines (Italy)

author information

 GPL
 File:Dem.jpg
 Uploaded: 18 January 2006

Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster

dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points.
There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data
differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing
interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the
source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method
is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature
of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is
whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model),
or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.

Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial

autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position
will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its
immediate vicinity.

Digital elevation models, triangulated irregular networks, edge-finding

algorithms, Thiessen polygons, Fourier analysis, (weighted) moving
averages, inverse distance weighting, kriging, spline, and trend surface
analysis are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.

Address geocoding
Geocoding

Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street

addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as ZIP Codes, parcel
lots and address locations. A reference theme is required
to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with
address ranges. The individual address locations have historically been
interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road
segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The
software will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs
along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will
be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends
with address 1,000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel
data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the
geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an
interpolated point. This approach is being increasingly used to provide
more precise location information.

Reverse geocoding

Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street

address number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can
click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have
information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house
number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the
user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and
ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that
reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of
what should be there based on the predetermined range.

Multi-criteria decision analysis

Coupled with GIS, multi-criteria decision analysis methods support

decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as
the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria,
such as vegetation cover or roads. MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate
the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to be ranked or
prioritised.[33] GIS MCDA may reduce costs and time involved in identifying
potential restoration sites.

Data output and cartography

Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual

representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is
done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of
quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design
program to refine it. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control
over the appearance of the data.

Cartographic work serves two major functions:

First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the

results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall
maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize
and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential
events. Web Map Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through
web browsers using various implementations of web-based application
programming interfaces (AJAX, Java, Flash, etc.).

Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis

or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km)
of a toxic spill.

Graphic display techniques

Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important

elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical
objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic
maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded
relief.
Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a
GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening
one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of
data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion
of San Mateo County, California.

 The digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded

on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low
elevation as black.
 The accompanying Landsat Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color
infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or
picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the
elevation information.

A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the
three-dimensional perspective view looking down the San Andreas Fault,
using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of
the landforms. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of
the observer and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows
created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.

An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic

on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is
suited to the visual display of heat-loss data.

Spatial ET L

Spatial ETL tools provide the data processing functionality of

traditional extract, transform, load (ETL) software, but with a primary focus
on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the
ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary
formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route. These tools
can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such
as spreadsheets.

GIS data mining

GIS or spatial data mining is the application of data mining methods to

spatial data. Data mining, which is the partially automated search for
hidden patterns in large databases, offers great potential benefits for
applied GIS-based decision making. Typical applications include
environmental monitoring. A characteristic of such applications is that
spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of
specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis.[34]

Applications
The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a
city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a GIS
implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS
deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or
purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that
has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or
purpose.[citation needed]

GIS provides, for every kind of location-based organization, a platform to

update geographical data without wasting time to visit the field and update
a database manually. GIS when integrated with other powerful enterprise
solutions like SAP[35] and the Wolfram Language[36] helps creating
powerful decision support system at enterprise level.[37][clarification needed]
GeaBios – tiny WMS/WFS client (Flash/DHTML)

GeaBios – tiny WMS/WFS client (Flash/DHTML)

Derived from a digital capture (screen snapshot) of the web service.
Copyright held by the publisher. Claimed as fair use regardless

GeaBios screen snapshot, free non-commercial public service

Many disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS market
has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware
and software components of GIS, and usage in the fields of science,
government, business, and industry, with applications including real
estate, public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable
development, natural resources, climatology,[38][39] landscape
architecture, archaeology, regional and community planning,
transportation and logistics. GIS is also diverging into location-based
services, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their
location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire
hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their
position back to a central server for display or other processing.

Open Geospatial Consortium standards

Open Geospatial Consortium

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international industry

consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and
individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly
available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols
defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that
"geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and
mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex
spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of
applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include Web Map
Service, and Web Feature Service.[40]

GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on
how completely and accurately the software follows the
OGC specifications.
OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.

OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.

SEWilco - Own work

Geoservices server with interfaces and applications sketch. Green

represents read and write paths. Dotted arrowed line indicates
mostly read-only data flow.
Compliant Products are software products that comply to
OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and
certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is
automatically registered as "compliant" on this site.

Implementing Products are software products that implement

OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test.
Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can
register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications,
though OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry.

Web mapping
Web mapping

In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily

accessible mapping software such as the proprietary web
applications Google Maps and Bing Maps, as well as the free and open-
source alternative OpenStreetMap. These services give the public access
to huge amounts of geographic data; perceived by many users to be as
trustworthy and usable as professional information.[41]

Some of them, like Google Maps and OpenLayers, expose an application

programming interface (API) that enable users to create custom
applications. These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite
imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Web mapping has
also uncovered the potential of crowdsourcing geodata in projects
like OpenStreetMap, which is a collaborative project to create a free
editable map of the world. These mashup projects have been proven to
provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible
through traditional geographic information.[42][43]

Adding the dimension of time

Historical geographic information system and Time geography

The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be

examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives
researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over
days, months, and years. As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor
through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was
most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a
rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would
then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a
decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.

GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global
scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate
a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the advanced very-high-
resolution radiometer(AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of
energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the
spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer. The satellite
sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day.
AVHRR and more recently the moderate-resolution imaging
spectroradiometer (MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for
Earth surface analysis.

In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also

being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans
throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area
is the recent release of time-specific population data by the U.S. Census. In
this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening
hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated
by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation
of data required to produce this data would not have been possible
without GIS.

Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have
enabled planners to test policy decisions using spatial decision support
systems.

Semantics
Tools and technologies emerging from the World Wide Web
Consortium's Semantic Web are proving useful for data
integration problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such
technologies have been proposed as a means to
facilitate interoperability and data reuse among GIS applications.[44][45] and
also to enable new analysis mechanisms.[46]

Ontologies are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a

formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in
a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning
of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example, reasoning that a
land cover type classified as deciduous needleleaf trees in one dataset is
a specialization or subset of land cover type forest in another more roughly
classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets
under the more general land cover classification. Tentative ontologies have
been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the
hydrology ontology[47] developed by the Ordnance Survey in the United
Kingdomand the SWEET ontologies[48] developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are
being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group[49] to represent geospatial
data on the web. GeoSPARQL is a standard developed by the Ordnance
Survey, United States Geological Survey, Natural Resources Canada,
Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation and others to support ontology creation and reasoning using
well-understood OGC literals (GML, WKT), topological relationships
(Simple Features, RCC8, DE-9IM), RDF and the SPARQL database query
protocols.

Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International

Conference on Geospatial Semantics[50] and the Terra Cognita – Directions
to the Geospatial Semantic Web[51] workshop at the International Semantic
Web Conference.

Implications of GIS in society

Neogeography and Public participation GIS

With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to

scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS.[52][53][54] GIS can also be
misused to distort reality for individual and political gain.[55][56] It has been
argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of
geographic information are largely related with the social context and has
the potential to increase citizen trust in government.[57] Other related topics
include discussion on copyright, privacy, and censorship. A more
optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public
participation.

GIS in education
Esri Education User Conference

At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that
could be used in the classroom.[58] The benefits of GIS in education seem
focused on developing spatial thinking, but there is not enough
bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use of
GIS in education around the world, although the expansion has been faster
in those countries where the curriculum mentions them.[59]:36

GIS seem to provide many advantages in teaching geography because they

allow for analyses based on real geographic data and also help raise many
research questions from teachers and students in classrooms, as well as
they contribute to improvement in learning by developing spatial and
geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.[59]:38

GIS in local government

GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology

that continues to change how local government operates.[60] Government
agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the
following areas of government organization:

 Economic Development departments use interactive GIS mapping tools,

aggregated with other data (demographics, labor force, business,
industry, talent) along with a database of available commercial sites and
buildings in order to attract investment and support existing business.
Businesses making location decisions can use the tools to choose
communities and sites that best match their criteria for success. GIS
Planning's ZoomProspector Enterprise an Intelligence Components
software is the industry leader, servicing more than 60% of the US
population, more than 30% of Canadians, and locations in the UK and
Switzerland. You can see an example of these tools here on the state of
Pennsylvania's Department of Community and Economic Development
website, PASiteSearch.com.
 Public Safety[61] operations such as Emergency Operations Centers, Fire
Prevention, Police and Sheriff mobile technology and dispatch, and
mapping weather risks.
 Parks and Recreation departments and their functions in asset
inventory, land conservation, land management, and cemetery
management.
 Public Works and Utilities, tracking water and stormwater drainage,
electrical assets, engineering projects, and public transportation assets
and trends.
 Fiber Network Management for interdepartmental network assets
 School analytical and demographic data, asset management, and
improvement/expansion planning
 Public Administration for election data, property records, and
zoning/management.

The Open Data initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of

technology such as GIS technology, as it encompasses the requirements
to fit the Open Data/Open Government model of transparency.[60] With Open
Data, local government organizations can implement Citizen Engagement
applications and online portals, allowing citizens to see land information,
report potholes and signage issues, view and sort parks by assets, view
real-time crime rates and utility repairs, and much more.[62][63] The push for
open data within government organizations is driving the growth in local
government GIS technology spending, and database management.

RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT.

This experiment has been practised on Ariny Amos since
1982 from birth on appointment, some cases involves
confusion with injuries, tortured with alzheimers disease as
of attempt to fraud,scam Ariny Amos in the universe,Ariny
Amos holds the spirit of Physicist Albert Einstein,
Geograhical location is selected with the aid of geographical
information system, individualsub-county, parish, district,
country , regional, continental and world map affected by
radiations emitted from National Aeronautic and Space
Administration space craft, electronic device.The results can
be repeated and get uniform results,

Formation of rain.

