Volume -17 May 2015 Special Issue - 6

ANNALS OF PLANT AND SOIL RESEARCH

CONTENTS
HAREESH KUMAR, T. K. DHRUW, P. K. KURRE, K.K. SAHU Correlation studies on available calcium and 1
soil properties in Different soil type of malkharauda block under janjgir-champa District in Chhattisgarh

VIKAS KUMAR , NEHA SOHGAURA , PRATIBHA CHANDRAKER1 AND HARSH MISHRA Evaluat- 6
ing Rice Ril Population For Yield And Quality Traits

TARUN SINGH PATEL, R. N. SHARMA, HARSH MISHRA AND R. K. VERMA Screening of indigenous 9
rice germplasm accessions for heat Tolerance

U.S. VERMA , S.S. SENGAR AND DEEPIKA DEVDAS Soil reaction (ph) and electrical conductivity (ec) in 12
the samples of Different soil type (inceptisols, alfisols and vertisols)

U.S. VERMA , S.S. SENGAR AND DEEPIKA DEVDAS Relationship among physico-chemical and chemical 15
properties of Soil

U.S. VERMA , S.S. SENGAR AND DEEPIKA DEVDAS Status Of Macronutrients (N, P And K) In Sampled 21
Soil

DEEPIKA DEVDAS, L. K. SRIVASTAVA, U.S.VERMA Correlation of ph and organic carbon with available 24
iron (fe) in black soil of navagarh block under janjgir district in Chhattisgarh

SAGAR ANAND PANDEY AND V.K. KOSHTA Succession of insect-pests and their natural enemies on okra 27
(abelmoschus esculentus l)

PREM SHANKARTIWARI, SANJAY SHARMA AND G. NAGA BHARANI Studies on feeding enhancement 30
of rice brown plant hopper (nilaparvata lugens stal.) At different fertilizer doses.

STUTI MISHRA, A. N. SHRIVASTAVA, AVINASH JHA AND SANJEEVTANTWAY Correlation and path 34
coefficient analysis of advance breeding lines Of soybean

AKASH NIRMAL, JAYALAXMI GANGULI, HEMKANT CHANDRAVANSHI, SANJAY SHARMA AND 38

MANMOHAN SINGH BISHEN Testing Of Non-Electrical Low Cost Light Trap

STUTI MISHRA, AVINASH JHA AND PRATEEK SINGH Genetic parameters and variability in advance 40
breeding lines of Soybean

THALESH KUMAR PANIGRAHI, G. L. SHARMA, T. TIRKEY, PUSHPENDRA SINGH PAINKRA Yield 43

And Quality Evaluation Of Local Collected Genotype Of Ivy

SURYA PRAKASH GUPTA AND S.P. SINGH Determination of half – life and safe waiting period for Rational- 47
izing the insecticide use in/on horticultural crop

JITENDRA KUMAR, S.P. GUPTA, P.P.SINGH, PAIDY SATYANARAYANA AND R. PRASAD Effect of 50
date’s of planting on the incidence of thrips, (thrips tabaci lind.) Leaf infestation and bulb yield in onion

SANGEETA JOSHI, KUMARDHAR SAHU, SURAJ K. RAI AND RADHIKA PATHIYAR Correlation of 53
ph, ec and organic carbon with available zinc (zn) In soil (inseptisols) of dhabhra block under janjgir district of
Chhattisgarh

SANGEETA JOSHI KUMARDHAR SAHU, SURAJ K. RAI AND HAREESH KUMAR Evaluation of soil 58
fertility status in soils of dabhra block, under Janjgir district of chhattisgarh”

JITENDRA KUMAR JOSHI, ATUL KUMAR SHRIVASTAVA, ABHISHEK CHAUHAN AND CHUM- 63
MANLAL SAHU Effects of tillage practices on soil physical properties of clay Loam soil for chickpea crop in
central india

K. D. SAHU, SANGEETA JOSHI AND B.P. GARHEWAL Correlation between available macronutrients and 70
soil physicochemical Properties in inceptisols of jaijaipur block in district Janjgir-champa of chhattisgarh”
JITENDRA KUMAR JOSHI, A. K. SHRIVASTAVA, CHUMMANLAL SAHU AND SHUSHANTA PAD- 74
HAN `Tillage practices and effect of sowing methods on growth and Yield of chickpea crop in vertisol

S.K. BHENDE , A.H. NAGONE , H. K. DESHMUKH AND R. K. DEWANGAN Effect Of Fertilizers On 82

Growth And Seed Yield Of Okra

N. VASURE , DR. S. R. PATIL AND R.K. DEWANGAN Studies on preparation and preservation of ginger 87
blended Pomegranate ready to serve beverages

PANKAJ BHARGAV, GAJENDRA CHANDRAKAR, YEETESH CHANDRAKAR, SANJAY SHARMA 90

AND GIRISH CHANDEL Assessment of secondary exposure of bt protein on predatory insect Staphylinid bee-
tle, paederus fuscipes curtis. Expressed in transgenic Rice events

DEEPANSHU MUKHERJEE, R. SINGH, HARSH MISHRA, HEMKANT CHANDRAVANSHI AND 94

UMESH CHANDRAKAR Effect of agrometeorogical indices on soybean crop under Different sowing date in
chhattisgarh plains

HEMKANT CHANDRAVANSHI, JAYALAXMI GANGULI, AKASH NIRMAL, RUPESH GAJBHIYE 99

AND GAJENDRA CHANDRAKAR Seasonal incidence of insect pest of karanja, pongamia pinnata at the
Agro-forestry field of igkv, raipur

Y. ARCHANAKARUNI, K. SUHASINI Marketing Analysis Of Rice In Nalgonda District Of Andhra Pradesh 102

AWANISH KUMAR, V N MISHRA, L K SRIWASTAVA AND ANUSUIYA PANDA Distribution of dtpa-ex- 108
tractable micronutrinent in soils of Raipur District of Chhattisgarh

B SOWJANYA Impact of income and prices on production and marketing behavior of bengal gram 113

B. KALITA , B. GOGOI , B. B. DEORI AND M. DAS Effect of certain chemicals and some plant extract on 116
citrus Nematode (tylenchulus semipenetrans, cobb 1913) on khasi manderine (citrus reticulate, blanco)

B. MADHAVI AND G. JAYASREE Effect of opencast coal mining on soil fertility in cultivated soils of telangana 119
state

B.KEERTHANA, V.RAMULU, V. PRAVEEN RAO, M.UMA DEVI and A.V. ANUSHA Response of rabi 122
maize (zea mays) to soil and climate based Drip irrigation schedules

D. SRIDEVI , SYED AHMAD HUSSAIN and M.YAKADRI Effect Of Integrated Nutrient Management On 127
Soybean

D.ANITHA KUMARI, G.ANITHA AND V.ANITHA Population dynamics of dipteran and hymenopteran flow- 131
er feeders In chilli

D.P. SINGH, SAURABH VERMA AND N.K. SINGH Field evaluation of different group of insecticides Against 135
citrus psylla and leaf miner

DEVENDRA PRATAP SINGH, PRAKASH SINGH, RAHUL KUMAR SINGH, N. K. TIWARI Study on 138
socio-economic profile of television viewers in wazirganj, Block of gonda, district (u.p.)

K. SINGH, M. S. YADAV, ALOK MATHUR, RAJEEVA MOHAN, S. SHARMA, BHAWANI P. PANDEY 142
& ANSU. Appraisal, mapping & suitability of wasteland land / degraded land Using geospatial technology in rae
bareli, amethi and auraiya District of uttar Pradesh

ELMUONZO, UMA MAHESWARI, K., SUSILA, T AND VAHINI, S Antinutrient content and antioxidant 146
activity of selected Medicinal plants

GIRISH, S. BHANDARKAR, A.K. SARAWAGI, V. P. BHADANA HARSH MISHRA Correlation studies in 149
rice (oryza sativa l.) Among different Quantitative and quality traits.

HARSH MISHRA, A K SARAWGI, D SANJEEVA RAO, L V SUBBA RAO Screening of indigenous and 152
exotic aromatic rice genotypes for Grain iron and zinc content

JYOTHI SSP, MEERA SHAIK N, ARUN KUMAR S, MUTHURAMAN P Innovative e-learning for indian 155
rice farmers: usability and Learnability

K RAJESH, V. PADMA , S.R VOLETI , K. RADHIKA and A. SIVA SANKAR Response of rice (oryza sati- 161
va) varieties on nitrogen use efficiency and Yield under different nitrogen levels
K. CHANDRASHAKER , V. SAILAJA AND P. CHANDRASEKHAR RAO Effect of integrated use of organic 164
and inorganic sources of Phosphorus on inorganic p-fractions in soil of chickpea (cicer arietinum l.)

KAVITA GUPTA, A.K. SARAWGI, V. RAVINDRA BABU, HARSH MISHRA Evaluating red rice germ- 168
plasm for iron and zinc concentration in Brown rice using energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence

M. MADHU AND M. VENKATA RAMANA Effect of preceding crops on system productivity and system 171
Profitability of zero-till rabi castor (ricinus communis l.) Under Different nitrogen levels.

P.MALATHI AND K.M.SELLAMUTHU Effect Of Organic Manures On Yield And Economics Of Chillies 175

B. MANJUVANI , B. SRINIVAS RAO , D. VIJAYA AND K. MADHAVI Influence of rootstocks on petiole 178
nutrient content of table Varieties of grapes.

N.C. BANJARA, G.D SAHU, PATRAM SINGH, HARIOM PRAKASH , KOUSHAL PRADHAN Growth, 183
yield and economics of chilli (capsicum frutescens l.) Under Effects of plastic mulches with liquid fertilizers in
Chhattisgarh Regions

NEHA AGRAWAL , NIRMALA BHARTI PATEL, YOGITA SHRIVAS, RAJEEV SHRIVASTAV AND V. 187
RAVINDRABABU Screening of traditional rice germplasm of chhattisgarh for iron And zinc contain in brown
and polished rice

N.NITHYA , R.GEETHA AND V. PRAKASAM Alleviation of the adverse effects of salinity stress in rice var. 190
pmk 4 (oryza sativa l.) By seed biopriming with salinity tolerant pseudomonas Fluorescens

PRANEETH KUMAR SUVARNA, S. NARENDER REDDY, A. SIVA SANKAR and Y.SHARATH KU- 194
MAR REDDY Zinc effect on scmr, photosynthetic rate and fluorescence of Aromatic rice cultivars

PRATIBHA CHANDRAKER , BHAWANA SHARMA, A.K. SARAWGI, VIKAS KUMAR, D. SANJEEVA 197
RAO, L.V. SUBBA RAO Screening for grain zinc and iron content in aromatic short grain Accessions of rice
using energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence Spectrophotometer (ed – xrf).

RAJKISHORE KUMAR, ROSHAN KUMAR , RAKESH KUMAR AND AMARENDRA KUMAR Impact 200
of zinc application on micronutrient content in edible parts Of wheat cultivars

RAVI PALTHIYA , R.V. NAKAT , N.D. TAMBOLI AND S.GAIKWAD Efficacy Of Entomopathogenic Fungi 204
Against Jassids On Okra

RAVI, P .,JAYASREE, G ., PRATHIBA , G., BALAGURAVAIAH, D ., PRAVEEN RAO , V AND SIVA SAN- 208
KAR,A Effect natural nitrification inhibitors on chlorophyll content and Spad values of aerobic and puddled rice

RUDRA PRATAP SINGH , NARENDRA PRATAP AND UMESH CHANDRA Sap feeders associated with 212
cauliflower and corelations with Abiotice factors in eastern U. P.

S.K. SINGH, J.S. URKURKAR , A. TIWARI AND G.K. JATAV Yield, nutrient availability into the soil and 215
sustainability yield Index of rice as influenced by chemical fertilizers and inm in Inceptisol

SARITA DEVI GUPTA , R. N. KEWAT , PRATIBHA SINGH AND MANJRI Study of physical and bio- 218
chemical attributes of hybrid rice grown in Eastern uttar Pradesh

SATYENDRA KUMAR SINGH , R.K. DOHAREY , PRAKASH SINGH , A.K.SINGH , SANDIP KUMAR 221
SINGH Factors Affecting The Adoption Extent About Agro Forestry System

SHAKUNTALA DEVI I AND K SUHASINI Constraint Analysis Of Maize Farmers In Mahbubnagar District 224

SHASHANK SHEKHAR, B.N SINGH, S.R VISHWAKARMA, KALPANA SRIVASTAVA AND R PAND- 227
EY Extent of variability and correlation coefficient among various Characters in wheat germplasms

SHASHANK SHEKHAR, B.N SINGH, S.R VISHWAKARMA AND KALPANA SRIVASTAVA Extent of 230
direct and indirect effect of yield components in wheat Germplasms by path coefficient analysis

SHWETA TRIPATHI , P.K. SINGH , J.L. DWIVEDI , D.K. DWIVEDI AND ANANDKAR TRIPATHI 233
Correlation and path coefficientanalysis for yield and its Attributing traits under different water management in
aerobic Rice

V. SRI SATYA, S. G. BHARAD AND J. V. PATIL Influence of time of pruning on fruit yield and quality of guava 238
Planted at different spacing
SWATHI KONENI , SUNANDA MOKA , V.S. SHINDE , G.M. KOTE4 Nutrient uptake, quality and econom- 241
ics of green gram (vigna radiata l.) As influenced by phosphorus management

TANUMAY MANDAL, V. K. SINGH, CHANDRA BHUSHAN AND AMRENDRA KUMAR Weed dynam- 245
ics, nutrient removal and yield of urdbean (vigna mungo L. Hepper) as influenced by weed management practices
under tarai Conditions of uttarakhand

UMESH BABU , N. PRATAP , RAJ SHEKHAR , R.P. SINGH AND L.K. GANGWAR Genetic analysis for 250
yield components and oil content in Indian Mustard [brassica juncea (l.) Czern & coss]

V.PAVANKALYAN AND N.VASUDEV Cropping intensity and cropping pattern in tribal agriculture (itda Area) 255
in andrapradesh

VIPIN GUPTA, MRITUNJAY TRIPATHI AND N.A.KHANB Characterization of cysteine protease inhibitor 258
from artocarpus Heterophyllus and cry protein from bt (bacillus thuringiensis) for Antimetabolic activity of scir-
pophage incertulas (yellow stem Borer)

Y. LATIKA DEVI AND K SUHASINI Resource use efficiency of groundnut production in Andhra Pradesh 263

S.M.A. ZAIDI, M.K SINGH AND S.P. SINGH A study of phenotypic, genotypic correlation coefficient and its 266
Contributing traits of variability, heritability and expected genetic Advance in bottle gourd [lagenaria siceraria
(molina)

S. ALAGAPPAN , R,VENKITASWAMY AND G. MARIAPPAN Impact of different sources of organic ma- 269
nures in comparison with Rdf and inm on growth and yield of rice

V. AMIRTHA LINGAM, K.ANGAPPAN, E.G.EBENEZAR, S.RAJESH, S.NAKEERAN A study on native 273

isolates of Trichoderma spp. From southern districts of tamilnadu

T. ANANTHI AND M. MOHAMED AMANULLAH Influence of mycorrhizal inoculation and fertilizer levels 278
on Physiological growth parameters and yield of hybrid maize

M.DHIVYA AND R. SANANKARANARAYANAN Effect of different growing environments on the growth of 283
Selected cacti under tropical condition

D.DHIVYAPRIYA, V. KARPAGAM AND R.KALAIYARASI Morphological characterization of thermo sen- 286

sitive genic male Sterile lines for floral traits in rice

S.A. JAYAPRAKASH, S. MOHAN AND M. KANNAN Evaluation of seed treating and foliar insecticides 290
against sucking Pests of bollgard ii bt cotton

N. KALIESWARI, T. ANAND AND D. ALICE In vitro screening of effective pgpr (fluorescent pseudomonad) 294
Strains against root rot and wilt of cotton

KARTHIKADEVI.M AND S.GUNASEKARAN Evaluation Of Polyphenolic Compounds In Fruit Wines 298

M. DHANANIVETHA, M. MOHAMED AMANULLAH AND P. MURALI ARTHANARI Effect of weed 301

management methods on weed control and Productivity of onion

R.MAHENDRAN , P.VEERABADHIRAN , S.ROBIN AND M.RAVEENDRAN Genetic variability in rice 304

germplasm lines for high temperature Tolerance related traits

M. MOHANA KEERTHI, R. BABU, M. JOSEPH AND R. AMUTHA Combined effect of plant geometry and 308
nutrient management on Growth parameters and yield of irrigated greengram

PARTHASARATHY, S,, MOHAMMAD FAISAL, P., PRABAKAR., K., THIRIBHUVANAMALA, G. AND 311
RAJALAKSHMI, J. Profiling of antifungal compounds from n-hexane extracts of Mango fruits against major
post harvest pathogens

K. JANCY RANI AND S. SUBRAMANIAN Influence of temperature and moisture on the entomopathogenic 317
Nematode,steinernematami

RAMACHANDRAN. A AND VENKATARAMAN. N.S Evaluation of allelopathic impact of aqueous leaf ex- 321
tracts Of tagetes erectus on seed germination, seedling growth of Parthenium hysterophorus

B.RAMYA, G.NALLATHAMBI AND S.GANESH RAM Development of mutant population for low raffinose 325
family Oligosaccharide content in blackgram (vigna mungo (l.) Hepper)
S. REVATHI , R. USHAKUMARI , S. MANONMANI , K. SAKTHIVEL AND S.ROBIN Genetic variability 328
and heritability in early generation of rice for Grain yield and other yield attributes traits

S. REVATHI , R. USHAKUMARI , S. MANONMANI , K. SAKTHIVEL AND S.ROBIN Variability esti- 331

mates and association analysis for yield and its Component traits in rice (oryza sativa l.)

SUVARNA RANI CHIMMILI, R. USHA KUMARI, K. SUBHASHINI, K.BAGHYALAKSHMI, A.R. PRI- 335
YANKA V. ULAGANATHAN AND R. VINOTH Combining Ability Studies In Medicinal Landraces Of Rice

LALITA THAKUR, LALIT BHATT, S.K. MAURYA AND UDIT KUMAR Standardization Of Npk Through 339
Fertigation In Capsicum With Or Without Mulch In Naturally Ventilated Polyhouse

P. THANGACHAMY, P. KARTHIK, A. SANJEEVI KUMAR, K. BHARATHIDASAN S. BAGYARAJ, 343

6S. KUTTALAM AND 7K. GUNASEKARAN Evaluation Of Thiamethoxam 25 % Wg Against Sucking Pests
In Okra

S.THANGESWARI , S. ARCHANA , VANITHA AND S.K. MANORANJITHAM In vitro screening of fun- 347
gicides and antagonists against leaf blight Of gloriosa superba incited by curvularia lunata

S.THANGESWARI, S.K. MANORANJITHAM, N.S. KALAIVANAN, R. MASANAM, R. INDUMATHI 351

AND S. KAVITHA In vitro screening of fungicides and biocontrol agents against Fusarium wilt (fusarium oxys-
porum f.sp. Cubense) and sigatoka leaf Spot (mycosphaerella musicola) of banana

J. VANITHA , K. AMUDHA , R. USHA KUMARI , S. ROBIN AND S. THIYAGESHWARI Genotypic re- 355
sponse for zinc deficiency under aerobic rice Ecosystem

V. VIGILA AND K. DEVRAJAN Bioefficacy of pseudomonas fluorescens and bacillus spp. On Root knot nem- 357
atode meloidogyne incognita in brinjal (solanum Melongena l.)

N.VIJI AND DR.C.R. CHINNAMUTHU PH.D SCHOLAR, PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF AGRONOMY, 361
TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, MADURAI, TAMIL NADU. Breaking dormancy and in-
ducing germination of the world worst Weed the cyperus rotundus using nanoparticles

V. VIGILA AND S. SUBRAMANIAN In vitro screening of bacterial culture filtrates against Meloidogyne incog- 364
nita in tomato ( solanum lycopersicum l.)

M. MUTHULAKSHMI Growth and yield of mulberry as affected by the root-knot Nematode, meloidogyne 370
incognita

B. BEBITHA , C. MUTHIAH C,CHINNIAH AND P.CHANDRAMANI Management of pests of brinjal (so- 373
lanum melongena. L.) Using newer Insecticide molecules under precision farming system

KALAIYARASAN V Utilization of seriwaste compost as a supplement to inorganic Fertilizer in hybrid maize 377

S.R.KASHTE ,S.G.LONAGRE AND D.N.INGOLE . Stability analysis for quality traits in wheat (triticum spp.) 379

S.D. DESHMUKH , M.H. DAHALE AND S. P. SHERE Influence of different mulches on physico-chemical 382
properties of Fig (ficus carica l.) Cv. Dinkar

S.R.KASHTE ,S.G.LONAGRE AND D.N.INGOLE Stability analysis for yield traits in wheat (triticum spp.) 384

S.G.LONAGRE ,S.R.KASHTE AND D.N.INGOLE Efficacy of different pyrethroids alone and in combination 388
with Dimethoate agaisnt spodoptera litura of soybean

A.V.S. DURGA PRASAD AND E. MURUGAN Correlation analysis for seed yield and its attributes in parents 391
and F1 generation in blackgram (vigna mungo (l.) Hepper).

ANITHA PAULINE. A AND C.KARTHIKEYAN Problems faced by farmers due to dyeing industrial effluents 394
in the Noyyal river basin of tamil nadu

ANITHA PAULINE. A AND C.KARTHIKEYAN Impact of pollution on migration of farmers in noyyal river 399
basin of Tamil nadu

DR. S. SALEEMA RABIYATH ARIF MOIN V. THIRUVENI Role of community radio in coastal women 403
development in Puducherry state
 HARIKANTH PORIKA , M. SUCHITHRA H.P. SUDEEP AND MAHANTESH Y.JOGI Role Of Bio-Fer- 406
tilizers In Horticulture Crops-A Review

L.V. SUBBA RAO, G.KUMAR, R.MAHENDHRA KUMAR AND K.KESHAVULU Effect of system of rice 411
intensification (sri)on growth parameters, Yield attributes and yield in rice genotypes.

HEMANT KUMAR JHINGONIYA , SUBHASH CHANDRA , RAJENDRA KUMAR MEENA AND AMIT 417
KUMAR KESHRI To find out the adoption level of technologies of moth bean crop By the beneficiaries and
non-beneficiaries farmers of krishi vigyan Kendra, bikaner, (rajasthan)

LAKSHMI B.K.M., ANITHA G, RAJASEKHARA RAO. K AND SUMALATHA. K Evaluation of phero- 420
mone traps for the capture of sweet potato Weevil cylas formicarius elegantes impact of weather factors on trap
catch

L. V SUBBARAO, LAVANYA K, PADMA C, CHIRANJEEVI M, CHAITANYA U, SURENDER R, JAYAS- 424

REE B, SHIVA PRASAD G,SUNEETHA K AND DIPAL R CHOWDHURY Assessment of genetic diver-
gence in farmers’ varieties of rice[oryzasativa l] from the eastern region of india

MALLINATH NEERGUDE., BIRADAR A.P. AND VEERENDRA A.C Effect of sowing dates on the inci- 428
dence of onion thrips, thrips tabaci Lindeman in north regions of Karnataka

MUNISH KUMAR SINGH SHAILESH MARKER, VIDYAPATI VIDYAKAR, RAVI KANT, A. PAUL 431
AND D.N.SINGH Genetic variability parameters correlation studies in bread wheat (triticum aestivum l.)

S. V. TIRKEY , M.IMTIYAZ , KUMAR. J.L.G , MANISH KUMAR , A. KUJUR5 Yield, irrigation produc- 433
tion efficiency and economic return of Tomato under variable irrigation and lateral spacing

P.SENGUTTUVEL , , K.THIYAGARAJAN , C.VIJAYALAKSHMI , S.GEETHA , J.R.KANNANBAPU , 438

BRAJENDRA , B.C.VIRAKTAMATH , VP BHADANA , SRAVAN RAJU , LV SUBBARAO , G PADMA-
VATHI AND V.RAVINDRABABU Prediction of combining ability and heterosis in three line rice Hybrids for
salinity tolerance

PRADEEP JOLIYA , SHILPI AND V.KAMALVANSHI An analysis of growth in milk production during 442
operation flood Programme in major states of india

PRASHANTH KUMAR , SURESH LENKANNAVAR , P. VASUDEV NAIK , SHIVANAND HONGAL P. 447

HARIKANTH AND T. MANJUNATH Susceptible stages of chilli (capsicum annuum l.) Var. Phule jyoti to
Root rot disease caused by sclerotium rolfsii sacc.

PRASHANTH KUMAR , SURESH LENKANNAVAR, SHIVANAND HONGAL , P. VASUDEV NAIK P. 449

HARIKANTH AND T. MANJUNATH In vitro evaluation of fungicides and bioagents against sclerotium Rolf-
sii sacc. Causing root rot of chilli

R.PARIMALARANGAN S. SELVAM S. GURUNATHAN D.PERIYAR RAMASAMY AND K C SIVA- 452

BALAN Economic losses of salinity induced soil degradation in Rice productivity in tamil nadu

RAGHAVENDRA B.M., SUSHEELA, R., PRAVEEN RAO V, GANGAIAH B., LAKSHMAN K. AND SUD- 455
HAKAR T.M. Effect of different weed management studies on weed and growth Indices of direct wet seeded rice
sown through drum seeder

RAVI SHANKAR PRASAD & MALABIKA RAY Vegetative propagation of traditional sweeteners for liveli- 459
hood Generation - a technical report

RAVI SHANKAR PRASAD & MALABIKA RAY Study on conservation, mass multiplication and propagation 462
through Shoot cutting of gymnema sylvestre

S. MANIGANDAN , R.RAMAMOORTHY , S. SHANMUGA PACKIAM S. and R. M. VIJAYAKUMAR 464

Analysis of phytochemical profile of annona muricata fruit pulp extract: a Chemical and biological profile of some
important leads

SAURABH SHARMA , S.K. SENGUPTA, SUNIL PRAJAPATI, S.K. SHARMA , AVTAR SINGH DANGI, 468
DHARMENDRA SINGH DANGI AND VIPIN VERMA Individual assessment of organic and inorganic sourc-
es of Nutrients on growth and yield of cowpea (vigna unguiculata l.) Cv. Cp-4

SAURABH VERMA, S.P. GIRI, D.K. VERMA AND D.P. SINGH Information and communication technology 474
(ict) initiative for Dissemination of farm technologies In eastern uttar Pradesh
TEJENDRA KUMAR,VINOD KUMAR, R V SINGH BRAJENDRA AND KV RAO Factor Productivity, 477
Nutrient And Harvest Status Of Rice In Farmers’ Fields Of Ghagraghat

VIDHATE S. B., TAMBOLKAR B.B. AND SIDARAY ALLOLLI Effect of integrated nutrient management on 479
growth, yield and Yield attributes of brinjal (solanummelongena l.) Hy. Phule arjun”

V. K. BHAMARE, R. B. DAKE AND P. V. PATILPersistance and relative toxicity of different insecticides 482
against Custard apple mealy bug, (maconellicocus hirsutus)

S.M. JADHAO, S.S. SHETGAR AND V.K. BHAMARE Population dynamics of sucking insect-pests infesting 486
sunflower And it’s relationship with weather parameters

A.S.VATS, SAURABH VERMA AND D.P. SINGH Strategies for the management of powdery mildew (erysiphe 489
cruciferarum) in mustard crop

AKANKSHA SINGH, D.K. DWIVEDI, ANURAG VERMA, GAURAV KUMAR,GYANANDRA KUMAR 494
VINAY MISHRA AND K.N.SINGH Improving salt tolerance in plant through molecular and Biochemical meth-
ods in rice mapping population

J. K TIWARI, V. KAMALVANSHI, AMITA MAURYA AND PRADEEP JOLIYA An economic analysis of bt 497
cotton cultivation in sanawad district of Madhya pradesh

B.GOKILA AND K.BASKAR Effect of sulphur application on soil nutrient status of Blackgramin typic rhodu- 502
stalf

B.M. THOMBRE, M.B. VALVI AND D.D. SURADKAR Benefits availed by the rural women about integrated 504
child Develoment service (icds) scheme

SAVITA GUPTA, S. P. SINGH, CHANDAN KUMAR SINGH, VINOD KUMAR SINGH AND VINAY 507
SINGH Performance Of Newly Released Wheat Varieties At Farmer’s Field

D. D. SURADKAR, A. R. DHEPE AND B.M. THOMBRE Relational Analysis Of Black Gram Production 510
Farmers

D. D. SURADKAR, S. S. MANE AND J.M.DESHMUKH Adoption Of Recommended Production Technology 514

On Greengram

BHOOP NARAYAN, R.P. SINGH, and R.C. Tiwari Effect of moisture regimes on transplanted rice under saline 517
akline Condition

UMA SHANKAR MISHRA, AMIT KUMAR UKEY AND RAJESH DHAKAR Effect of sulphur and boron 518
nutrition on growth, yield, nutrient Uptake and quality of green gram (vigna radiata) under rain fed Conditions

REWATI LATA, N. K. MOTIRAMANI, R. SHRIVASTAVA, S. K. NAG AND M. K. LAHRE Stability anal- 521
ysis for identification of ideal genotype of wheat (triticum aestivum l.)

AJAY TIWARI, R.N. SHARMA, H.C. NANDA AND A. K. SARAWGI Genetic variability analysis for plant 524
selection in pigeonpea [cajanus cajan (l.) Millsp.].

M.B. VALVI, B.M. THOMBRE AND D.D. SURADKAR Benefits availed by the rural women about integrated 529
child Develoment service (icds) scheme

N.K.TIWARI S.F.A ZAIDI, RAJ KUMAR AND CHANDAN SINGH Effect of split application of npk fertiliz- 531
er on nutrient utilization Efficiency and yield of hybrid rice (oryza sativa l.)

NAVEEN KUMAR MARKAM, RAVINDRA KUMAR VERMA, AJAY TIWARI, UMESH CHANDRA 535
DESHMUKH AND ISHU KUMAR KHUTEMorphological Characterization Of Rice Germplasm

NITIN VIKRAM AND RAJ NARAYAN KEWAT Grain quality evaluation and organoleptic analysis of differ- 539
ent Varieties of rice

P. B. ADSUL, U. B. GAWADE, P.H.VAIDYA, A. N. PURI AND PUSHPALATHA M. Effect of sulphur and 542
boron on yield and yield attributes of kharif Sunflower

R.D MANE., P.H. VAIDYA, A.S. DHAWAN AND Y.S.PAWAR Characterizations And Classifications Of Grape 545
(Vitis Vinitera) Growing Soils In Osmanabad District (Maharashtra)
S. K. Z. RIZVI, R. P. SINGH AND P. SINGH Physiological Traits And Yield Related Traits In Barnyard Millet 550
[Echinochloa Frumentacea L.]

SANTOSH KUMAR AND VERMA O.P. Partial purification and characterization of â -glucosidase from Maize 552
(zea mays)

S. K. Z. RIZVI, R. P. SINGH AND PRATIBHA SINGH Nutritional and physico-chemical characteristics of 555
sawan millet Germplasm [echinochloa frumentacea l.]