Water-saturated air

Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass
of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured in grams of water
per kilogram of dry air (g/kg).[2][3] The amount of moisture in air is
also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the
percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air
temperature.[4] How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain
before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms
into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles
suspended above the Earth's surface)[5] depends on its temperature.
Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before
becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is
to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must
be cooled in order to become saturated.[6]

There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point:
adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and
evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and
expands.[7] The air can rise due to convection, large-scale
atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain
(orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into
contact with a colder surface,[8] usually by being blown from one
surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to
colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of
infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath.[9]
Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air
through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its
wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.[10]
Rain falling on a field, in southern Estonia

Rain falling on a field, in southern Estonia

Aleksander Kaasik - Own work

Rain in the field.Southern Estonia

The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind
convergence into areas of upward motion,[11] precipitation or virga
falling from above,[12] daytime heating evaporating water from the
surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land,[13] transpiration from
plants,[14] cool or dry air moving over warmer water,[15] and lifting
air over mountains.[16] Water vapor normally begins to condense on
condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form
clouds. Elevated portions of weather fronts (which are three-
dimensional in nature)[17] force broad areas of upward motion
within the Earth's atmosphere which form clouds decks such as
altostratus or cirrostratus.[18]Stratus is a stable cloud deck which
tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a
warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog
during breezy conditions.[19]

Coalescence and fragmentation

Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water

droplets. Air resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud
to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets
collide, producing larger droplets.
The shape of rain drops depending upon their size

Pbroks13 - Own work

Different sizes of raindrops: A) Raindrops are not tear-shaped, as

most people think. B) Very small raindrops are almost spherical in
shape. C) Larger raindrops become flattened at the bottom, like that
of a hamburger bun, due to air resistance. D) Large raindrops have
a large amount of air resistance, which makes them begin to become
unstable. E) Very large raindrops split into smaller raindrops due to
air resistance.
Black Rain Clouds

Black Rain Clouds

Talhakhan3862 - Own work

☔ Black Clouds before Rain ☔

As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so

that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall
as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above
freezing, and is also known as the warm rain process.[20] In clouds
below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to
fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when
occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets. This
process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets
only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition, because of
the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level,
these ice crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[21]

Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to 9 mm (0.0039 to 0.3543 in)

mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops
are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop
increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest
cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Large rain drops become
increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very
large ones are shaped like parachutes.[22][23] Contrary to popular
belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[24] The biggest
raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall
Islands in 2004 — some of them were as large as 10 mm (0.39 in).
The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles
or by collisions between drops in small regions with particularly
high content of liquid water.[25]

Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other
rain drops.[26]
A raindrop on a leaf

A raindrop on a leaf

Acagastya - Own work

Landed from clouds, rested on leaf!

Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e.,
high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low
intensity storms can have a long duration.[27][28]

DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The final droplet size distribution is an exponential distribution. The

number of droplets with diameter between and per unit
volume of space is . This is commonly referred to as
the Marshall–Palmer law after the researchers who first
characterized it.[23][29] The parameters are somewhat temperature-
dependent,[30] and the slope also scales with the rate of rainfall

(d in centimeters and R in millimetres per hour).[23]

Deviations can occur for small droplets and during different rainfall
conditions. The distribution tends to fit averaged rainfall, while
instantaneous size spectra often deviate and have been modeled as
gamma distributions.[31] The distribution has an upper limit due to
droplet fragmentation.[23]

Raindrop impacts
Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for
larger drops due to their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and
without wind, 0.5 mm (0.020 in) drizzle impacts at 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s) or
7.2 km/h (4.5 mph), while large 5 mm (0.20 in) drops impact at
around 9 m/s (30 ft/s) or 32 km/h (20 mph).[32]

Rain falling on loosely packed material such as newly fallen ash can
produce dimples that can be fossilized.[33] The air density
dependence of the maximum raindrop diameter together with fossil
raindrop imprints has been used to constrain the density of the air
2.7 billion years ago.[34]

The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by bubbles of air

oscillating underwater.[35][36]

The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers
is SHRA.[37]

Virga

In meteorology, virga is an observable streak or shaft

of precipitation falling from
a cloud that evaporates or sublimates before reaching the
ground.[1] A shaft of precipitation which doesn't evaporate
before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft. At
high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly
as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating; this is
often due to compressional heating, because the air
pressure increases closer to the ground. It is very common
in the desert and in temperate climates. In North America, it
is commonly seen in the Western United States and
the Canadian Prairies. It is also very common in the Middle
East, Australia, and North Africa.

Virga can cause varying weather effects, because as rain is

changed from liquid to vapor form, it removes heat from the
air due to the high heat of vaporization of water. Precipitation
falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach
the ground. In some instances, these pockets of colder air
can descend rapidly, creating a wet or dry microburst which
can be extremely hazardous to aviation. Conversely,
precipitation evaporating at high altitude can
compressionally heat as it falls, and result in a
gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm
the surface temperature. This fairly rare phenomenon, a heat
burst, also tends to be of exceedingly dry air.

Virga also has a role in seeding storm cells. This is because

small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring
supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the
next thunderhead cloud to begin forming.[
The word is derived from Latin virga meaning "twig" or
"branch".

Extraterrestrial occurrences

Sulfuric acid rain in the atmosphere of Venus evaporates

before reaching the ground due to the high heat near the
surface.[2]Similarly, virga happens on gas giant planets such
as Jupiter. In September 2008, NASA's Phoenix
lander discovered a snow variety of virga falling from Martian
clouds.[3]

Nimbostratus virga

Virga falling from Altocumulus

In certain conditions precipitation may fall from a cloud but then
evaporate or sublime before reaching the ground. This is termed
virga and is more often seen in hot and dry climates.

Causes

Frontal activity

Weather fronts

A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of

air of different densities, and is the principal cause
of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics. In surface
weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored
triangles and half-circles, depending on the type of front. The
air masses separated by a front usually differ
in temperature and humidity.

Cold fronts may feature narrow bands

of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion
be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are
usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The
weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some
fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness,
although there is invariably a wind shift.[1]

Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to

east, while warm fronts move poleward. Because of the
greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold
occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm
occlusions. Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow
the movement of fronts.[2] When a front
becomes stationary—and the density contrast across the
frontal boundary vanishes—the front can degenerate into a
line which separates regions of differing wind velocity,
known as a shearline. This is most common over the open
ocean.

Stratif
Approaching weather fronts are often visible from the
ground, but are not always as well defined as this.

orm (a broad shield of precipitation with a relatively similar

intensity) and dynamic precipitation (convective precipitation which
is showery in nature with large changes in intensity over short
distances) occur as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic
systems (on the order of cm/s), such as in the vicinity of cold fronts
and near and poleward of surface warm fronts. Similar ascent is
seen around tropical cyclones outside the eyewall, and in comma-
head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones.[38] A wide
variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with
thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with
a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around
mature low-pressure areas.[39] What separates rainfall from other
precipitation types, such as ice pellets and snow, is the presence of a
thick layer of air aloft which is above the melting point of water,
which melts the frozen precipitation well before it reaches the
ground. If there is a shallow near surface layer that is below
freezing, freezing rain (rain which freezes on contact with surfaces
in subfreezing environments) will result.[40]Hail becomes an
increasingly infrequent occurrence when the freezing level within
the atmosphere exceeds 3,400 m (11,000 ft) above ground level.[41]
Bergeron classification of air masses or weather fronts,

Air mass.

In meteorology, an air mass is a volume of air defined by

its temperature and water vapor content. Air masses cover
many hundreds or thousands of square miles, and adapt to
the characteristics of the surface below them. They are
classified according to latitude and their continental or
maritime source regions. Colder air masses are termed polar
or arctic, while warmer air masses are deemed tropical.
Continental and superior air masses are dry while maritime
and monsoon air masses are moist. Weather fronts separate
air masses with different density (temperature and/or
moisture) characteristics. Once an air mass moves away
from its source region, underlying vegetation and water
bodies can quickly modify its character. Classification
schemes tackle an air mass' characteristics, as well as
modification.

The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form

of air mass classification. Air mass classifications are
indicated by three letters. The first letter describes
its moisture properties, with c used for continental air
masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The
second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its
source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A
for arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial, and S
for superior air (dry air formed by significant upward motion
in the atmosphere). The third letter designates the stability of
the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than the ground
below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the
ground below it, it is labeled w.[3] Fronts separate air masses
of different types or origins, and are located along troughs of
lower pressure.[4]

Different air masses which affect North America, as well as

other continents, tend to be separated by frontal boundaries.
In this illustration, the Arctic front separates Arctic from
Polar air masses, while the Polar front separates Polar air
from warm air masses. (cA is continental arctic; cP is
continental polar; mP is maritime polar; cT is continental
tropic; and mT is maritime tropic.)

characteristics, as well as modification.

Classification and notation

Source regions of global air masses

The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form

of air mass classification, though others have produced
more refined versions of this scheme over different regions
of the globe.[1] Air mass classification involves three letters.
The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used
for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air
masses (moist). Its source region: T for Tropical, P for Polar,
A for arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for Equatorial,
and S for superior air (an adiabatically drying and warming
air formed by significant downward motion in the
atmosphere). For instance, an air mass originating over the
desert southwest of the United States in summer may be
designated "cT". An air mass originating over northern
Siberia in winter may be indicated as "cA".[2]

The stability of an air mass may be shown using a third

letter, either "k" (air mass colder than the surface below it) or
"w" (air mass warmer than the surface below it).[2] An
example of this might be a polar air mass blowing over
the Gulf Stream, denoted as "cPk". Occasionally, one may
also encounter the use of an apostrophe or "degree tick"
denoting that a given air mass having the same notation as
another it is replacing is colder than the replaced air mass
(usually for polar air masses). For example, a series of fronts
over the Pacific might show an air mass denoted mPk
followed by another denoted mPk'.[2]

Another convention utilizing these symbols is the indication

of modification or transformation of one type to another. For
instance, an Arctic air mass blowing out over the Gulf of
Alaska may be shown as "cA-mPk". Yet another convention
indicates the layering of air masses in certain situations. For
instance, the overrunning of a polar air mass by an air mass
from the Gulf of Mexico over the Central United States might
be shown with the notation "mT/cP" (sometimes using a
horizontal line as in fraction notation).[3]
Characteristics

Tropical and equatorial air masses are hot as they develop

over lower latitudes. Those that develop over land
(continental) are drier and hotter than those that develop
over oceans, and travel poleward on the western periphery of
the subtropical ridge.[4]Maritime tropical air masses are
sometimes referred to as trade air masses. Maritime tropical
air masses that effect the United States originate in
the Caribbean Sea, southern Gulf of Mexico, and tropical
Atlantic east of Florida through the Bahamas. [5]Monsoon air
masses are moist and unstable. Superior air masses are dry,
and rarely reach the ground. They normally reside over
maritime tropical air masses, forming a warmer and drier
layer over the more moderate moist air mass below, forming
what is known as a trade wind inversion over the maritime
tropical air mass.