V. MANASA, N. S. HEBSUR, L. H. MALLIGAWAD, B. RAMA KRISHNA and L. SHIVA KUMAR Effect 558
of water soluble fertilizers on morphological parameters And drymatter distribution of groundnut in a vertisol of
northern

V. S. JAGTAP, D. J. GAWALI AND N.H. CHAVAN Heterosis And Combining Ability For Morphological And 562
Yield Characters In Chilli

VIMAL KUMAR SINGH, P. K. GUPTA, R. B. SINGH AND J. P. SINGH Field evaluation of rice germplasm 565
against leaf folder, Cnapalocrocis medinalis guenee. Under irrigated condition

VIMAL KUMAR SINGH, P. K. GUPTA, R. B. SINGH AND J. P. SINGH Effect of date of planting on rice leaf 568
folder, cnapalocrocismedinalis guenee. In aromatic rice

VINOD SINGH, SAURABH VERMA, ARCHANA SINGH AND M.K. PANDEY Effect of pruning severity 570
on physiological, yield and quality attributes in grapes (vitis vinifera l.) Cv. Perlette

VINOD SINGH, SAURABH VERMA, ARCHANA SINGH AND M.K. PANDEY Effect Of High And Low 573
Density Plantation On Yield And Quality Of Guava Under Reclaimed Sodic Condition

TEJENDER KUMAR, BRAJENDRA, KV RAO, K SUREKHA,MBB PRASAD BABU AND VK SINGH 577
Nutritional status of rice in farmers’ fields in relation to Productivity

LAHAR JYOTI BORDOLOI, BRAJENDRA,,B.P.BHATT . BENJAMIN MEGHNA SARMA AND V V 579

SUMANTHKUMAR Quantifying Major Nutrient Losses As Runoff Under Agroforestry Land Use Systems In
Eastern Himalaya, India

RAVINDRA PRATAP SINGH JETAWAT, KAMAL SINGH, R. S. RATNOO AND B.D.S. NATHAWAT 583
Physiological studies for the rot root pathogen of Ashwagandha(withania somnifera).

RAZIA SULTANA, N.A. ANSARI, M.S. RAMESHA, A. SIVA SANKAR AND K. MURALI KRISHNA 586
Generation mean analysis of quantitative traits in restorer lines of rice (oryza sativa l.)

K MURALI MOHAN, H B KALBHOR Effect Of Potassium And Zinc Deficiencies On Dry Matter Analysis 594
Of Gerbera Under Polyhouse Condition

S.G.LONAGRE, S.R.KASHTE AND D.N.INGOLE Efficacy Of Different Pyrethroids Alone And In 599
Combination With Dimethoate Agaisnt Semilooper Of Soybean

P. ASHOKA* KADASIDDAPPA M. M AND SANJEY, M. T. Enhancing Water Productivity Through Micro- 601
Irrigation Technologies In Indian Agriculture
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 1-5 (2015)
CORRELATION STUDIES ON AVAILABLE CALCIUM AND SOIL PROPERTIES IN
DIFFERENT SOIL TYPE OF MALKHARAUDA BLOCK UNDER JANJGIR-CHAMPA
DISTRICT IN CHHATTISGARH
HAREESH KUMAR*, T. K. DHRUW, P. K. KURRE, K.K. SAHU
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur -492012(C.G)

ABSTRACT
The study was carried out to evaluate the soil fertility status with respect to available calcium nutrient status and its relation-
ship with important physico-chemical characteristics in different soils of Malkharauda block under Janjgir-Champa district of Ch-
hattisgarh during 2013-14. Grid based 1975 surface (0-15 cm depth) soil samples were collected using Global positioning sys-
tem (GPS) from 110 villages of Malkharauda block. The soil samples were analyzed for pH, EC, OC and Calcium. Most of the soil
pH varied from 4.2 – 8.0 and indicated that soils were found to be moderately acidic to slightly acidic in reaction. The organic car-
bon content in these soils varied from 0.14 – 1.00 per cent which was observed to be medium to low in organic matter status. The
electrical conductivity (EC) varied from 0.01-0.97 dS m-1 with a mean value of 0.16dS m-1 at 25oC of the Malkharauda block. The
available calcium status varied from 448-9856 kg ha-1 with a mean value of 5059 kg ha-1. Correlation studies amongst available Cal-
cium nutrients and soil properties (pH, EC and OC) revealed significant positive correlations between soil pH and available Calcium.

Kew Words: Correlation, Calcium Status, pH, EC, Organic carbon, Chhattisgarh.

INTRODUCTION
Soil is the most vital and precious natural resource
that sustains life on the earth. The soils native ability to
supply sufficient nutrients has decreased with higher plant
productivity levels associated with increased human demand
for food. Therefore one of the greatest challenges today is to
develop and implement soil, crop and nutrients management
technologies that enhance the plant productivity and the
quality of soil, water and air. If we do not improve the
productive capacity of our fragile soils, we cannot continue
to support the food and fiber demands of our growing
population. Malkharouda is a prominent block in Janjgir-
Champa district of Chhattisgarh. Malkharouda are located
at Janjgir-Champa district lying between 21° 52’ 60” N
Latitude to 82° 27’ 00” E Longitude.
Soil testing program is beneficial to formulate specific
fertilizer recommendations. Soil fertility maps are meant
for highlighting the nutrient needs, based on fertility status
of soils (adverse soil conditions which need improvement)
to realize good crop yields. Obviously, a soil fertility map
for a particular area can prove highly beneficial in guiding
the farmers, manufacturers and planners in ascertaining
the requirement of various fertilizers in a season/year and
making projections for increased requirement based on
cropping pattern and intensity. When fertility status of a soil
is known in terms of soil test values, the soil tests values
could be calibrated into different fertility categories such as
low, medium and high (Welch, and Wiere 1987 and Rashid
and Memon, 1996).
MATERIALS AND METHODS –
The investigation to evaluate the fertility status
of Malkhaurauda block of Janjgir-Champa district of
Chhattisgarh. Three type of soil present namely Inseptisol,
Alfisol and Vertisol. These samples will be analyzed for
available sulphur status to categories them into low, medium
and high categories with pH and organic carbon level and
standard statistical procedure for correlation study will be
followed. The Soil sample were collected and prepared
by drying, crushing and sieving through 2 mm sieve. The
selected samples were analyzed for soil pH (1:2 .5) soil:
water suspension after stirring for 30 minutes, by glass
electrode pH meter as suggested by Piper (1967). The
sample soil used for pH determination was allowed to settle
down for four hours then conductivity of supernatant liquid
was determined by Solu-bridge as described by black (1965)
organic carbon Walkley and Black’s rapid titration method
(1934) and Exchangeable Calcium can be determined in
ammonium acetate extracts of soils by titration with EDTA
method (Versinate Cheng and Bray 1951).Samples were
taken at fixed intervals systematically across a grid from
each of 10 ha area. The soil of study area was analysed for
the available nutrient content of Calcium and pH, EC, OC.
For this purpose, 961 soil samples were selected randomly
from 1975 samples of Malkhaurauda block for present study.
Sampling points were determined prior to sampling with the
help of GPS across a field for a soil type under study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION –
Physico-chemical characterization of soil
The data pertaining to status of pH, organic carbon
and electrical conductivity content of soil samples of
Malkharouda block under investigation are summarized in
Table. 1 to 4

1
Table1. Range and Mean values of Malkharauda block
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
SOIL PARAMETERS Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean
pH (1:2.5, Soil water) 4.2-8.0 5.9 5.0-8.0 6.0 4.6-8.0 6.0
EC (dS m ) -1
0.06- 0.74 0.18 0.05 -0.77 0.18 0.05- 0.86 0.15
O.C. (%) 0.14-0.92 0.54 0.28-0.97 0.59 0.33-1.00 0.66
Available Ca (kg ha ) -1
448-9632 4900.58 2240-9856 5554.94 2240-9184 5458.35
Soil reaction (pH) Considering over all 961 Malkharouda block soil samples,
41.62 per cent soils were moderately acidic, 26.53 per cent
The rating for pH values used to classify soils of slightly acidic, 11.55 per cent strongly acid, 18.41 per cent
the study area has been presented in the Table 2. The soils neutral and 1.87 per cent slightly alkaline in reaction in
having pH <5.0 designated as strongly acidic, 5.0 to 6.0 as Malkharouda block, (Table 2). Shukla (2011) who noted that
moderately acidic, 6.1 to 6.5 as slightly acidic, neutral 6.6 to the soil pH varied from 4.5 to 8.1 in Pamgarh block of Janjgir-
7.5 as and as 7.6 to 8.5.slightly alkaline. Champa district (C.G.) Jena et al. (2008) also reported that
The overall soil pH of farmer‟s field was moderately pH ranged from 4.6-7.5 with the mean value of 5.9 soils of
acidic to slightly alkaline in reaction and ranged from deltaic alluvium of coastal Orissa. The relative low pH of
4.2 to 8.0 with an average of 5.9 in different soils type of the soils might be due to low degree of base saturation. As
Malkharouda block. majority of the soil samples are acidic in nature, the farmers
are suggested to grow acid loving crops like rice etc. or
The pH ranged from 4.2 to 8.0, 5.0 to 8.0 and 4.6 to liming should be advised for harvesting optimum production
8.0 in Inceptisol, Alfisolsand Vertisols with an average of 5.9, of the crops.
6.0 and 6.0 in Malkharouda block, respectively (table 1).
Table 2: Category of soil samples under different pH rating of Malkharaudablock

pH Soil type
Total (%)
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Classes/ Limit No. of % No. of % No. of % No. of %
Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples
Strongly acid
104 14.46 1 0.57 6 8.82 111 11.55
<5.0
Moderately acid
287 39.77 90 51.72 23 33.82 400 41.62
5-6.0
Slightly acid 6.1-6.5 183 25.45 49 28.16 23 33.82 255 26.53
Neutral
132 18.35 31 17.81 14 20.58 177 18.41
6.6-7.5
Slightly alkaline
13 1.80 3 1.72 2 2.94 18 1.87
7.6-8.5
Total sample 719 78.81 174 18.10 68 7.94 961
Soil SD
Range Mean
Characteristics
pH 4.2 – 8.0 5.9 ± 0.75

Electrical conductivity (EC) :
The electrical conductivity (EC) varied from 0.01
to 0.97 dS m-1 with a mean value of 0.16 dS m-1 at 25 oCof
the Malkharouda block. The total salt content of these soils
expressed as EC are categorized as <0.1, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.2 to 0.3
and >0.3 dS m-1. The normal EC may be ascribed to leaching
of salts to lower horizons due to its light textured nature and
heavy rainfall and surface run-off. The EC ranged from 0.06
to 0.74, 0.05 to 0.77 and 0.05 to 0.86 dS m-1 in Inceptisols,
Alfisols, and Vertisols, respectively with an average of 0.18,
0.18 and 0.15 dS m-1 (table 1)

2
Table 3: Distribution and categorization of electrical conductivity status
Electrical conductivity
Soil type
(EC)dS m-1. Total (%)
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Classes/ Limit No. of % No. of % No. of % No. of %
Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples
(<0.1) 152 27.55 31 14.84 18 16.27 201 23.86

(0.1-0.2) 389 49.93 103 55.84 35 72.09 527 52.36

(0.2-0.3) 125 14.82 28 21.09 15 11.62 168 16.27

(>0.3) 53 7.69 12 8.20 0 0 65 7.49

Total sample 719 74.81 174 18.10 68 7.07 961

Soil Range Mean
SD
Characteristics
(EC)dS m-1. 0.01-0.97 0.16 ± 0.10

Data presented in table 3 revealed that in Malkharauda
block, 52.36% soil samples were found under (0.1-0.2 dS
m-1), 32.86% samples under (<0.1 dS m-1), 16.27% samples
under ( 0.2-0.3 dS m-1) and 7.49% samples under (>0.3 dS
m-1) limits. The results have shown that all the EC values
were under normal range (<1.0 dS m-1), therefore these soils
are denoted as non-saline and it was reported by Bali et al.,
(2010). Similar results were also found in soils of Pamgarh
block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.)
Organic Carbon (OC)
Organic carbon status of different soils of Malkharauda
block is presented in the Table 4. The soils of Malkharauda
blocks are low to medium in organic carbon status it ranged
from 0.14 to 1.00 per cent with a mean value of 0.56 per
cent.
Nearly 58.48 per cent soil samples of Malkharauda
block were medium in organic carbon content. The organic
carbon content ranged from 0.14 to 0.92, 0.28 to 0.97 and
0.33 to 1.00 per cent with mean of 0.54, 0.59 and 0.66 per
cent in Inceptisols, Alfisolsand Vertisols, respectively in
Malkharouda block (table 1).On an average, 1.45 per cent
soils samples are very low, 32.36 per cent low, 58.48 per cent
medium and 7.70 per cent high in organic carbon content in
Malkharouda block (Table 4).

Table 4: Distribution and categorization of organic carbon status in soils of Malkharauda block.
Organic
Soil type
Carbon (%) Total (%)
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Classes/ Limit No. of % No. of % No. of % No. of %
Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples
Very Low
14 1.94 0 0 0 0 14 1.45
(<0.25)
Low
256 35.60 46 26.43 9 13.23 311 32.36
(0.25-0.50)
Medium
415 57.71 112 64.36 35 51.47 562 58.48
(0.50-0.75)
High
34 4.72 16 9.19 24 35.29 74 7.70
(>0.75)
Total sample 719 74.81 174 18.10 68 7.07 961
Soil
Range Mean SD
characteristics
OC 0.14 – 1.00 0.56 ± 0.12

The high temperature prevailing in the area is al. (2010) also found that the organic carbon of soil ranged
responsible for the rapid burning of organic matter, thus between 0.23 to 0.83 with the mean value of 0.44 per cent
resulting in low to medium organic carbon content of these in Baloda block of Janjgir-Champa district of Chhattisgarh.
soils. Similarly, Sharma et al. (2008) reported in soil of
Amritsar district the organic carbon ranged between 0.16
to 0.97 % with an average value of 0.61 per cent. Jatav et

3
Available Calcium status
The calcium content ranged from 448 to 9856 kg ha-1
with an average value of5059 kg ha-1 in soils of Malkharouda
block irrespective of soil samples of differentorders. In
Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols, it ranged from 448 to
9632, 2240 to 9856and 2240 to 9184 kg ha-1with an average
4900, 5554 and 5458 kg ha-1, respectively(table 1). Overall
in Malkharouda block more than 98.81 per cent of soil
samplesShowed high status of calcium availability and only
2.18 per cent of samples falls underlow available calcium
category. All the soil samples of Alfisols and Vertisols and
majority of soil samples of Inceptisols (97.07%) showed
high Ca status. Low available Ca was observed by only
in 2.92% of soil samples of Inceptisols. From the above it
canbe inferred that soils of Malkharouda block are rich in
calcium content.

Table 5: Distribution and categorization of Calcium status in soils of Malkharauda block.

Available Calcium
Soil type
(kg ha-1) Total (%)
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Classes/ Limit No. of % No. of % No. of % No. of %
Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples
Low (<672) 21 2.92 0 0 0 0 21 2.18

High (>672) 698 97.07 174 100 68 100 940 98.81

Total sample 719 74.81 174 18.10 68 7.07 961

Soil
Range Mean SD
Characteristics
Available Ca
448-9856 5059 ± 1726
(kg ha-1)
Correlation between soil characteristics and Table 7: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem-
available Calcium in Inceptisols of Malkharauda ical properties and available Calcium in Alfisols of
block Malkharauda block
Available Ca resulted significant positive correlation pH EC OC S
with pH (r = 0.639**), EC (0.514**) and OC (r = 0.337**), pH
as presented in Table 4.12. These results were supported by EC 0.012
Chaudhari et al. (2012), who reported that there is significant OC -0.097 0.045
positive correlation (r = 0.6604) between Ca content and pH Ca 0.479** 0.384** 0.150*
in soils of Haridwar district. Medhe et al. (2012), noticed
positive correlation (r = 0.074) between available Ca and **Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level
organic carbon content in soils of Chakurtahsil of Latur
district.
Correlation between soil characteristics and available
Table 6: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem- Calcium in Vertisols of Malkharauda block
ical properties and available Calcium in Inceptisols of
Available Ca showed significant positive correlation
Malkharauda block
with pH (r = 0.583**), EC (0.322**) andOC (r = 0.111*), as
pH EC OC S presented in Table 4.14. Chaudhari et al. (2012) also opined
pH thatthere is a significant positive correlation (r = 0.6604) Ca
EC 0.009 content and pH in soils of Haridwar district and Medhe et
OC 0.258** 0.024 al. (2012) found that positive correlation of available Ca(r =
Ca 0.639** 0.514** 0.337**
0.074) with organic carbon content in soils of Chakurtahsil
of Latur district.
**Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level
Table 8: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem-
Correlation between soil characteristics and ical properties and available Calcium in Vertisols of
available Calcium in Alfisols of Malkharauda Malkharauda block
block. pH EC OC S
Available Ca showed significant positive correlation with pH pH
(r = 0.479**), EC (0.384**) and OC (r = 0.150*), as present- EC 0.055
ed in Table 4.13. These results were supported by Chaudhari OC -0.019 0. 077
et al. (2012), and they reported significant positive correla- Ca 0.583** 0.322** 0.111*
tion (r = 0.6604) between Ca content and pH in soil of Harid-
war district Medhe et al. (2012) noticed positive correlation **Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level
of available Ca (r = 0.074) with organic carbon content in
soils of Chakurtahsil of Latur district.

4
REFERENCES:
Bali, S. K., Kumar, R., Hundal, H. S., Singh, K. and Singh,
B. (2010) GIS-aided mapping of DTPA-
extractable zinc and soil characteristics in the
status of Punjab. Journal of Indian Society of
Soil Science 58(2): 189-199.
Black,C.A.(1965) Method of soil analysis American
Agronomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Pp.
131-137.
Chaudhari, P. R., Ahire, D. V. and Ahire, V. D. (2012)
Correlation between Physicochemical
properties and available nutrients in sandy loam soils
of Haridwar. Journal of Chemistry Biology
Physics Sciences 2(3): 1493-1500.
Cheng, K. L. and Bray, R. H. (1951) Determination of
calcium and magnesium in soil and plant
material. Soil Science 72: 449-58.
Jatav, G. K. (2010) Evaluation of soil fertility status in
Inceptisol of Baloda blocks in Janjgir district of
Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Indira Gandhi
Krishi Vishvidyalaya, Raipur (Chhattisgarh), 73
Jena, D.,Mohanty, B. and Nayak, S. C. (2008) Distribution of
available sulfur, zinc, copper, iron, manganese
and boron in deltaic alluvial soil in relation
to certain soil properties. Environment and
Ecology.2007; 25 (4): 730-733
Medhe, S. R., Takankhar, V. G. and Salve, A. N. (2012)
Correlation of chemical properties, secondary
5
nutrients and micronutrient anions from the soils
of ChakurTahisil of Latur district, Maharashtra,
India. Dama International journal 1(2): 2319–
4731.
Muhr, G. R.,Datta, N. P., Sankara Subramoney, N., Dever,
F., Lecy, V. K. andDonahue, R. R.(1965) Soil
testing in India. United States Agency for
International Development. Mission to India,
New Delhi
Piper, C.S.(1967) Soil and plant analysis. Asian publishing
House, Bombay, New Delhi. 85-102
Rashid, A. and Memon, K. S.(1996) Soil Sci. National Book
Foundatin, Islamabad,Pakistan
Shukla, A. G. 2011. Evaluation of soil fertility in soils of
Pamgarh blocks, district Janjgir-Champa of
Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Indira Gandhi
Krishi Vishvidyalaya, Raipur (Chhattisgarh),
63-64.
Walkley, A. and Black C.A. (1934) Estimation of organic
carbon by the chromic acid titration method.
Soil Science 47:29-38.
Welch, C. D., Nelson, R. W. and Beaton, J. D.(1987)
Opportunities to improve soil testing
programme. Soil testing and Plant analysis,
Revised Publication.Soil Science Society
Ammer, Inc. Washington, USA. 1-10
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 6-8 (2015)
EVALUATING RICE RIL POPULATION FOR YIELD AND QUALITY TRAITS
VIKAS KUMAR1*, NEHA SOHGAURA2, PRATIBHA CHANDRAKER1 AND HARSH MISHRA1
Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India - 492012
1

Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Jawaharlal Nehru KrishiVishwavidalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India -
2

482004

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out on 91 F10 RILs population with an objective to dissect yield and quality related inter-componen-
tal traits to obtain precise information. Analysis of variance revealed considerable genetic variability among the RILs for all the traits
under study. The phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) values was slightly greater than genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV),
revealing negligible influence of environment in character expression except for number of unfilled spikelets per panicle. High heritability
coupled with high genetic advance and high GCV were observed for number of leaves per plant, number of tillers per plant, number of
productive tillers per plant, flag leaf width, panicles weight per plant, average panicle weight, number of spikelets per panicle, number of
filled spikelets per panicle, spikelet fertility per cent, spikelet density, grain yield per plant, biological yield per plant and harvest index.

Key words: Rice, RILs, PCV, GCV, Heritability, Genetic Advance

INTRODUCTION
Rice is one of the three most important food grain crops in the world and forms the staple diet of more than 2.7 billion
people. Feeding value depends mostly on starch (more than 80%) and some protein (4-8%) which constitutes 23% of the total
calories intake of the world’s population. In India, it accounts
for more than 43% of food grain production. Although it is
grown all over the world, rice yield still a hot topic in rice
breeding despite the increasing grain yield after the green
revolution (Song et al., 2007). Enhancing crop yield is one
of the top most priorities in crop breeding programmes for
developing super rice lines.
Yield of paddy is a complex quantitative character
controlled by many genes interacting with the environment
and is the product of many factors called yield components.
Since, grain yield exhibit low heritability, it creates challenge
to study directly and selection of parents based on yield
alone often misleading (Xiong,1992). Hence, knowledge
about relationship between yield and its contributing
characters is needed for an efficient selection to evolve
an economic variety.The information about heritability
along with genetic advance may provide a clear picture for
selection of a particular trait. Besides yield, quality traits
are also very important. The desired quality traits may vary
from one ethnic group or geographical region to another and
may also vary from country to country. Therefore, it may
be consider from viewpoint of milling efficiency, grain size,
shape, appearance and cooking characteristics. As countries,
reach self-sufficiency in rice production, the demand by
the consumer for better quality rice has increased. Thus,
the grain quality can be improved genetically through the
improvement of grain quality components (Khan et al.,
2009).
Recombinant Inbred Lines (RILs)population
generate wide genetic variability among the lines and the
homozygosity of the alleles of important traits within the
genotype would be of immense use to identify the specific
traits like yield and quality (Girish et al., 2006).RILs
population developed fromindica and japonicacrosses,
generate diversepopulation in many characteristics (Nonoue
et al., 2008).Therefore,91 RIL population were developed
by the Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, JNKVV,
Jabalpur by crossing of two different contrasting parents
(JNPT89 x JR75). The purpose of present investigation was
evaluation of RILs population for yield and quality traits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental material comprised of 91 F10
recombinant inbred lines (RILs) population derived from
a cross between two diverse cultivars, JNPT 89 (Tropical
Japonica) and JR 75 (Indica).Each RIL along with parents
was planted in a plot containing 24 hills arranged according
to randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three
replications at the rate of one seedling per hill. The standard
agronomic practices were adopted for normal crop growth.
Five plants were randomly selected for evaluation of yield
and quality attributing traits.The observations were recorded
as per the standard procedureand subjected to statistical
analysis. The genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of
variation were computed as suggested by Burton, 1952 and
for heritability and genetic advance the method outlined by
Hanson et al., 1956 and Johnson et al., 1955, respectively
was employed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The 91 RIL populations were evaluated for yield
and quality traits. The analysis of variance indicated
that all the traits considered for study exhibit significant
difference at 1% probability level. The variability observed
is the sum total of hereditary effects of concerned genes as
well as environmental influence. Hence, the variability is
partitioned into heritable and non-heritable components with
suitable genetic parameters such as genotypic coefficient of
variation (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV),
heritability (H) and genetic advance (GA). Coefficient of
variation truly provides a relative measure of variance among
the different traits. In all the traits, GCV was smaller than
PCV, revealing very little influenceof environment for their

6
expression (Table 1). This finding was in agreement with
the results of Singh and Choudhary, 1996;ShobhaRaniet al.,
2001 and Zahidet al., 2006.
Heritability is an estimate of the heritable portion of
the phenotypic variation. It plays a vital role in deciding
the suitability and strategy for selection of a particular trait.
Genetic advance (GA) is the improvement in the mean
genotypic value of selected individual over the parental
population. It is the measure of genetic gain under selection.
Thus, heritability and genetic advance are the important
selection parameters. The heritability estimates ranged from
62.40% in panicle index to 99.70% in grain length. The
range of genetic advance as percentage of mean was 9.42%
- 112.75% in hulling percentage and average panicle weight,
respectively. High heritability in broad sense coupled with
high GA as percentage of mean was recorded for traits viz.,
number of leaves per plant, number of tillers per plant,
number of productive tillers per plant, flag leaf width,
panicles weight per plant, average panicle weight, number of
spikelets per panicle, number of filled spikelets per panicle,
spikelet fertility per cent, spikelet density, grain yield per
plant, biological yield per plant and harvest index (Table
1). This indicates predominance of additive gene action in
the expression of these traits (Panse, 1957). A combination
of high value of heritability and genetic advance helps the
breeders in achieving more reliable conclusion in formulating
the selection procedure in his breeding materials.Days to
heading, plant height, and 1000 grain weight showed high
heritability with moderate GA as percentage of mean whereas
days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, panicle length, grain
length, grain breadth, L/B ratio, hulling %, milling % and
head rice recovery % registered high heritability with low
GA as percentage of mean. High heritability in broad sense
coupled with low genetic advance indicates predominance
of non-additive gene action and selection for such characters
may not be rewarding because heritability exhibited due to
favourable influence of environment rather than genotype.
Moderate heritability and high genetic advance was recorded
by number of unfilled spikelets per panicle while panicle
index recorded moderate heritability and low GA. Grain
yield per plant expressed a high estimate of heritability with
genetic advance. High heritability coupled with high genetic
advance for grain yield per plant was reported by Panwar,
(2005);Girishet al., (2006);Jayasudha and Sharma, (2010)
and Selvarajet al., (2011).

Table 1: Parameters of genetic variability for yield and quality traits in RILs population
R a n g e
S. N. Traits Mean GCV (%) PCV (%) h2 (b) GA at 5% GA as % of mean at 5%
M i n . Max.
1. D T H 85.20 6 6 . 6 7 122.00 12.55 12.62 98.90 21.92 2 5 . 7 2
2. DTFF 87.34 6 9 . 6 7 124.67 12.16 12.24 98.80 21.75 2 4 . 9 1
3. D T M 118.41 9 9 . 0 0 159.67 9.10 9.23 97.20 21.89 1 8 . 4 9
4. N O L 27.04 1 4 . 3 7 55.85 25.52 27.09 88.70 13.39 4 9 . 5 1
5. N O T 5.66 3 . 1 1 12.23 23.95 27.87 73.80 2.40 4 2 . 3 9
6. NOPT 5.26 1 . 5 6 12.22 25.67 30.27 71.90 2.36 4 4 . 8 5
7. PH (cm) 100.60 7 2 . 5 6 146.31 14.46 14.53 99.00 29.82 2 9 . 6 5
8. FLW (cm) 1.59 0 . 8 7 2.14 21.67 21.73 99.50 0.71 4 4 . 5 3

9. PL (cm) 22.25 1 7 . 5 0 29.78 11.27 12.03 87.70 4.84 2 1 . 7 5

10. PW (g) 19.13 5 . 4 9 43.71 35.78 37.60 90.50 13.42 7 0 . 1 3
11. APW (g) 5.29 1 . 8 8 15.56 55.36 55.99 97.70 5.97 112.75
12. N O S 127.59 5 6 . 7 1 308.45 34.73 35.21 97.30 90.01 7 0 . 5 5
13. NOFS 94.64 1 9 . 8 7 286.19 45.63 47.78 91.20 84.94 8 9 . 7 5
14. NOUS 32.95 7 . 8 1 94.07 53.54 65.69 66.50 29.63 8 9 . 9 3
15. SF (%) 72.88 2 1 . 6 9 94.83 20.14 21.54 87.40 28.26 3 8 . 7 8
16. S D 571.18 3 0 3 . 1 9 1080.68 29.67 30.33 95.70 341.4 5 9 . 7 8
17. TGW (g) 25.63 1 3 . 0 3 34.38 17.06 17.56 94.40 8.75 3 4 . 1 5
18. GYPP (g) 14.87 2 . 2 0 34.84 42.18 44.87 88.40 12.14 8 1 . 6 7
19. BYPP (g) 36.75 1 2 . 6 7 105.97 48.54 49.25 97.10 36.22 9 8 . 5 4
20. P I 75.68 4 0 . 5 3 9 0 . 11 10.38 13.14 62.40 12.79 1 6 . 9 0
21. HI (%) 42.31 1 7 . 6 0 69.36 26.31 29.00 82.30 20.80 4 9 . 1 7
22. GL (mm) 8.60 6 . 4 1 10.06 8.02 8.03 99.70 1.42 1 6 . 4 9
23. GB (mm) 2.93 2 . 2 2 3.96 8.71 8.76 99.00 0.52 1 7 . 8 6

7
 24. L B R 2.95 2 . 4 1 3.63 11.60 11.64 99.30 0.70 2 3 . 8 1
25. H % 72.89 6 3 . 1 7 78.04 4.71 4.85 94.20 6.86 9 . 4 2
26. M % 68.07 5 4 . 9 7 74.68 5.55 5.69 95.10 7.58 1 1 . 1 4
27. HRR % 55.64 4 0 . 1 6 65.29 8.65 8.84 95.80 9.71 1 7 . 4 5

Classes of Heritability (%) Classes of Genetic Advance as % of mean

High > 70% High > 35%
Medium 50 – 70% Medium 25 – 35%
Low < 50% Low < 25%
Abbreviations:DTH- Days to heading, DTFF- Days
to 50% flowering, DTM- Days to maturity, NOL- Number
of leaves, NOT- Number of tillers per plant, NOPT-
Number of productive tillers per plant, PH- Plant height,
FLW- Flag leaf width, PL- Panicle length, PW- Panicle
Weight, APW- Average panicle weight, NOS- Number of
spikelets per panicle, NOFS- Number of filled spikelets per
panicle, NOUS- Number of unfilled spikelets per panicle,
SF- Spikelet fertility, SD- Spikelet density, TGW- 1000
grains weight, GYPP- Grain yield per plant, BYPP-
Biological yield per plant, PI- Panicle index, HI- Harvest
index, GL- Grain length, GB- Grain breadth, LBR- Length
breadth ratio, H%- Hulling per cent, M%- Milling per cent,
HRR%- Head Rice Recovery per cent. andRabindran, R. (2011). Genetic parameters
REFERENCES
Burton, G.W. (1952).Quantitative inheritance of grasses.
Proc. 6th Int. Grassland Congress,1: 277- 283.
Girish, T.N., Gireesha, T.M., Vaishali, M.G., Hanamareddy,
B.G. andHittalmani, S. (2006). Response of a
new IR50/ Moroberekan recombinant inbred
population of rice (Oryza sativa L.) from an
indica x japonica cross for growth and yield
traits under aerobic coditions.Euphytica, 152
(2): 149-161.
Hanson, W.D., Robinson, H.F. and Comstock, R.E. (1956).
Biometrical studies of yield in segregating
population of Korean Lespandeza.Agron. J.,
48: 268-272.
Jayasudha, S. and Sharma, D. (2010).Genetic parameters
of variability, correlation and path-coefficient
for grain yield and physiological traits in
rice (Oryza sativa L.) under shallow lowland
situation.Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding,
1(5): 1332-1338.
Johnson, H.W., Robinson, H.F. and Comstock, R.E. (1955).
Genotypic and phenotypic correlations in
soybeans and their implications in selection.
Agron. J., 47: 477-482.
Khan, A.S., Imran, M. andAsfaq, M.(2009). Estimation of
genetic variability and correlation for grain
yield components in rice (Oryza sativa L.).
American European J. Agric. and Environ.
Sci.,6(5): 585-590.
Nonoue, Y., Fujino, K., Hirayama, Y., Yamanouchi, U.,
Lin, S.Y. and Yano, M. (2008).Detection of
quantitative trait loci controlling extremely
early heading in rice.Theor. Appl. Genet., 116:
715-722.
Panse, V.G. (1957). Genetics of quantitative characters in
relation to plant breeding. Indian J. Genet. Pl.
Breed.,17: 318-328.
Panwar, L.L. (2005). Genetic variability, heritability and
genetic advance for panicle characters in
transplanted rice.Research on Crops, 6(3): 505-
508.
Selvaraj, C.I., Nagarajan, P.,Thiyagarajan, K.,Bharathi, M.
of variability, correlation and path coefficient
studies for grain yield and other yield attributes
among rice blast disease resistant genotypes
of rice (Oryza sativa L.). African Journal of
Biotechnology, 10(17): 3322-3334.
ShobhaRani, N., Rama Prasad, A.S.,Prasad, G.S.V.,Bhaskar,
P. andKrishnaveni, B. (2001).Genetic
variability for yield components in aromatic and
quality rice germplasms.Indian J. Pt. Genetic
Resources,14: 206-209.
Singh, S. andChoudhary, B.S. (1996). Variability, heritability
and genetic advance in cultivars of rice (Oryza
sativa L.). Crop Research, 12(2): 165-167.
Song, X.J., Huang, W., Shi, M., Zhu, M.Z. and Lin, H.X.
(2007). A QTL for rice grain width and weight
encodes a previously unknown RING- type E3
Ubiquitinligase. Nat. Genet., 39: 623-630.
Xiong, Z.M. (1992). Research outline on rice genetics in
China. In: Xiong, Z.M. and H.F. Cai (eds.) Rice
in China, Chinese Agricultural Science Press,
Beijing, pp: 40-57.
Zahid, M.A., Akhtar, M.,Sabir, M.,Manzoor, Z. andAwan, T.
(2006). Correlation and path analysis studies of
yield and economic traits in basmati rice. Asian
j. Pl. Sci.,5(4): 643-645.

8
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 9-11 (2015)
SCREENING OF INDIGENOUS RICE GERMPLASM ACCESSIONS FOR HEAT
TOLERANCE
*TARUN SINGH PATEL, R. N. SHARMA, HARSH MISHRA AND R. K. VERMA
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur- 49012 (Chhattisgarh)

ABSTRACT
Reproductive stage of rice is the most sensitive stage to high temperature, which causes spikelet sterility and yield losses. Significant varia-
tion exists among rice germplasms in response to temperature stress. To identify heat-tolerant genetic resources we screened a total of 400
germplasm accessions from indigenous collection in the open field condition in the hot season. Among them 90 accessions with high spikelet
fertility were selected as potential donors for heat tolerance. High-temperature of 39 ºc is suitable for screening heat tolerance at booting stage,
while 38 ºc is suitable for flowering-stage evaluation. K: 1434 reported as the highest spikelet fertility per cent followed by J: 222 and N: 646.
The heat-tolerant accessions identified in this study could be used in future genetic studies and breeding programs focusing on heat tolerance.

Key words: Germplasm, High temperature, Heat tolerance, Booting stage, Spikelet fertility

INTRODUCTION
By the end of the 21st century, the earth’s climate is
predicted to warm by an average of 2–4 °c (IPCC 2007), due
to both anthropogenic and natural factors (Eitzinger et al.
2010). Emission of green house gases (GHG) such as carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from
agricultural systems is one of the major sources contributing
to this global increase of temperature (Maraseni et al.,
2009; Smith & Olesen 2010). This increase in temperature
has exposed most of the world’s crops to heat stress during
some stages of their life cycle. The increase in temperature
has been striking and can cause irreversible damage to plant
growth and development (Wahid et al., 2007). It has been
shown a 7-8% rice yield reduction for each 1 °c increase in
daytime temperature from 28 °c to 34 °c (Baker et al., 1992).
Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the important cereals
grown across the world. Rice has been cultivated under
a wide range of climatic conditions. Almost 90% of the
world’s rice is grown and consumed in Asia, where 50% of
the population depends on rice for food. Although it has been
used as a model plant for many years, the growth responses
of rice to high temperature are still poorly understood (Nagai
& Makino 2009). Most rice is currently grown in regions
where current temperatures are already close to optimum
for rice production. Therefore, any further increases in mean
temperatures or of short episodes of high temperatures during
sensitive stages, may be supra optimal and reduce grain
yield. Yields of rice have been estimated to be reduced by
41% by the end of the 21st century (Ceccarelli et al., 2010).
In general, the reproductive stage is more sensitive
than the vegetative stage in many crop species (Hall, 1992).
In rice development, almost all growth stages are affected
by high temperature. However, high temperature is more
injurious if it occurs just before or during anthesis (Satake and
Yoshida, 1978). The two most sensitive stages are flowering
(anthesis and fertilization) and booting (microsporogenesis).
High temperature affects anther dehiscence, pollination, and
pollen germination, which then leads to spikelet sterility
and yield loss (Yoshida et al., 1981). Exposure at anthesis
even for less than an hour at 33.7 °c may result in spikelet
sterility (Jagadish et al., 2007), which will greatly increase
at temperature above 35 °c (Matsui et al., 1997). To facilitate
breeding for heat tolerant varieties, this study aimed to: (1)
identify new genetic materials as a donors for heat stress
from germplasm accessions; (2) establish precise methods
for evaluation of the heat tolerance at reproductive stages;
and (3) evaluate heat tolerance at the flowering stage of the
crop.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A total of 400 rice germplasm accessions of indigenous
origin from different places of chhattisgarh state along with
03 standard checks were used in this study. The 24 day old
seedlings were transplanted in 3 x 2 meter blocks, kept 20
cm row and 15 cm plant distance in the year 2013. The
average maximum and minimum temperature and relative
humidity recorded during crop growth period as 35.4 OC and
18.9 OC and 70.4 and 29.2% respectively (figure 1). Plants
were grown in ‘augmented design’ in which standard checks
were repeated in each block but there was no repetition of
accessions. Standard crop management practices viz., water,
fertilizer, weeding and plant protection were followed at
Research Cum Instructional Farm, Department of Genetics
and Plant Breeding, IGKV, Raipur (C.G.). The time of 50%
flowering of each accession was recorded and spikelet
fertility was measured at maturity. Although spikelet fertility
has been categorized in different classes, the present study
was done by following the spikelet fertility class given by
standard evaluation system (SES) INGER, 1996.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Screening of rice germplasm on the basis of
spikelet fertility
The spikelet fertility is an important and useful
character for evaluation of genotypes. In present study 8 rice
accessions were recorded more than 80% spikelet fertility,
15 rice accessions sowed between 61 - 80% spikelet fertility,
26 rice accessions noted 41 – 60% spikelet fertility, 32 rice
accessions sowed 11 – 40% spikelet fertility and 12 rice
accessions sowed less than 11% spikelet fertility. Among

9
400 rice germplasm accessions, 90 rice accessions found
to be superior for high temperature tolerance. The spikelet
fertility score of 93 rice germplasm accessions including 3
checks are presented in table 1.
Performance of rice accessions at maximum
temperature related to spikelet fertility per centage
The spikelet fertility is an important and useful
character for evaluation of genotypes. Superior rice
accessions that exhibited >80 percent spikelet fertility were
evaluated as, at which temperature which genotype showed
good spikelet fertility percentage by comparing the date of
flowering with the maximum temperature. Results are shown
in table 2.
At 5th may, the maximum temperature was 43.5 ºc and
the spikelet fertility percentage ranged from 80.8% (J: 505)
to 81.4 % (B: 1482). At 28th april, the maximum temperature
was 41.5 ºc and the spikelet fertility percentage was 86.2 %
(J: 222). At 16th april, the maximum temperature was 38.0
ºc and the spikelet fertility percentage ranged from 83.0 %
(P: 210) to 83.7 % (B: 2886). At 24th april, the maximum
temperature was 35.2 ºc and the spikelet fertility percentage
are 85.0 % in K: 644, 85.6 % in N: 646 and 90.6 % in K:
1434. Spikelet fertility percentages at different temperature
for heat tolerant were also reported by Jagadish et al., (2007),
Shah et al., (2011) and Tenorio et al., (2013).
Genetic material for heat tolerance is important and
needed for developing new variety in areas affected mostly
by high temperature during crop period. We screened
400 accessions of indigenous origin, however, very few
genotypes showed some degree of heat tolerance (8 genotypes
showed >80 % spikelet fertility). The results from our study
showed that large genotypic variation exists among the rice
germplasm accessions for heat tolerance. The identified heat
tolerant genotypes can be used as a donor of heat tolerance for
improving the heat susceptible rice varieties and for genetic
studies to understand the mechanism of heat tolerance. Some
of them could be domesticated as a variety for that particular
region.

Figure 1: Weekly meteorological data during crop growth period of Rabi 2012-13
Station: Labhandi

Weekly meteorological data: Rabi 2013

Max. Min. Rain- Relative humidity

Rainy Evapo-ration Sun shine
Wk no. Date Temp. Temp. Fall (%)
days (mm) (hours)
(°c) (°c) (mm)
max min
1 Jan 01-07 28.0 16.0 1.2 0 86 57 2.4 3.3
2 08-14 26.3 9.1 0.0 0 86 24 3.2 8.1
3 15-21 30.7 14.6 0.0 0 81 39 3.3 8.8
4 22-28 27.0 12.2 0.0 0 81 36 3.0 6.1
5 29-04 28.8 11.4 0.0 0 84 31 3.3 7.9
6 Feb 05-11 30.0 16.8 0.2 0 86 44 3.7 6.7
7 12-18 29.7 16.4 11.6 2 87 47 4.2 6.7
8 19-25 29.8 14.6 0.8 0 84 36 4.3 9.9
9 26-04 32.3 13.8 0.0 0 79 22 5.3 10.0
10 Mar 05-11 34.3 14.8 0.0 0 71 19 6.1 9.6
11 12-18 33.8 20.4 0.0 0 70 31 5.8 6.1
12 19-25 36.4 20.2 0.0 0 66 22 6.8 8.3
13 26-01 38.1 22.7 0.0 0 62 21 7.7 7.8
14 Apr 02-08 38.7 21.5 0.0 0 58 17 9.3 9.0
15 09-15 39.9 24.7 8.6 1 57 28 9.4 7.8
16 16-22 38.0 21.9 26.0 2 63 28 10.2 9.6
17 23-29 38.1 24.4 0.0 0 64 29 8.4 9.5
18 30-06 43.1 27.6 0.0 0 51 21 12.8 10.9
19 May 07-13 43.6 27.2 1.0 0 48 17 12.9 9.4
20 14-20 43.3 27.9 0.0 0 44 15 11.5 8.8
Mean 34.5 18.9 2.5 0.25 70.4 29.2 6.7 8.2

Table 1: Screening of rice accessions for heat tolerance on the basis of spikelet fertility percentage (SES, INGER 1996)

Score State Genotypes Total

1 > 80% B:1482, K:1434, N:646, J:222, J:505, K:644, P:210, B:2886 08

K:2511, V:32, S:1099, RJR: I, K:2225, G:9, X:2, UN, A:217 II, K:1138 I, M:1165, J:55
3 61 - 80% 15
I, D:1313, B:1466, X:3

10
 B:1071, B:1075 II, G:839, C:368 II, D:38, D:1401, A:709, B:1277, D:1129, D:1291,
4 41 – 60% D:1304, J:55 II, B:482, S:214 II, B:222 B, B:2917, B:1494, A:140 I, B:2349, T:23 II, 26
L:1115, T:14, R: 155-341, L:227, CHANDRAHASINI, KARMA- MAHSURI

B:1261, H:239, L:221, P:58, RJR: II, B:246, T:299, N:189 II, OSSR:181 II, B:1191,
J:484, G:940, G:417, K:59 II, B:1420, B:296, B:1286 A, B:1296 II, M:188, G:822,
7 11 – 40% 32
M:305, B:411 II, A:412 I, P:234 IV, B:2598, OSSR:149 I, OSSR:181 III, UN, P:234,
L:645,A:565, DURGESHWARI

B:2338, B:1192 II, UN, B:25, B:1467, S:1663, M:333, K:1178, B:1271, J:29, K:2396,
9 < 11% 12
K:1294

Table 2: Performance of rice accessions of more than 80% spikelet fertility at maximum temperature
S. N. Accessions Spikelet fertility (%) Maximum temp Days to 50 % Date
(oC) flowering
1 B:1482 81.4 43.5 88 05.05.2013
2 J:505 80.8 43.5 88 05.05.2013
3 J:222 86.2 41.5 83 28.04.2013
4 P:210 83.0 38.0 74 16.04.2013
5 B:2886 83.7 38.0 74 16.04.2013
6 K:1434 90.6 35.2 79 24.04.2013
7 K:644 85.0 35.2 79 24.04.2013
8 N:646 85.6 35.2 79 24.04.2013
induced spikelet sterility of japonica rice at
REFERENCES flowering in relation to air humidity and wind
velocity conditions. Jpn. J. Crop sci. 66: 449-
Baker, J. T., Allen, L. H. & Boote, K. J. (1992). Temperature 455.
effects on rice at elevated CO2 concentration.
Journal of experimental botany, 43: 959–964. Nagai, T. & Makino, A. (2009). Differences between
rice and wheat in temperature responses of
Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S., Maatougui, M., Michael, M., photosynthesis and plant growth. Plant and cell
Slash, M., Haghparast, R., Rahmanian, M., physiology, 50: 744– 755.
Taheri, A., Al-Yassin, A., Benbelkacem, A.,
Labdi, M.,Mimoun, H. & Nachit,M. (2010). Satake T, Yoshida S (1978). High temperature induced
Plant breeding and climate changes. Journal of sterility in indica rice at flowering. Jpn. J. Crop
agricultural science, 148: 627–637. sci. 47: 6-17.
Eitzinger, J., Orlandini, S., Stefanski, R. & Naylor, R. E. Shah, F., Huang, J., Cui, K., Nie, L., Shah, T., Chen, C. and
L. (2010). Climate change and agriculture: Wang, K. (2011). Impact of high temperature
introductory editorial. Journal of agricultural stress on rice plant and its traits related to
science, 148: 499–500. tolerance. The Journal of Agricultural Science,
149 (5): 545-556.
Hall, A. E. (1992). Breeding for heat tolerance. Plant breed.
10: 129-168. Smith, P. & Olesen, J. E. (2010). Synergies between the
mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate change
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2007). in agriculture. Journal of agricultural science,
Climate change and its impacts in the near and 148: 543–552.
long term under different scenarios. In climate
change impact of high-temperature stress on Tenorio F. A., Ye C., Redona E., Sierra S., Laza M. And
rice: synthesis report (EDS the core writing Argayoso M. A. (2013). Screening rice genetic
team, R. K. Pachauri & A. Reisinger), pp. 43– resources for heat tolerance. SABRAO journal
54. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. of breeding and genetics, 45 (3): 371-381.
Jagadish S., Crauford P. Q., Wheeler T. R. (2007). High Wahid, A., Gelani, S., Ashraf, M., & Foolad, M.R. (2007).
temperature stress and spikelet fertility in rice Heat tolerance in plants: an overview.
(Oryza sativa L.). J. Exp bot. 58: 1627- 35. Environmental and experimental botany, 61:
199–223.
Maraseni, T. N., Mushtaq, S. & Maroulis, J. (2009).
Greenhouse gas emissions from rice farming
inputs: a cross-country assessment. Journal of
agricultural science, 147: 117–126.
Matsui T, Omasa K, & Horie T (1997). High temperature

11
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 12-14 (2015)
SOIL REACTION (pH) AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) IN THE SAMPLES OF
DIFFERENT SOIL TYPE (INCEPTISOLS, ALFISOLS AND VERTISOLS)
U.S. VERMA1, S.S. SENGAR2 AND DEEPIKA DEVDAS3
1. Ex. P.G. Student, 2. Professor, 3. Ph.D. Scholar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.) 492 012
Email: uvverma@yahoo.in

ABSTRACT
A Study was undertaken to evaluate the fertility status of Malkharauda block, Janjgir-Champa district, Chhattisgarh cov-
ering 110 villages during 2011-2012. The systematic collection of samples in geo–referenced surface (0-0.15m) soils sam-
ples from 2640 sites representing Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols using Global Positioning System and mapped on 1:4000
Scale. The samples were analyzed for DTPA-extractable zinc, copper, iron and manganese and available nitrogen, phos-
phorous and potassium content for delineation of the fertility status in relation to salient physico-chemical characteristics.

Key words: Soil reaction, Electrical conductivity, Soil type.

INTRODUCTION
Soil test-based fertility management is an effective
tool for increasing productivity of agricultural soils that have
high degree of spatial variability resulting from the combined
effects of physical, chemical or biological processes
(Goovaerts, 1998). However, major constraints impede wide
scale adoption of soil testing in most developing countries.
In India, these include the prevalence of small holding
systems of farming as well as lack of infrastructural facilities
for extensive soil testing (Sen et al., 2008).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil physicochemical characteristics of
Soil pH was determined in 1:2.5 soil - water suspension
after stirring for 30 minutes, by glass electrode pH meter as
suggested by Piper.The sample soil used for pH determination
was allowed to settle down for four hours then conductivity
of supernatant liquid was determined by Solu- bridge as
described by Black (1965).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physico-chemical characteristics
Table 1: Category of soil samples under different pH rating of Malkharauda block
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Samples

Samples

Samples

Samples

Samples

Samples

Classes Total (%)

No. of

No. of

No. of
Limit

Strongly acid <5.0 8 0.44 0 0 0 0 0.15

Moderately acid 5-6.0 944 52.36 152 25.50 0 0 25.95
Slightly acid 6.1-6.5 651 36.11 332 55.70 5 2.07 31.29
Neutral 6.6-7.5 200 11.09 112 18.79 226 93.78 41.22
Slightly alkaline 7.6-8.5 0 0 0 0 10 4.15 1.38

Soil reaction (pH)
A study on soil pH presented in (table 1) revealed that
the soils of farmer’s field was acidic to alkaline in reaction
and pH ranged from 4.7 to 7.9 in Inceptisols, Alfisols and
Vertisols of Malkharauda block. Soil samples were collected
from 110 villages in Malkharauda block covering 2640 sites
representing soils using Global Positioning System (GPS)
such that from each 10 ha area represented one grid based
soil samples. Singh et al., (2009) reported that surface and
subsurface soils were normal to slightly alkaline in reaction
in the soils of district Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh. Considering
the (table 1), the soils having pH <5.0 are considered
strongly acidic, pH 5.0 to 6.0 as moderately acidic, pH 6.1
to 6.5 as slightly acidic, neutral considered for pH 6.6 to 7.5
and slightly alkaline soils are considered for pH 7.6 to 8.5.
The pH ranged from 4.7 to 7.1, 5.0 to 7.3 and 6.5 to 7.9 in
Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols, respectively (Appendix-
II). In general, out of 2640 samples, 31.29% soils were found
slightly acidic, 41.22% neutral, 25.95% moderately acidic,
0.15% strongly acidic and 1.38% slightly alkaline in reaction
(Table 1).
Further, the data presented in (table 1) showed that
nearly, 52.36 % samples were observed under moderately
acidic (5-6.0), 36.11% under slightly acidic (6.1-6.5), 0.44%

12
under strongly acidic (<5.0) and 11.09% samples were
categorized under neutral soil in Inceptisols. Similarly,
55.70% samples in slightly acidic, 18.79% in neutral
and 25.50% in moderately acidic soil were categorized in
Alfisols. The maximum 93.78% samples were observed
under neutral, 2.07 under slightly acidic and 4.15% under
slightly alkaline in Vertisols.
The pH value recorded minimum in Chatipali village
i.e. 4.7 however, the higher value of pH i.e. 7.9 was observed
in Badeyrabeli village of Malkharauda block (Table 1).
Similar results were also found in soils of Katol tahsil in
Nagpur district of Maharashtra, in which pH ranges from 7.1
to 8.1 and the alkaline reaction of soils is probably due to the
presence of sufficient free lime content .
These results were also supported by Jatav (2010) in
the soils of Inceptisols group of Baloda block of Janjgir-
Champa district of Chhattisgarh, Vaisnow (2010) in soil
of Vertisols of Dhamtari block under Dhamtari district in
Chhattisgarh and Shukla (2011) in soils of Pamgarh block in
Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.).

Table 2: Electrical conductivity of surface soils in Malkharauda block

Limits
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
EC(dS m-1) Total
No. of (%)
% Samples No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Samples

<0.1 175 9.71 37 6.21 1 0.41 5.44

0.1-0.2 880 48.81 298 50 22 9.13 35.98

0.2-0.3 483 26.79 194 32.55 77 31.95 30.30

>0.3 264 14.64 67 11.24 141 58.51 28.13

4.1.2 Electrical conductivity (EC) m-1, 32.55% samples under 0.2-0.3 dS m-1 , 11.24% samples
under >0.3 dS m-1 and 6.21% samples under <0.1 dS m-1  in 
The electrical conductivity (EC) varied from 0.05 to Alfisols.  The maximum i.e. 58.51% samples found in >0.3
0.81 dS m-1 with a mean value of 0.21 dS m-1 at 25oC (Table dS m-1 and minimum 0.41% samples found in <0.1 dS m-1
2) of the Malkharauda block. The total salt content of these EC limit in Vertisols.
soils expressed as EC are categorized as <0.1, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.2
to 0.3 and >0.3 dS m-1. The normal EC may be ascribed to The results have shown that all the EC values were
leaching of salts to lower horizons due to its light textured under normal range (<1.0 dS m-1), therefore these soils are
nature and heavy rainfall and surface run-off. denoted as non saline and it was reported by Bali et al.,
(2010). Similar results were also found in soils of Pamgarh
The EC ranged from 0.05 to 0.74, 0.06 to 0.62 and block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.), in which EC ranges
0.09 to 0.81 dS m-1 in Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Vertisols, from 0.05 to 0.86 dS m-1 (Mean – 0.13 dS m-1) as reported
respectively with an average of 0.20, 0.20 and 0.33 dS by Shukla (2011).
m-1 (Appendix-II). Data presented in table 4.4 revealed
that in Malkharauda block, 35.98% soil samples were The normal EC may be ascribed to leaching of salts to
found under (0.1-0.2 dS m-1), 5.44% samples under (<0.1 lower horizons due to the light textured nature of the soils.
dS m-1), 30.33%  samples  under  ( 0.2-0.3 dS m1) and 28.13%  The average value of EC of the soil was found minimum
samples under (>0.3 dS m-1) limits. The majority of soil i.e. 0.11 dS m-1 in the village Sakari and maximum 0.36 dS
samples  i.e. 9.71% under <0.1 dS m-1, 26.79% under 0.2- m-1 in Pikari village .All the soil samples have safe range
0.3 dS m-1, 14.64% under >0.3 dS m-1 and 48.81% samples of electrical conductivity with respect to crop growth and
under 0.1-0.2 dS m-1 EC limit were found in Inceptisols. development.
Likewise, 50.0% samples observed EC between 0.1-0.2 dS
Table 4.5: Distribution and categorization of organic carbon status in soils of Malkharauda block.
Organic carbon (%) Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Total (%)
Classes No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Very Low
26 1.44 3 0.50 2 0.83 0.92
(<0.25)
Low
869 48.20 231 38.76 50 20.75 35.90
(0.25-0.50)
Medium
890 49.36 359 60.23 186 77.18 62.26
(0.50-0.75)
High
18 1 3 0.50 3 1.24 0.91
(>0.75)

13
REFERENCES
Bali, S. K., Kumar, R., Hundal, H. S., Singh, K. and Singh,
B. (2010) GIS- aided mapping of DTPA-
extractable zinc and soil characteristics in the
status of Punjab. Journal of Indian Society Soil
Science 58(2): 189-199.
Black, C.A. (1965) Method of soil analysis American
Agronomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
pp.131-137.
Goovaerts, P. (1998) Geo-statistical tools for characterizing
the spatial variability of microbiological and
physic-chemical soil properties. Biol. Fertil.
Soil. 27: 315-334.
Jatav, G. K. (2010). Evaluation of soil fertility status in
Inceptisol of Baloda blocks in Janjgir district
of Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, I.G.K.V.
Raipur, (Chhattisgarh), 73.
14
Sen, P., Majumdar, K. and Sulewski, G. (2008). Importance
of spatial nutrient variability mapping to
facilitate SSNM in small land holding systems.
Indian J. Fert. 4(11): 43-50.
Shukla, A. G. (2011). Evaluation of soil fertility in soils of
Pamgarh blocks, district Janjgir-Champa of
Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, I.G.K.V.
Raipur, (Chhattisgarh), 63-64.
Singh, V. S., Agrawal, H. P. and Prasad, S. (2009). Distribution
of DTPA-extractable micronutrients in the soils
of district Ghazipur, Utter Pradesh. J. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci. 57(3): 370 – 372.
Vaisnow, B. (2010). Evaluation of soil fertility status in
vertisol of Dhamtari block, under Dhamtari
district in Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Raipur
(Chhattisgarh), 118-119.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 15-20 (2015)
RELATIONSHIP AMONG PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
SOIL
U.S. VERMA1, S.S. SENGAR2 AND DEEPIKA DEVDAS3
1. Ex. P.G. Student, 2. Professor, 3. Ph.D. Scholar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.) 492 012
Email: uvverma@yahoo.in

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was undertaken to find out the relationship among physico-chemical and chemical properties of soil. For this study
sample of soil were taken from Malkharauda block in Janjgir-Champa district of Chhattisgarh during 2011-12. The systematic collection of
sample in geo–referenced surface (0-15 cm) soils sample from 2640 sites representing Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols using Global Po-
sitioning System and mapped on 1:4000 Scale. The findings of this study showed that a positive significant correlation was found between
pH and EC in Inceptisols and Alfisols only. Further, the correlation studies of pH and OC with available N showed significant and positive
correlation in Inceptisols and Alfisols, the positive significant correlation was also found between pH and EC with available K in Inceptisols.

Key words: - Soil properties, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Vertisols, correlation

INTRODUCTION

Fertility status of the soil, for essential plant nutrients
limiting the growth, can be known well in advanced
through soil analysis. As such, deficiencies can be corrected
before sowing or planting through application of manures/
fertilisers. In soil testing, the nutrient element is extracted
from the soil with appropriate extraction solution. The soil
test values are correlated with percent response of crops to
the applied nutrients under field or plot condition. The critical
levels of deficiency, moderate or marginal deficiency and
adequate of the nutrients worked out. Corrective measures
are taken when once the deficient soils are identified through
application of manures and fertilisers or both (Reddy, 2012).
Soil fertility has been considered as in the past in a
restricted sense as a physic – chemical phenomenon or as an
index of available nutrients for plants, but the modern usage
of the term connotes the capacity of the soil to produce crops
of economy value to man and maintain the quality of soil
for long term sustainable use. Therefore, any system of soil
fertility management will ultimately consider all aspects of
soil- plant relationship and pollution of the environment as
well. Soil fertility evaluation helps in appropriate measures
for overcoming various limitations and at the same time
ensures optimum crop production. Soil testing are important
tools for making fertiliser recommendation to crops. Soil
testing gives a measure of available nutrient status (Das,
2011).
Balanced nutrient use ensures high production level
and helps to maintain the soil health. Fertilizing soils to
bring all the deficient elements at high levels as to provide
sufficient ionic activity in soil solution for crop uptake is
one of the most important considerations for maximization
of the crop yield. Soil test-based fertility management is an
effective tool for increasing productivity of agricultural soils
that have high degree of spatial variability resulting from
the combined effects of physical, chemical or biological
processes (Goovaerts, 1998). However, major constraints
impede wide scale adoption of soil testing in most developing
countries. In India, these include the prevalence of small
holding systems of farming as well as lack of infrastructural
facilities for extensive soil testing (Sen et al., 2008).
In view of this, it may be worthwhile to find out
the relationship among physico-chemical and chemical
properties of soil.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil samples collected from the study area were
dried and crushed with the help of wooden rod and passed
through 2 mm sieve and then used for the determination of
soil macronutrients content by adopting standard laboratory
method. Available nitrogen was estimated by alkaline KMnO4
method (Subbiah and Asija, 1956), Available phosphorus
was extracted by 0.5M NaHCO3 solution buffer at pH 8.5
(Olsen et al., 1954) and phosphorus in the extract was
determined by ascorbic acid method (Watanabe and Olsen,
1965), Available potassium was extracted by shaking with
neutral normal ammonium acetate for 5 minutes (Hanway
and Heidal, 1952) and then K in the extract was estimated
by flame photometer. The micronutrients Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn
were extracted by using 0.005M diethylene triamine penta
acetic acid (DTPA), 0.01M calcium chloride dehydrate and
0.1M triethanol amine buffered at pH 7.3 (Lindsay and
Norvell, 1978) and concentrations were analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer. The data on available Fe,
Cu, Mn and Zn of soils were characterized for deficient and
adequate status using the threshold values 4.5 mg kg-1 for
Fe, 0.2 mg kg-1 for Cu, (Katyal and Randhawa, 1983), 3 mg
kg-1 for Mn (Shukla and Gupta, 1975) and 0.6 mg kg-1 for
Zn (Katyal, 1985).The samples were categorized as per the
rating limit.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Available N, P and K content in relation to soil
reaction and organic carbon status

15
 In order to study the effect of soil attributes on available available N, P and K in all the samples of Malkharauda
nutrients, the data were simply averaged and relationships block.
were worked out for all the soil samples collectively. The
soil attributes included in this study were pH and organic Organic Carbon (OC)
carbon per cent and the pertaining results are presented in Data in table 1 revealed that with increase in percent
table 1. Organic C, the available N, available K and available
phosphorus content either decreased or increased partially in
Soil reaction (pH):
soils of Malkharauda block under study.
Soil pH showed positive relationship (Table 1) with
Table 1: Availability of major nutrients in different ratings of pH, EC and Organic carbon
Major nutrients (kg ha-1)
Soil properties Limit No. of Samples
N P K
<5.0 8 140 3.7 224
5-6.0 1096 172 6.8 273
pH 6.1-6.5 988 184 7.6 281
6.6-7.5 538 195 9.1 319
7.6-8.5 10 228 11.3 386
<0.1 213 174 6.1 269
0.1-0.2 1201 176 7.4 277
EC dS m-1
0.2-0.3 754 185 7.6 286
>0.3 472 192 8.6 316
(<0.25) 31 184 9.0 309
Organic carbon (0.25-0.50) 1150 186 7.9 295
(%) (0.50-0.75) 1435 178 7.2 279
(>0.75) 24 176 7.5 264
Organic carbon
Available Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn content in relation to It is evident from table 2 that there was positive
soil characteristics soil reaction (pH) relationship observed between percent OC and available
The data presented in table 2 envisaged that there content of Mn, Zn and Fe in most of the samples of
is inverse relation between pH and available micronutrients. Malkharauda block except in Cu where, no relationship was
The availability of Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn showed decreasing seen between percent OC and available content of Cu in all
trend with increase in soil pH. samples.