Continental Polar air masses (cP) are air masses that are
cold and dry due to their continental source region.
Continental polar air masses that affect North America form
over interior Canada. Continental Tropical air masses (cT)
are a type of tropical air produced by the subtropical ridge
over large areas of land and typically originate from low-
latitude deserts such as the Sahara Desert in northern Africa,
which is the major source of these air masses. Other less
important sources producing cT air masses are the Arabian
Peninsula, the central arid/semi-arid part of Australia and
deserts lying in the Southwestern United States. Continental
tropical air masses are extremely hot and dry. [6]

Arctic, Antarctic, and polar air masses are cold. The qualities
of arctic air are developed over ice and snow-covered
ground. Arctic air is deeply cold, colder than polar air
masses. Arctic air can be shallow in the summer, and rapidly
modify as it moves equatorward.[7] Polar air masses develop
over higher latitudes over the land or ocean, are very stable,
and generally shallower than arctic air. Polar air over the
ocean (maritime) loses its stability as it gains moisture over
warmer ocean waters.[8]

Movement and front

Picture of cold front (left part of the image) moving over the
Czech Republic

Weather front
A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air
of different densities, and is the principal cause
of meteorological phenomena. In surface weather analyses,
fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols,
depending on the type of front. The air masses separated by
a front usually differ in temperature and humidity. Cold
fronts may feature narrow bands
of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion
be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are
usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The
weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some
fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness,
although there is invariably a wind shift.[9]

Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to

east, while warm fronts move poleward. Because of the
greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold
occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm
occlusions. Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow
the movement of fronts.[10] When a front becomes stationary,
and the density contrast across the frontal boundary
vanishes, the front can degenerate into a line which
separates regions of differing wind velocity, known as a
shearline.[11] This is most common over the open ocean.
Modification

Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula

Precipitation and Lake-effect snow

Air masses can be modified in a variety of ways. Surface flux

from underlying vegetation, such as forest, acts to moisten
the overlying air mass.[12] Heat from underlying warmer
waters can significantly modify an air mass over distances
as short as 35 kilometres (22 mi) to 40 kilometres
(25 mi).[13] For example, southwest of extratropical cyclones,
curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively
warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect
snow bands. Those bands bring strong localized
precipitation since large water bodies such as lakes
efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature
differences (larger than 13 °C or 23 °F) between the water
surface and the air above.[14] Because of this temperature
difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward,
condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite
picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature
decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by
both the water temperature and the large-scale environment.
The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the
deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate
becomes.

Surface weather analysis

Weather map symbols:

1. cold front;
2. warm front;
3. stationary front;
4. occluded front;
5. surface trough;
6. squall/shear line;
7. dry line;
8. tropical wave;
9. trowal

Main articles: Surface weather analysis, Low-pressure area,

and High-pressure area

A surface weather analysis is a special type of weather

map which provides a view of weather elements over a
geographical area at a specified time based on information
from ground-based weather stations.[5] Weather maps are
created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant
quantities such as sea-level pressure, temperature,
and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help
find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts. Surface
weather analyses have special symbols which show frontal
systems, cloud cover, precipitation, or other important
information. For example, an H may represent high pressure,
implying fair weather. An L on the other hand may represent
low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation.
Low pressure also creates surface winds deriving from high
pressure zones. Various symbols are used not just for frontal
zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps, but
also to depict the present weather at various locations on the
weather map. In addition, areas of precipitation help
determine the frontal type and location.[5]

Front Types

There are two different meanings used within meteorology to

describe weather around a frontal zone. The term "anafront"
describes boundaries which show instability, meaning air
rises rapidly along and over the boundary to cause
significant weather changes. A "katafront" is weaker,
bringing smaller changes in temperature and moisture, as
well as limited rainfall.[6]

Cold front
: Cold front

A cold front is located at the leading edge of the temperature

drop off, which in an isotherm analysis shows up as the
leading edge of the isotherm gradient, and it normally lies
within a sharp surface trough. Cold fronts often bring
heavy thunderstorms, rain, and hail. Cold fronts can produce
sharper changes in weather and move up to twice as quickly
as warm fronts, since cold air is denser than warm air and
rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary. On
weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is
marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangle-shaped pips
pointing in the direction of travel, and it is placed at the
leading edge of the cooler air mass.[2] Cold fronts come in
association with a low-pressure area. The concept of colder,
dense air "wedging" under the less dense warmer air is often
used to depict how air is lifted along a frontal boundary. The
cold air wedging underneath warmer air creates the
strongest winds just above the ground surface, a
phenomenon often associated with property-damaging wind
gusts. This lift would then form a narrow line
of showers and thunderstorms if enough moisture were
present. However, this concept isn't an accurate description
of the physical processes;[7] upward motion is not produced
because of warm air "ramping up" cold, dense air,
rather, frontogenetical circulation is behind the upward
forcing.

Warm front
Warm front
Warm fronts are at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm
air mass, which is located on the equatorward edge of the
gradient in isotherms, and lie within broader troughs of low
pressure than cold fronts. A warm front moves more slowly
than the cold front which usually follows because cold air is
denser and harder to remove from the Earth's surface.[2]

This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts

to be broader in scale. Clouds ahead of the warm front are
mostly stratiform, and rainfall gradually increases as the
front approaches. Fog can also occur preceding a warm
frontal passage. Clearing and warming is usually rapid after
frontal passage. If the warm air mass is unstable,
thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform
clouds ahead of the front, and after frontal passage
thundershowers may continue. On weather maps, the
surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of
semicircles pointing in the direction of travel.[2]

Occluded front
Occluded front
Occluded front depiction for the Northern Hemisphere

An occluded front is formed when a cold front overtakes a

warm front,[8] and usually forms around mature low-pressure
areas.[2] The cold and warm fronts curve naturally poleward
into the point of occlusion, which is also known as the triple
point.[9] It lies within a sharp trough, but the air mass behind
the boundary can be either warm or cold. In a cold occlusion,
the air mass overtaking the warm front is cooler than the
cool air ahead of the warm front and plows under both air
masses. In a warm occlusion, the air mass overtaking the
warm front is warmer than the cold air ahead of the warm
front and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm
air.[2]

A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded

front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage
is associated with a drying of the air mass. Within the
occlusion of the front, a circulation of air brings warm air
upward and sends drafts of cold air downward, or vice versa
depending on the occlusion the front is experiencing.
Precipitations and clouds are associated with the trowal, the
projection on the Earth's surface of the tongue of warm air
aloft formed during the occlusion process of the
depression.[10]

Occluded fronts are indicated on a weather map by a purple

line with alternating half-circles and triangles pointing in
direction of travel.[2] The trowal is indicated by a series of
blue and red junction lines.

Stationary front
Stationary front

A stationary front is a non-moving (or stalled) boundary

between two air masses, neither of which is strong enough
to replace the other. They tend to remain essentially in the
same area for extended periods of time, usually moving in
waves.[11] There is normally a broad temperature
gradient behind the boundary with more widely
spaced isotherm packing.

A wide variety of weather can be found along a stationary

front, but usually clouds and prolonged precipitation are
found there. Stationary fronts either dissipate after several
days or devolve into shear lines, but they can transform into
a cold or warm front if conditions aloft change. Stationary
fronts are marked on weather maps with alternating red half-
circles and blue spikes pointing in opposite directions,
indicating no significant movement.

When stationary fronts become smaller in scale,

degenerating to a narrow zone where wind direction changes
significantly over a relatively short distance, they become
known as shearlines.[12] A shearline is depicted as a line of
red dots and dashes.[2] Stationary fronts may bring snow or
rain for a long period of time.

Dry line
Dry line

A similar phenomenon to a weather front is the dry line,

which is the boundary between air masses with significant
moisture differences. When the westerlies increase on the
north side of surface highs, areas of lowered pressure will
form downwind of north–south oriented mountain chains,
leading to the formation of a lee trough. Near the surface
during daylight hours, warm moist air is denser than dry air
of greater temperature, and thus the warm moist air wedges
under the drier air like a cold front. At higher altitudes, the
warm moist air is less dense than the dry air and the
boundary slope reverses. In the vicinity of the reversal
aloft, severe weather is possible, especially when a triple
point is formed with a cold front.[13] A weaker form of the dry
line seen more commonly is the lee trough, which displays
weaker differences in moisture. When moisture pools along
the boundary during the warm season, it can be the focus of
diurnal thunderstorms.[14]

The dry line may occur anywhere on earth in regions

intermediate between desert areas and warm seas. The
southern plains west of the Mississippi River in the United
States are a particularly favored location. The dry line
normally moves eastward during the day and westward at
night. A dry line is depicted on National Weather
Service (NWS) surface analyses as an orange line with
scallops facing into the moist sector. Dry lines are one of the
few surface fronts where the pips indicated do not
necessarily reflect the direction of motion.[15]

Squall line
Squall line
A shelf cloud such as this one can be a sign that a squall is
imminent

Organized areas of thunderstorm activity not only reinforce

pre-existing frontal zones, but can outrun cold fronts in a
pattern where the upper level jet splits apart into two
streams, with the resultant Mesoscale Convective
System (MCS) forming at the point of the upper level split in
the wind pattern running southeast into the warm sector
parallel to low-level thickness lines. When the convection is
strong and linear or curved, the MCS is called a squall line,
with the feature placed at the leading edge of the significant
wind shift and pressure rise.[16] Even weaker and less
organized areas of thunderstorms lead to locally cooler air
and higher pressures, and outflow boundaries exist ahead of
this type of activity, which can act as foci for additional
thunderstorm activity later in the day.[17]

These features are often depicted in the warm season across

the United States on surface analyses and lie within surface
troughs. If outflow boundaries or squall lines form over arid
regions, a haboob may result.[18] Squall lines are depicted on
NWS surface analyses as an alternating pattern of two red
dots and a dash labelled SQLN or SQUALL LINE, while
outflow boundaries are depicted as troughs with a label of
OUTFLOW BOUNDARY.