Table 2: Availability of micronutrients in different ratings of pH, EC and organic carbon

Soil micro nutrients (mg kg-1)
Limit No. of Samples
properties Fe Cu Mn Zn
<5.0 8 25.1 5.0 38.6 1.7
5-6.0 1096 22.8 4.6 27.0 1.2
pH 6.1-6.5 988 21.1 3.5 26.5 1.2
6.6-7.5 538 18.8 3.2 24.0 1.0
7.6-8.5 10 12.1 3.0 18.7 0.8
<0.1 213 24.4 4.4 25.5 1.4
0.1-0.2 1201 21.7 4 27.3 1.3
EC dS m-1
0.2-0.3 754 21.2 3.7 26.2 1.1
>0.3 472 19.1 3.6 23.7 1
(<0.25) 31 20.8 4.1 22.8 0.9
(0.25-0.50) 1150 20.1 3.7 25.2 1.1
Organic carbon (%)
(0.50-0.75) 1435 22.2 4.1 27.1 1.3
(>0.75) 24 27.7 3.9 23.8 0.9

16
Relationship between soil characteristics and
available N, P and K in Inceptisols pH EC OC N P K
A significant positive correlation was recorded pH
between available P and pH (r = 0.134**). Similar results
were also reported by Singh and Singh (1985) in Beel soils EC 0.146**
of Assam, Jatav (2010) in the soils of Inceptisols group of OC 0.208** 0.112**
Baloda block of Janjgir-Champa district of Chhattisgarh and N 0.244** 0.115** 0.118**
Shukla (2011) in the Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols orders
of Pamgarh block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.), P 0.271** 0.108** 0.193** 0.201**
K 0.045 -0.006 0.057 0.034 0.055
Positive non-significant correlation (r = 0.033) was
found between available P and organic carbon (Table 3). *Significant at 5% level **Significant at 1% level
This relationship was also observed by Kumar et al. (2009)
and similar results were also reported by Jatav (2010) in the
Relationship between soil characteristics and
soils of Inceptisols group of Baloda block of Janjgir-Champa available N, P and K in Alfisols
district of Chhattisgarh and Shukla (2011) in the Inceptisols, Available N had significant positive correlation with
Alfisols and Vertisols orders of Pamgarh block in Janjgir- pH (r = 0.244**) as presented in table 4. The results indicated
Champa district (C.G.), that available N increased with rise in pH. Similar results
were reported by Kanthalia and Bhatt (1991) and Shukla
Table 3: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem-
(2011) in the Alfisol orders of Pamgarh block in Janjgir-
ical properties and available N, P and K in Inceptisols of
Champa district (C.G.),
Malkharauda block
  pH EC OC N P K A significant positive correlation was observed
between available N and OC (r = 0.118**) as presented in
pH
table 4. Similarly, OC markedly affects the soil N status
EC 0.215** and the results are in agreement with those of workers like
OC 0.183** 0.101** Meena et al., (2006) and Kumar et al., (2009) and ) and
N 0.192** 0.102** 0.077* Shukla (2011).
P 0.134** 0.067* 0.033 0.114**
Electrical conductivity of these soils showed positive
K 0.067* 0.068* 0.077* 0.058 0.075*
significant correlation (r = 0.115** and r =0.108**) with
**Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively (Table 4). These
Available N showed a positive non-significant results are in agreement with finding of Sharma et al., (2008).
correlation with available K (r=0.058) in table 3. The Positive significant correlation (r = 0.193**) was also
positive relation among the major nutrients is the result of found between available P and organic carbon (Table 4).
synergistic effects. This relationship was also observed by Kumar et al., (2009)
Available N showed significant positive correlation and Shukla (2011) in the soils of Pamgarh block in Janjgir-
with pH (r = 0.192**) and OC (r = 0.183**) as presented in Champa district (C.G.).
table 3. The results indicated that available N increased with Table 5: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem-
rise in pH. Kumar et al., (1995) also reported the identical ical properties and available N, P and K in Vertisols of
results. Similarly, OC level also markedly affects the soil N Malkharauda block
status and the results are in agreement with those of workers
like Meena et al. (2006), Kumar et al. (2009), Sharma et al.   pH EC OC N P K
(2008), Jatav (2010) and Shukla (2011). pH
The available K was found to be positively and EC 0.085
significantly correlated with organic carbon (r=0.077*) in OC 0.124* 0.176**
table 3. Higher K with more organic carbon might be due N 0.185** 0.081 0.052
to creation of favorable soil environment with presence of
high organic carbon matter and release of K from organic P 0.203** 0.258** 0.094 0.152*
complexes in soil solution. Similar results were also reported K -0.015 0.003 -0.005 0.098 -0.105
by Meena et al., (2006), Sharma et al., (2008) and Waghmare **Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level
et al., (2009). A non-significant and positive correlation (r =
0.033) was found between available P and organic carbon Relationship between soil characteristics and
(Table 3). This relationship was also observed by Kumar et available N, P and K in Vertisols
al., (2009).
The soil reaction (pH) showed non-significant and
Table 4: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem- positive correlation (r = 0.085) with electrical conductivity.
ical properties and available N, P and K in Alfisols of These results are in agreement with Kumar et al. (2009).
Malkharauda block A non-significant negative correlation (r = -0.005) was
observed between OC and available K content (Table 5).
This might be due to creation of favorable soil environment
with presence of high organic matter. Similar results were
also reported by Meena et al., (2006).

17
 The significant positive correlations were recorded
between available N with soil pH (r = 0.185**) as presented Soil Available Micro-nutrients
in table 5. The results indicated that available N increased properties Cu Mn Fe Zn
with rise in pH. Similarly Kumar et al., (1995) and Shukla
(2011) also reported the identical results. pH -0.266** -0.131** -0.187** -0.097*

The data on physico-chemical properties and available EC -0.066 -0.017 -0.094* -0.112**
macro-nutrients in soils of Malkharauda block (Table 5)
revealed that the available phosphorus was found to be O.C. -0.124** -0.021 -0.040 -0.134**
positively and significantly correlated with pH (r= 0.203**).
This might be due to presence of Fe and Al at lower pH and * Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1%
it was precipitated as Fe and Al phosphate which reduces level
phosphorus availability at lower pH (Tisdale et al. 1997).
Similar results were also reported by Meena et al., (2009) in
some soil of Tonk District of Rajasthan and Nirawar et al.,
Relationship between soil characteristics and
(2009) and Shukla (2011) in the soils of Pamgarh block in DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in Alfisols
Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.). Available Mn, available Cu available Fe and available
Zn status resulted a negative and significant correlation
Table 6: Correlation coefficients (r) between physico-chem-
with pH (r = -0.131**, r = -0.266**, r = -0.187** and r = -
ical properties and DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in
0.097*). The possible reason behind this may be due to the
Inceptisols of Malkharauda block
formation of insoluble higher valent oxides of Mn at high
Soil Available Micro-nutrients pH (Sahoo et al. 1995). Bansal and Takkar, (1985) reported
properties
that the DTPA-extractable Mn decreased significantly with
Cu Mn Fe Zn increase in pH. Similar results were also reported by Kumar
pH -0.242** -0.088** -0.115** -0.085** et al., (2009), Talukdar et al., (2009), Meena et al., (2006),
and Shukla (2011) in the soils of Pamgarh block in Janjgir-
EC -0.072* -0.085** -0.056 -0.083** Champa district (C.G.).
O.C. -0.046 -0.115** -0.098** -0.097** Organic carbon of the soils exercised non-significant
and negative correlation (r = -0.040 and r = -0.021) with
*Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level available content of Fe and Mn, respectively (Table 7).
Similar results were also reported by Kumar et al., (2009)
and Shukla (2011) for available Zn and Fe. However a
Relationship between soil characteristics significant and negative correlation ship was observed
and DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in between Organic C content and available Cu and Zn (Table
Inceptisols 7). This may attribute to bound Cu and Zn with organic
A (Table 6) significant negative correlation was colloids due to presence of higher organic matter content in
observed between available Fe with pH (r = -0.115**) which the soils. Similar results were also reported by Kumar et al.
confirm the observations reported by Kumar et al., (2009) in (2009) in soils of Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand and
Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand, Yadav and Meena, Nazif et al. (2006).
(2009), Nazif et al., (2006) and Shukla, (2011) in the soils Table 8: Correlation coefficients (r) between physico-chem-
of Pamgarh block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.). The ical properties and DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in
possible reason might be due to the formation of insoluble Vertisols of Malkharauda block
higher valent oxides of Fe at high pH.
Soil Available Micro-nutrients
The negative and significant correlations (r = -0.085**,
properties Cu Mn Fe Zn
r = -0.242** and r = -0.088**) of pH was reported with
available zinc, available Cu and available Mn, respectively. pH -0.247** -0.139* -0.153* -0.218**
These results are in conformity with the findings of Yadav EC -0.102 -0.225** -0.106 -0.179**
and Meena, (2009). The correlation (r = -0.056) of Fe with O.C. -0.008 -0.034 -0.071 -0.204**
EC showed a negative and non significant result (Table 6).
The Organic C content also showed negative and significant *Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level
correlations with available Mn, Fe and Zn (Table 6). Similar Relationship between soil characteristics and
observations were also observed by Sharma et al., (2006)
and Rai et al., (1970) claimed a negative correlation between
DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in Vertisols
available Mn and organic C level in soils of Madhya Pradesh. A significant negative correlation (r = -0.139** and r
Similar result was also obtained by Shukla, (2011) in the = - 0.153*) of available Mn and Fe with pH (Table 8) was
soils of Pamgarh block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.). observed which confirm the observations reported by Kumar
et al., (2009) in Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand,
Table 7: Correlation coefficients (r) between physico-chem- Yadav and Meena, (2009) and Shukla (2011).
ical properties and DTPA -extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn
in Alfisols of Malkharauda block Similarly, a significant and negative correlation (r =
-0.218** and r = - 0.247**) of available Zn and Cu with pH
(Table 8) was observed in Vertisols of Malkharauda block.

18
The findings are in conformity with observations reported
by Meena et al., (2006). The availability of Zn content show
higher values due to their solubility effects. Similar results
were also reported by Kumar et al., (2009) and Shukla
(2011) for available Zn and Fe. Organic carbon is negative
and significantly correlated (r = - 204**) with available
content of zinc (Table 8). Rajeshwar et al., (2009) confirmed
the findings for relationship between Organic carbon content
and available Cu.
CONCLUSION
From the above investigations findings it can be
concluded that a positive significant correlation was found
between pH and EC in Inceptisols and Alfisols only. Further,
the correlation studies of pH and OC with available N showed
significant and positive correlation in Inceptisols and Alfisols,
the positive significant correlation was also found between
pH and EC with available K in Inceptisols. pH had negative
and significant correlation ship with available Fe, Cu, Mn
and Zn in all the soils. A negative and significant correlation
was found between EC and Fe, Zn in Alfisols and with Mn,
Zn in Vertisols. Further, the correlation ship between OC and
available micronutrients was found negative and significant
with Mn, Fe and Zn in Inceptisols, Cu and Zn in Alfisols and
with Zn only in Vertisols.
Correlation studies amongst available major
nutrients revealed that there was positive and significant
correlation ship existed between available P and K in
Inceptisols only. Again, the available N had positively
significant correlation with P in Inceptisols, Alfisols and
Vertisols.
REFERENCES
Bansal, R. L. and Takkar, P. N. 1985. Distribution of Zn, Fe,
Cu and Mn in soils and wheat plants of
Jalandhar district (Punjab). J. Res. Punjab
Agric. University, 22: 25-32.
Das, D.K. 2011. Introductory soil science. Kalyani
publishers. p. 558.
Goovaerts, P. 1998. Geo-statistical tools for characterizing
the spatial variability of microbiological and
physic-chemical soil properties. Biol. Fertil.
Soil, 27: 315-334.
Hanway, J.J. and Heidel, H. 1952. Soil analysis methods
as used in Iowa State. College soil testing
laboratory. Bulletin, 57: 1-131.
Jatav, G. K. 2010. Evaluation of soil fertility status in
Inceptisol of Baloda blocks in Janjgir district
of Chhattisgarh. M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, I.G.K.V.
Raipur, (Chhattisgarh).
Kanthalia, P. C. and Bhatt, P. L. 1991. Relation between
organic carbon and available nutrients in some
soils of sub-humid zone. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci.
39:781-782.
Katyal, J.C. 1985. Research achievements of the all India
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and plants. Fertilizer News 30(4):67-81.
19
Katyal, J.C. and Randhawa, N.S. 1983. In Micronutrient
F.A.O. fertilizer and plant nutrition bulletion
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at N, P and K in Soan river valley soils of lower
Shiwaliks. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 43 (3): 360-
364.
Kumar, R., Sarkar, A. S., Singh, K. P., Agarwal, B. K. and
Karmakar, S. 2009. Appraisal of available
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369.
Lindsay, W. L. and Norvell, W. A. 1978. Development of
DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and
copper. Soil Sci. Soc of Amer. J. 42: 421-428.
Meena, H. B., Sharma, R. P. and Rawat, U. S. 2006. Status of
Macro and Micronutrients in some soils of
Tonk District of Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. Soil
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Nazif, W., Perveen, S. and Saleem, I. 2006. Status of
micronutrients in soils of district bhimber (Azad
Jammu and Kashmir). J. Agric. & Biological
Sci. 1(2): 35-40
Nirawar, G. V., Mali, C. V., and Waghmare, M. S. 2009.
Physico chemical cherecterristics and status of
available N, P and K in soils from Ahemedpur
tahsil of Latur district. An Asian J. Soil Sci.
4(1): 130-134.
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Estimation of available phosphorus in soil by
extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA,
Circ. 939.
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A. A. 2009. Distribution of available macro and
micronutrients in soils Garikapadu of Krishna
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and Singh, H. 2008. Mapping of macronutrients
in soils of Amritsar district (Punjab) A GIS
approach. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 56(1): 34-41.
Shukla, A. G. 2011. Evaluation of soil fertility in soils of
 Pamgarh blocks, district Janjgir-Champa of
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175-176.
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Golaghat district in Assam. J. Indian Soc. Soil
Sci. 57(3): 313-316.
20
Tisdale, S. L., Nelson, W. L., Beaton, J. D. and Halvin, J. L.
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Macmillan Publishing Co., New Delhi; 144,
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Waghmare, M. S., Bavalgare, V. G., Deshmukh, V. A. and
Takankhar, V. G. 2009. Status of available N,
P and K in some soil of Ausa tahsil of Latur
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327-331.
Watanable, F. S. and Olsan, S. R. 1965. Test of an ascorbic
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Soc. Soil Sci. 57(1): 90-92.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 21-23 (2015)
STATUS OF MACRONUTRIENTS (N, P and K) IN SAMPLED SOIL
U.S. Verma1, S.S. Sengar2 and Deepika Devdas3
1. Ex. P.G. Student, 2. Professor, 3. Ph.D. Scholar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.) 492 012
Email: uvverma@yahoo.in

ABSTRACT
A Study was undertaken to evaluate the fertility status of Malkharauda block, Janjgir-Champa district, Chhattisgarh cov-
ering 110 villages during 2011-2012. The systematic collection of samples in geo–referenced surface (0-0.15m) soils sam-
ples from 2640 sites representing Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols using Global Positioning System and mapped on 1:4000
Scale. The samples were analyzed for DTPA-extractable zinc, copper, iron and manganese and available nitrogen, phos-
phorous and potassium content for delineation of the fertility status in relation to salient physico-chemical characteristics.

Key words: Macronutrients, soil type, Janjgir-Champa, Chhattisgarh

INTRODUCTION
Soil fertility has a direct relation with the crop yields, OBJECTIVE
provided other factors are in optimum level. Soil fertility In this view, the aim of this study was focused to
must be periodically estimated as there is continues removal assess the status major nutrient (N, P and K) in the sampled
of macro nutrients by the crop intensively grown in every soils of Malkharouda block under Janjgir-champa district of
crop season. In order to achieve higher productivity and Chhattisgarh.
profitability, every farmer should realize that fertility levels
must be measured as these measurements can then be used
to manage soil fertility. It is determined by the presence or MATERIALS AND METHODS
absence of nutrients i.e. macro and micronutrients. Balanced The categorization of the soils of the individual blocks
nutrient use ensures high production level and helps to as a whole in to the three fertility classes was done according
maintain the soil health. Fertilizing soils to bring all the to the nutrient index values calculated from the soil test
deficient elements at high levels as to provide sufficient ionic summaries giving their percentage distribution into low,
activity in soil solution for crop uptake is one of the most medium and high categories.
important considerations for maximization of the crop yield.
-The nutrient index (Muhr et al. (1965) was given by-
Nutrient index = [% samples in high category × 3 + % in medium
Category × 2 + % in low category × 1] / 100
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Available macronutrients status of soils
Table 1: distribution of available nitrogen status in the soils of Malkharauda block       
Available Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols Total
N No. of % No .of % No .of % (%)
(kg ha-1) Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples Samples
Low (<280)
1795 99.56 591 99.16 240 99.59 99.44
Medium
8 0.44 5 0.84 1 0.41 0.56
(280-560)
High
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(>560)

Available N status
The available N content (Table 1) of Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols varied from 88 to 339 kg ha-1 with an average
value of 181 kg ha-1. The available N content ranges from 88 to 326, 88 to 339 and 100 to 301 kg ha-1 with mean values of
179, 179 and 204 Kg ha-1 in Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols . Considering the soil test rating for available N (<280 as low,

21
280-560 as medium and >560 as high in the status of N), the
soil sample i.e. 99.56, 99.16 and 99.59%, were found   as
low available N content in Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols,
respectively. The soils of Malkharauda block fell under low
status (<280 kg ha-1) in available N content. In general, out
of 2640 samples, 99.44% fell under low status and 0.56%
samples were categorized under medium N status (Table 1).
In this way, almost all the soil samples tested for available
N were found to be deficient in N. The mean value of N
was found minimum i.e. 144 kg ha-1 in the village Sonadula
and maximum 241 kg ha-1 in Sanjari village . Similar results
were also reported by Rajeshwar et al. (2009) in the soils of
Krishna in District Andhra Pradesh and Kumar et al. (2009)
in Dumka and Lachinpur series of Jharkhand.
These results are also in agreement with the findings
of Jatav (2010) in the soils of Inceptisols group of Baloda
block of Janjgir-Champa district of Chhattisgarh and Shukla
(2011) in the Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols orders of
Pamgarh block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.).
Although, it is fact that the available N analyzed by
alkaline KMnO4 method as suggested by Subbiah and Asija,
(1956) do not exhibit the exact availability of N in dry soil.
It is the measure of the oxidisable N in dry soil.

Table 2: Distribution of available phosphorus status in the soils of Malkharaud block

Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Available P Total
(kg ha-1) No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples (%)
Low
1589 88.13 544 91.28 181 75.10 84.84
(<12.5)
Medium
211 11.70 51 8.56 55 22.82 14.36
(12.5-25)
High
3 0.17 1 0.17 5 2.07 0.80
(>25)

Available P status to insoluble solid phase by reacting with soil constituents.

The average available P content in various soils was
noted from 0.2 to 27.4 kg ha-1 with a mean value of 7.6 kg
ha-1 in the study area. The range is quite large which might
be due to variation in soil properties viz. pH, organic matter
content, texture and various soil management and agronomic
practices. The value of available phosphorus content varied
from 0.2 to 26.4, 0.4 to 25.1 and 1.0 to 27.4 kg ha-1 with
an average value of 7.4, 7.3 and 9.8 kg ha-1 in Inceptisols,
Alfisols and Vertisol . Considering the soil test rating for
available phosphorus (<12.5 kg ha-1as low, 12.5-25 kg ha-1
as medium and >25 kg ha-1as high) majority of the soils
fell under low status. Nearly, 88.13% (Inceptisols), 91.28%
(Alfisols) and 75.10% (Vertisols) soil samples were observed
under low status in available phosphorus (Table 2). The 11.70,
8.56 and 22.82% samples of study area were categorized
under medium available P content in Inceptisols, Alfisols
and Vertisols, respectively. Phosphorus is present in soil as
solid phase with varying degree of solubility. When water
soluble P is added to the soil, it is converted very quickly
These may include calcium Cate (Olsen, 1953), Fe and Al
oxides (Dean and Rubins, 1947 and Chu et al. 1962) and
partly organic matter. These reactions affect the availability
of P and as a result of these reactions, a very small amount of
total P is present in soil solution at any time reflected by soil
testing. However, a low to medium range of soil available P
under study area may be mostly affected by past fertilization,
pH, organic matter content, texture various soil management
and agronomic practices (Verma et al. 2005). The highest
mean values of available phosphorus were recorded 14.8 kg
ha-1 in Katari and lowest 2.8 kg ha-1 in Chhatauna village of
Malkharauda block. These results are in conformity of the
finding as reported by Nirawar et al. (2009) and Kumar et al.
(2009) in Dumka and Lachinpur series of Jharkhand.
Similar results were also reported by Jatav (2010) in
the soils of Inceptisols group of Baloda block of Janjgir-
Champa district of Chhattisgarh and Shukla (2011) in the
Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols orders of Pamgarh block in
Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.).

Table 3: Distribution of available potassium status in soils of Malkharauda block

Available K
Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
(kg ha-1)
Total (%)

No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples

Low
64 3.55 12 2.01 1 0.41 1.99
(<135)
Medium
1205 66.83 480 80.54 57 23.65 57.01
(135-335)
High
534 29.62 104 17.45 182 75.52 40.86
(>335)

22
Available K status
The results showed that the available potassium content
ranges from 104 to 549 kg ha-1 with an average value of 286
kg ha-1 in Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols of Malkharauda
block . The available potassium ranged from 104 to 479, 112
to 475 and 128 to 549 kg ha-1 with an average 278, 273 and
376 kg ha-1 in Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols, respectively
of the study area. Considering the soils having <135 kg
ha-1 as low, 135-335 kg ha-1 as medium and >335 kg ha-1 as
high in available potassium contents, the data presented in
table 4.8 revealed that 1.99% samples had low and 57.01%
had medium available potassium content, whereas 40.86%
samples had high in available potassium content of the study
area. Distribution of the samples with respect to available
potassium indicated (Table 3) that in Inceptisols about
29.62% samples had high, 66.83% medium and 3.55% in
low available K content. In Alfisols, about 80.54% samples
were found in medium, 17.45% samples were found in high
and 2.01% samples in low K content, where as in Vertisols
23.65% samples recorded in medium and 75.52% in high K
content.
These results confirmed the finding as reported by
Jatav (2010) in the soils of Inceptisols group of Baloda
block of Janjgir-Champa district of Chhattisgarh and Shukla
(2011) in the Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols orders of
Pamgarh block in Janjgir-Champa district (C.G.). Adequate
(medium or high) available K in these soils may be attributed
to the prevalence of potassium-rich minerals like Illite and
Feldspars (Sharma et al., 2008). The highest and lowest
mean values of available potassium content were recorded to
be 393 and 146 kg ha-1 K in Sanjari and Chhatauna villages,
respectively of Malkharauda block .
REFERENCES
Dean, L. A. and Rubin, E. J. (1947). Anion Exchange in
Soils. Exchangeable phosphorous and anion
exchange capacity. Soil Sci. 63: 37-387.
Jatav, G. K. (2010). Evaluation of soil fertility status in
Inceptisol of Baloda blocks in Janjgir district
of Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, I.G.K.V.
Raipur, (Chhattisgarh), 73.
23
Kumar, R., Sarkar, A. S., Singh, K. P., Agarwal, B. K. and
Karmakar, S. (2009). Appraisal of available
nutrients status in Santhal Paraganas region of
Jharkhand. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 57(3): 366-
369.
Nirawar, G. V., Mali, C. V., and Waghmare, M. S. (2009).
Physico chemical cherecterristics and status of
available N, P and K in soils from Ahemedpur
tahsil of Latur district. An Asian J. Soil Sci.
4(1): 130-134.
Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean, L.A.
(1954). Estimation of available phosphorus in
soil by extraction with sodium bicarbonate.
USDA, Circ. 939.
Rajeswar, M., Rao, C. S., Balaguravaiah, D. and Khan, M. A.
A. (2009). Distribution of available macro and
micronutrients in soils Garikapadu of Krishna
District of Andhra Pradesh. J. Indian Soc. Soil
Sci. 57(2): 210-213.
Sharma, P. K., Sood, A., Setia, R. K., Tur, N. S., Mehra, D. and
Singh, H. (2008). Mapping of macronutrients
in soils of Amritsar district (Punjab) A GIS
approach. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 56(1): 34-41.
Shukla, A. G. (2011). Evaluation of soil fertility in soils of
Pamgarh blocks, district Janjgir-Champa of
Chhattisgarh, M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, I.G.K.V.
Raipur, (Chhattisgarh), 63-64
Subbiah, B. V. and Asija, G. L. (1956). A rapid procedure for
the determination of available nitrogen in soils.
Current Science, 25: 259-260.
Verma, V. K., Setia, R. K., Sharma, P. K., Singh, C. and Kumar,
A. (2005). Pedospheric variations in distribution
of DTPA-extractable micronutrients in soils
developed on different physiographic units in
central parts of Punjab, India. International J.
Agric. and Biology 7: 243-246.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 24-26 (2015)

CORRELATION OF pH AND ORGANIC CARBON WITH AVAILABLE IRON

(FE) IN BLACK SOIL OF NAVAGARH BLOCK UNDER JANJGIR DISTRICT IN
CHHATTISGARH
DEEPIKA DEVDAS*, L. K. SRIVASTAVA , U.S.VERMA
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV, RAIPUR (C.G.) INDIA
(Email : deeps.devdas@Gmail.com)

ABSTRACT
The study was carried out to soil fertility on the basis of correlation between status of OC, pH and available Fe in black soil of Nava-
garh block under Janjgir district of Chhattisgarh. The soil pH varied from 5.8 to 8.0 (mean 6.24) and indicated that soils were found
to be moderately acidic to slightly alkaline in reaction. The mean value of organic carbon was 0.58% and about 90% soils of this block
comes under medium fertility group. The available iron content were ranged from 0.44 to 91.6 mg kg-1 (mean 23.8 mg kg-1) respectively
in soil of Navagarh block. Most of soil samples were found in sufficient levels of Fe. The correlation studies between available micro-
nutrient Fe and soil properties ( pH ,OC) showed significant negative correlation with pH but significant positive correlation with OC.

Key words : Correlation , organic carbon, Ph, Fe .

INTRODUCTION
The trace elements like Fe may be sufficient for low the growth in productivity. Depending upon the cropping
to medium production level but may starts limiting the crop pattern, leaching, erosion etc, soil looses a considerable
growth at high level of crop production. High crop yields amount of nutrients every year. If cropping is continued over
can only be achieved when high yielding crop varieties are a period of time without nutrients being restored to the soil,
properly nourished i.e. all limiting nutrients are provided in its fertility will be reduced and crop yields will decline.
correct amount and proper ratios. Fertilizing soils to bring
all the deficient elements at optimal levels as to provide MATERIALS AND METHODS
sufficient ionic activity in soil solution for crop uptake is
one of the most important considerations for maximization Soil physicochemical characteristics of Soil pH was
of the crop yield. The assay of soil fertility status is essential determined in 1:2.5 soil - water suspension after stirring
for judicious use of fertilizers and assurance of better crop for 30 minutes, by glass electrode pH meter as suggested
yields. The diagnostic techniques for fertility evaluation by Piper.The sample soil used for pH determination was
include fertilizer trials, soil test and plant analysis. Out allowed to settle down for four hours then conductivity
of these, soil test provides the most accurate information of supernatant liquid was determined by Solu- bridge as
on the availability of various plant nutrients (Dahnke and described by Black (1965) . Organic carbon was determined
Olsen, 1990). Soil test-based fertility management is an by Walkley and Black’s rapid titration method (1934) . The
effective tool for increasing productivity of agricultural soils micronutrients Fe were extracted by using 0.005M DTPA
that have high degree of spatial variability resulting from (Diethyl triamine penta acetic acid), 0.01M calcium
the combined effects of physical, chemical or biological chloride dehydrate and 0.1M triethanol amine buffered
processes (Goovaerts,1998). However, major constraints at 7.3 pH Lindsay and Novell (1978) and concentrations
impede wide scale adoption of soil testing in most of the were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer
developing countries. In India, these include the prevalence 4129.
of small holding systems of farming as well as lack of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
infrastructural facilities for extensive soil testing .
Table 1: Salient soil properties of the study area
The variability in fertility caused by application of Soil Range Mean S.D
fertilizers in individual farms is one factor that is difficult
characteristics
to account. However, it is possible to measure the natural
variation in soil fertility by considering the factors which pH (1:2.5,Soil:water) 5.8 – 8.0 6.24 ± 0.28
influence it. Slope, topography and soil types can account O.C. (%) 0.29 - 0.88 0.58 ± 0.06
for most of the natural variation in fertility. It will be Available Fe (mg kg-1) 0.44 - 91.6 23.8 ± 12.51
of great significance if Soil Test Crop Response based
recommendation can be provided even on this basis. More
Table 2 : Range and Mean values of different nutrients in
site specific recommendations can still be provided on the
study area according to soil type
basis of field soil testing to farmers who are applying very
high doses of fertilizer and who show interest on testing their ALFISOLS VERTISOLS
soils. SOIL
PARAMETERS RANGES MEAN RANGES MEAN
Soil fertility, compactability and erodibility are
the elements of soil quality. Among these elements, the pH 6-7.3 6.20 6.5-8.0 7.16
problem of decline in soil fertility endangers the maximum Organic carbon% 0.29-0.88 0.58 0.32-1.49 0.53

24
 Available Fe mg 0.44- average of 6.24. Singh et al. (2009) reported that surface and
24.42 2.24-33.38 10.41 subsurface soils were normal to slightly alkaline in reaction
kg-1 91.56
in the soils of district Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh. Considering
in Table 3 the soils having <5.0 as strongly acidic, 5.1 to 6.0
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS as moderately acidic, 6.1 to 6.5 as slightly acidic, neutral as
6.6 to 7.5 and slightly alkaline as 7.6 to 8.5. In general out of
Soil reaction (pH) 1285 samples 21.24% soils were found in moderately acidic,
A study on soil pH (Table 1) revealed that the soil 69.1% in slightly acidic, 8.48% neutral and 1.16% slightly
samples collected from the farmer’s field were acidic to slight alkaline in reaction (Table 3).
alkaline in reaction and pH ranged from 5.8 to 8 with an

Table 3: Category of soils samples under different pH rating of Navagarh block

Alfisols Vertisols
Classes Limit Total (%)
No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples

Strongly acid <5.0 0 0 0 0 0

Moderately acid 5.1-6.0 273 21.4 0 0 21.24
Slightly acid 6.1-6.5 888 69.10 0 0 69.10
Neutral 6.6-7.5 71 5.52 38 2.96 8.48
Slightly alkaline 7.6-8.5 0 0 15 1.16 1.16

Organic carbon (OC)
Data presented in (Table 1 and 4) revealed that most of
the soils are having low to medium status of organic carbon.
It ranged from 0.29 to 0.88 % with a mean value of 0.58%
covering the entire black soil group (Alfisol and Vertisol).
Nearly 90.35 % soil samples of Navagarh block of Janjgeer-
Champa district were medium in organic carbon content.
Considering the soils having <0.25% as very low, 0.25- 0.50
% as low, 0.50- 0.75% medium and >0.75% as high in OC
status. The overall organic carbon ranges from 0.29 to 0.88
and 0.32 to 1.67 and with mean of 0.58 and 0.53% in Alfisol
and Vertisol, respectively (Table 2). The soils of Navagarh
were found 9.33% in low, 90.35 % in medium and only
0.31% soil samples in high organic carbon status.
High temperature and good aeration in the soil
increased the rate of oxidation of organic matter resulting
reduction of organic carbon content. The high temperature
prevailing in the area is responsible for the rapid burning
of organic matter, thus resulting low to medium in organic
carbon content of these soils. Similar results were also
reported by Sharma et al. (2008) in soil of Amritsar district
of Punjab state.