Precipitation produced
: Precipitation

Convective precipitation

Fronts are the principal cause of significant

weather. Convective precipitation (showers, thundershowers,
and related unstable weather) is caused by air being lifted
and condensing into clouds by the movement of the cold
front or cold occlusion under a mass of warmer, moist air. If
the temperature differences of the two air masses involved
are large and the turbulence is extreme because of wind
shear and the presence of a strong jet stream, "roll clouds"
and tornadoes may occur.[19]

In the warm season, lee troughs, breezes, outflow

boundaries and occlusions can lead to convection if enough
moisture is available. Orographic precipitation is
precipitation created through the lifting action of air moving
over terrain such as mountains and hills, which is most
common behind cold fronts that move into mountainous
areas. It may sometimes occur in advance of warm fronts
moving northward to the east of mountainous terrain.
However, precipitation along warm fronts is relatively steady,
as in rain or drizzle. Fog, sometimes extensive and dense,
often occurs in pre-warm-frontal areas.[20] Although, not all
fronts produce precipitation or even clouds because
moisture must be present in the air mass which is being
lifted.[1]

Movement

Fronts are generally guided by winds aloft, but do not move

as quickly. Cold fronts and occluded fronts in the Northern
Hemisphere usually travel from the northwest to southeast,
while warm fronts move more poleward with time. In the
Northern Hemisphere a warm front moves from southwest to
northeast. In the Southern Hemisphere, the reverse is true; a
cold front usually moves from southwest to northeast, and a
warm front moves from northwest to southeast. Movement is
largely caused by the pressure gradient force (horizontal
differences in atmospheric pressure) and the Coriolis effect,
which is caused by Earth's spinning about its axis. Frontal
zones can be slowed down by geographic features like
mountains and large bodies of warm water

Convection

Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective

clouds (e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus). It falls as
showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation
falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective
clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the
tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that
stratiform precipitation also occurs.[38][42]Graupel and hail indicate
convection.[43] In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is
intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as
cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[44]
Convective precipitation

Konvektionsregen.jpg (610 × 436 pixels, file size: 40 KB, MIME

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 Description::

Deutsch: Eine Simulation, wie Konvektionsregen entsteht.

Polski: Symulacja, jak powstaje opad konwekcyjny

 Source: German Wikipedia, original upload 29. Aug 2004 by

Lantash

Orographic effects
Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology),
and United States rainfall climatology

Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains

and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist
air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and
condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to
relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more
moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain
than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by
orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the
descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain
shadow is observed.[16]

Konvektionsregen.jpg (610 × 436 pixels, file size: 40 KB, MIME

type: image/jpeg)
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  Description::

Deutsch: Eine Simulation, wie Konvektionsregen entsteht.

Polski: Symulacja, jak powstaje opad konwekcyjny

 Source: German Wikipedia, original upload 29. Aug 2004 by

Lantash

In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for

its extreme rainfall, as it has the second highest average annual
rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 mm (460 in).[45] Systems known as
Kona storms affect the state with heavy rains between October and
April.[46] Local climates vary considerably on each island due to
their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward
(Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher
mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds
and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and
sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[47]

In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific

moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike
climate just downwind across western Argentina.[48] The Sierra
Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the
Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[49][50]

Within the tropics

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more
months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region
falls.[51] The term green season is also sometimes used as a
euphemism by tourist authorities.[52] Areas with wet seasons are
dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[53]Savanna
climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and
dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet
seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the
year.[54] Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break
in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or
monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle
of the warm season.[27] When the wet season occurs during the warm
season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and
early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality
improves,[55]freshwater quality improves,[56][57] and vegetation grows
significantly.

Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air

masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre
and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a
clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counter clockwise
(northern hemisphere).[58] Although cyclones can take an enormous
toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in
the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring
much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[59] Areas in
their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical
cyclone passage.[60]
Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the
wet season at that location

Fosnez (talk) (Uploads) - Own work

Created in Corel Draw from on the Australian Bureau of

Meteorology website.

Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the

wet season at that location
See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone
Main article: Wet season

Human influence

The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other

human sources of pollution forms cloud condensation nuclei, leads
to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As
commuters and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over
the course of the week, the likelihood of rain increases: it peaks by
Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up. In
heavily populated areas that are near the coast, such as the United
States' Eastern Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there is a 22%
higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays.[61] The urban
heat island effect warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above
surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to
greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and
thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are
increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this
warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 to
64 km (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.[62]
Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.[63]

Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which can

lead to more precipitation. Precipitation generally increased over
land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over
the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically
significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century,
although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern
portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and
northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the
Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have
become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy
precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as
well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—
especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation
and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased
salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more
precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes
(implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the
contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an
average rate of 6.1 percent since 1900, with the greatest increases
within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per
century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to
show a decrease (−9.25 percent).[64]

Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature distribution, with

blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appearing
white.

NASA - NASA
On May 11-12, 1997, NASA used a specially outfitted Lear Jet to
collect thermal data on metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia. Nicknamed
â‫ܓ‬œHot-Lanta†• by some of its residents, the city saw daytime
air temperatures of only about 26.7 degrees Celsius (80 degrees
Fahrenheit) on those days, but some of its surface temperatures
soared to 47.8 degrees Celsius (118 degrees Fahrenheit). In this
image, blue shows cool temperatures and red shows warm
temperatures. Pockets of especially hot temperatures appear in
white. (Image courtesy NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
Scientific Visualization Studio.) Image obtained from NASA Earth
Observatory webpage -- Ryanjo 00:48, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature distribution, with

blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appearing
white.
Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008
with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980
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 Description: Eine Simulation, wie Steigungsregen entsteht.

 Source: German Wikipedia, original upload 29. Aug 2004 by
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 Data source
  This plot is based on the NASAGISS Surface Temperature
Analysis (GISTEMP), which combines the 2001 GISS land
station analysis data set (Hansen et al. 2001) with the
Rayner/Reynolds oceanic sea surface temperature data set
(Rayner 2000, Reynolds et al. 2002). The data itself was
prepared through the GISTEMP online mapping tool, and the
specific dataset used is available here. This data was replotted
in a Mollweide projection with a continuous and symmetric
color scale. The smoothing radius is 1200 km, meaning that the
reported temperature may depend on measurement stations
located up to 1200 km away, if necessary.

See also: Global warming and Urban heat island

Analysis of 65 years of United States of America rainfall records

show the lower 48 states have an increase in heavy downpours since
1950. The largest increases are in the Northeast and Midwest, which
in the past decade, have seen 31 and 16 percent more heavy
downpours compared to the 1950s. Rhode Island is the state with
the largest increase, 104%. McAllen, Texas is the city with the
largest increase, 700%. Heavy downpour in the analysis are the days
where total precipitation exceeded the top 1 percent of all rain and
snow days during the years 1950-2014[65][66]
The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud
seeding, which include techniques used to increase winter
precipitation over mountains and suppress hail.[67]

Characteristics

Patterns

Band of thunderstorms seen on a weather radar display,Size of this

preview: 800 × 578 pixels. Other resolutions: 320 × 231 pixels | 640 ×
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From german wikipedia, uploaded there by User:Ulrich Rosemeyer

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Nutzungshinweis der website zu finden hier.

Rainband

Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly

elongated. Rainbands can be stratiform or convective,[68] and are
generated by differences in temperature. When noted on weather
radar imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded
structure.[69] Rainbands in advance of warm occluded fronts and
warm fronts are associated with weak upward motion,[70] and tend
to be wide and stratiform in nature.[71]

Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall

lines which are able to produce tornadoes.[72] Rainbands associated
with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular
to the front's orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier
jet.[73] Bands of thunderstorms can form with sea breeze and land
breeze boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze
rainbands become active enough just ahead of a cold front, they can
mask the location of the cold front itself.[74]
Once a cyclone occludes, a trough of warm air aloft, or "trowal" for
short, will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern
periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately
northwestern, periphery (also known as the warm conveyor belt),
forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar
curve to the occluded front. The trowal creates the portion of an
occluded cyclone known as its comma head, due to the comma-like
shape of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the
feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with
thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the trowal is
unstable enough for convection.[75] Banding within the comma head
precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can yield
significant amounts of rain.[76] Behind extratropical cyclones during
fall and winter, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm
bodies of water such as the Great Lakes. Downwind of islands,
bands of showers and thunderstorms can develop due to low level
wind convergence downwind of the island edges. Offshore
California, this has been noted in the wake of cold fronts.[77]

Rainbands within tropical cyclones are curved in orientation.

Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and thunderstorms
that, together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or
tropical storm. The extent of rainbands around a tropical cyclone
can help determine the cyclone's intensity.[78]
Acidity

The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert
Augus Smith in 1852.[79] The pH of rain varies, especially due to its
origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the
Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0-5.6; rain that comes across
the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8-4.8; and local
thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0.[80] Rain becomes acidic
primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Sulfuric acid is derived from
natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing
bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of
fossil fuels, and mining where H2S is present. Nitric acid is produced
by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires;
while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil
fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations
of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater,
which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most
likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer
in acid rain and raises the pH.[81]
Sources of acid rain

Sources of acid rain

Origins.gif: The original uploader was NHSavage at English

Wikipedia derivative work: Zazou (talk) - Origins.gif

Downloaded from US EPA website:

http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/images/origins.gif

Acid rain
Köppen climate classification

Köppen climate classification

The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of

temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of
the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through
E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild
mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary
classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications
such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical,
humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe,
subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.

Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions

setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and
2,000 mm (69 and 79 in).[83] A tropical savanna is a grasslandbiome
located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical
and tropicallatitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30
and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also
found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and
Australia.[84] The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter
rainfall is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from
west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms
and from occasional tropical cyclones.[85] Humid subtropical
climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes
20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.[86]

An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west

coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering
cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied
by plentiful precipitation year-round.[87] The Mediterranean climate
regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean
Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South
Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central
Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool,
wet winters.[88] A steppe is a dry grassland.[89] Subarctic climates are
cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.[90]
Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map[82]
 Af BWh Csa Cwa Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa ET
Am BWk Csb Cwb Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb EF
Aw BSh Cfc Dsc Dwc Dfc
BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd

Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A. (University of

Melbourne) Enhanced, modified, and vectorized by Ali Zifan. -
Hydrology and Earth System Sciences: "Updated world map of the
Köppen-Geiger climate classification" (Supplement)[1]Legend
explanation

Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification.

Legend: A-Tropical, B-Arid, C-Temperate, D-Cold, E-Polar

Measurement

Gauges

Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in

millimeters per hour,[91] or in countries where imperial units are
more common, inches per hour.[92] The "length", or more
accurately, "depth" being measured is the depth of rain water that
would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface
during a given amount of time, typically an hour.[93] One millimeter
of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.[94]

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard

rain gauge, which can be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-
mm (8-in) metal varieties.[95] The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm
(0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder.
Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to
0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a
stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings.
After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded,
then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all
the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total
until the outer cylinder is empty.[96] Other types of gauges include
the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile),
the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[97] For
those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that
is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in
the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to
measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at
home, with enough know-how.[98]
When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist
across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements
can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or
GLOBE.[99][100] If a network is not available in the area where one
lives, the nearest local weather or met office will likely be interested
in the measurement.[101]

Standard rain gauge

Standard rain gauge

Bidgee - Own work

Nylex rain gauge 1000 which hold 250mm of rain in 1mm

increments.
See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge

Remote sensing

Weather radar

Twenty-four-hour rainfall accumulation on the Val d'Irène radar in

Eastern Canada. Zones without data in the east and southwest are
caused by beam blocking from mountains. (Source: Environment
Canada)
Ce radar est opéré par Environnement Canada. La sortie radar est
produite par le logiciel développé par l'Observatoire radar J.S.
Marshall de l'Université McGill en collaboration avec EC. -
Meteorological Service of Canada (Environment Canada).
Redistribution allowed if source mentionned

24 hours accumulations deduced by Val d'Irene radar in Eastern

Quebec (Canada). Some bright band effect visible with the stronger
values at the outer right area.