Table 4: Distribution and categorization of organic carbon status 

Organic carbon (%) Alfisols Vertisols

Total (%)
Classes No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Very Low
0 0 0 0 0
(<0.25)
Low
96 7.47 24 1.87 9.33
(0.25-0.50)
Medium
1134 88.25 27 2.10 90.35
(0.50-0.75)
High
2 0.16 2 0.16 0.31
(>0.75)

Available Fe status
Table 5: Distribution of available iron status in surface soils of Navagarh block
Available Fe (mg kg-1) Alfisols Vertisols Total %)
No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Deficient <4.5 29 2.25 6 0.46 2.72
Sufficient 4.5-9 116 9.02 26 2.02 11.05
High level >9 1087 84.59 21 1.63 86.22

25
 The DTPA-extractable Fe content of soils under study
varied from 0.44 to 91.56 mg kg-1 with an average of 23.85
mg kg-1 (Table 1). These finding corroborate with results
as reported by Rajeshwar et al. (2009) in soil of Krishna
district of Andhra Pradesh and also confirm the findings
of Singh et al. (2009). In the soils of district Gajipur, Uttar
Pradesh. Considering 4.5 mg kg-1 DTPA-extractable Fe as
critical limit (Table 2) (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978), these
soil samples were found 2.72% deficient, 11.05% sufficient
and 86.22 % high in available Fe content (Table 5). High
available Fe content in soils of Navagarh block might be
due to its topography and cultivation of rice, which induced
prolonged submergence coupled with reducing conditions.
Majority of the soils were not deficient in Fe as the amount
of iron required by crops is being released by iron bearing
minerals in these soils. The soil pH had reverse effect on the
availability of Fe content in soil. It was concluded from the
table 4.9 that 84.59 and total 86.22% samples under high
level of Fe 9.02 and total 11.05%, samples under sufficient
level of Fe, where as 2.25 and total 2.72% samples were
fall under deficient in available Fe in, Alfisol and Alfisol +
Vertisol included under black soil group, respectively.
Table 6: Correlation coefficients (r) between physi-
co-chemical properties and DTPA -extractable Fe in
Alfisols of Navagarh block
Soil properties Fe
pH -0.306**
OC 0.074*
*Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level
Table 7: Correlation coefficients (r) between physico-chem-
ical properties and DTPA -extractable Fe in Vertisols of
Navagarh block
Soil properties Fe
pH -0.804**
OC 0.057*
*Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level
Relationship between soil characteristics and
DTPA-extractable Fe in Vertisol
A significant negative correlation (r = -0.306**) of
available Fe with pH (Table 6) was observed in Vertisols
of Navagarh block. The findings are in conformity with
observations reported by Meena et al. (2006). The availability
of Fe content show higher values due to their solubility
effects. Similar results were also reported by Kumar et al.
(2009) for available Fe. Organic carbon was positive and
significantly correlated (r = 0.074**) with available content
of zinc (Table 6). Rajeshwar et al (2009) confirmed similar
result observed by Kumar et al. (2009) in Dumka series of
Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand.
A significant negative correlation (r = -0.804**) of available
Fe with pH (Table 7) was observed in Vertisols of Navagarh
block. Organic carbon was positive and significantly correlated
(r = 0.057**) with available content of zinc (Table 7).
26
fig : Soil available Fe as affected by pH and Organic C
REFERENCES:
Black, C.A. (1965) Method of soil analysis American
Agronamy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
pp.131-137.
Dahnke, W.C and olsen, R.A. (1990) Soil Test correlation,
calibration and recomandation. In : Soil testing
and Plant Analysis, 3rd ed. Soil Science Society of
America PP: 45-75.
Goovaerts, P. (1998) Geo-statistical tools for characterizing
the spatial variability of microbiological and
physic-chemical soil properties. Biolo. Fertil. Soil.
27: pp 315-334.
Kumar, R., Sarkar, A. S., Singh, K. P., Agarwal, B. K.
and Karmakar, S. (2009) Appraisal of available
nutrients status in Santhal Paraganas region of
Jharkhand. Journal of Indian Society Soil Science
57(3): 366-369.
Lindsay, W. L. and Norvell, W. A. (1978) Development
of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and
copper. Soil Science Society of American Journal
42: 421-428.
Meena, H. B., Sharma, R. P. and Rawat, U. S. (2006)
Status of Macro and Micronutrients in some soils
of Tonk District of Rajasthan. Journal of Indian
Society of Soil Science 54(4): 508 -512.
Rajeswar, M., Rao, C. S., Balaguravaiah, D. and Khan, M.
A. A. (2009) Distribution of Available Macro and
Micronutrients in Soils Garikapadu of Krishna
District of Andhra Pradesh. Journal of Indian
Society of Soil Science 57(2): 210-213.
Sharma, P. K., Sood, A., Setia, R. K., Tur, N. S., Mehra, D.
and Singh, H. (2008) Mapping of macronutrients in
soils of Amritsar district (Punjab) A GIS approach.
Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 56(1): 34-
41.
Singh, V. S., Agrawal, H. P. and Prasad, S. (2009) Distribution
of DTPA-extractable micronutrients in the soils of
District Ghazipur, Utter Pradesh. Journal of Indian
Society of Soil Science 57(3): 370 – 372.
Walkley, A and Black C.A. (1934) Estimation of organic
carbon by the chromic acid titration 1method. Soil
Science 47:29-38.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 27-29 (2015)
SUCCESSION OF INSECT-PESTS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES ON OKRA
(Abelmoschus esculentus L)
SAGAR ANAND PANDEY AND V.K. KOSHTA
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalya Raipur -492006, India
E-mail: sagaranand687@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
A field experiment on succession of insect-pests and their natural enemies on okra was carried out during kharif season of 2013-14
at the Department of Entomology I.G.K.V.Raipur (C.G). The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three rep-
lications. Observations on five important insect pests, Aphid Aphis gossypii, Jassid Amrasca biguttula biguttula, Whitefly Bemis-
ia tabaci, Shoot and Fruit borer Earias vitella, Mite Tetranychus macfarlanei and predators like Lady bird beetle, Rove bettle, Spi-
der were recorded. The incidence of sucking pests like Jassid Whitefly, and Borer like Shoot and Fruit borer started simultaneously
pests occurred throughout the season. The study consisted of pest surveillance, monitoring and collection at different phonolog-
ical stages of okra cultivar Parbhani kranti. During the study, it was observed that the insect pest species infesting different
parts of okra plant were foliage, flower, shoot and fruit which are the most important biotic constraint affecting the okra yield.

Key words: Okra, Shoot and Fruit borer, Succession, Monitoring, Phenological stages,
INTRODUCTION
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus ) popularly known as
bhindi, ladysfinger etc is an annual vegetable crop grown in
tropical and subtropical regions. An area of about 231 hectare
with a total production of 6350 million tones it possess.
(Annonymus 2013). Vegetables are an indispensable part
of our diet, supplying vitamins, carbohydrates and minerals
needed for a balanced diet. Vegetables are important
especially in developing countries like India, where
malnutrition abounds (Randhawa, 1974 and Masood Khan
et al., 2001). Okra dry seed contains good edible oil (13-
22%) and protein (20-24%). The oil is used in soap, cosmetic
industry and as vanaspati while protein is used for fortified
feed preparations. High iodine content of fruits helps to
control goitre while leaves are used in inflammation and
dysentery.(Mishra 2001). India ranks first in the world with
an area of 4, 52,500 ha with a production of 48, 03,300 mt of
okra fruits with a productivity of 10.6 mt. /ha. In Chhattisgarh,
the crop is grown in an area of 25,233 ha with production
of 2, 49048 mt. of okra fruits and productivity is 9.86 t /
ha. (Anonymous, 2012). The crop has been reported to be
attacked and infested by an array of insect causing injuries
to their seedling, vegetative, flowering, shoot formation and
fruit maturity stages. Thus, among the various constraints
for low productivity in okra crop, the infestation of insect
pest is the main contributor. Pests are dynamic in nature
and succession of pest occur with the nature of the agro-
ecosystem and many reports are available on the succession
of the insect pest of okra from different part of the country.
[Boopathi et al.,(2011), Sabyasachi and Mondal (2013) and
Netam et al.,(2007)]
In the plain plateau of C.G., there is paucity of
information on the succession of insect pest on pigeonpea.
Therefore, this information will help in designing a
successful pest management strategy in okra fields of the
plain plateau region.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Field study was carried out in the experimental field
of Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (IGKV), Raipur,
Chhattisgarh (C.G.) during kharif 2013-14. The research
field located in the south eastern part of Chattisgarh and lies
at 21-16oN latitude and 81.36oE longitude with an altitude
of 298 meter above mean sea level. The experiment was
laid out in a randomized block design (RBD) with three
replications having a plot size 4.0m x 3.0m each with 0.5
meter pathway between plots. The regular observations were
recorded starting from immediately after seed germination
and continued up to harvest. The crop was kept unprotected
for this purpose. Observations on different insect pests and
their natural enemies were recorded on 10 tagged plants,
once in a standard week on the okra. The meteorological data
were obtained from the observatory of I.G.K.V. Raipur.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of insect pest succession on the okra
revealed that a total of ten species of insect (6 pest and 4
natural enemies) belonging to five orders were observed
to be associated with various stages of the okra crop at
Raipur, Chhattisgarh in plain plateau during 2013-14. The
pest succession (pest, natural enemies on the Abelmoschus
esculentus has been depicted in Fig.1 (Plate1 and 2). The
incidence of different insect pests on okra was recorded
regularly at different stages of the crop i.e., vegetative stage,
reproductive stage and maturity stage (Table1). Thus a total
of six species of insects appeared as pests and four species
of insects appeared as natural enemies in different stages
of the crop growth during study, belonging to five orders
viz. Homoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Acarina and
Coleoptera which represented nine families. The leaf miner
which occurred mainly at the early crop stages, whereas
aphid, jassid,and whitefly were occurred at the succeeding
stages. The infestation through by the red cotton bug and
lepidopteran borer occurred generally at the reproductive
stage to maturity stage. The similar findings have also been
reported by Sabyasachi and Mondal (2013) and Netam et
al., (2007).

27
 The predator Lady bird beetle (Coccinella Table 1: Succession of insect’s complex on okra at different
septumpunctata), Spider (Tetranychus urticae), mite plant growth stages.
(Tetranychus spp.) and Rove bettle have been recorded as
an important biological control agent of different insects Plant stage Succession of insect’s complex
at different crop growth stages. The predator Coccinella
Leaf miner, Whitefly, Aphid, Spider, Mite,
septumpunctata grubs and adults were devour eggs of some Vegetative
Lady bird bettle, Rove bettle
lepidopteran insect pest and nymph along with adult stages
of soft bodies insect species viz., aphids etc. Boopathi et Jassid, Aphid, Whitefly, Red cotton bug, Leaf
al.,(2011) also reported the same predator species on okra. Reproductive miner, Shoot and fruit borer, Spider, Mite,
The spider and mite like to feed on ventral leaf surface under Lady bird bettle, Rove bettle
protective cover of fine silken webs. They was found preying Maturity Red cotton bug, Shoot and fruit borer
upon aphid and jassid. Netam et al., (2007) and Dubey et al.,
(1999) have recorded 9 major pest infesting to okra crop in
this region. The faunal make up of the pest diversity is under
the control of prevailing physic-chemical conditions.

Plate-II
Fig.1. Pest and natural enemies of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)

() Figure in parentheses are the period of availability of the insect on the crop.

Fig.2: Succession of insect on okra at Raipur during 2013-14

28
REFERENCES Mishra J.P. (2001) Handbook of Horticulture. Indian council
Anonymous (2013) Indian Horticulture database. National of Agriculture Research, New Delhi. pp: 422-
Hoticulture Board Gurgaon. 427.

Anonymous, (2012) National Horticulture Mission Progress Netam, P.K., Ganguli, R.N. and Dubey, A. K. (2007) Insect
Report, Raipur Chhattisgarh.23. pest succession in okra Environment and
Ecology. 25(1): 177-180.
Boopathi, T. Pathak, K. A. Ngachan, S. V. Singh, B. K.
Nabajyoti Das Verma, A. K. (2011) Seasonal Randhawa, G. S., (1974) Horticulture; Importance of pest
incidence of major insect pests on okra in control. Pesticides Annual, pp. 85-87.
Mizoram, India. Journal of Plant Protection Sabyasachi Pal Maji, T. B. Palash Mondal (2013). Incidencef
Sciences; 3(1):54-56.
insect pest on okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L) Moench in
Dubey, V.K., Bhagat,K.P., Kaushik, U.K., and Yadu, Y.K. red lateritic zone of West Bengal. Journal of
Insect pest succession studies on okra. Journal Plant Protection Sciences; 5 (1):59-64.
of Applied Zoological Researches. 10 (2): 144-
145.
Khan, Masood, Jagadishwar, M.A., Reddy, D. and
Venkateshwar Rao, S. (2001) Bio efficacy of
selected insecticides against pest complex in
okra. Pestology, 26 (6): 18-23.

29
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 30-33 (2015)
STUDIES ON FEEDING ENHANCEMENT OF RICE BROWN PLANT HOPPER
(NILAPARVATA LUGENS STAL.) AT DIFFERENT FERTILIZER DOSES.
PREM SHANKARTIWARI*, SANJAY SHARMA AND G. NAGA BHARANI
Department of Entomology,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur - 492 012, Chhattisgarh, India
*
e-mail: premagri25@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
To study the influence of nutrition management on rice brown plant hopper the experiment was conducted with different fertilizer combi-
nations at glass house condition was tested. After the experiment results revealed that highest honey dew excretion and less probe marks
recorded in treatment received 150% recommended fertilizer dose with 175 mm2/female and 8.75 probes respectively followed by recom-
mended dose of N alone (150.25 mm2/female and 9 probes) and recommended dose of N and P2O5 alone (120 mm2/female and 10.50 probes)
compared to control treatment recorded 87 mm2/female and 13.50 probes. Application of K2O, ZnSo4, FYM and BGA did not show any
significant effect on BPH feeding when compared to control treatment. The application of N has shown the significant increase on feeding
of BPH on rice plants and P2O5 to some extent. ­Balanced fertilizer application can help rice plant become more resistant to pest effectively.

INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food crop for tillers to dry out and turn brown. This condition is called
majority of Asians including India. (Mathur et al.,1999). “hopper burn”, and it can cover large patches in rice fields
Probably the entire world population will experience under heavy pest pressure. The loss in grain yield ranged
either rice or rice products at least once in their life. Brown from 10% in moderately affected fields to 70% in those
plant hopper (BPH) Nilaparvata lugens Stal. is one of the severely affected (Kulshreshtha et al. 1974). The damage
most important insect pests in Indian subcontinent. BPH to the standing crop sometimes reached 100%. The brown
has assumed major pest status in some parts of India due plant hopper has become a serious threat to rice production
to injudicious cultivation practices which includes high throughout Asia. The increase in severity of the insect
fertilizer input and narrow seedling spacing (Singh et al., appears to be associated with the technology used in modern
1992). Cultural practices formed one of the accepted and rice culture. Therefore, the present study aimed to study the
well conceived approach in reducing the pest incidence in influence of fertilizer (NPK) on the incidence of insect pests
many crops and more so in rice. Planthoppers are known in paddy.
to prefer nitrogen-enriched rice plants. When reared on
high-nitrogen plants, they have higher feeding rates and MATERIAL AND METHODS
honeydew secretion, probe less, and lay more eggs and
The experiment was conducted in 2014-15, at the
potassium at enhanced doses induced resistance to rice Plant
Glass house, Department of Entomology, Indira Gandhi
hoppers. The economic doses of given nutrient, however,
KrishiVishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
is to be determined critically considering its rate as plant
nutrient and insect suppressant or promoter. Nymphs and
brachypterous adults of BPH move by walking and hopping;
Rearing and maintenance of BPH
Brown plant hoppers initially collected from field
macropterous adults move by flying, walking, and hopping.
were maintained throughout the year in the air cooled
First- to fifth-instar nymphs can move 4.8, 10.0, 18.5, 20.7,
glasshouses at 30 ± 5 0C on forty day old TN-1 seedlings
and 21.1 cm, respectively, at 16°C by hopping (Mochida,
in clay plots. The pots were placed inside rearing cages of
1970). Flight activity seems to continue under conditions of
75x75x75cubic centimeter which consist with of an iron
low temperature, high humidity, and weak wind (Ohkubo,
frame with glass panels and small window on front side and
1973).Though this insect is known to occur in Asia since
fine wire mesh on top and other sides.Adult insects 3 to 4
late forties, it was considered a minor pest of rice (Diwakar,
pair (male and Female) per hill were placed inside rearing
1998). The large scale resurgence of BPH is one of the most
cages for egg laying. After 2-3 days, the females started
important effects accompanying the introduction of the
egg laying inside the leaf sheath of paddy plant. Later on,
successful “green revolution” practices in tropical Asian
when adults emerged they were transferred to another pot for
rice. N. lugens, a temporary inhabitant, arrives from long
egg laying. For transferring the adults, an aspirator is used
distances barely in the rice growing season. Its high potential
which works on the suction of the air principle. Nymphs
fecundity, high adaptability to its host in various stages,
emerged out within 5 to 6 days from the eggs and reached
and high tolerance to crowding cause its uneven, clumped
second instar; t h e y were collected and used to infest the
spatial distribution within a field. These characteristics also
test materials. The experiment was conducted with following
cause the steep and steady growth in population that enables
treatments.
the insect to increase to destructive levels despite its low
initial density. Both the nymphs and adults of the brown
plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens) remove plant sap from
phloem cells. Such sap removal combined with the blockage
of phloem vessels by the insects’ feeding heaths, cause the

30
 Treatments details- White Whatman No. 1 filter paper (10 cm dia) used for
soaking honeydew, were dipped in a solution of bromocresol
Treatments green 2 gm per litter ethanol and allow to dry in sunlight, so
T1 Control that the filter paper turned yellowish orange initially and
50% of the recommended dose of NPK fertilizer afterwards contact with honeydew secreted by female, blue
T2 spot appeared on the treated filter paper. As the concentration
(50:30:20::N:P2O5:K2O)
Recommended dose of NPK fertilizer increased, the spot turned whitish in the center. The spots
T3 were traced on transparent and later on measured by keeping
(100:60:40:N:P2O5:K2O)
150% of the recommended dose of NPK fertilizer on millimeter square graph. For getting more nitrogen
T4 from plant sap hopper generally used to feed voraciously
(150:90:60:N: P2O5:K2O)
Recommended dose of NPK fertilizer + Application and excrete out the honeydew.. The insects were starved
T5 of Zn@10 kg/ha in kharif crop only (100:60:40:: for 3 hours prior to conducting the test. Feeding activity
N:P2O5:K2O+ ZnSo4) was investigated at 30 days old potted plants. The amount
Recommended dose of N and P without K of feeding by the insect expressed in terms of honeydew
T6 excretion per female in mm2 unit. Four replicates were used
(100:60:0::N: P2O5:K2O)
Recommended dose of N alone without P and K
for each treatment.
T7
(100:0:0::N: P2O5:K2O)
Recommended dose of NPK + Application of FYM
Probing mark test
T8 Quantum of feeding by BPH was assessed according
(5t/ha in kharif crop only)
to methodology suggested by Naito (1964). For this purpose
50% Recommended dose of NPK+BGA (10 kg/ha dry 45 day old plants were brought from experimental field and
T9
culture in kharif crop only)
established in the green house for probing mark test. The
50% Recommended dose of NPK+GM (sown in site plant washed thoroughly with water, and then transferred
T10
cut and mixed in soil in kharif season only) individually into 15 cm long test tubes containing a few
drops of water. One, two days old female was introduced
Feeding test individually into each test tube and allowed to make
Feeding capacity of BPH was studied on different punctures on the plant for overnight (12 hrs). Test tubes
fertilizer combination applied on the rice plant for which were plugged with sterilized cotton swab. Thereafter, the
procedure followed as suggested by Pathak and Heinrichs, seedlings were taken for staining in another tube containing
1982.The assessed the area of honeydew excreted by the 1.0 per cent erythrosine dye aqueous solution. Insect probing
two female on the filter paper after 24 hours of confinement marks were counted visually after 30 minutes of staining.
on the rice plants of different treatments. The females were Four replication were used for each treatment.
confined on test plant with the help of inverted glass funnel.
Table 1: Relative Honeydew and Probing marks of BPH (Nilaparvata lugens) on different fertilizer combination.
Average Honeydew in 24 Average probing marks
Treatments
hrs.(mm2/female) per plant, per BPH
(T1) Control 87.00 13.50

(T2) 50% of the recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (50:30:20::N:P2O5:K2O) 85.25 14.00

(T3) Recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (100:60:40:N:P2O5:K2O) 95.50 12.00

(T4)150% of the recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (150:90:60:N:

175.00 8.75
P2O5:K2O)
(T5) Recommended dose of NPK fertilizer + Application of Zn@10 kg/ha in
75.25 17.50
kharif crop only (100:60:40:: N:P2O5:K2O+ ZnSo4)

(T6) Recommended dose of N and P without K (100:60:0::N: P2O5:K2O) 120.00 10.50

(T7) Recommended dose of N alone without P and K (100:0:0::N: P2O5:K2O) 150.25 9.00

(T8) Recommended dose of NPK + Application of FYM (5t/ha in kharif crop

80.00 20.50
only)
(T9) 50% Recommended dose of NPK+BGA (10 kg/ha dry culture in kharif 65.00 23.00
crop only)
(T10) 50% Recommended dose of NPK+GM (sown in site cut and mixed in 75.50 16.00
soil in kharif season only)
SEm ± 11.44408 1.514032
CD (5%) 25.88831 3.424977

31
Fig-Relative Honeydew and Probing marks of BPH (Nilaparvata lugens) on different fertilizer combination
RESULT AND DISSCUSSION
Results indicated that excretion of honey dew and
number of probe marks statistically differs by BPH in
different treatments. The higher feeding of BPH on rice
plants results in higher honey dew excretion and lower
probe marks as reported by Lu Z X et al., 2005. In present
investigation the treatment received 150% recommended
fertilizer dose recorded higher honey dew excretion with
175 mm2/female and lower with 8.75 probes followed by
recommended dose of N alone (150.25 mm2/female and
9 probes) and recommended dose of N and P2O5 alone
(120 mm2/female and 10.50 probes) compared to control
treatment recorded 87 mm2/female and 13.50 probes. The
similar results are obtained by Lu Z X et al., 2004 who
reported excessive use of fertilizer plays very important
role in increased feeding of BPH on rice. In present studies
the effect of nitrogen on feeding efficiency of BPH on rice
plants are clearly reported. The treatments received higher
nitrogen doses recorded higher honey dew excretion and less
probe marks. The rice plants supplied with nitrogen were
preferred to feeding and oviposition by BPH (Ram Prasad
et al., 2003). The BPH on plants with high nitrogen content
had high feeding rates and honeydew excretion less probing
behaviour higher survival rates, and population built-up,
fecundity and high tendency for outbreak (Peng Wang et
al., 2006). Salim, (2002) a reported that increase in nitrogen
induced succulence in rice plants which makes them more
prone to insect pests. Moreover, the high BPH population in
nitrogen applied plants might be due to an increase in soluble
protein and free sugar content in rice sap (Prasad et al., 2003).
Numbers of studies showed that soluble amino acid in plants
increase nutritional value for insects. The treatments which
received lesser nitrogen recorded lower honey dew excretion
and higher probes (Table.1). The organic fertilizers like Blue
green algae, green manure and FYM do not shown significant
effect on feeding of rice BPH compared to control treatment.
Similar results are obtained by Luong Minh Chau and K.L
Heong (2005) who reported organic fertilizers affected to
rice plant growth and minimized the feeding of BPH and
out break when compared to synthetic fertilizer treatments.
The results also revealed that application of phosphorous
also showed slight increase in honeydew excretion and
less probe marks. Similar results were reported by Rashid
et al., (2013) who reported phosphorous fertilization
showed a little effect on BPH feeding and build up on rice
32
plants. The effect of potassium showed the negative effect
on honey dew excretion and probe marks by BPH on rice
plants. The treatment which received potassium along with
recommended doses of nitrogen and phosphorous resulted
lower honey dew excretion and higher probe marks. The
results are inline with Rashid et al., (2013) reported reduced
BPH population at higher doses of potassium applied to rice
and this might be due to decreased in soluble protein and free
sugar content in those plants. Salim, (2002) reported that
deficiency of K in rice plants increased population build up
of white backed planthopper and application of high dose of
K to rice plants decreased population build up of the insect.
CONCLUSION
Application of nitrogen increased population growth
of BPH. Phosphorus fertilization showed a little effect on
BPH feeding but fertilization with the potassium showed
reduction effect. The organic fertilizers like blue green
algae, FYM and green manuring showed no significant
effect on BPH. Hence the integration of organic fertilizers
with synthetic fertilizers in proper combinations can be
effectively reduce the BPH problem on rice.
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Singh, J and Dhaliwal, G.S (1992) Changing status of
insect pests in intensive agriculture. In:
G.S.dhaliwal, B.S.Hansra and N. Jerath (eds.)
changing scenario of our environment. Punjub
Agricultural University Ludhiana, india. Pp
241-251.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 34-37 (2015)
CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS OF ADVANCE BREEDING LINES
OF SOYBEAN
STUTI MISHRA, A. N. SHRIVASTAVA, AVINASH JHA AND SANJEEVTANTWAY
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, JNKVV Jabalpur-482004 (M.P.) India

ABSTRACT
Experiment was conducted during Kharif2013 with fifty soybean advance breeding lines which were sown with 3 replications in RBD at
Seed Breeding Farm, JNKVV, Jabalpur, M.P. Observations were recorded for phenological traits & morphological traits. The objective
of this study was to verify direct and indirect effects of major yield contributing traits which will be used for the selection for seed yield
in advance breeding lines of soybean. Twelve traits were evaluated for phenotypic genotypic correlations and path coefficient analysis.
Significant positive phenotypic correlation was observed between seed yield and number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant,
100 seed weight, biological yield per plant and plant height. Phenotypic correlation showed that seed yield per plant was positively
correlated with all traits except number of nodes per plant. In case of genotypic correlation negative relation has shown by reproduc-
tive phase with seed yield per plant while all traits were positively correlated with it. Genotypic path coefficient analysis revealed that
the highest positive direct effect on seed yield per plant was caused by number of seeds per plant followed by 100 seed weight and
number of pods per plant while negative direct effect on seed yield per plant was caused by plant height. The results obtained from
genotypic and phenotypic correlations and path analyses showed that the efficiency in the selection for seed yield in advance breeding
lines of soybean should increase through the selection of number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant and biological yield.

Key words: Soybean, Correlation coefficient, Path analysis

INTRODUCTION

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merill ] is the chief oilseed
crop in India contributes 43 % oilseeds and 29 % edible oil
production in the country. Madhya Pradesh contribution
has always been largest and substantial in respect of area
and production of country’s total. In recent years soybean
productivity has been declining due to impact of abiotic and
biotic stress and lack of appropriate breeding strategies. It
is characterized by low yield, partly because of low yield
varieties, lodging and pod shattering, in addition to other
constrain. Seed yield is controlled by quantitative genes that
make the response to selection. In breeding to improve yield
of crops, the breeder should aim on selecting traits directly
or indirectly affecting the seed yield. Correlation studies
(Miller et al., 1958) enable the breeder to the effectiveness
of association between various traits as well as the path of
changes expected during selection. Path coefficient analysis
measures the direct and indirect effect for one variable
upon another and permits the separation of the correlation
coefficient into components of direct and indirect (Dewey and
Lu, 1959). The correlations of yield with yield components
and morphological traits has been studied widely andused as
a means to improve seed yield of soybean.Major objective of
this study is to observe genotypic and phenotypic correlations
between seed yield and yield-related traits and to partitioning
these correlations into direct and indirect effects on advance
breeding lines of soybean.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Present investigation was carried out consisting
of 50 promising genotypes of soybean which includes
mutant lines, varieties, and breeding lines. The experiment
was conducted during Kharif2013 in RBD with three
replications at Seed Breeding Farm, JNKVV, Jabalpur; M.P.
Observations were recorded for phenological traits &ten
morphological traits. Recommended package of cultivation
practices were followed in the trial. Five random plants were
selected to record data on phenological traits i.e. vegetative
and reproductive stages and morphological traits viz., plant
height, number of branches per plant, number of nodes per
plant, number of pod per plant, number of pod cluster per
plant, number of seeds per plant, 100 seed weight, biological
yield, harvest index and seed yield per plant. The acquired
data of phenological and quantitative traits were subjected
to correlation coefficient (Miller et al, 1958) and path
coefficient analysis (Dewey and Lu, 1959) so as to calculate
the association among traits and direct and indirect effects of
the independent variables on the dependent variable.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Correlation Coefficient
Phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficient
of seed yield per plant was studied with different yield
contributing traits. Genotypic correlation exhibited higher
magnitude in comparison to phenotypic correlation
coefficient.
Phenotypic Correlation analysis (Table.1) of seed yield
per plant was studied with different yield contributing traits.
Seed yield per plant exhibited positive and highly significant
correlation with number of seeds per plant (0.9672), number
of pods per plant (0.9565), biological yield per plant (0.7394),
plant height (0.5843), 100 seed weight per plant (0.5822),
harvest index (0.5409). Significant positive correlation has
been revealed with number of pod cluster per plant (0.4988)
and number of branches per plant (4419), while number of
nodes per plant revealed negative phenotypic correlation
with seed yield per plant. Important yield contributing traits
like number of pods per plant have shown highly significant
correlation with number of seeds per plant (0.9886),
biological yield per plant (0.6810), number of pod cluster

34
have shown significant correlation with biological yield per
plant (0.5976) and number of seeds per plant (4767), harvest
index shown positive significant correlation with number
of pods per plant (0.5674) and number of seeds per plant
(0.5617). Similar results were recorded by Ghodrati et al.
(2013)
In case of Genotypic correlation coefficient (Table.2)
seed yield per plant exhibited high magnitude of positive
correlation with number of seeds per plant (0.9774),
number of pods per plant (0.9686), biological yield per
plant (0.7463), plant height (0.6228), 100 seed weight per
plant (0.6016), number of pods per plant (5845), number
of branches per plant (0.5496) and harvest index (0.5358).
Remaining traits has shown low magnitude of positive
correlation with seed yield per plant, while reproductive
phase has revealed negative correlation with seed yield per
plant. Economic yield contributing traits viz., number of
nodes per plant (1.6986) has shown positive correlation with
vegetative phase. Number of pods per plant revealed positive
correlation number of seeds per plant (0.9854), biological
yield (0.6916), while harvest index has shown highly has
shown positive correlation with number of nodes per plant
(1.1933) and 100 seed weight has shown positive correlation
with number of nodes per plant (0.8788) and number of
pods per plant showed positive correlation with number
of seeds per plant (0.9954). Present findings revealed that
by making selection and improvement for a particular trait
cause coincident improvement in the associated traits. This
recommends that these traits should be given high preference
while selecting for improvement in seed yield. In agreement
with the present findings Burli et al. (2010) for yield with
Table.1 Phenotypic (P) correlation for phenological and yield components in advance breeding lines of soybean.
Number Number
Vegetative Plant
Reproductive of pod of
Traits phase height
phase (days) cluster branches
(days) (cm)
per plant per plant
Vegetative phase
1 0.3699* 0.0386 0.1819 0.1575
(days)
Reproductive phase
1 0.0871 -0.0311 0.1967
(days)
Plant height (cm) 1 0.5028** 0.3718* 0.5986** -0.0615 0.5961** 0.5804**
Number of pod
1 0.4746* 0.4715* 0.0596 0.4767* 0.5976**
cluster per plant
plant height and number of pods per plant, Aditya et al.
(2011) for yield with number of branches per plant, number
of pods per plant and harvest index has reported positive
correlation.
Path Coefficient Analysis
Path coefficient analysis was carried out using
yield per plant as a dependent variable. Genotypic path
coefficient analysis (Table.3)of different traits contributing
to seed yield showed that the highest positive direct effect on
seed yield per plant was caused by number of seeds per plant
(0.7248) followed by 100 seed weight (0.2197) and number
of pods per plant (0.1006) while negative direct effect on
seed yield per plant was caused by plant height (-0.0394).
Highest indirect effect on seed yield per plant was shown by
number seeds per plant via number of pods per plant (0.7198)
and plant height (0.4519) and 100 seed weight have shown
indirect effect on seed yield per plant via biological yield
per plant (0.1209). These traits have also shown positive
indirect effect via each other which indicates that combined
progress of these traits help to improve seed yield. Similar
findings have been reported by Islam and Mian (2008) for
plant height and number of seeds per plant, similar results
were reported by Mahbub et al. (2015) for highest positive
direct effect on seed yield from100 seed weight. The overall
conclusion emerged from this study suggests that number of
pods and number of seeds per plant, biological yield, harvest
index and 100 seed weight should be given more emphasis
while forming the breeding strategies for projected yield
improvement.
Number Number Number Biological 100 seed Harvest
Seed yield
of pods of nodes of seeds yield per weight Index
(g)
per plant per plant per plant plant(g) (g) (%)
0.2768 0.1334 0.2847 0.2458 -0.0451 0.0216 0.2383
-0.1142 -0.1640 -0.1352 -0.0252 0.0035 -0.1002 0.0813
0.3105 0.1935 0.5843**
0.3780 0.0328 0.4988*

Number of
1 0.4069* -0.0493 0.4259* 0.4290* 0.2178 0.1178 0.4419*
branches plant

Number of pods per 0.9886

1 -0.0114 0.6810*** 0.3875 0.5674** 0.9565***
plant ***
Number of nodes
1 -0.0104 -0.0753 -0.1110 0.0745 -0.0400
per plant
Number of seeds
1 0.7010*** 0.3987* 0.5617** 0.9672***
per plant
Biological yield per
1 0.5320** -0.1293 0.7394***
plant(g)

100 seed weight (g) 1 0.1741 0.5822**

Harvest Index (%) 1 0.5409**

Seed Yield per

1
plant(g)

35
Table.2 Genotypic (G) correlation for phenological and yield components in advance breeding lines of soybean.
Number
Vege- Number Number Number Number 100
Plant of pod Biological Harvest Seed
tative Reproductive of of pods of nodes of seeds seed
Traits height cluster yield per Index yield
phase phase (days) branches per per per weight
(cm) per plant(g) (%) (g)
(days) per plant plant plant plant (g)
plant
Vegetative phase
1 -0.3528 0.0659 0.2539 0.2558 0.3035 1.6986 0.3079 0.2617 -0.0443 0.0269 0.2577
(days)
Reproductive
1 0.0605 -0.1225 -0.3866 -0.1436 -2.1040 -0.1573 -0.0194 0.0310 -0.1157 -0.0851
phase (days)
Plant height (cm) 1 0.5442 0.4887 0.6403 -0.8453 0.6383 0.6071 0.3423 0.2167 0.6228
Number of pod
1 0.5886 0.5459 -0.6289 0.5627 0.6940 0.4862 0.0438 0.5845
cluster per plant
Number of
1 0.5278 -0.5975 0.5470 0.5418 0.2503 0.1385 0.5496
branches plant
Number of pods
1 0.1444 0.9954 0.6916 0.4199 0.5733 0.9686
per plant
Number of nodes
1 0.1774 -0.8688 0.8788 1.1933 0.3468
per plant
Number of seeds
1 0.7087 0.4317 0.5646 0.9744
per plant
Biological yield
1 0.5602 0.1265 0.7463
per plant(g)
100 seed weight (g) 1 0.1658 0.6016
Harvest Index (%) 1 0.5358
Seed Yield per
1
plant(g)

Table.3 Phenotypic (P) path analysis for phenological and yield components in advance breeding lines of soybean.
Number Number 100
Vegetative Plant Number Number Number Biological Harvest
Reproductive of pod of seed Seed yield
Traits phase height of pods of nodes of seeds yield per Index
phase (days) cluster branches weight (g)
(days) (cm) per plant per plant per plant plant(g) (%)
per plant per plant (g)
Vegetative
0.0168 -0.0060 0.0009 0.0038 0.0036 0.0049 0.0040 0.0050 0.0043 -0.0007 0.0004 0.2510
phase (days)
Reproductive
-0.0229 0.0637 0.0045 -0.0054 -0.0193 -0.0084 -0.0188 -0.0095 -0.0014 0.0013 -0.0070 -0.0835
phase (days)
Plant height
-0.0022 -0.0028 -0.0394 -0.0208 -0.0173 -0.0247 0.0046 -0.0246 -0.0236 -0.0130 -0.0082 0.6093**
(cm)
Number of
pod cluster -0.0077 0.0029 -0.0181 -0.0342 -0.0184 -0.0177 0.0032 -0.0181 -0.0225 -0.0152 -0.0014 0.0511*
per plant
Number of
branches 0.0124 -0.0176 0.0254 0.0312 0.0580 0.0276 -0.0049 0.0287 0.0285 0.0137 0.0075 0.5019*
plant
Number of
0.0296 -0.0133 0.0629 0.0520 0.0478 0.1006 0.0007 0.0999 0.0692 0.0411 0.0575 0.9645***
pods per plant
Number of
nodes per -0.134 0.041 -0.130 -0.091 -0.124 -0.251 -0.373 -0.161 -0.174 -0.134 0.041 -0.0564
plant
Number of
seeds per 0.2173 -0.1079 0.4519 0.3836 0.3581 0.7198 0.0080 0.7248 0.5118 0.3044 0.4085 0.9720***
plant
Biological
yield per 0.0162 -0.0014 0.0377 0.0414 0.0311 0.0434 -0.0080 0.0446 0.0631 0.0347 -0.0080 0.7439**
plant(g)
100 seed
-0.0098 0.0045 0.0727 0.0975 0.0518 0.0897 -0.0535 0.0923 0.1209 0.2197 0.0371 0.5945**
weight (g)
Harvest Index
0.0013 -0.0056 0.0107 0.0020 0.0066 0.0292 0.0081 0.0289 -0.0065 0.0086 0.0512 0.5376**
(%)

36
REFERENCES characters in soybean.Annals of Bangladesh
Aditya, J., Pushpendra, P.and Bhartiya, A. (2011) Genetic Agri12 (1): 61-68.
variability, heritability and character association Miller, P. A., Williams, J. C., Robinson, H. F. and Comstock,
for yield and component characters in soybean R. E. (1958) Estimate of genotypic covariance
[G. max (L.) Merrill]. J of Central European and covariance in upland cotton. Agron J
Agri12 (1): 27-34. 50:126-131.
Burli, A. V., Dodake, S. S., Kamble, A. B. and Gare, B. Mahbub, M. M., Mamunur. Rahman.M.,Hossai, M, S.,
N. (2010) Genetic variability, heritability and Mahmud, F. and Mir,Kabir. M. M. (2015)
correlation in soybean. Journal of Maharashtra Genetic Variability, Correlation and Path
Agricultural Universities 35 (2): 331-334. Analysis for Yield and Yield Components
Dewey, D. K. and Lu, K. H. (1959) Correlation and path in Soybean. American-Eurasian J. Agric. &
coefficient analysis of components of crested Environ. Sci., 15 (2): 231-236.
wheat grass seed production. Agro J 51: 515 –
518.
Ghodrati, G. R., Sekhavat, R.,Mahmood, S. H. and Gholami,
A. (2013) Evaluation correlations and path
analysis of components seed yield in soybean.
International Journal of Agriculture: Research3
(4) 795-800.
Islam, A. K. M. A. and Mian, M. A. K. (2008) Genetic
variability and relationships for quantitative

37
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 38-39 (2015)
TESTING OF NON-ELECTRICAL LOW COST LIGHT TRAP
AKASH NIRMAL, JAYALAXMI GANGULI, HEMKANT CHANDRAVANSHI, SANJAY SHARMA AND
MANMOHAN SINGH BISHEN
Department of Entomology,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur 492 012, Chhattisgarh.
nirmal.akash648@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Light trap is mechanical tool to controlling insect pests is very less adopted by farmers in villages of India particularly in the state
of Chhattisgarh because of poor power supply at or near the site of operation and its higher cost. Foe solving this problem low cost
light traps can be designed which can be made by the farmers themselves and operated without electricity, battery or solar power
and can be a possible alternative to traditional electric light traps. The present study showed that wax candle based light trap showed
good efficiency and significantly better than kerosene oil lamp depending on light trap based insects population caught in trap.

Keywords: Low cost light trap, electric power, higher cost, wax candle etc.

INTRODUCTION
Light-trapping is a general term which covers all two large size plastic funnels (25 cm Diameter), a glass
methods of attracting and/or capturing nocturnal insects with chimney, a stand for fixing glass chimney and wax candle,
lamps that usually have a strong emission in the ultraviolet wires and nylon net for collection of insects. For increasing
range of the spectrum. Exploiting phototrophic response of their light intensity, aluminum foil (13 micron) can be
insects is an important tool in Integrated Pest Management used, measuring 1.5-2 cm width making a baffle plate like
programme to control insect pests. In early times (1st structure. Two type of light sources were used in this light
century B.C. and 4th century A.D), Roman beekeepers used trap viz., oil based bottle lamp and wax candle (10 cm long
light traps to control the moth, Galleria mellonella (Steiner, and 1.5 cm diameter). These two light traps were installed
1991). Numerous types of light traps are designed to sample, at 3 meter above from the ground level and 1 meter apart
monitor and/or control vector mosquitoes, stored insect from each other. Traps were operated from 7p.m. to 10:30
pests, forest moths and various agricultural insect pests. p.m. daily and order wise separation and number of insects
But in Indian villages, availability of electricity is a major caught were recorded daily.
constrain and almost absent in remote villages, along with
higher cost of electricity or battery based light traps. Keeping RESULT AND DISCUSSION
this problem in view, efforts have been made to design a low
cost light traps that can be operated without electricity and The result presented in Table1 revealed maximum
useful at remote village level. population in 48th Standard Meteorological week (SMW)
2014 and minimum in 13th SMW 2015 in both type of light
traps. The maximum population is found in bottle lamp
METHODS AND MATERIAL based light trap is Hemiptera (172 insects) followed by
The present investigation was carried out from 48th – Diptera (152 insects) and Lepidoptera (35 insects) (Fig.1.1).
52 SMW 2014 to 1st – 13th SMW 2015 in the experimental
nd
In wax candle based light trap the maximum population is
field of Agro-forestry, IGKVV, Raipur (C.G.). The present found in Hemiptera (330 insects) followed by Diptera (213
non electricity based low cost light trap was made by using insects) and Lepidoptera (76 insects) (Fig.1.2).
Table 01. Order wise insects population in kerosene oil lamp based and wax candle based light trap during the period of
study
Standard Lepidoptera Diptera Hemiptera Coleoptera
Meteorologi-cal Kerosene oil Kerosene oil Wax Kerosene oil Wax Kerosene oil Wax
Wax candle
Week (SMW) based lamp based lamp candle based lamp candle based lamp candle
48 0 6 16 20 15 21 3 7
49 Dec.2014 4 7 12 17 14 30 3 5
50 2 5 10 15 12 33 2 3
51 3 5 12 13 15 29 0 3
52 4 8 13 11 13 28 1 4
1 Jan. 2015 3 6 10 14 11 25 0 2
2 2 5 8 16 10 18 1 3
3 3 5 10 15 12 22 2 4
4 3 7 7 13 8 17 1 3
5 Feb. 2015 4 6 11 14 9 18 2 2

38
 6 2 4 10 12 8 16 0 2
7 2 6 7 11 10 13 0 0
8 1 2 6 9 8 19 0 1
9 Mar.2015 0 0 5 8 7 20 0 1
10 2 3 5 10 5 10 0 0
11 0 1 4 7 7 9 0 0
12 0 0 3 5 4 6 0 0
13 0 0 3 3 4 4 0 0
Total 35 70 152 213 172 330 15 42

CONCLUSION
The major significance of this low cost light trap is that
it can be used without electricity or battery particularly in
rural and remote areas. Farmers can easily make and operate
it. However, its efficiency is lower than conventional electric
and battery based light traps and it needs lots of modifications
but it can be used as alternative of other light traps which are
costly. According to above result wax candle based light trap
is much significant than kerosene oil lamp based light trap
based on insects population caught in trap.

REFERENCES
Ashfaq, M., Khan, Rashid A., Khan, M. A., Rasheed, F. and
Hafeez, S. (2005) Insect orientation to various
colour light in the Agricultural biomass of
Fig. 1.1 Insects population in kerosene oil lamp based light Faisalabad. Pakistan Entomology 27, No.1.
trap.
Bhamre, V., Sarkate, M.B., Wadnerkar, D.W. and Ramtake,
R.T. (2005) A solar ligh Trap for monitoring
and controlling of insect pests of cotton, In:
National
Conference on Applied Entomology, Udaipur, September
26-28, (2005) pp 20-21.
Ramamurthy, V.V., Akhtar, M., Patankar, N.V., Menon, P.,
Kumar, R., Singh, S.K.
Ayri, S., Parveen, S. and Mittal, V. (2010) Efficiency
of different light Sources in light traps in
monitoring insect diversity. Munis entomology
and zoology. 5(1) : 109-114.
Steimer A. (1991)The use of light-traps for pest control in
Roman times. 1st century B.C.–4th century
A.D. (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Beitr.
Fig. 1.2 Insects population in wax candle based light trap Entomol. 41: 405–409.

39
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 40-42 (2015)
GENETIC PARAMETERS AND VARIABILITY IN ADVANCE BREEDING LINES OF
SOYBEAN
STUTI MISHRA, AVINASH JHA AND PRATEEK SINGH
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, JNKVV Jabalpur-482004 (M.P.) India

ABSTRACT
Genetic parameter and variability of twelve quantitative traits including seed yield per plant were studied in during Kharif 2013 with
fifty soybean advance breeding lines which were sown with 3 replications in RBD at Seed Breeding Farm, JNKVV, Jabalpur; M.P. In-
vestigation was conducted to assess the genetic variability advance breeding lines of soybean. The variability parameters like mean,
range of variation, genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation, heritability in broad sense, genetic advance and genetic advance
as percentage of mean were estimated for twelve traits. Analysis of variance revealed that mean squares due to genotype were found
significant for all the traits under study except 100 seed weight and number of branches per plant. The values of phenotypic coeffi-
cient of variation (PCV) were higher than genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) for all the traits. The highest PCV and GCV was
revealed for number of pods per plant, followed by number of seeds per plant, biological yield per plant, number of branches per
plant, and number of pod clusters per plant indicated that bigger part for total variation is genetically powerful and selection derived
from phenotypic point would be helpful for the up gradation of these traits. High estimates of heritability coupled with high genetic
advance expressed as percentage of mean were observed for number of seeds per plant, biological yield per plant, harvest index, seed
yield per plant, number of pod cluster per plant and plant height which could be credited to the prevalence of additive gene action.

Key words: Soybean, PCV, GCV, Heritability, Genetic advance

INTRODUCTION
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merill] is the chief oilseed
crop in India contributes 43 % oilseeds and 29 % edible
oil production in the country. In India, soybean cultivation
reached to 108.83 lakh hectares recording production of
104.36 lakh tones with an average of 959 kg/ha. In M.P.
area reached to 55.4 lakh hectares, production 60.24 lakh
tones, and productivity 1086 kg/ha. (SOPA, 2014).Madhya
Pradesh has always been leading producer in respect of area
and production of country’s total. Seed yield is a complex
trait that makes the response to selection. Assessment of
genetic variability is needed for competent varietal selection
in breeding program. The magnitude of genetic variability
in a genotype is required for evaluation and selection of
breeding lines. Genetic variability is the prerequisites
for correct understanding of major yield attributing traits
which are necessary for yield enhancement. Genetic
parameters like genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV),
phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), heritability and
genetic advance were used to evaluate genetic variability
in traits. Therefore, selection for yield may not be much
rewarding unless other yield attributing traits are taken into
consideration. Major objective of this study is to observe
genetic parameters among seed yield and yield-related traits.
MATERIAL METHOD
Experiment was carried out with fiftypromising
genotypes of soybean which includes mutant lines, varieties,
and breeding lines. The experiment was conducted during
Kharif2013 in RBD with three replications at Seed Breeding
Farm, JNKVV, Jabalpur; M.P. Observations were recorded
for phenological traits and morphological traits.Five random
plants were selected to record data on phenological traits i.e.
vegetative and reproductive stages and morphological traits
viz., plant height, number of branches per plant, number of
nodes per plant, number of pod per plant, number of pod
cluster per plant, number of seeds per plant, 100 seed weight,
biological yield, harvest index and seed yield per plant. The
acquired data of phenological and quantitative traits were
subjected to analysis of genetic parametersPCV, GCV,
heritability and genetic advance for accessing the magnitude
of variations among traits.
RESULT & DISCUSSION
Genetic variability is the fundamental property for
achieving genetic enhancement in a breeding scheme.
It’s important to consider that genetic variability analysis
helps to recognize genetic potential in the populations.
The estimates of genetic parameters are supportive to plant
breeders to calculate the performance of breeding lines in
the later generations. Therefore, it is necessary to divide the
variability into heritable and non heritable components.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the mean
sum of squares due to genotypes were highly significant for
yield contributing traits viz., vegetative phase, reproductive
phase, plant height, number of pods per plant, number of
seeds per plant, harvest index, biological yield per plant,
seed yield per plant, except for 100 seed weight and number
of branches per plant. The analysis of variance for the traits
under study has been given in Table 1. In this experiment 28
advance breeding lines out of 50 given higher seed yield per
plant than population mean (32.18 g) should be utilized for
advancement of soybean yield.
Estimates of various parameters for assessment of
genetic variability (Table 2) viz, mean, range, heritability,
genetic advance, and coefficients of variation were analyzed
for the traits which are directly affecting the seed yield.
Relative study on comparison of magnitude of PCV and
GCV (Table 2) for different traits revealed that higher
phenotypic coefficient of variation was recorded than that
of genotypic coefficient of variation for all the traits under
study. It infers that number of pods per plant (32.60% and

40
32.20%) recorded the highest PCV and GCV followed by
number of seeds per plant (32.55% and 32.29%), biological
yield per plant (30.11% and 31.43%), number of branches
per plant (28.61% and 21.51%) and number of pod clusters
per plant (27.64 % and 23.52%) and moderate PCV and GCV
was recorded for seed yield per plant (16.90 % and 14.61%),
plant height (14.29% and 13.55%), 100 seed weight (10.22
% and 10.15 %), vegetative phase (10.22% and 9.71%). In
accordance to the above findings, Hina and Kausar (2005)
for plant height, Aditya et al. (2011) for number of pods
per plant, biological yield per plant, Nehru et al. (1999) for
number of seeds per plant. Low magnitude of PCV and GCV
was observed for harvest index, number of nodes per plant
and reproductive phase.
Heritability is a reliable measure of genetic improvement
under selection for polygenic traits and involves total genetic
variance which consists of additive, dominance and epistatic
variances. The highest heritability was obtained for number
of seeds per plant (98.5%) followed by biological yield per
plant (98.3%), seed yield per plant (97.7%), harvest index
(96.5%), vegetative stage (90.2%), plant height (89.9%) and
100 seed weight (86.4%). Moderate heritability was recorded
for reproductive phase (74.7%) and number of pods per plant
(67.6%). The highest genetic advance as percentage of mean
(at 5% Selection intensity) were recorded for number of pods
per plant (44.00%) followed by number of branches per plant
(42.94%), number of pod cluster per plant (42.80%), harvest
index (40.15), plant height (33.92 %), seed yield per plant
(33.53 %), biological yield per plant (32.23 %), moderate
magnitude of genetic advance as percentage of mean was
found for 100 seed weight (24.93 %) and vegetative phase
Table 1. Analysis of variance for phenological and yield components of advance breeding lines of soybean.
(24.36 %). Heritability estimates along with genetic advance
are normally more helpful in predicting the genetic gain
under selection. Number of seeds per plant, biological yield
per plant, harvest index, seed yield per plant, number of pod
cluster per plant and plant height showed high heritability
along with high genetic advance whereas, high heritability
with moderate genetic advance was found for vegetative
phase and 100 seed weight indicating the prevalence of
additive gene action. Number of nodes per plant recorded
low heritability with low genetic advance exhibiting non
additive gene action in expression of their effects. High
heritability and genetic advance revealed additive gene action
which can be exploited to achieve transgressive segregates
adopting appropriate breeding methods. These findings are
in agreement with those of Islam and Mian (2008), Nag et al.
(2007) for plant height, number of pods per plant and number
of seeds per plant, Aditya et al. (2011) for biological yield
per plant and Gohil et al. (2006) for yield per plant, Malik
et al.(2006) for plant height. The above analysis of variance
showed that vast and competent phenotypic variability was
there among the advance breeding lines of soybean. Narrow
differences between phenotypic and genotypic coefficients
of variation (PCV and GCV) for most of the traits revealed
less environmental influence on their expression. All the
major yield contributing traits revealed higher magnitude
of heritability, which represents the heritable variation
existing in the traits, would be very rewarding for further
selection of generations. Thus, facilitate the breeder to select
superior breeding lines on the basis of phenotypic terms of
quantitative traits.

MEAN SUMS OF SQUARES

S. Source of No. of 100
d. f. Veg. Repro. Plant No. of No. of No of No. of Biological Harvest Yield/
No. Variation pods Seed
phase Phase height branches seeds/ pods per nodes yield/ index Plant
cluster weight
(days) (days) (cm) per plant plant plant per plant Plant (g) (%) (g)
per plant (g)
1 Replications 2 0.18 2.06 6.81 3.93 0.28 11.78 5.26 68.5 2.20 3.13 0.20 0.09
2 Genotypes 49 35.34** 30.22** 105.10** 53.04** 1.06 1523.94** 524.22** 67.07** 117.80** 175.12** 1.98 43.33**
3 Error 98 1.23 3.06 3.78 5.11 0.21 7.9 4.27 65.67 0.67 2.10 0.09 0.09
4 S. Ed ± - 0.90 1.90 2.20 2.77 0.52 3.19 1.18 6.19 0.93 1.64 0.35 0.35
5 CD 5% - 1.80 2.83 3.95 3.95 0.75 4.56 4.56 0.38 1.33 2.35 0.50 0.50
6 CD 1% - 2.38 3.75 4.17 5.23 0.99 6.04 6.04 0.49 1.76 3.11 0.67 0.66
Table 2. Genetic parameters for phenological and yield components of advance breeding lines of soybean
Traits Mean Range CV (%) PCV (%) GCV (%) h2 b (%) Gen. Adv as % of Mean
Minimum Maximum 5%
Vegetative stage (days) 30.8 21.6 40.0 3.20 10.22 9.71 90.2 24.36
Reproductive stage (days) 54.9 47.6 62.3 3.18 6.34 9.05 74.7 12.50
Plant height at (cm) 41.6 28.4 54.8 4.53 14.29 13.55 89.9 33.92
Number of pod clusters plant1 17.1 7.4 26.8 14.50 27.64 23.52 72.5 42.81
Number of nodes plant-1 11.0 9.0 13.0 6.23 6.23 5.74 38.2 9.27
Number of branches plant-1 2.3 0.80 3.80 18.79 28.61 21.51 56.8 42.94
Number of pods plant-1 39.3 14.6 64.0 8.05 32.60 32.20 67.6 44.00
Number of seeds plant-1 67.4 24.6 110.3 2.05 32.55 32.29 98.5 31.60
Biological yield plant-1 (g) 19.3 9.7 29.0 4.13 33.15 31.43 98.3 32.23
100 seed weight (g) 7.6 5.8 9.45 4.02 10.22 10.15 86.4 24.93
Harvest index (%) 29.6 13.8 45.4 5.17 6.34 15.05 96.5 40.15
Seed yield plant (g)
-1
5.8 1.9 9.74 5.60 16.90 14.29 97.7 33.53

41
REFERENCES
Aditya, J. P., P. Bhartiya and A. Bhartiya. (2011) Genetic
variability, heritability and character association
for yield and component characters in soybean
[G. max (L.) Merrill]. J of Central European
Agri., 12 (1): 27-34.
Burli ,A .V., Dodake, S. S., Kamble, A. B. and Gare, B.
N. 2010. Genetic variability, heritability and
correlation in soybean. Journal of Maharashtra
Agricultural Universities 35 (2): 331-334.
Gohil, V. N., Pandya, H. M. and Mehta, D. R. (2006) Genetic
variability for seed yield and its component
traits in soybean. Agril Science Digest 26 (1):
73-74.
Ghodrati, G. R., Sekhavat, R., Mahmood, S. H. and Gholami,
A. (2013) Evaluation correlations and path
analysis of components seed yield in soybean.
International Journal of Agriculture: Research
3 (4) 795-800.
Karad, S. R., Harer, P. N., Kadam, D. B. and Shinde, R. B.
(2005) Genotypic and phenotypic variability
in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]. J
Maharashtra Agril University 30 (3): 365-367.
42
Kausar, J. and Hina. (2005) Genetic investigations in
segregating populations of soybean (Glycine
max (L.) Merrill). M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.
Malik , M. F. Anwar., S. Qureshi, A., Ashraf , Muhammad
and Ghafoor, Abdul (2006) Genetic Variability
of the Main Yield Related Characters in
Soybean. International Journal Of Agriculture
& Biology. 8 (6)15–81
Mahbub, M. M., Mamunur, M. Rahman., Hossai, M. S.,
Mahmud. F. and Mir, Kabir. M. M.(2015)
Genetic Variability, Correlation and Path
Analysis for Yield and Yield Components
in Soybean. American-Eurasian J. Agric. &
Environ. Sci., 15 (2): 231-236.
Iqbal S., T. Mahmood, Tahira, M. Ali, M. Anwar and M.
Sarwar (2003) Path Coefficient Analysis in
Different Genotypes of Soybean (Glycine max
(L) Merril). Pak. J. Bio. Sci. 6(12): 1085-1087.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 43-46 (2015)
YIELD AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF LOCAL COLLECTED GENOTYPE OF IVY
GOURD (Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt.)
THALESH KUMAR PANIGRAHI*, G. L. SHARMA, T. TIRKEY, PUSHPENDRA SINGH PAINKRA
Department of Horticulture, IGKV, Raipur (Chhattisgarh) - 492012
*Corresponding author E-mail – panithalesh@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The present study carried out to know the yield and quality evaluation of the thirty four collected genotype of ivy gourd with two check varities
Indira Kundru-5 and Indira Kundru-35 at Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Raipur, which was planted with three replication in a bower
training system. Among the thirty six genotype IK-1 was found higher yield (247.85 q/ha) than all other genotype and check varities performed
237.478 q/ha (Indira Kundru-5) and 230.18 q/ha (Indira Kundru-35). IK-2 was found highest TSS (3.40 0Brix), highest volume was found in
IK-9 (21.66 cc), highest specific gravity found in IK-11 genotype (1.02 cc) and IK-32 genotype found highest ascorbic acid (21.66 mg/100 fruit).

Key word: genotype, ivy gourd, yield, quality.

INTRODUCTION
Ivy gourd is a member of cucurbitaceae family, it
is believed to origin of India (Nath, 1966). Ivy gourd is a
perennial vine crop, grown in tropical and sub-tropical
region. Ivy gourd is grown for there immature tender fruits,
test like a cucumber and are used as salad and preparation of
various vegetable. In southern asia, ivy gourd is cultivated
for its long slender edible young shoot and fruit (Linney,
1986). Ivy gourd has a many medicinal values. It is rich in
vitamin C, which is straightening the bones. It also provided
vitamin B1 and B2 and also small amount of vitamin A and
Tendril of ivy gourd is also rich in mineral like potassium,
calcium and iron. All part of plant are used for treating
various disease, Leaves extraction of Coccinia grandis for
antibacterial activity against (Bhattacharya 2010), root are
used for antidiabetic, skin diseases, removes pain in joint,
urinary tract infection (Pekamwar et al, 2013) and Ivy gourd
long way to help in controlling diabetes (Shibib et al. 1993,
Deokate and Khadabadi 2011).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Location of experiment
The genotype were planted during summer-Kharif
season in randomized block design, in the year 2014-15 at
Horticultural Instructional cum Research Farm of Department
of Horticulture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
soluble solids in juice.
Moisture contain (%):-
Fresh weight of five randomly selected are recorded and oven dry the fruit than moisture contain was recorded in
percent by formula -
Raipur (C.G.). Each genotype was planted in 3 m row to
row and plant to plant with three replication and training the
wine by bower system.
Plant material and source
The genotype investigation comprised 36 genotype of
ivy gourd available in Department of Horticulture IGKV
Raipur. The details of germplasm are sown in Table 1.
Observation
Observation of yield (q/ha), TSS, moisture contain,
fruit volume, specific gravity, ascorbic acid and acidity
recorded by following method –
Yield per hectare (q/ha):
Total tender green edible fruit yield from overall
the picking was recorded from each plant and yield was
expressed in quintals per hectare.
TSS (0Brix):
After extraction of juice, it was strained through
a muslin cloth the percentage of total soluble solids was
determined by using hand refractometer available at
preservation laboratory of Department of Horticulture,
IGKV, Raipur. The mean values expressed as 0Brix total

Acidity (%):
Acidity of papaya pulp was calculated by titrating the diluted pulp against the standard N/10 NaOH solution using
phenolphthalein as an indicator and expressed as anhydrous citric acid w/w (Rangana, 1986). Three readings were recorded
and the percentage acidity was calculated by the formula given below:

43
Ascorbic acid (mg):
Ascorbic acid was estimated by the method recommended
by Rangana (1986). Ten g of fruit extract from composite sample
was blended in mix mastur with 5 per cent metaphosphoric acid
(stabilizing agent) and made upto known volume after filtration.
An aliquot of the filtrate was titrated against standardized solution
of 2,6-dichlorophenol indo- phenol dye until pink color persisted
at least for 15 seconds. Results have been reported as mg/100 g of
pulp.
Fruit volume (cc):
The volume of five randomly selected fruits was
recorded by water displacement method and average was
worked out.
Fruit specific gravity:
The specific gravity of fruit calculated by following
formula:
Result and discussion
Yield per ha. (q):
Yield per plant is significantly differed from each
genotype present in table 1.1 and ranged is 35.36 q/ha to
247.85 q/ha Maximum yield q/ha was recorded in IK-1
(247.85 q/ha) followed by Indira Kundru-5 (237.47 q/ha),
Indira Kundru-35 (230.18 q/ha) and IK-28 (183.51 q/ha)
whereas, minimum yield per ha recorded in IK-6 (35.37 q/
ha) with overall mean of 131.73 q/ha. Similar result for yield
per plant kg has been found by Krishna Prasad, et al. (1997),
Bharti, et al. (2010) in pointed gourd, Sarnaik, et al. (1999)
and Dharmatti, et al. (2007) in ivy gourd.
TSS (0Brix):
TSS is significantly differed from each genotype
show in a fig.1.1. Maximum TSS was recorded in IK-2 (3.40
0
Brix) followed by IK-5 (3.37 0Brix), IK-19 (3.33 0Brix)
and Indira Kundru-5 (3.30 0Brix) whereas, minimum TSS
recorded in IK-11 (1.47 0Brix) with overall mean of 2.56
0
Brix these result agree with Nag, et al. (2012) in ivy gourd.
Moisture contain (%):
Moisture contains ranging from 92.93 % to 97.27 %.
Maximum moisture contain was recorded in IK-26 (97.27%)
followed by IK-10 (97.06%), IK-11 (96.52%) and IK-14
(96.30%) whereas, minimum moisture contain recorded in
IK-21 (92.93%) with overall mean of 95.07 %, similar result
has been found by Gopalan, et al.(1982), Hazara and Som
(1999).
44
Fruit volume (cc):
Fruit volume significantly differently from each
genotype and ranging from 12.00 cc to 21.66 cc. Maximum
fruit volume was recorded in IK-9 (21.66 cc) followed by
IK-10 (21.33 cc), Indira Kundru-5 (20.66 cc) and IK-1
(20.33 cc) whereas, minimum fruit volume recorded in IK-
19 (12.00 cc) with overall mean of 16.047 cc.
Specific gravity (cc)
Specific gravity was significantly difference from
each genotype. Maximum specific gravity was recorded in
IK-11 (1.02 cc) followed by IK-7 (1.01 cc) and IK-23 (0.99
cc) whereas, minimum specific gravity recorded in IK-33
(0.90 cc) with overall mean of 0.952 cc, also similar result
has been found by Sarnaik, et al. (1999).
Ascorbic acid (mg per 100 g of fruit)
Ascorbic acid significantly differences from each
genotype and ranging from 8.33 mg/100 g fruit to 21.66
mg/100 g fruit. Maximum ascorbic acid was recorded in IK-
32 (21.66 mg/100 g fruit) followed by IK-9 (20.00 mg/100
g fruit) whereas, minimum ascorbic acid recorded in IK-6
(8.33 mg/100 g fruit) with overall mean of 14.12 mg/100 g
fruit. Similar result has been found by Nag, et al. (2012) in
ivy gourd.
Acidity (%)
Acidity is significantly difference from each
genotype. Maximum acidity was recorded in IK-13 or IK-
27 (0.55 %) followed by IK-18 (0.53 %), Indira Kundru-35
(0.48 %) and IK-5 (0.46 %) whereas, minimum acidity
recorded in IK-11 (0.16) with overall mean of 0.348 %.
Conclusion:
Ivy gourd is one of the important minor vegetable
crop which is produced the fruit through the year except the
winter. IK-1 genotype of ivy gourd is superior than other
genotype in term of production which they produced 247.85
q/ ha this genotype is suitable for Chhattisgarh plain, and
highest ascorbic acid found in IK-32 (24.67 mg/100 g fruit)
this genotype fulfill the requirement of Vitamin C.
 Fig.1.1: Mean performance of TSS (0Brix)