One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the

amount of precipitations fallen over large basins for hydrological
purposes.[102] For instance, river flood control, sewer management
and dam construction are all areas where planners use rainfall
accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates compliment
surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce
radar accumulations, rain rates over a point are estimated by using
the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar

equation is then used, which is, ,

where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall

rate, and A and b are constants.[103] Satellite derived rainfall
estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar orbiting
as well as geostationaryweather satellites to indirectly measure
rainfall rates.[104] If one wants an accumulated rainfall over a time
period, one has to add up all the accumulations from each grid box
within the images during that time.

Play media
1988 rain in the U.S. The heaviest rain is seen in reds and yellows.

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1993 rain in the U.S.

Intensity

Heavy rain in Glenshaw, Pennsylvania

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0:00
 The sound of a heavy rainfall in suburban neighborhood

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Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation,

which depends on the considered time:[105]

 Light rain — when the precipitation rate is < 2.5 mm (0.098 in)
per hour
 Moderate rain — when the precipitation rate is between
2.5 mm (0.098 in) - 7.6 mm (0.30 in) or 10 mm (0.39 in) per
hour[106][107]
 Heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is > 7.6 mm (0.30 in)
per hour,[106] or between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in)
per hour[107]
 Violent rain — when the precipitation rate is > 50 mm (2.0 in)
per hour[107]

Euphemisms for a heavy or violent rain include gully washer, trash-

mover and toad-strangler.[108] The intensity can also be expressed by
rainfall erosivity R-factor[109] or in terms of the rainfall time-
structure n-index.[105]

Return period
100-year flood

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity

and duration, is called the return period or frequency.[110] The
intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and
storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the
location.[111] The term 1 in 10 year storm describes a rainfall event
which is unusual and has a 50% chance of occurring in any 10-year
period. The term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event
which is rare and which will occur with a 50% probability in any
100-year period. As with all probability events, it is possible, though
improbable, to have multiple "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single
year.[112]

Forecasting

Quantitative precipitation forecast

The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the

expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a
specified time period over a specified area.[113] A QPF will be
specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum
threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period.
Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as
0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by
use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation
patterns from observations with fine detail.[114] Starting in the mid
to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to
simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.[115]Forecast
models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the
planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere,
which decreases with height.[116] QPF can be generated on a
quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the
probability of a specific amount, basis.[117] Radar imagery
forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within
6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be
verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar
estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be
determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.[118]
Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the
Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the

Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

David Roth - This file was derived from Rita5dayqpf.gif:

Precipitation accumulations forecast during the next 5 on

Septembre 22, 2005, for Hurricane Rita.

Impact

Effect on agriculture

Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region

from July 20–27, 2009.
Pr news reports. Each year as the Earth’s orbit brings the Northern
Hemisphere back under more direct sunlight, the Asian continent
starts to heat up. Land surfaces have less heat capacity than
surrounding oceans, and they heat up faster. This land-sea
temperature difference causes the winds to shift; warm air rises over
the continent, and moist air from over the oceans flows in to replace
it. In East Asia, the boundary between the warm, humid air from the
ocean to the south and the continental air to the north often becomes
more or less stationary. This stationary front is known as the Baiu
front in Japan and as the Mei-yu front in China. The location of the
front migrates slowly northward over eastern China, Korea, Taiwan,
and Japan over the course of spring and early summer, providing a
focus for showers and rain, especially when waves of low pressure
move along the front. Mei-yu means “plum rains” in Chinese, so called
because the widespread rains often occur at the time when plums
ripen, which is typically May and June. Baiu season in Japan typically
runs from June through July.ecipitation, especially rain, has a
dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to
survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering)
is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually
vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful,
even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase
erosion,[119] while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus
growth.[120] Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For
example, certain cacti require small amounts of water,[121] while
tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year
to survive.

In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and
erosion increases during the wet season.[27] Animals have adaptation
and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry
season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have
yet to mature.[122] Developing countries have noted that their
populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages
seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[123]
Rain may be harvested through the use of rainwater tanks; treated
to potable use or for non-potable use indoors or for irrigation.[124]
Excessive rain during short periods of time can cause flash
floods.[125]

In culture

List of rain deities

Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In

temperateclimates, people tend to be more stressed when the
weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than
women.[126] Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be
soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as
India,[127] or during periods of drought,[128] rain lifts people's moods.
In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, pula, is used as the name
of the national currency, in recognition of the economic importance
of rain in its country, since it has a desert climate.[129] Several
cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have
developed numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and
raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains
that lead rains to sewers.[130] Many people find the scent during and
immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this
scent is petrichor, an oil produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks
and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall.[131]

Global climatology

Earth rainfall climatology

Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as

precipitation each year across the globe with 398,000 km3
(95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[132] Given the Earth's surface
area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is
990 mm (39 in). Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual
precipitation of less than 250 mm (10 in) per year,[133][134] or as areas
where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as
precipitation.[135]

Deserts

Desert

Largest deserts

Largest deserts
Emilfaro at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to
Commons by Common Good using CommonsHelper.

NASA World Wind 1.4 used.

The northern half of Africa is occupied by the world's most

extensive hot, dry region, the Sahara Desert. Some deserts are also
occupying much of southern Africa : the Namib and the Kalahari.
Across Asia, a large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily
of deserts, stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-
southwest through western Pakistan (Balochistan) and Iran into the
Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid or
desert,[136] making it the world's driest inhabited continent. In South
America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that
arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just
downwind across western Argentina.[48] The drier areas of the
United States are regions where the Sonoran Desert overspreads the
Desert Southwest, the Great Basin and central Wyoming.[137]
Isolated towering vertical desert shower

Polar desert

Main articles: Polar desert and Polar climate

Since rain only falls as liquid, in frozen temperatures, rain cannot

fall. As a result, very cold climates see very little rainfall and are
often known as polar deserts. A common biome in this area is the
tundra which has a short summer thaw and a long frozen winter. Ice
caps see no rain at all, making Antarctica the world's driest
continent.

Rainforests

Rainforest

Rainforests are areas of the world with very high rainfall. Both
tropical and temperate rainforests exist. Tropical rainforests occupy
a large band of the planet mostly along the equator. Most temperate
rainforests are located on mountainous west coasts between 45 and
55 degrees latitude, but they are often found in other areas.

Around 40-75% of all biotic life is found in rainforests. Rainforests

are also responsible for 28% of the world's oxygen turnover.

Monsoons

Monsoon and Monsoon trough

The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone

(ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest portion of the world's
continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches
northward by August, then moves back southward into the
Southern Hemisphere by February and March.[138] Within Asia,
rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and
northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due
to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean
into the region.[139] The monsoon trough can reach as far north as
the 40th parallel in East Asia during August before moving
southward thereafter. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the
onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the
development of lower air pressure (a thermal low) over the warmest
part of Asia.[140][141] Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are
present over North America and Australia.[142][143] During the
summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California
and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge
in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening
thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the
Great Plains.[144] The eastern half of the contiguous United States
east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest,
and the Sierra Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation,
with average rainfall exceeding 760 mm (30 in) per year.[145]Tropical
cyclones enhance precipitation across southern sections of the
United States,[146] as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin
Islands,[147] the Northern Mariana Islands,[148]Guam, and American
Samoa.

Impact of the Westerlies

Long-term mean precipitation by month

PZmaps - Own work by uploader, sources: CRU CL 2.0 (New, M.,

Lister, D., Hulme, M. and Makin, I., 2002: A high-resolution data
set of surface climate over global land areas. Climate Research 21:
1–25) and File:Tissot indicatrix world map Mollweide proj.svg by
Eric Gaba.

Long-term average precipitation by month (mm/day and in/day),

based on 1961-1990 data. Animated GIF. Mollweide projection.

 CC BY-SA 3.0
  File:MeanMonthlyP.gif
 Created: February-March 2009

Westerlies.

Westerly flow from the mild north Atlantic leads to wetness across
western Europe, in particular Ireland and the United Kingdom,
where the western coasts can receive between 1,000 mm (39 in), at
sea-level and 2,500 mm (98 in), on the mountains of rain per year.
Bergen, Norway is one of the more famous European rain-cities with
its yearly precipitation of 2,250 mm (89 in) on average. During the
fall, winter, and spring, Pacific storm systems bring most of Hawaii
and the western United States much of their precipitation.[144] Over
the top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation
maximum to the Great Lakes. Large thunderstorm areas known as
mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest,
and Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10%
of the annual precipitation to the region.[149]

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation

distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across the western United
States,[150] Midwest,[151][152] the Southeast,[153] and throughout the
tropics. There is also evidence that global warming is leading to
increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America,
while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and
subtropics.

Wettest known locations

Cherrapunji, situated on the southern slopes of the Eastern

Himalaya in Shillong, India is the confirmed wettest place on Earth,
with an average annual rainfall of 11,430 mm (450 in). The highest
recorded rainfall in a single year was 22,987 mm (905.0 in) in 1861.
The 38-year average at nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India is
11,873 mm (467.4 in).[154] The wettest spot in Australia is Mount
Bellenden Ker in the north-east of the country which records an
average of 8,000 mm (310 in) per year, with over 12,200 mm
(480.3 in) of rain recorded during 2000.[155]Mount Waiʻaleʻale on the
island of Kauaʻi in the Hawaiian Islands averages more than
12,000 mm (460 in)[156] of rain per year over the last 32 years, with a
record 17,340 mm (683 in) in 1982.[citation needed] Its summit is
considered one of the rainiest spots on earth. It has been promoted
in tourist literature for many years as the wettest spot in the
world.[157][not in citation given]Lloró, a town situated in Chocó, Colombia,
is probably the place with the largest rainfall in the world,
averaging 13,300 mm (523.6 in) per year.[156] The Department of
Chocó is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendaó, a small town situated
in the same department, is one of the wettest estimated places on
Earth, averaging 11,394 mm (448.6 in) per year; in 1974 the town
received 26,303 mm (86 ft 3.6 in),[citation needed] the largest annual
rainfall measured in Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives
most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendaó
receives rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the
year.[158]Quibdó, the capital of Chocó, receives the most rain in the
world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9,000 mm (354 in)
per year.[156] Storms in Chocó can drop 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall in
a day. This amount is more than what falls in many cities in a year's
time.

Highest Years
Elevation
Continent average Place of

in mm ft m record

South Lloró, Colombia

523.6 13,299 520 158[c] 29
America (estimated)[a][b]

Mawsynram,
Asia 467.4 11,872 4,597 1,401 39
India[a][d]

Mount
Waiʻaleʻale,
Oceania 460.0 11,684 5,148 1,569 30
Kauai, Hawaii
(USA)[a]
 Debundscha,
Africa 405.0 10,287 30 9.1 32
Cameroon

South Quibdo,
354.0 8,992 120 36.6 16
America Colombia

Mount Bellenden
Australia 340.0 8,636 5,102 1,555 9
Ker, Queensland

Henderson Lake,
North
256.0 6,502 British 12 3.66 14
America
Columbia

Crkvice,
Europe 183.0 4,648 3,337 1,017 22
Montenegro

Source (without conversions): Global Measured Extremes of

Temperature and Precipitation, National Climatic Data Center.
August 9, 2004.[159]

Highest

Continent Place rainfall

in mm

Highest average Mawsynram,

[160]
Asia 467.4 11,870
annual rainfall India

Highest in one Asia Cherrapunji, 1,042 26,470

 year[160] India

Highest in one Cherrapunji,

Asia 366 9,296
calendar month[161] India

Highest in 24 Indian Foc Foc, La

71.8 1,820
hours[160] Ocean Reunion Island

Highest in 12 Indian Foc Foc, La

45.0 1,140
hours[160] Ocean Reunion Island

Highest in one North Unionville,

[160]
1.23 31.2
minute America Maryland, USA

Outside Earth

Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur on the gas giant

planets, Jupiter and Saturn,[162] as well as on the ice giant planets,
Uranus and Neptune.[163] There is likely to be rain of various
compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as
precipitation of liquid neon in the deep atmospheres.[164][165] On
Titan, Saturn's largest natural satellite, infrequent methane rain is
thought to carve the moon's numerous surface channels.[166] On
Venus, sulfuric acidvirga evaporates 25 km (16 mi) from the
surface.[167] Extrasolar planet OGLE-TR-56b in the constellation
Sagittarius is hypothesized to have iron rain.
DISCUSSIONS FOR THE EXPERIMENT.

Superposition principle; In physics and systems theory,

the superposition principle,[1] also known as superposition
property, states that, for all linear systems, the net response
caused by two or more stimuli is the sum of the responses
that would have been caused by each stimulus individually.
So that if input A produces response X and input Bproduces
response Y then input (A + B) produces response (X + Y).

The homogeneity and additivity properties together are

called the superposition principle. A linear function is one
that satisfies the properties of superposition. It is defined as

Additivity

Homogeneity
for scalar a.

This principle has many applications

in physics and engineering because many physical systems
can be modeled as linear systems. For example, a beam can
be modeled as a linear system where the input stimulus is
the load on the beam and the output response is the
deflection of the beam. The importance of linear systems is
that they are easier to analyze mathematically; there is a
large body of mathematical techniques, frequency
domain linear transform methods such as Fourier, Laplace
transforms, and linear operator theory, that are applicable.
Because physical systems are generally only approximately
linear, the superposition principle is only an approximation
of the true physical behaviour.

The superposition principle applies to any linear system,

including algebraic equations, linear differential equations,
and systems of equations of those forms. The stimuli and
responses could be numbers, functions, vectors, vector
fields, time-varying signals, or any other object that
satisfies certain axioms. Note that when vectors or vector
fields are involved, a superposition is interpreted as a vector
sum.

Relation to Fourier analysis and similar methods

By writing a very general stimulus (in a linear system) as the

superposition of stimuli of a specific, simple form, often the
response becomes easier to compute.
For example, in Fourier analysis, the stimulus is written as
the superposition of infinitely many sinusoids. Due to the
superposition principle, each of these sinusoids can be
analyzed separately, and its individual response can be
computed. (The response is itself a sinusoid, with the same
frequency as the stimulus, but generally a
different amplitude and phase.) According to the
superposition principle, the response to the original stimulus
is the sum (or integral) of all the individual sinusoidal
responses.

As another common example, in Green's function analysis,

the stimulus is written as the superposition of infinitely
many impulse functions, and the response is then a
superposition of impulse responses.

Fourier analysis is particularly common for waves. For

example, in electromagnetic theory, ordinary light is
described as a superposition of plane waves (waves of
fixed frequency, polarization, and direction). As long as the
superposition principle holds (which is often but not always;
see nonlinear optics), the behavior of any light wave can be
understood as a superposition of the behavior of these
simpler plane waves.
Wave superposition

Two waves traveling in opposite directions across the same

medium combine linearly. In this animation, both waves have
the same wavelength and the sum of amplitudes results in
a standing wave.

Waves are usually described by variations in some

parameter through space and time—for example, height in a
water wave, pressure in a sound wave, or
the electromagnetic field in a light wave. The value of this
parameter is called the amplitude of the wave, and the wave
itself is a function specifying the amplitude at each point.

In any system with waves, the waveform at a given time is a

function of the sources(i.e., external forces, if any, that create
or affect the wave) and initial conditions of the system. In
many cases (for example, in the classic wave equation), the
equation describing the wave is linear. When this is true, the
superposition principle can be applied. That means that the
net amplitude caused by two or more waves traversing the
same space is the sum of the amplitudes that would have
been produced by the individual waves separately. For
example, two waves traveling towards each other will pass
right through each other without any distortion on the other
side. (See image at top.)

Wave diffraction vs. wave interference

With regard to wave superposition, Richard

Feynman wrote:[2]

No-one has ever been able to define the difference

between interference and diffraction satisfactorily. It is just a
question of usage, and there is no specific, important
physical difference between them. The best we can do is,
roughly speaking, is to say that when there are only a few
sources, say two, interfering, then the result is usually called
interference, but if there is a large number of them, it seems
that the word diffraction is more often used.

Other authors elaborate:[3]

The difference is one of convenience and convention. If the

waves to be superposed originate from a few coherent
sources, say, two, the effect is called interference. On the
other hand, if the waves to be superposed originate by
subdividing a wavefront into infinitesimal coherent wavelets
(sources), the effect is called diffraction. That is the
difference between the two phenomena is [a matter] of
degree only, and basically they are two limiting cases of
superposition effects.

Yet another source concurs:[4]

Inasmuch as the interference fringes observed by Young

were the diffraction pattern of the double slit, this chapter
[Fraunhofer diffraction] is therefore a continuation of Chapter
8 [Interference]. On the other hand, few opticians would
regard the Michelson interferometer as an example of
diffraction. Some of the important categories of diffraction
relate to the interference that accompanies division of the
wavefront, so Feynman's observation to some extent reflects
the difficulty that we may have in distinguishing division of
amplitude and division of wavefront.

Wave interference
: Interference (wave propagation)

The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on

this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space,
the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes
of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-
cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a
smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is
called destructive interference. In other cases, such as
in Line Array, the summed variation will have a bigger
amplitude than any of the components individually; this is
called constructive interference.

green wave traverse to the right while blue wave traverse left,
the net red wave amplitude at each point is the sum of the
amplitudes of the individual waves.

combined
waveform

wave 1

wave 2

Two waves 180° out

Two waves in phase
of phase

Departures from linearity

In most realistic physical situations, the equation governing

the wave is only approximately linear. In these situations, the
superposition principle only approximately holds. As a rule,
the accuracy of the approximation tends to improve as the
amplitude of the wave gets smaller. For examples of
phenomena that arise when the superposition principle does
not exactly hold, see the articles nonlinear
optics and nonlinear acoustics.

Quantum superposition
Quantum superposition

In quantum mechanics, a principal task is to compute how a

certain type of wave propagates and behaves. The wave is
described by a wave function, and the equation governing its
behavior is called the Schrödinger equation. A primary
approach to computing the behavior of a wave function is to
write it as a superposition (called "quantum superposition")
of (possibly infinitely many) other wave functions of a certain
type—stationary states whose behavior is particularly
simple. Since the Schrödinger equation is linear, the
behavior of the original wave function can be computed
through the superposition principle this way.[5]

The projective nature of quantum-mechanical-state space

makes an important difference: it does not permit
superposition of the kind that is the topic of the present
article. A quantum mechanical state is a ray in projective
Hilbert space, not a vector. The sum of two rays is undefined.
To obtain the relative phase, we must decompose or split the
ray into components

where the and the belongs to an orthonormal

basis set. The equivalence class of allows a well-

defined meaning to be given to the relative phases of the .
[6]

There are some likenesses between the superposition

presented in the main on this page, and quantum
superposition. Nevertheless, on the topic of quantum
superposition, Kramers writes: "The principle of
[quantum] superposition ... has no analogy in classical
physics." According to Dirac: "the superposition that
occurs in quantum mechanics is of an essentially different
nature from any occurring in the classical theory [italics in
original]."[7]

Boundary value problems

Boundary value problem
 A common type of boundary value problem is (to put it
abstractly) finding a function y that satisfies some
equation

with some boundary specification

For example, in Laplace's equation with Dirichlet boundary

conditions, F would be the Laplacian operator in a
region R, Gwould be an operator that restricts y to the
boundary of R, and z would be the function that y is required
to equal on the boundary of R.

In the case that F and G are both linear operators, then the
superposition principle says that a superposition of
solutions to the first equation is another solution to the first
equation:

while the boundary values superpose:

Using these facts, if a list can be compiled of solutions to the

first equation, then these solutions can be carefully put into a
superposition such that it will satisfy the second equation.
This is one common method of approaching boundary value
problems.

Additive state decomposition

: Additive state decomposition

Consider a simple linear system :

By superposition principle, the system can be decomposed

into

with

Superposition principle is only available for linear

systems. However, the Additive state decomposition can be
applied not only to linear systems but also nonlinear
systems. Next, consider a nonlinear system

where is a nonlinear function. By the additive state

decomposition, the system can be ‘additively’ decomposed
into
with

This decomposition can help to simplify controller design.

Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (/ˈfʊəriˌeɪ, -

iər/;[1] French: [fuʁje]; 21 March 1768 – 16 May 1830) was
a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and
best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier
series and their applications to problems of heat
transfer and vibrations. The Fourier transform and Fourier's
law are also named in his honour. Fourier is also generally
credited with discovery of the greenhouse effect

In 1822 Fourier published his work on heat flow in Théorie

analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat),[8] in
which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling,
namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules
is proportional to the extremely small difference of their
temperatures. This book was translated,[9] with editorial
'corrections',[10] into English 56 years later by Freeman
(1878).[11] The book was also edited, with many editorial
corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in
1888.[10]

There were three important contributions in this work, one

purely mathematical, two essentially physical. In
mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable,
whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a
series of sines of multiples of the variable. Though this result
is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's
observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum
of infinite series was a breakthrough. The question of
determining when a Fourier series converges has been
fundamental for centuries. Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given
particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that
the method was general, but he had not pursued the
subject. Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet was the first to give a
satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive
conditions. This work provides the foundation for what is
today known as the Fourier transform.

One important physical contribution in the book was the

concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i.e. an
equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions
match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important
contributions to dimensional analysis.[12] The other physical
contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential
equation for conductive diffusion of heat. This equation is
now taught to every student of mathematical physic

CONCLUSIONS

String field theory (SFT) is a formalism in string theory in

which the dynamics of relativistic strings is reformulated in
the language of quantum field theory. This is accomplished
at the level of perturbation theory by finding a collection of
vertices for joining and splitting strings, as well as
string propagators, that give a Feynman diagram-like
expansion for string scattering amplitudes. In most string
field theories, this expansion is encoded by a classical
action found by second-quantizing the free string and adding
interaction terms. As is usually the case in second
quantization, a classical field configuration of the second-
quantized theory is given by a wave function in the original
theory. In the case of string field theory, this implies that a
classical configuration, usually called the string field, is
given by an element of the free string Fock space.

The principal advantages of the formalism are that it allows

the computation of off-shell amplitudes and, when a classical
action is available, gives non-perturbative information that
cannot be seen directly from the standard genus expansion
of string scattering. In particular, following the work
of Ashoke Sen,[1]it has been useful in the study of tachyon
condensation on unstable D-branes. It has also had
applications to topological string theory,[2] non-commutative
geometry,[3] and strings in low dimensions.[4]

String field theories come in a number of varieties depending

on which type of string is second quantized: Open string
field theories describe the scattering of open strings, closed
string field theories describe closed strings, while open-
closed string field theories include both open and closed
strings.

In addition, depending on the method used to fix the

worldsheet diffeomorphisms and conformal
transformations in the original free string theory, the
resulting string field theories can be very different.
Using light cone gauge, yields light-cone string field
theories whereas using BRST quantization, one
finds covariant string field theories. There are also hybrid
string field theories, known as covariantized light-cone string
field theories which use elements of both light-cone and
BRST gauge-fixed string field theories
The universe is gorgeous. States michio kaku, The universe is very
simple, and it didn’t have to be that way. The universe could have
been random. It could have been ugly. It could have been a random
collection of electrons and photons. No life, no vitality, nothing
interesting at all. Just a random collection of a mist of electrons and
photons. That could have been the universe, but it isn’t. Our
universe is rich; it is beautiful, elegant. And you can summarize
most of the laws of physics on one sheet of paper. Amazing. In fact,
what I do for a living is to try to get that sheet of paper and
summarize it into an equation one inch long. That’s called the
unified field theory. We want to summarize all of the laws of physics
into one equation that is one inch long. Now, one version of that is
called string field theory, which is a branch of string theory. String
field theory allows you to write this equation, this one inch equation

strings we already have a theory that’s only one inch long that
allows you to summarize the laws of nature. So, that’s the God of
Einstein. The God of beauty, that says that the universe is simpler
the more we study

There is a theory about whether or not the universe is a simulation

of some sort, like the movie The Matrix, Matrix theory is a branch
of mathematics which is focused on study of matrices.
Initially, it was a sub-branch of linear algebra, but soon it
grew to cover subjects related to graphtheory, algebra,
combinatorics and statistics as well. matrix is an ordered
rectangular array of symbols, numbers or other mathematical
objects arranged in rows and columns. Let the number of
rows be m and the number of columns be n. Then, the size of
the matrix is matrix. The general form of a matrix is,

Where,

The algebraic study of matrices and its applications to

evaluate the basis of linear algebra (finite dimensional vector
spaces) is known as Matrix theory. This theory is applied in
Quantum mechanical model.

Much wisdom in the God of Albert Einstein. Einstein basically said

that there are two types of gods. One god is a personal god, the god
that you pray to, the god that smites the Philistines, the god that
walks on water. That’s the first god. But there’s another god, and
that’s the god of Spinoza. That’s the god of beauty, harmony,
simplicity.Our universe is rich; it is beautiful, elegant. And you can
summarize most of the laws of physics on one sheet of pape That’s
called the unified field theory. We want to summarize all of the laws
of physics into one equation that is one inch long.

In physics, a unified field theory (UFT) is a type of field

theory that allows all that is usually thought of
as fundamental forcesand elementary particles to be written
in terms of a pair of physical and virtual fields. According to
the modern discoveries in physics, forces are not
transmitted directly between interacting objects, but instead
are described and interrupted by intermediary entities called
fields.

Classically, however, a duality of the fields is combined into

a single physical field.[1] For over a century, unified field
theory remains an open line of research and the term was
coined by Albert Einstein,[2] who attempted to unify
his general theory of relativity with electromagnetism. The
"Theory of Everything" [3] and Grand Unified Theory[4] are
closely related to unified field theory, but differ by not
requiring the basis of nature to be fields, and often by
attempting to explain physical constants of nature. Earlier
attempts based on classical physics are described in the
article on classical unified field theories.
The goal of a unified field theory has led to a great deal of
progress for future theoretical physics and continues to
progress prominently. Although UFT may concern all types
of the forces, it has to reveal the natural principles in
connection with Quantum field theory, Quantum
Chromodynamics, Gravitational Wave, General
Relativity,[5] General Symmetric Fields, and General
Asymmetric Fields of Ontology and Cosmology.

Einstein's contribution to relativity is reviewed. It is pointed

out that Weyl gave first unified theory of gravitation and
electromagnetism and it was different than the five
dimensional theory of Kaluza. Einstein began his work on
unification in 1925 that continued whole through the rest of
his life.

The first successful classical unified field theory was

developed by James Clerk Maxwell. In 1820 Hans Christian
Ørsteddiscovered that electric currents exerted forces
on magnets, while in 1831, Michael Faraday made the
observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce
electric currents. Until then, electricity and magnetism had
been thought of as unrelated phenomena. In 1864, Maxwell
published his famous paper on a dynamical theory of the
electromagnetic field. This was the first example of a theory
that was able to encompass previously separate field
theories (namely electricity and magnetism) to provide a
unifying theory of electromagnetism. By 1905, Albert
Einstein had used the constancy of the speed of light in
Maxwell's theory to unify our notions of space and time into
an entity we now call spacetime and in 1915 he expanded
this theory of special relativity to a description of
gravity, general relativity, using a field to describe the
curving geometry of four-dimensional spacetime.

In the years following the creation of the general theory, a

large number of physicists and mathematicians
enthusiastically participated in the attempt to unify the then-
known fundamental interactions.[6] In view of later
developments in this domain, of particular interest are the
theories of Hermann Weyl of 1919, who introduced the
concept of an (electromagnetic) gauge fieldin a classical field
theory[7] and, two years later, that of Theodor Kaluza, who
extended General Relativity to five dimensions.[8]Continuing
in this latter direction, Oscar Klein proposed in 1926 that the
fourth spatial dimension be curled up into a small,
unobserved circle. In Kaluza–Klein theory, the gravitational
curvature of the extra spatial direction behaves as an
additional force similar to electromagnetism. These and
other models of electromagnetism and gravity were pursued
by Albert Einstein in his attempts at a classical unified field
theory. By 1930 Einstein had already considered the
Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac System [Dongen]. This system is
(heuristically) the super-classical [Varadarajan] limit of (the
not mathematically well-defined) quantum electrodynamics.
One can extend this system to include the weak and strong
nuclear forces to get the Einstein–Yang–Mills–Dirac System.
The French physicist Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat published a
paper in the early 1940s on the standard commutation
relations for the quantized spin-2 field. She continued this
work in collaboration with Erwin Schrödinger after World War
II. In the 1960s Mendel Sachs proposed a generally covariant
field theory that did not require recourse to renormalisation
or perturbation theory. In 1965, Tonnelat published a book on
the state of research on unified field theories.

In particle physics, the weak interaction (the weak

force or weak nuclear force) is the mechanism of interaction
between sub-atomic particles that causes radioactive
decay and thus plays an essential role in nuclear fission. The
theory of the weak interaction is sometimes called quantum
flavourdynamics (QFD), in analogy with the terms quantum
chromodynamics (QCD) dealing with the strong
interaction and quantum electrodynamics (QED) dealing with
the electromagnetic force. However, the term QFD is rarely
used because the weak force is best understood in terms
of electro-weak theory (EWT).[1]

The weak interaction takes place only at very small, sub-

atomic distances, less than the diameter of a proton. It is one
of the four known fundamental interactions of nature,
alongside the strong interaction, electromagnetism,
and gravitation

The weak interaction has a coupling constant (an indicator of

interaction strength) of between 10−7 and 10−6, compared to
the strong interaction's coupling constant of 1 and
the electromagnetic coupling constant of about
10−2;[8] consequently the weak interaction is weak in terms of
strength.[9] The weak interaction has a very short range
(around 10−17 to 10−16 m[9]).[8] At distances around
10−18 meters, the weak interaction has a strength of a similar
magnitude to the electromagnetic force, but this starts to
decrease exponentially with increasing distance. At
distances of around 3×10−17 m, a distance which is scaled up
by just one and a half decimal orders of magnitude from
before, the weak interaction is 10,000 times weaker than the
electromagnetic.[10]

The weak interaction affects all the fermions of the Standard

Model, as well as the Higgs boson; neutrinos interact
through gravity and the weak interaction only, and neutrinos
were the original reason for the name weak force.[9] The weak
interaction does not produce bound states nor does it
involve binding energy – something that gravity does on
an astronomical scale, that the electromagnetic force does at
the atomic level, and that the strong nuclear force does
inside nuclei.[11]

Its most noticeable effect is due to its first unique

feature: flavour changing. A neutron, for example, is heavier
than a proton(its sister nucleon), but it cannot decay into a
proton without changing the flavour (type) of one of its
two down quarks to an upquark. Neither the strong
interaction nor electromagnetism permit flavour changing, so
this proceeds by weak decay; without weak decay, quark
properties such as strangeness and charm (associated with
the quarks of the same name) would also be conserved
across all interactions.