Table 1.1: Mean performance of yield and quality parame- IK –30 153.29 94.38 15.33 0.92 18.33 0.36
ters IK –31 166.70 94.63 15.00 0.93 11.66 0.23
Yield Moisture Fruit Specific Ascorbic Aci- IK –32 39.84 94.66 12.66 0.94 21.66 0.42
Gen-
per ha contain volume gravity acid dity IK –33 146.73 94.58 13.66 0.90 13.33 0.34
otype
(qua.) (%) (cc) (cc) (mg) (%)
IK – 1 247.85 95.43 20.33 0.97 11.66 0.34 IK –34 161.44 94.92 13.00 0.95 11.66 0.27
Indira
IK – 2 167.47 94.91 17.66 0.96 13.33 0.42 Kundru- 237.48 95.54 20.66 0.96 16.66 0.23
IK – 3 170.81 94.05 14.00 0.93 10.00 0.29 5
Indira
IK – 4 46.06 95.04 14.66 0.92 13.33 0.27
Kundru- 230.18 94.32 17.66 0.93 18.33 0.48
IK – 5 130.77 94.93 18.33 0.96 15.00 0.46 35
IK – 6 35.36 95.71 16.33 0.93 8.33 0.31 Mean 131.739 95.07 16.074 0.952 14.12 0.348
IK – 7 175.17 95.95 19.00 1.01 10.00 0.29 SEm 7.87 0.296 0.686 0.02 1.73 0.023
IK – 8 162.81 95.23 15.66 0.97 13.33 0.44 CD
22.253 0.83 1.93 0.056 4.89 0.064
(p=0.05)
IK – 9 49.03 95.62 21.66 0.93 20.00 0.21
IK – 10 165.96 97.06 21.33 0.96 15.00 0.27
IK – 11 137.59 96.52 17.33 1.02 13.33 0.16 REFERENCES
IK – 12 161.51 95.81 17.66 0.93 15.00 0.23 Bharathi, L. K. and Vishalnath. (2010) Phenotypic diversity
analysis in pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica
IK – 13 141.44 96.09 16.33 0.97 13.33 0.55 Roxb.). Cucurbit Genetics Cooperative Report.,
IK – 14 52.81 96.30 12.66 0.96 11.66 0.40 33-34: 62-64.
IK – 15 148.81 94.60 16.66 0.93 13.33 0.36
Bhattacharya Bolay. (2010) In vitro evaluation of antifungal
IK – 16 143.47 96.11 15.33 0.94 16.66 0.34 and Antibacterial activities of the plant Coccinia
IK – 17 149.44 94.05 16.33 0.95 13.33 0.40 grandis (L.) Voigt. (Family- Cucurbitaceae).
IK – 18 176.88 95.40 18.30 0.94 11.66 0.53 Journal of Phytology., 2(11): 52-57.
IK – 19 142.44 94.52 12.00 0.95 13.33 0.21 Deokate, U. A. and Khadabadi, S. S. (2011) Pharmacology
IK – 20 56.44 94.43 13.33 1.01 18.33 0.40 and phytochemistry of Coccinia indica. Journal
IK – 21 149.96 92.93 15.33 0.94 13.33 0.40 of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy., 3(11):
155-159.
IK – 22 134.25 93.29 18.33 0.95 15.00 0.21
IK – 23 36.99 94.55 14.00 0.99 11.66 0.25 Dharmatti, P. R., Patil, R. V., Patil, S. S. and Athani, S. I.
(2007 ) A New Coccinia (Coccinia Indica)
IK – 24 156.03 94.38 14.00 0.93 13.33 0.36
Drc-1, A Variety Boon To Vegetable Growers.
IK – 25 56.58 94.59 12.66 0.93 13.33 0.29 Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 21 (1): 99-103.
IK – 26 98.73 97.27 14.66 0.96 13.33 0.34
Gopalan, C., Rmasastri, B. V. and Balasubramanian, S. C.
IK – 27 57.69 94.62 14.33 0.93 11.66 0.55 (1982) Nutritive value of Indian foods. National
IK – 28 183.51 95.46 15.00 0.94 18.33 0.46 institute of nutrition., Hydrabad, India.
IK –29 70.77 94.50 17.66 0.97 16.66 0.42
Hazara, P. and Som, M.G. (1999) Technology of vegetable
production and improvement. Naya parkash,

45
 206, BIdhan sarani, Culcutta. India
Krishna Prasad V. S. R. and Singh D. P. (1997) Genetic
divergence in parwal (Trichosanthes dioica
Roxb.). Indian Journal of Plant Genetic
Resources., 10(1): 91-96.
Linney, G., 1986. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight: A new
cucurbitaceous weed in Hawai, Hawaii. Bot.
Soc. Newsletter, 25(5): 3-5.
Nag, H., Singh, D., Bhadur, V. and Collis J. P. (2012)
Evolution of Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis)
genotype in Allahbad agro-climatic condiction.
Hort flora research spectrum., 1(3): 259-262.
Nath, P. 1966. Cucurbitaceous vegetable in north India,
university of Udaipur, college of Agriculture
Jobner, Ext. Bull., 7: 64.
Pekamwar S. S, Kalyankar T. M., and Kokate S. S. (2013)
Pharmacological activities of coccinia grandis:
review. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical
Science., 3(05): 114-119.
46
Rangana, G. S. (1986) Manual of analysis of fruit and
vegetables products. Tata MC. Graw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
Sarnaik, D. A., Verma, S. K. and Sharma, G. L. (1999)
Character association in ivy gourd (Coccinia
grandis). Ann. of Agric. Res., 20(4): 436-438.
Shibib, B. A., Khan, L. A. and Rahman, R. (1993)
Hypoglycaemic activity of Coccinia indica
and Momordica charantia in diabetic rats:
depression of the hepatic gluconeogenic
enzymes glucose-6- phosphatase and fructose-
1,6-bisphosphatase and elevation of both liver
and red-cell shunt enzyme glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase. Biochem. J. May 15., 292(Pt 1):
267-270.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 47-49 (2015)
DETERMINATION OF HALF – LIFE AND SAFE WAITING PERIOD FOR
RATIONALIZING THE INSECTICIDE USE IN/ON HORTICULTURAL CROP
SURYA PRAKASH GUPTA*AND S.P. SINGH
Department of Entomology, Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) – 848125, Bihar
*Author’s E-mail: Surya22gupta@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The problem of pesticide residues in vegetables viz. okra, brinjal, tomatoes, cucurbits is particularly more serious because these are in-
variably harvested at short intervals. A small sized fruit receives comparatively more deposits of toxic insecticides than the medium sized
or normal fruit because of its increased surface area per unit weight. The extent of hazard depends upon the amount of residues and their
toxicity. As it is not advisable to completely dispense with the chemical insecticide, the hazard can be minimized by keeping the residue lim-
it at minimum In order to avert such problems, prudent recommendation about the use of insecticides is essential. Further no insecticidal
recommendation is complete unless half life values and safe waiting periods on the crops are worked out. For fulfillment of above objective
an experiment was laid out at the University farm of Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa during Rabi 2012-13. Brinjal cv. Rajendra
Baigan-2 was grown according to the recommended package of practices for this region. Residues of imidacloprid at 20 g a.i. ha-1 and
lambda – cyhalothrin at 15 g a.i. ha-1 were estimated quantitatively by HPLC/GLC in/on brinjal fruits. Both imidacloprid and lambda – cy-
halothrin had half – life values of 1.92 and 2.65 days, respectively on brinjal fruits. The safe waiting period for imidacloprid was found 4.70
days. In lambda - cyhalothrin, no waiting period is required after its application as the initial deposits were less than its MRL (0.3 mg kg-1).

Keywords: Half – life period, waiting period, imidacloprid, lambda – cyhalothrin, brinjal fruits.

INTRODUCTION
Brinjal like many other vegetable crops is vulnerable
to attack by a number of insect and non – insect pests which
directly or indirectly inflict serious damage right from
nursery and continue till the crop remains in the field and
thus cause appreciable loss in fruit yield. Crop damage
by insect pests could be minimized effectively by using
chemical pesticides. Yet the method suffers from well known
weakness which call for its effective, efficient, economical,
and intelligent and need – based application. Crop damage
by insect pests could be minimized effectively by using
chemical pesticides. Yet the method suffers from well known
weakness which call for its effective, efficient, economical,
and intelligent and need – based application. The problem of
pesticide residues in vegetables viz. okra, brinjal, tomatoes,
cucurbits is particularly more serious because these are
invariably harvested at short intervals. A small sized fruit
receives comparatively more deposits of toxic insecticides
than the medium sized or normal fruit because of its increased
surface area per unit weight (Sarode and Lal, 1980, Kashyap
and Walia 1983). The extent of hazard depends upon the
amount of residues and their toxicity. As it is not advisable
to completely dispense with the chemical insecticide,
the hazard can be minimized by keeping the residue limit
at minimum. In order to avert such problems, prudent
recommendation about the use of insecticides is essential.
Further no insecticidal recommendation is complete unless
their residues, persistence, half life values, tolerance limits
and safe waiting periods on the crops are worked out.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Field experiment: The experiment was laid out in a
randomized block design with seven treatments and three
replications at the University farm of Rajendra Agricultural
University, Pusa during Rabi 2012-13. Brinjal cv. Rajendra
Baigan -2 was grown according to the recommended package
of practices for this region.The insecticides imidacloprid
@ 20 g a.i. ha-1 and lambda – cyhalothrin @ 15 g a.i. ha-
1
were sprayed thrice using a Knapsack sprayer. The first
application of insecticides was done just after the appearance
of insect pests and the second and third spray was given at 15
days interval. Brinjal fruit samples of marketable size were
collected from each plot a 0 (1 hr after spray), 2, 5, 7,10
and 15 days after the third spraying. About 1.0 kg sample
of brinjal fruits was collected in polyethylene bags from
each treatment and replication without touching the fruit by
hand. The samples were brought to laboratory for further
processing.
Extraction, Clean Up and Estimation
Imidacloprid : The samples collected from the field
were mixed thoroughly. A representative sample of 50 g was
extracted with 100 ml of acetone in a Waring blender for 2
minutes. The pulp was filtered under suction on a Buchner
funnel. The process of blending was repeated twice with 75
ml of the solvent and the filtrates were combined. The filtered
acetone extract was diluted with distilled water and partitioned
with hexane (100 + 50 ml) and then with 50 ml hexane –
ethyl acetate (98:2, v/v). The organic phase was discarded
to remove the co- extractive. Subsequently, the aqueous
phase was extracted three times with dichloromethane (100
+ 2 x 50 ml ).The dichloromethane phase was washed with
aqueous potassium carbonate solution (0.01M , 50 ml) to
remove the acidic co-extractives and then dichloromethane
phase was dried by passing through 2 cm layer of anhydrous
sodium sulphate. The sodium sulphate layer was again
washed with 30 ml dichloromethane. The dichloromethane
phase containing insecticides residue of imidacloprid as
obtained above was evaporated under reduced pressure.
The residues were dissolved in 2 ml of ethyl acetate and
cleaned up by passing through a glass column packed with
10 gm of silica gel over 2 cm layer of anhydrous sodium

47
sulphate. The column was prewashed with 30 ml of ethyl
acetate before loading the extract. The column was eluted
with 10 ml of ethyl acetate and the elute was discarded. The
imidacloprid residue was eluted with 50 ml of acetonitrile
and the eluate was concentrated under reduced pressure and
taken for analysis. The residues were analysed on HPLC
(Waters USA) equipped with a UV – VIS (lambda max 270)
detector,glass coloumn Stainless Steel, C-18 and mobile
phase Acetonitrile – water (60 : 40) .The retention time for
imidacloprid was 2.66 minutes.
Lambda – cyhalothrin: The samples collected from the
field were mixed thoroughly. A representative sample of 50 g
was extracted with 100 ml of acetone in a Waring blender for
2 minutes. The pulp was filtered under suction on a Buchner
funnel. The process of blending was repeated twice with 75
ml of the solvent and the filtrates were combined. The filtered
acetone extract was concentrated under reduced pressure
and transferred to separatory funnel (500 ml) and diluted
with an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (150 ml). The
insecticide was partitioned into hexane (50, 25, 25 ml). The
hexane layer was passed through anhydrous sodium sulphate
and concentrated to a known volume. The hexane extract of
insecticide residues representing 25 g of plant material was
cleaned up by passing through a glass column packed with
florisil and neutral alumina (5 g each) sandwiched between
sodium sulphate (2g) layers. The insecticide was eluted with
100 ml mixture of hexane – acetone (9:1, v/v) at rate of 2 – 3
ml min-1. The cleaned up extract was concentrated to dryness
and the insecticide residue was dissolved in a known volume
of hexane for GLC estimation. The insecticide residues were
analyzed on chemito GC1000 equipped with a ECD – Ni
63
capture detector and Glass column (2m) packed with 3
% OV- 101 on 80-100 mesh CHW (HP).The column,
injector and detector temperatures were 2650C, 2750C and
3000C,respectively. The flow rate of nitrogen carrier gas was
30 ml min-1.
Estimation of half – life value (RL50): Half – life
value is the time required for the half of a given quantity of a
material to react or dissipate. It was calculated as suggested
by Hoskins (1961).
Estimation of waiting period (T tol): Waiting period
is the minimum interval of time required between application
of pesticide and harvest of the crop. The formula given by
Hoskins (1961) was used for calculating the waiting period.
Half – life values (RL50): Half – Life (RL50) is
considered as a measure of persistence of insecticidal
treatment. In the present investigation the half – live values
of imidacloprid and lambda - cyhalothrin in /on brinjal fruits
were worked out by Hoskins (1961) formula as mentioned
in ‘Material and Methods’. The data on insecticide residues
were subjected to simple regression and correlation
analysis. The regression equations thus worked out for both
the insecticides were used for calculation of residue half –
life and safe waiting period. The data of half – life and the
regression equation are given in table 10.
The data presented in table1 showed that both
imidacloprid and lambda – cyhalothrin had half – life values
of 1.92 and 2.65 days, respectively. The half – life values of
imidacloprid obtained in the present study are in agreement
to the reports of Devee and Baruah (2010) who observed
48
half – life of imidacloprid as 1.44 – 1.96 days on rapeseed
leaves. Sunganthy et al. (2010) obtained half – life value
of imidacloprid (15 and 25 g a.i. ha-1) on chillies as 2.85
– 3.75 days. Half – life values for lambda – cyhalothrin on
brinjal fruits found in the present investigation are similar to
the findings of Gopal and Mukherjee (1997) who observed
a half- life of 4 days on pea pods. Singh and Singh (2003)
reported half – life values of lambda – cyhalothrin as 4.9 –
5.0 days on chick pea green pods.
Waiting period (Ttol)
Waiting period, also termed as safety interval, is the
number of days to be elapsed before insecticide residues
reach its maximum residue limit (MRL). It was calculated
for both the insecticides on brinjal fruits on the basis of
formula given by Hoskins (1961). The results are presented
in table 10. Imidacloprid and lambda – cyhalothrin have been
assigned the MRL values of 0.2 mg kg-1 and 0.3 mg kg-1 ,
respectively on brinjal fruits (Codex 2012 ).
Imidacloprid residues were found to dissipate below
MRL in 4.70 days on brinjal fruits. However, the initial
deposits of lambda – cyhalothrin on brinjal fruits were below
the MRL ( 0.3 mg kg-1 ) and thus no waiting period is required
after its application. The waiting period of insecticides
obtained in the present study is in close conformity to the
reports of earlier workers. Devee and Baruah (2010) has
suggested a waiting period of 4 days on rapeseed leaves
after imidacloprid application @ 20 g a.i. ha-1. Suganthy et
al. (2010) found a safe waiting period of 1.24 – 4.56 days for
imidacloprid on chillies fruits. Ashaputre and Jadhav (1989)
reported a waiting period of 2.60 – 4.95 days for lambda
– cyhalothrin on brinjal fruits. Lal (2005) suggested a safe
waiting period of 4 -5 days for lambda – cyhalothrin on okra
fruits after considering MRL.
Table 1: Half life values and waiting periods of insecti-
cides on brinjal fruits
Regression Maximum
Dose Half – Waiting
equation residue
Insecticide (g a.i. life period
(Y = a + limit
ha-1) (days) (days)
bx) (mg kg )-1
Y = 2.039 –
Imidacloprid 20.0 0.2 1.92 4.70
0.157 x
Lambda – Y = 2.179 –
15.0 0.3 2.64 0
cyhalothrin 0.114 x
REFERENCES
Devee, A. and Baruah, A.A.L.H. (2010) Persistence and
dissipation of imidacloprid and bifenthrin on
rapeseed leaves. Pesticide Research Journal
22(1) : 59 – 62.
Frempong, E. and Buhain. (1978) The nature of damage
to eggplant in Ghana by two important pests
Leucinodes orbonalis and Euzophera villore.
Bulletin de Institute Fundamental de Afrique
41(2) : 408 – 416.
Gopal, M. and Mukherjee, I. (1997) Persistence of lambda
– cyhalothrin on pea (Pisum sativum L.).
Pesticide Research Journal 9 (1) : 105 – 108.
Hoskins, W.M. (1961) Mathematical treatment of the rate
of loss of pesticide residues. Plant Protection
Bulletin FAO 9 : 163 – 168.
Lal, K.M. (2005) Bioefficacy and residue studies of some
newer insecticides in okra, Abelmoschus
esculentus (L.) Moench. M.Sc.(Ag) Thesis,
RAU, Bihar, Pusa
49
Sarode, S.V. and Lal, R. (1980) Persistence of phorate in
okra and cauliflower. Indian Journal of Plant
Protection 8 (1) : 72 – 77.
Suganthy, M., Kuttalam, S. and Chandrasekran, S. (2010)
Determination of waiting period and harvest
time residue of imidacloprid 17.8 SL in chillies.
Madras Agricultural Journal 97(7/9) : 275 –
277.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 50-52 (2015)
EFFECT OF DATE’S OF PLANTING ON THE INCIDENCE OF THRIPS, (THRIPS TABACI
LIND.) LEAF INFESTATION AND BULB YIELD IN ONION
JITENDRA KUMAR*, S.P. GUPTA, P.P.SINGH, PAIDY SATYANARAYANA AND R. PRASAD
Department of Entomology
Tirhut College of Agriculture (RAU) Dholi
Muzaffarpur-843 121 (Bihar)
*
Corresponding author: surya22gupta@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The experimental findings of the research revealed that the onion crop planted after 2nd fortnight of December, 2011 upto 1st week of Jan-
uary, 2012 suffered most and delay in planting afterward recorded lesser damage due to thrips. The crops planted on 1st November, 2011,
15th November, 2011 and 3rd date i.e. 1st December, 2011 recorded mean thrips population ranging from 13.18 to 32.50 per cent while max-
imum thrips population (39.10 per plant) was recorded when planting was done on 1st January, 2012. Thereafter, the thrips population de-
clined drastically (28 thrips/plant) with delay in planting date i.e. on 15th January, 2012. The lowest leaf infestation (28.40%) was recorded
when the crop was planted earliest i.e. 1st November, 2011. Afterwards, the leaf infestation due to thrips increased gradually with the delay
in planting. The mean percent leaf infestation was recorded to be 31.20, 36.6., 39.30, 40.50, and 43.70 percent when crop was planted on
15th November, 1st December, 15th December, 1st January, and 15th January, respectively. Highest bulb yield 22.6 t/ha was recorded when
planting was done on 15th November, 2011 followed by 1st December, 2011 (21.2t/ha) and delay in planting after 1st week of December
brought about a progressive increase in bulb yield. Among all the dates of planting 15th November proved as the most suitable one keep-
ing in view of minimizing the pest population (21.33 thrips/plant), leaf infestation (31.20 %) and recording higher bulb yield (22.6 t/ha).

Key words: pest population, leaf infestation, thrips, bulb yield

INTRODUCTION
Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae) is a major pest of Allium crops (Lorbeer et al.,
2002). More than 50% losses in the onion are caused by
thrips attack (More, 1977). It attacks onion at all the stages of
crop growth, but their number decreases from bulb initiation
and remain high up to bulb development and maturity. Both
nymphs and adults of thrips rasp the epidermis of leaves and
suck the exuding sap (Chhatrola et al., 2003). It is difficult
to control this pest with insecticides because of its small
size and cryptic habits (Lewis, 1997). The present study a
step forward in this direction to assess the effect of dates
of planting on the incidence of onion thrips (Thrips tabaci
Lindeman) and bulb yield for the management of thrips in
onion.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In order to explore the possibility of management
of thrips on onion through manipulation in planting time,
a field trial was conducted in RBD at the research farm,
T.C.A.Dholi, Muzaffarpur (Bihar) during 2011-2012. The
onion variety Nasik Red was used as test variety with six
dates of planting at fortnightly intervals, starting from 1st
November, 2011. All the treatments (planting dates) were
replicated four times. All the cultural practices were followed
uniformly as per the local recommendation excepting that no
insecticides was applied at any stage of the crop. Plot size,
inter and intra row spacing were 3.0X2.0 Sq.m., 0.15m and
0.10m, respectively with a path of 1.0m width maintained
between replications. Observation pertaining to the thrips
population was recorded on ten randomly taken plants at
weekly intervals using a 10X lens, till crop attains maturity.
Adults were swift in movement and many times fly away
while counting. Therefore, to avoid errors in thrips count
only nymphs were considered for recording observations.
The data obtained in successive observations were added to
obtained cumulative mean number of nymphs per plant. For
assessing percent leaf infestation due to onion thrips total
number of healthy as well as infested/damaged leaves on the
basis of silvery patches were counted at bulb formation stage
in ten randomly taken plants. Based on these observations
mean percent leaf infestation was computed for each date
of planting. At maturity, bulb yield was recorded plot wise
and converted into tonnes per ha. Data so obtained were
subjected to statistical analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data on mean number of thrips per plant, as
summarized in Table 1 and illustrated in Fig 1 revealed a
marked variation among different dates of planting. The
mean number of thrips per plant recorded an increasing
trend with the delay in sowing (Table 1). It was recorded
to be highest (39.10 thrips/plant) in crop planted on 1st
January, 2012 and went on declining when crop was planted
on 15th January, 2012 by recording 28.00 thrips per plant.
The onion crops planted on 1st date of planting (D1) i.e. 1st
November 2011 was found to be suffer least attack of thrips
(13.18 thrips/plant). Among the different dates of planting
there was no statistically difference in thrips population
when the onion crop was planted on 15th December, 2011
and 1st January, 2012 recording mean number of thrips
being 36.70 and 39.10 per plant, respectively.On the basis
of findings presented above, it can be concluded that the
onion crop planted after 2nd fort night of December up to 1st
week of January suffered most due to thrips attack might be

50
due to higher thrips population and synchrony between the January 2012, and 15th November 2011, respectively. Among
vegetative stage of the crop and higher temperature which the different dates of planting the highest bulb yield 22.6 t/
was most vulnerable and peak activity of onion thrips. Since ha was recorded when planting was done on 15th November
the pest is most serious in dry condition coupled with high which was statistically on par to the crop when the crop was
temperature and these two abiotic factors are also favourable planted on 1st December, 2011 and 1st November, 2011 with
for vegetative growth and bulb maturation of the onion crop mean bulb yield of 21.2 and 20.5 t/ha , respectively. Delay
(Lewis, 1973; Brewster, 1999). The present finding got a in planting after 1st December brought about a progressive
good support from the earlier reports of several workers decrease in bulb yield. It was recorded to be 17.7, 15.8,
from different parts of country and abroad tended to escape and 14.3 t/ha when crop was planted on 15th December, 1st
from higher population densities of thrips than late planting January, and 15th January, respectively.
of crop (Kisha, 1976; Sato and Nakano, 1990; Domiciano et
al; 1993; Dawood and Hayder, 1996 and Goncalves, 1997). On the basis of present finding discussed above 15th
The present finding also got good support from the report November proved to be the most suitable dates of planting
of Kannon and Mohammed (2001) that there was steady followed by 1st December in respect of productivity among
increase in the thrips population from February and March all dates in onion crop. With delay in planting, the bulb yield
and sharp decline in April. More or less similar result was was found to be on decline. It was concluded that though the
obtained by Ibrahim and Adesiyun (2010). lowest number of thrips 13.18 per plant and leaf infestation
(28.40%) were recorded in early planting i.e. 1st November
Extent of leaf infestation due to Thrips tabaci on yet the crop was not able to produce highest bulb yield
onion (cv.Nasik Red) as influenced by dates of (20.5 t/ha) might be due to severe cold conditions or lower
planting temperature during crop duration which was not congenial
for proper growth and development of bulb. The highest
The data recorded on effect of planting dates on bulb yield (22.6 t/ha) recorded in the crop planted on 15th
leaf infestation caused by Thrips tabaci during the period November, may be because of coincidence of most favorable
under investigation are given in Table 1 and illustrated in abiotic factors for growth and development of bulb. The
Fig 1. It was found to vary significantly among six different finding was strongly supported by the reports of Kisha
planting dates in the crop season. The mean leaf infestation (1987); Kumar et al; (1998) and Ibrahim and Adesiyun
was maximum (43.70%) when onion crop was planted on (2009 and 2010).
15th January, 2012. Among the different dates of planting
the lowest leaf infestation (28.40%) was recorded when the Table 1. Effect of dates of planting on the population, leaf
crop was planted earliest i.e. 1st November, 2011. After that infestation and bulb yield caused by thrips, Thrips tabaci
the leaf infestation increased gradually with the delay in Lind. on onion cv. Nasik Red during 2011-12.
planting of onion crop. The mean percent leaf infestation was Treatments
recorded to be 31.20, 36.6., 39.30, 40.50,and 43.70 percent Bulb
Mean no. of Mean (%) leaf
(Dates of Yield
when crop was planted on 15th November, 1st December, thrips/plant infestation
planting) (t/ha)
15th December, 1st January, and 15th January, respectively.
Though the lowest leaf infestation was recorded in 1st date D1 (01-11-2011) 13.18 (3.67)* 28.40 (32.16)** 20.5
of planting (28.40%) which was statistically on par to 2nd D2 (15-11-2011) 21.33 (4.66) 31.20 (33.92) 22.6
date of planting (31.20%). From the experimental finding D3 (01-12-2011) 32.50 (5.74) 36.60 (37.20) 21.2
discussion above, it would be generalized that the planting D4 (15-12-2011) 36.70 (6.09) 39.30 (38.80) 17.7
of onion crop between 1st week to 2nd week of November D5 (01-01-2012) 39.10 (6.29) 40.50 (39.50) 15.8
suffer less due to thrips attack. D6 (15-01-2012) 28.00 (5.33) 43.70 (41.35) 14.3
Effect of date of planting on bulb yield of onion cv. SEm ( + ) (0.10) (0.73) 1.20
Nasik Red under unprotected condition CD (P = 0.05) (0.30) (2.21) 3.63
The effect of different dates of planting was finally
judged on the basis of mean bulb yield which showed a wide * Figures in parentheses are the values of
variation during the crop season. The data presented in Table
1 and illustrated in Fig 1 clearly revealed that the mean bulb transformed.
yield varied widely from 14.3 to 22.6 t/ha with minimum and **Figures in parenthesis are the values of
maximum being recorded when planting was done on 15th
angular transformation

51
REFERENCES
Brewster, J. L. (1990) The influence of cultural and
environmental factors on the time of maturity of
bulb crops. Acta Horticulturae. 267 :289-296.
Chhatrola, D. P., Vyas, H. J. and Baraiya, K. P. (2003)
Influence of abiotic factors on population build-
up of thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman in garlic.
Indian Journal Plant Protection 31 (2): 98-100.
Dawood, M. Z. and Hayder, M. F. (1996) Onion planting
dates and chemical control measures in relation
to Thrips tabaci Lind. Infestation levels and
onion yield. Annals of Agriculture Science. 34
(1): 365-372.
Domiciano, N. L., A.Y. and Tendari, C. R. (1993) Population
fluctuation of onion, its association with climatic
elements and control. Anais da Sociedade
Entomologica do Brazil. 22: 77- 83.
Goncalves, P. A. S. (1997) Seasonal fluctuation of thrips.
Thrips tabaci Lind., on onion in Ituporanga.
Santa Catarina. Anais da Sociedade
Entomologica do Brazil. 26 (2): 365-369.
Ibrahim and Adesiyun. (2010) Effects of transplanting dates
and Insecticides frequency in the control of Thrips
tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera:Thripidae)
on onion (Allium cepa L.) in Sokoto, Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Science 2: 239-249.
Ibrahim, N. D. and Adesiyun, A.A. 2009. Effects of staggered
planting dates on the control of Thrips tabaci
Lindeman and yield of onion in Nigeria.
African Journal of Agricultural Research. 4 (1):
033-039.
Kannon, H. O. and Mohammed, B. (2001) The impact of
irrigation frequency on population density of
52
thrips, Thrips tabaci (Thysanoptera:Thripidae)
and yield of onion in Sudan. Annals of Applied
Biology. 138 (2):129-132.
Kisha, J. S. A. (1977) Cultural and insecticidal control of
Thrips tabaci on onions in the Sudan. Annals of
Applied Biology. 86: 219-228.
Kumar, H., Singh, J.V., Kumar, A. and Singh, M. (1998)
Influence of time of transplanting on growth
and yiueld of onion (Allium cepa L.) cv. Patna
Red’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Research.
32: 6-10.
Lewis, T. (1973) Thrips, their Biology, Ecology and Economic
Importance, Academic Press, London. pp. 349.
Lewis. (1997) Pest thrips in perspective. - In: Lewis, T.
(ed.): Thrips as crop pest .CAB International,
Wallingford, UK: 1-14.
Lorbeer, J. W., Kuhar, T. P. and Hoffmann, M. P. (2002)
Monitoring and forecasting for Disease and
Insect Attack in Onions and Allium crops
within IPM strategies. In: Rabinowitch, H.D.
and Currah, L. (Eds). Allium Crop Science:
Recent Advances, CABI, Wallingford, U.K.
pp.293-309.
More, V. N. (1977) Efficacy ofdifferent insecticides against
onion thrips (Thrips tabaci L). Journal of
Maharashtra Agricultural University. 2: 69-7.
Sato, M. E. and Nakano, O. (1990) Influence of planting
period on the occurrence and damage of Thrips
tabaci Lind. In onion. Revista de Agricultura.
65 (2):111-124.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 53-57 (2015)
CORRELATION OF pH, EC AND ORGANIC CARBON WITH AVAILABLE ZINC (ZN)
IN SOIL (INSEPTISOLS) OF DHABHRA BLOCK UNDER JANJGIR DISTRICT OF
CHHATTISGARH
SANGEETA JOSHI*, KUMARDHAR SAHU, SURAJ K. RAI AND RADHIKA PATHIYAR
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV, RAIPUR (C.G.) INDIA

ABSTRACT
A Study was undertaken to evaluate the fertility status of Dabhra block, Janjgeer district, Chhattisgarh covering 126 villages during
2011-2012. The systematic collection of samples in geo–referenced surface (0-0.15 m) soils samples from 2697 sites representing In-
ceptisols and Vertisols using Global Positioning System and mapped on 1:4000 Scale. The samples were analyzed for DTPA-extract-
able, iron, copper, manganese and zinc and available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium content for delineation the fertility status in
relation to salient physico-chemical characteristics. The statistical description of soil characteristics indicated that the pH of the soils
varied from 4.4 to 8.1 (mean- 5.57). The electrical conductivity of soil-water suspension ranged from 0.05 to 0.79 d Sm-1 (mean- 0.20
d Sm-1). The variation in organic carbon in these soils from 0.11 to 1.08 percent (mean- 0.57%). It was observed to be low to medium
in organic matter status. The DTPA-extractable the available Zn content were ranged from 0.04 to 5.96 mg kg-1(mean- 1.09 mg kg-1).
These results indicated that zinc is likely to constraint for crop production in soils of Dabhra block. The present study revealed that
there is wide variation in soil fertility status in soils of Dabhra block, but by and large, the soils are moderately acidic to neutral in re-
action, low to medium in organic carbon, whereas about 50 per cent area under soils delineated as deficient in available zinc content.