All mesons are unstable because of weak decay. In the

process known as beta decay, a down quark in
the neutron can change into an up quark by emitting
a virtual
W−
boson which is then converted into an electron and an
electron antineutrino.[13] Another example is the electron
capture, a common variant of radioactive decay, wherein a
proton and an electron within an atom interact, and are
changed to a neutron (an up quark is changed to a down
quark) and an electron neutrino is emitted.

Due to the large masses of the W bosons, particle

transformations or decays (e.g., flavour change) that depend
on the weak interaction typically occur much more slowly
than transformations or decays that depend only on the
strong or electromagnetic forces. For example, a
neutral pion decays electromagnetically, and so has a life of
only about 10−16 seconds. In contrast, a charged pion can
only decay through the weak interaction, and so lives about
10−8 seconds, or a hundred million times longer than a
neutral pion.[14] A particularly extreme example is the weak-
force decay of a free neutron, which takes about
15 minutes.[13]

The laws of nature were long thought to remain the same

under mirror reflection. The results of an experiment viewed
via a mirror were expected to be identical to the results of a
mirror-reflected copy of the experimental apparatus. This so-
called law of parity conservation was known to be respected
by classical gravitation, electromagnetism and the strong
interaction; it was assumed to be a universal
law.[21] However, in the mid-1950s Chen-Ning
Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee suggested that the weak
interaction might violate this law. Chien Shiung Wu and
collaborators in 1957 discovered that the weak interaction
violates parity, earning Yang and Lee the 1957 Nobel Prize in
Physics.[2

Lee the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics.[22]

Although the weak interaction was once described

by Fermi's theory, the discovery of parity violation
and renormalizationtheory suggested that a new approach
was needed. In 1957, Robert Marshak and George
Sudarshan and, somewhat later, Richard
Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann proposed
a V−A (vector minus axial vector or left-
handed) Lagrangian for weak interactions. In this theory, the
weak interaction acts only on left-handed particles (and right-
handed antiparticles). Since the mirror reflection of a left-
handed particle is right-handed, this explains the maximal
violation of parity. Interestingly, the V−Atheory was
developed before the discovery of the Z boson, so it did not
include the right-handed fields that enter in the neutral
current interaction.

However, this theory allowed a compound symmetry CP to

be conserved. CP combines parity P (switching left to right)
with charge conjugation C (switching particles with
antiparticles). Physicists were again surprised when in
1964, James Cronin and Val Fitch provided clear evidence
in kaon decays that CP symmetry could be broken too,
winning them the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics.[23] In
1973, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa showed
that CP violation in the weak interaction required more than
two generations of particles,[24] effectively predicting the
existence of a then unknown third generation. This discovery
earned them half of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics.[25] Unlike
parity violation, CP violation occurs in only a small number
of instances, but remains widely held as an answer to the
difference between the amount of matter and antimatter in
the universe; it thus forms one of Andrei Sakharov's three
conditions for baryogenesis

The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and

the Quest for the Ultimate Theory is a book by Brian
Greene published in 1999, which
introduces string and superstring theory, and provides a
comprehensive though non-technical assessment of
the theory and some of its shortcomings. In 2000, it won
the Royal Society Prize for Science Books and was a finalist
for the Pulitzer Prize Nonfiction. eginning with a brief
consideration of classical physics, which concentrates on
the major conflicts in physics, Greene establishes a
historical context for string theory as a necessary means of
integrating the probabilistic world of the standard
model of particle physics and the deterministic Newtonian
physics of the macroscopic world. Greene discusses the
essential problem facing modern physics: unification
of Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity and Quantum
Mechanics. Greene suggests that string theory is the
solution to these two conflicting approaches. Greene
frequently uses analogies and thought experiments to
provide a means for the layman to come to terms with the
theory which has the potential to create a unified theory of
physics, this is not not true yet award is forged, There
is general relativity, which beautifully accounts for gravity
and all of the things it dominates: orbiting planets, colliding
galaxies, the dynamics of the expanding universe as a whole.
That's big. Then there is quantum mechanics, which handles
the other three forces—electromagnetism and the two
nuclear forces.

Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that

seeks to describe gravity according to the principles
of quantum mechanics, and where quantum effects cannot
be ignored,[1] such as near compact astrophysical objects
where the effects of gravity are strong.

The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert

Einstein's general theory of relativity, which is formulated
within the framework of classical physics. On the other hand,
the other three fundamental forces of physics are described
within the framework of quantum mechanics and quantum
field theory, radically different formalisms for describing
physical phenomena.[2] It is sometimes argued that a
quantum mechanical description of gravity is necessary on
the grounds that one cannot consistently couple a classical
system to a quantum one

General relativity of albert Einstein can not unified to quantum

mechanics to make another theory, .astrology explains, uantum
mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum
theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics),
including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory
in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales
of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.[2]

Classical physics (the physics existing before quantum

mechanics) is a set of fundamental theories which describes
nature at ordinary (macroscopic) scale. Most theories in
classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics
as an approximation valid at large (macroscopic)
scale.[3]Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in
that: energy, momentum and other quantities of a system
may be restricted to discrete values (quantization), objects
have characteristics of both particles and waves (wave-
particle duality), and there are limits to the precision with
which quantities can be known (uncertainty principle)

As was emphasized above, quantum gravitational effects are

extremely weak and therefore difficult to test. For this
reason, the possibility of experimentally testing quantum
gravity had not received much attention prior to the late
1990s. However, in the past decade, physicists have realized
that evidence for quantum gravitational effects can guide the
development of the theory. Since theoretical development
has been slow, the field of phenomenological quantum
gravity, which studies the possibility of experimental tests,
has obtained increased attention.[57][58]

The most widely pursued possibilities for quantum gravity

phenomenology include violations of Lorentz invariance,
imprints of quantum gravitational effects in the cosmic
microwave background (in particular its polarization), and
decoherence induced by fluctuations in the space-time foam.

The BICEP2 experiment detected what was initially thought

to be primordial B-mode polarization caused by gravitational
waves in the early universe. Had the signal in fact been
primordial in origin, it could have been an indication of
quantum gravitational effects, but it soon transpired that the
polarization was due to interstellar dust interference.

RECOMMEDATIONS.

Other example applications of superposition and theory

of relativity.
In electrical engineering, in a linear circuit, the input (an
applied time-varying voltage signal) is related to the output (a
current or voltage anywhere in the circuit) by a linear
transformation. Thus, a superposition (i.e., sum) of input
signals will yield the superposition of the responses. The use
of Fourier analysis on this basis is particularly common. For
another, related technique in circuit analysis,
see Superposition theorem.

In physics, Maxwell's equations imply that the (possibly time-

varying) distributions of charges and currents are related to
the electric and magnetic fields by a linear transformation.
Thus, the superposition principle can be used to simplify the
computation of fields which arise from a given charge and
current distribution. The principle also applies to other linear
differential equations arising in physics, such as the heat
equation.

In mechanical engineering, superposition is used to solve for

beam and structure deflections of combined loads when the
effects are linear (i.e., each load does not affect the results of
the other loads, and the effect of each load does not
significantly alter the geometry of the structural
system).[8] Mode superposition method uses the natural
frequencies and mode shapes to characterize the dynamic
response of a linear structure.[9]

In hydrogeology, the superposition principle is applied to

the drawdown of two or more water wells pumping in an
ideal aquifer.

In process control, the superposition principle is used

in model predictive control.

The superposition principle can be applied when small

deviations from a known solution to a nonlinear system are
analyzed by linearization.

In music, theorist Joseph Schillinger used a form of the

superposition principle as one basis of his Theory
of Rhythm in his Schillinger System of Musical Composition

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the

principles of physics and chemistry "to ascertain the nature
of the astronomical objects, rather than their positions or
motions in space".[1][2] Among the objects studied are
the Sun, other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets,
the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave
background.[3][4] Their emissions are examined across all
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties
examined include luminosity, density, temperature,
and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very
broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many
disciplines of physics,
including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical
mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum
mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics,
and atomic and molecular physics.

REOMMENDATIONS IN APPLICATIONS SATURN RAIN,

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,[1] is a

satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United
States government and operated by the United States Air Force.[2] It is
a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time
information to a GPS receiveranywhere on or near the Earth where there is
an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.[3] Obstacles
such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.

The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates
independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these
technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning
information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to military,
civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States
government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The GPS project was launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973
for use by the United States military and became fully operational in 1995. It
was allowed for civilian use in the 1980s

GLONASS (Russian: ГЛОНАСС, IPA: [ɡɫɐˈnas]; Глобальная

навигационная спутниковая система; transliteration Globalnaya
navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema), or "Global Navigation Satellite
System", is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in
the radionavigation-satellite service. It provides an alternative to GPS and
is the second navigational system in operation with global coverage and of
comparable precision.

Manufacturers of GPS navigation devices say that adding GLONASS made

more satellites available to them, meaning positions can be fixed more
quickly and accurately, especially in built-up areas where the view to some
GPS satellites is obscured by buildings.[1][2][3] It is also more suitable for use
in high latitudes (north or south).[4]

Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976. Beginning on

12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added satellites to the system
until the constellation was completed in 1995. After a decline in capacity
during the late 1990s, in 2001, under Vladimir Putin's presidency, the
restoration of the system was made a top government priority and funding
was substantially increased. GLONASS is the most expensive program of
the Russian Federal Space Agency, consuming a third of its budget in
2010.

By 2010, GLONASS had achieved 100% coverage of Russia's territory and

in October 2011, the full orbital constellation of 24 satellites was restored,
enabling full global coverage. The GLONASS satellites' designs have
undergone several upgrades, with the latest version being GLONASS-K2,
scheduled to enter service in early 2018.

Notes

abc
 The value given is continent's highest and possibly the
world's depending on measurement practices, procedures and
period of record variations.
^
 The official greatest average annual precipitation for South
America is 900 cm (354 in) at Quibdó, Colombia. The 1,330 cm
(523.6 in) average at Lloró [23 km (14 mi) SE and at a higher
elevation than Quibdó] is an estimated amount.
^
 Approximate elevation.
^
 Recognized as "The Wettest place on Earth" by the Guinness
Book of World Records.[169]
 Ariny Amos book May /2018 , Theory of relativity NOVEL.
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