Key words: Correlation, organic carbon, pH, Zn

INTRODUCTION:
The fertility of soil is “its ability to provide nutrients (in adequate amount and in proper balance) for growth of
plants, when other important growth factors are favorable”. rapid titration method (1934). The micronutrients Zn were
For optimum crop production a soil that enables deep extracted by using 0.005M DTPA (Diethyl triamine penta
rooting, provides aeration, has a good water holding capacity acetic acid), 0.01M calcium chloride dehydrate and 0.1M
and consists of an adequate and balanced supply of plant triethanol amine buffered at 7.3 pH Lindsay and Norvell
nutrients is considered productive and Fertile. The stagnation (1978) and concentrations were analyzed by atomic
in crop productivity cannot be boosted without judicious use absorption spectrophotometer 4129.
of macro and micronutrient fertilizers to overcome existing
deficiencies/imbalances. All plant needs certain mineral RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
elements for proper growth, development, and maintenance.
Micro (Zn) nutrients are important soil elements that control Physico-chemical characteristics
its fertility. Soil fertility is one of the important factors in Table 1: Salient soil properties of the study area
relation to evaluation of productivity status of the soils
of an area and region. It is an important aspect in context Soil
of sustainable agriculture production. Soil fertility is an Range Mean S.D
characteristics
important factor, which determines the growth of plants. Soil pH
4.4-8.1 5.57 0.69
fertility is related to the amount of available nutrients which (1:2.5,Soil:water)
is measured by yield capacity. There are some other factors E.C. (dS m-1) 0.05-0.79 0.20 0.12
like organic matter or even soil texture which influence the O.C. (%) 0.11-1.08 0.57 0.16
availability of nutrients and the productivity. Soil micro Available Zn (mg
nutrients are an essential as primary and secondary nutrients 0.04-5.96 1.09 0.92
kg-1)
for the development of crop growth. The addition of micro
nutrients to fertilizers in the optimum amounts and in
degraded soils ensures the sustainability of cropping through
balanced nutrition and ultimately sustainable development
of the fertilizer industry.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Soil physicochemical characteristics of Soil pH was
determined in 1:2.5 soils - water suspension after stirring
for 30 minutes, by glass electrode pH meter as suggested
by Piper. The sample soil used for pH determination was
allowed to settle down for four hours then conductivity
of supernatant liquid was determined by Solu- Bridge.
Organic carbon was determined by Walkley and Black’s

53
Table 2: Limits for the soil test values used for rating the soil

Classification for pH values

Strongly acid Moderately acid Slightly acid Neutral Slightly alkaline
<5.0 5.0-6.0 6.1-6.5 6.6-7.5 7.6-8.5
Parameters Low Medium High
O.C. (%) <0.50 0.50-0.75 >0.75
  Micronutrients
  Deficient Sufficient High level
Av. Zn (mg kg-1) <0.60 >0.60 >1.20

Table 3: Category of soils samples under different pH rating of Dabhra block

Samples under category of
Samples under category of Inceptisols
Classes Vertisols Total (%)
Limit No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Strongly acid <5.0 699 28.3 0 0 25.9
Moderately acid 5-6.0 1315 53.2 37 16.3 50.1
Slightly acid 6.1-6.5 325 13.2 76 33.5 14.9
Neutral 6.6-7.5 131 5.3 97 42.8 8.5
Slightly alkaline 7.6-8.5 0 0 17 7. 5 0.63
Total _ 2740 100% 227 100% 100%

Soil reaction (pH): % neutral, 50.1 % moderately acidic 25.9 % strongly acidic
and 0.63 % slightly alkaline in reaction Further the data
The data of soil pH indicate that the soils of farmer’s presented in table no. 3 show that under Inseptisols nearly
field were acidic to alkaline in reaction and pH ranged from 53.2 % samples under moderately acidic (5-6.0), 13.2 %
4.4 to 8.1 with an average of 5.48 in Inceptisols and 6.60 in under slightly acidic (6.1-6.5) and 28.3% under strongly
Vertisols of Dabhra block. Singh et al. (2009) reported that acidic (<5.5) and only 5.3 % samples were neutral (6.6-7.5),
surface and subsurface soils were normal to slightly alkaline whereas under Vertisol category 42.8 % samples were neutral
in reaction in the soils of district Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh. and 33.5% under slightly acidic, 16.3% under moderately
Considering in table no.3 the soils having <5 as strongly acid and only 7.5 % under slightly alkaline in Vertisols. The
acidic, 5 to 6 as moderately acidic, 6.1 to 6.5 as slightly lowest mean value (4.67) of pH was recorded in Dekunabhata
acidic, neutral as 6.6 to 7.5 and slightly alkaline as 7.6 to 8.5. and Ghiwara and highest (7.85) pH was recorded in village
The pH range from 4.4 to 7.2 and 5.2 to 8.1 may come under Birhabhata, higher pH value of soils belonging vertisol
Inceptisols and Vertisols with an average pH of 5.5 and 6.6 order. Similar result also found by Jibhake et.al.
respectively. In general out of 2697 samples data indicate
that nearly 14.9 % soils were found in slightly acidic, 8.5
Table 4: Electrical conductivity of surface soils in Dabhra block
Limits
Samples under category of Inceptisols Samples under category of Vertisols Total (%)
EC (dS m-1)
No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
<0.1 434 17.6 16 7.1 16.7
0.1-0.2 1229 49.8 122 53.7 50.1
0.2-0.3 387 15.7 35 15.4 15.6
>0.3 420 17.0 54 23.8 17.6

Electrical conductivity (EC): 0.3 dS m1) and only  17.6 %  samples under (<0.3dSm-1)

The electrical conductivity (EC), varied from 0.05
to 0.79 dS m-1 with a mean value of 0.20 dS m-1 at 25oC
(Table 1) of the Dabhra block. The EC ranged from 0.05
to 0.61 and 0.05 to 0.79 dS m-1 in Inceptisols and Vertisols,
respectively with a mean value of 0.19 and 0.25 dS m-1. Data
presented in table no. 4 reveal that in Dabhra block 50.1
% soil samples were found under (0.1-0.2 dS m-1), 16.7 %
samples under (<0.1dS m-1), 15.6 %  samples  under  ( 0.2-
limits. The majority of soil samples 49.8 % under 0.1-
0.2 dS m-1 and 15.7 % samples under 0.2-0.3 dS m-1 class in
Inceptisols. The maximum i.e. 53.7 % samples under 0.1-0.2
dS m-1 and minimum 7.1 % samples found in <0.1 dS m-1
classes in Vertisols. The results indicates that more than 50%
samples EC values under range (0.1-0.2 dS m-1), therefore
these soils are denoted as non-saline and it was reported by
Bali et al. (2010).

54
Table 5: Distribution and categorization of organic carbon status in soils of Dabhra block

Organic carbon (%) Samples under category of Inceptisols Samples under category of Vertisols
Total (%)
Classes No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Very Low (<0.25) 63 2.6 4 1.8 2.5
Low (0.25-0.50) 850 34.4 57 25.1 33.6
Medium (0.50-0.75) 1241 50.2 119 52.4 50.4
High (>0.75) 316 12.8 47 20.7 13.5

Organic carbon (OC):
Data presented in Table no.2 and Table no. 5 revealed
that most of the soils are having low to medium status of
organic carbon. It ranged from 0.11 to 1.08 % with a mean
value of 0.57 % in soils of Dabhra block. Nearly 50.4 % soil
samples of Dabhra block of Janjgir- Champa district were
medium in organic carbon content. The soils of Dabhra were
found 2.5 % in very low, 33.6 % in low, 50.4 % in medium
and only 13.5 % in high organic status. The majority of
analyzed soil organic C content found under 50.2 %.and
52.4 % samples as medium and 2.6 and 1.8 % samples as
very low classes in Inceptisols and Vertisols, respectively.
The high temperature prevailing in the area is responsible for
the rapid burning of organic matter, thus resulting in medium
organic carbon content of these soils. Similar results were
also reported by Sharma et al. (2008) in soil of Amritsar
district. Lowest mean value (0.35%) of OC was for the
village Chhavaripali whereas highest (0.77%) mean value
was recorded in village Dumarpali.

Table 6: Distribution of available zinc status in surface soils of Dabhra block

Samples under category of

Available Zn Samples under category of Inceptisols
Vertisols Total (%)
(mg kg-1) %
No. of Samples No of Samples % Samples
Samples
Deficient <0.6 870 35.2 75 33.0 35.0
Sufficient 0.60-1.2 844 34.2 84 37.0 34.4
High level >1.2 756 30.6 68 30.0 30.6
Total _ 2470 100 227 100 100

Available Zn status: content and , where as in Vertisols 35 % in deficient, 34.4

The study of the DTPA-extractable Zn varied from
0.04 to 5.96 mg kg-1 with an average of available zinc 1.09
mg kg-1 in the study area (Table no.1). The available Zn was
ranged from 0.04 to 5.96 and 0.08 to 4.96 mg kg-1 with an
average 1.09 and 1.10 mg kg-1 in Inceptisols and Vertisols,
respectively of study area. Samples were found to be 35.0
%in deficient, 34.4 % in sufficient and only 30.6 % samples
were found to be high level in available content of Zn (Table
6). Distribution of samples with respect to available Zn
indicates that in Inceptisols 35.2 % under deficient, 34.2 %
under sufficient and 30.6 % under high level in available Zn
Table 7: Averages of available micronutrients in different ratings of pH, EC and organic carbon in Inseptisol and Vertisol
of Dabhra block
% in sufficient and 30.6 % in high level of Zn content were
recorded (Table 6). In well drained aerated calcareous soils
zinc exists in oxidized state and their availability becomes
low. The results are in conformity with the finding of Sharma
and Chaudhary (2007) in soils of Solan district in North-
West Himalayas and also similar findings by Rajeswar et al
(2009). Garikapadu of Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh
and similar result were also reported by Singh et al. (2009)
in the soils of Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh. The highest
and lowest mean values of available Zn for Inceptisols and
Vertisols were 3.30 and 0.22 mg kg-1 in Bandhapali and
Theguna villages, respectively.

No.of Sample Mean value of available micronutrient content

Soil properties  Range No.of Samples
Zn(mg/kg)
Inseptisol Vertisol Inseptisol Vertisol
<5 699 0 1.14 0
pH 5-6 1315 37 1.09 1.08
6.1-6.5 325 75 1.03 1.25
6.5-7.5 131 97 1.02 1
>7.5 0 17 0 1.09
EC <0.1 434 10 1.16 0.95
0.1-0.2 1229 128 1.09 1.15
0.2-0.3 386 35 1.04 1.34

55
 >0.3 420
OC <0.25 65
0.25-0.50 850
0.50-0.75 1214
>0.75 316
Available Zn, content in relation to soil Soil available Zn as affected by pH, EC and organic corbon
characteristics Soil reaction (pH), EC and in Inseptisols and vertisols are present in fig1.1.
Organic carbon
In general the data presented in Table no.7 show that
pH is inversely related with DTPA extractable Zn, decreased
with increasing pH in Inseptisols of Dabhra block and in
Vertisols pH is inversely related with DTPA-extractable
Zn, in which available Zn decreased with increasing pH.
The linear positive relationship was found between OC and
DTPA-extractable Zn, in Inseptisols and negative relationship
seen between OC and DTPA-extractable Zn in vertisols
of dabhra block. The negative relationship found between
EC and DTPA-extractable Zn in inseptisols and vertisols
of dabhra block and availability of DTPA-extractable Zn
contents decreases with increasing range of EC.
Table 8: Correlation coefficients (r) between physico-chem-
ical properties and DTPA-extractable Zn in Inseptisols and
vertisols of Dabhra block
Available Micro-nutrients Zn
Soil properties
Inseptisols Vertisols
pH -0.025 -0.008
EC -0.037 -0.157*
O.C. 0.009 -0.046
*Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level
A study of the simple correlation data indicated (Table
8) that soil pH is negative and non-significant correlation (r
= -0.025) with available zinc. These results are in conformity
with the findings of Yadav and Meena (2009). Similar results
were also reported by Kumar et al. (2009) for available Zn &
Fe. Rai et al. (1970) also observed no correlation of soil pH
with available Zn in inseptisols and non-significant negative
correlation (r = -0.008) of available Zn with pH (Table 8)
was observed in Vertisols of Dabhra block. The findings
are in conformity with observations reported by Meena et
al. (2006) and Nazif et al. (2006). The availability of Zn
content show higher values due to their solubility effects.
Similar results were also reported by Kumar et al. (2009) for
available Zn. Electrical conductivity of the soils exercised
non-significant, negative correlation (r = -0.037) with
available content of Zn in the present study. These finding
are in agreement with those of Kumar et al. (2009). A non-
significant positive correlation (r=0.009) of available Zn with
organic carbon was observed in Inseptisols of Dabhra block.
The findings are in conformity with observation reported by
Bassirani et al (2011). Organic carbon was negative and non-
significantly correlated (r = -0.046) with available content
of zinc (Table 8) in vertisols of dabhra block. similar result
observed by Rajeshwar et al (2009), Kumar et al. (2009) in
Dumka series of Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand.
56
54 1.06 1.04
4 1.11 1.44
57 1.07 1.11
119 1.09 1.07
47 1.1 1.15
Fig1.1 Soil available Zn as affected by pH, EC and organic
corbon in Inseptisols and vertisols
REFERENCES:
Bali, S. K., Kumar, R., Hundal, H. S., Singh, K. and Singh, B.
(2010). GIS- aided mapping of D T P A -
extractable zinc and soil characteristics in the
status of Punjab. Journal I n d i a n
Society of Soil Science. 58(2): 189-199.
Bassirani, N., Abolhassani, M., and Galavi, M. (2011).
Distribution of available micronutrients
as related to the soil characteristics of Hissar,
Haryana. African Journal of Agricultural
Research. 6(18), pp. 4239-4242.
Jibhkate, S. B., Bhende, S. N., Kharche, V. K. and Selvalakshmi,
V. (2009) Phsico-chemical status o f
Katol tahsil in Nagpur district. Journal of Soils
and Crop. 19(1):122-128.
Kumar, R., Sarkar, A. S., Singh, K. P., Agarwal, B. K. and
Karmakar, S. (2009) Appraisal of
available nutrients status in Santhal Paraganas
region of Jharkhand. Journal of Indian
Society of Soil Science. 57(3): 366-369.
Lindsay, W. L. and Norvell, W. A. (1978) Development of
DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, m a n g a n e s e
and copper. Soil Science Society of American
Journal. 42: 421-428.
Meena, H. B., Sharma, R. P. and Rawat, U. S. (2006)
Status of Macro and Micronutrients in s o m e
soils of Tonk District of Rajasthan. Journal
Indian Society of Soil Science. 54(4): 5 0 8
-512.
Nazif, W., Perveen, S. and Saleem, I. (2006) Status of
 micronutrients in soils of district Sharma, P. K., Sood, A., Setia, R. K., Tur, N. S., Mehra,
bhimber (Azad Jammu and Kashmir). Journal
Agricultural & Biological Science. 1(2): macronutrients in soils of Amritsar district
35-40.
Rajeswar, M., Rao, C. S., Balaguravaiah, D. and Khan, M.
A. A. (2009) Distribution of a v a i l a b l e
macro and micronutrients in soils Garikapadu
of Krishna District of Andhra P r a d e s h .
Journal Indian Society of Soil Science. 57(2):
210-213.
Singh, V. S., Agrawal, H. P. and Prasad, S. (2009) Distribution
of DTPA-extractable micronutrients in
the soils of district Ghazipur, Utter Pradesh.
Journal Indian Society of Soil Science. 57(3):
370 – 372.
Sharma, J.C., and Chaudhary S.K. (2007) Vertical distribution
of micro nutrient cations in relation to soil
characteristics in lower SHIWALIKS of Solan
district in North West Himalaya. Journal of
Indian society of soil science. 55(1), 42-44.
D. and Singh, H. (2008) Mapping o f
(Punjab) A GIS approach. Journal of
Indian Society of Soil Science. 56(1): 34-41.
Walkey, A., and Black, C. A. (1934) An examination of the
degtjareff method for detemining t h e
soil organic matter and a proposed modification
of the chromic acid t i t r a t i o n
method. Soil Science. 37: 29-38.
Yadav, R. L. and Meena, M. C. (2009) Available
micronutrients status and their relationship
with soil properties of Degana soil series of
Rajasthan. Journal Indian Society of Soil
Science. 57(1): 90-92.

57
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 58-62 (2015)
EVALUATION OF SOIL FERTILITY STATUS IN SOILS OF DABHRA BLOCK, UNDER
JANJGIR DISTRICT OF CHHATTISGARH”
SANGEETA JOSHI* KUMARDHAR SAHU, SURAJ K. RAI AND HAREESH KUMAR
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indira Gandhi KrishiVishwavidyalaya, RAIPUR (C.G.)
INDIA
(*Email:joshi.sgeetajoshi.sgeeta@gmail.com)

ABSTRACT
A Study was undertaken to evaluate the fertility status of Dabhra block, Janjgeer district, Chhattisgarh covering 126 villages
during 2011-2012. The systematic collection of samples in geo–referenced surface (0-0.15 m) soils samples from 2697 sites
representing Inceptisols and Vertisols using Global Positioning System and mapped on 1:4000 Scale. The samples were
analyzed for available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium content for delineation the fertility status in relation to salient
physico-chemical characteristics.The statistical description of soil characteristics indicated that the pH and EC of the soils
varied from 4.4 to 8.1 (mean- 5.57),0.05 to 0.79 d Sm-1 (mean- 0.20 d Sm-1). And available organic carbon in soils ranged
from 0.11 to 1.08 percent (mean- 0.57%). The status of available nitrogen, phosphorus and potash was ranged from 75 to
401 kg ha-1 (mean- 184 kg ha-1),1.52 to 27.42 kg ha-1 (mean- 9.29 kg ha-1), and 91 to 658 kg ha-1 (mean- 273 kg ha-1).
Positive significant correlation was found between pH and EC inInceptisols and Vertisols. Further the correlation studies
of pH and OC with available N resulted significant positive correlation in all soils, whereas, with available phosphorus and
potassium had positive significant correlation with pH in all soils of Dabhra block, However, OC showed negative non-
significant correlation with K in Vertisols and positive non-significant correlation with K in Inseptisols.

INTRODUCTION:
The fertility of soil is “its ability to provide nutrients
for growth of plants, when other important growth factors are
favorable”. For optimum crop production a soil that enables
deep rooting, provides aeration, has a good water holding
capacity and consists of an adequate and balanced supply of
plant nutrients is considered productive and Fertile.
To maintain fertility in a sustainable ecological farming
system we need to recognize and respect soil as a complex
living system in which soil organisms play an important
role in digesting organic matter, leaving soilsoluble minerals
and carbon dioxide recognize soil life as a focus of our efforts
to practice good management. Macronutrients (N, P, and K)
and Micronutrients are important soil elements that control
its fertility. The diagnostic techniques for fertility evaluation
include fertilizer trials, soil test and plant analysis. Out of
these, soil test provides the most accurate information on the
availability of various plant nutrients (Dahnke and Olsen,
1990).Soil testing program is beneficial to formulate specific
fertilizer recommendations. The soil tests calibrated into
different fertility categories such as low, medium and high
(Rashid and Memon, 1996). Soil testing has recognized as
reliable tool for balanced fertilization and efficient fertilizer
management. Monitoring of soil fertility against depletion
and accumulation of certain element in toxic proportions over
time is possible through appropriate soil testing. Considering
soil fertility status, crop requirement of nutrients, efficiency
of soil and fertilizers and the economic condition of the
cultivars, it has now has been possible to formulate a yield
targeted oriented fertilizer schedule based on principle of
balanced nutrition of crops.
STUDY AREA:
The District head quarter of Janjgir-Champa is in
Janjgir, which is situated on National Highway 200. Janjgir
is 65 km. away from Bilaspur and 175 km from state capital
Raipur through road route. The railway station of district
Janjgir is Naila and Champa. Janjgir-Champa district is
area wise the third smallest district of Chhattisgarh state
having an area of 446674 ha (fig 1). and it is situated in
north of Mahanadi and central part of Chhattisgarh state
lying between 82.3 degree to 83.2 degree E longitude and
21.6 degree to 22.4 degree N latitude and 294.4 m high
from mean sea level. The normal rainfall is 1478.0 mm and
average rainfall 1157.1. The average maximum temperature
49ºC and minimum temperature 08º C. the net sown area is 3,
23,599ha, forest area is 79,439 ha. Total cropped area during
kharif is 259215 ha. And during Rabi area is 64384 ha. Single
Cropped Area is 2, 60,445 ha. Double cropped area is 63,154
ha. Total irrigated area is 215128 ha.For evaluation the soil
fertility status of Dabhra block of Janjgir district a systematic
survey work has been carried out. Surface (0-15 cm depth)
soil samples have been collected from 126 villages sites
following the standard procedures of soil sample collection.
The location of soil sampling sites was marked on the base
map on 1:4, 00,000 scales.
Sample Collection:
The soil samples were collected from 5 to 6 spots
from each region at a depth of 0-45 cm with „v‟ shape pit
by scraping the sides to collect 250 to 500 g of soil from
each spot. The collected samples were mixed thoroughly
and removed unwanted materials and pebbles. Further,
composite samples of 250 g was collected from each region
by adopting quadrant technique and were shade dried for 2-3
days and sieved with sieve plate of 2mm size and kept in air
tight container. The soil samples were used for analysing the
following chemical properties.
Soil pH: pH is defined as negative logarithm of

58
hydrogen ion concentration. The soil pH or soil reaction RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
is indicated by acidity and/or alkalinity. The pH of the soil
solution was measured using glass electrode pH meter in soil Table 1 Salient soil properties of study area
water suspension (1:2.5) (piper, 1950).
Soil characteristics Range Mean S.D
Organic carbon (%): Organic carbon is a carbon pH
4.4-8.1 5.57 0.69
associated with organic matter from which organic fraction of (1:2.5,Soil:water)
soil made up of decomposed plant and Animal materials with E.C. (dS m-1) 0.05-0.79 0.20 0.12
microorganisms. Organic carbon in soils was determined by O.C. (%) 0.11-1.08 0.57 0.16
Walkely and Black wet oxidation method. Available N (kg
75-401 184 52.3
ha-1)
Electrical Conductivity (m.mhos/cm): Electrical Available P (kg ha-1) 1.52-27.42 9.29 4.68
conductivity of soil is defined as the reciprocal of the electrical Available K (kg ha-1) 91-658 273 107.7
resistance of the extract of the soil which is one centimetre
long and a cross-sectional area of one square centimetre. Soil Ph:
Electrical conductivity is measured by Conductivity Bridge The data of Table.1indicate that the soils of farmer’s
and it is expressed in milli mhos per centimetre. field were acidic to alkaline in reaction and pH ranged
(table1) from 4.4 to 8.1 with an average of 5.48 in Inceptisols
Available Nitrogen (kg/ha): The available nitrogen
and 6.60 in Vertisols(Singh et al. (2009) reported that surface
content in soil was estimated by adopting alkaline potassium
and subsurface soils were normal to slightly alkaline in
permanganate method. A known quantity of soil was
reaction in the soils of district Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh) of
heated with Potassium permanganate solution and sodium
Dabhra block. In general out of 2697 samples data indicate
hydroxide. The ammonia released was collected into 4%
that nearly 14.9 % soils were found in slightly acidic, 8.5
boric acid containing mixed indicator and nitrogen was
% neutral, 50.1 % moderately acidic 25.9 % strongly acidic
titrated against 0.02 N sulphuric acid until develops pink
and 0.63 % slightly alkaline in reaction.Soil pH showed
colour as an end point.
positive relationship with available Nitrogen, Phosphorus
Available Phosphorous (kg/ha): The phosphorous and Potassium in soils of Dabhra block.The lowest mean
content in the soil extract was determined by the blue colour value (4.67) of pH recorded in Dekunabhata and Ghiwara
formed by ascorbic acid and colour intensity was read at 660 villages. They come under strongly acidic in reaction as
nm using spectrophotometer. compare to highest mean value (7.85) of pH recorded in
village Birhabhata. The higher pH value of soils belonging
Available potassium (kg/ha): The available vertisol order. Similar result also found by Jibhakeet al.
potassium was extracted with ammonium acetate from the
known quantity of soil. The samples were extracted and fed
to flame photometer.
Table 2: Category of soils samples under different pH rating of Dabhra block

Samples under category of Inceptisols Samples under category of Vertisols

Classes Total (%)
Limit No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Strongly acid <5.0 699 28.3 0 0 25.9
Moderately acid 5-6.0 1315 53.2 37 16.3 50.1
Slightly acid 6.1-6.5 325 13.2 76 33.5 14.9
Neutral 6.6-7.5 131 5.3 97 42.8 8.5
Slightly alkaline 7.6-8.5 0 0 17 7. 5 0.63
Electrical conductivity (EC): 0.3 dS m1) and only 17.6 % samples under (<0.3dSm-1)
limits. The majority of soil samples 49.8 % under 0.1-0.2 dS
The electrical conductivity (EC), varied from 0.05 to m-1 and 15.7 % samples under 0.2-0.3 dS m-1 class in
0.79 dS m-1 with a mean value of 0.20 dS m-1 at 25oC (Table Inceptisols. The maximum i.e. 53.7 % samples under 0.1-0.2
1) of the Dabhra block. The EC ranged from 0.05 to 0.61 and dS m-1 and minimum 7.1 % samples found in <0.1 dS m-1
0.05 to 0.79 dS m-1 in Inceptisols and Vertisols, respectively classes in Vertisols.The results indicates that more than 50%
with a mean value of 0.19 and 0.25 dS. InDabhra block 50.1 samples EC values under range (0.1-0.2 dS m-1), therefore
% soil samples were found under (0.1-0.2 dS m-1), 16.7 % these soils are denoted as non-saline and it was reported by
samples under (<0.1dS m-1), 15.6 % samples under (0.2- Bali et al. (2010).
Table 3: Electrical conductivity of surface soils in Dabhra block
Limits
Samples under category of Inceptisols Samples under category of Vertisols Total (%)
EC (dS m-1)
No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
<0.1 434 17.6 16 7.1 16.7
0.1-0.2 1229 49.8 122 53.7 50.1
0.2-0.3 387 15.7 35 15.4 15.6
>0.3 420 17.0 54 23.8 17.6

59
Organic carbon (OC): Kanthalia and Bhatt (1991).
Data presented in Table.1 and Table.4 revealed that The low value of N might be due to the fact that N
most of the soils are having low to medium status of organic is lost through various mechanism like NH3 volatilization,
carbon. It ranged from 0.11 to 1.08 % with a mean value of denitrification, chemical and microbial fixation, leaching
0.57 % in soils of Dabhra block. Nearly 50.4 % soil samples and run off (De Dutta and Buresh (1989).
of Dabhra block of Janjgir- Champa district were medium
in organic carbon content. On the basis of organic carbon Table 5: Distribution of available nitrogen status in the soils
% in soils having <0.25% as very low, 0.25- 0.50 % as low, of Dabhra block
0.50- 0.75% medium and >0.75% as high in OC status. The
soils of Dabhrawere found 2.5 % in very low, 33.6 % in low, Samples under
Samples under
50.4 % in medium and only 13.5 % in high organic status. category of
Available category of Vertisols Total
The majority of analyzed soil organic C content found fewer Inceptisols
N (kg ha-1) No. of % No .of % (%)
than 50.2 %.and 52.4 % samples as medium and 2.6 and 1.8
% samples as very low classes in Inceptisols and Vertisols, Samples Samples Samples Samples
respectively. A positive relationship observed between OC Low (<280) 2206 89.3 205 90.3 89.4
and available Nitrogen and Phosphorus, but in the case of
available potassium decreases with increasing organic carbon Medium
264 10.7 22 9.7 10.6
of the soils Dabhra block. The high temperature prevailing (280-560)
in the area is responsible for the rapid burning of organic High (>560) 0 0 0 0 0
matter, thus resulting in medium organic carbon content of
these soils. Sharma et al. (2008) also reported similar results
in soil of Amritsar district. Available P status:
Table 4: The overall mean was noted from 1.52 to 27.42 kg
tribution and categorization of organic carbon status in ha-1 with a mean value of 9.26 kg ha-1 available P content
soils of Dabhra block. in the study area. The value of available phosphorus content
varied from 1.52 to 26.4 and 1.88 to 27.42 kg ha-1 with
Samples under Samples under
Organic category of category of an average value of 9.22 and 9.76 kg ha-1 in Inceptisols
carbon (%) Total and Vertisols, respectively. Considering the soil test rating
Inceptisols Vertisols
(%) for available phosphorus majority of the soils under
Classes No. of % No. of %
Samples Samples Samples Samples 78.4 % (Inceptisols) and 71.8 % (Vertisols) under low
Very Low status in available phosphorous. The 21.5 % and 26.4 %
63 2.6 4 1.8 2.5
(<0.25) samples of study area were categorized under medium
Low (0.25- available P content in Inceptisolsand Vertisols, respectively.
850 34.4 57 25.1 33.6
0.50) From overall (2697) samples, more than 2/3rd of the
Medium sampled area exhibited low and 1/3rd under medium  
1241 50.2 119 52.4 50.4
(0.50-0.75) range  of  P  content. Phosphorus is present in soil as solid
High (>0.75) 316 12.8 47 20.7 13.5 phase with varying degree of solubility. When water soluble
P is added to the soil, it is converted very quickly to insoluble
solid phase by reacting with soil constituents.These may
Available N status: include calcium carbonate, Fe and Al oxides (Dean and
The available N content (Table 1) of Dabhra block Rubins, 1947 and Chu et al. 1962) and partly organic matter.
ranged from 75 to 401 kg ha-1 with an average value of These reactions affect the availability of P and because of
184 kg ha-1. Considering the soil test rating for available N these reactions, a very small amount of total P is present in
content ranged from 75 to 389 and 88 to 401 kg ha-1 with soil solution at any time reflected by soil testing. However,
mean values of 184 Kg ha-1 and 188 Kg ha-1 in Inceptisols a low to medium range of soil available P may be mostly
and Vertisols, respectively. Majority of the soil sample i.e. affected by past fertilization, pH, organic matter content,
89.3 % and 90.3 %, were found   as low available N content texture various soil management and agronomic practices
in Inceptisols and Vertisols, respectively. In general out (Vermaet al.2005).Available P was positively correlated
of 2697 samples, 89.4 % fall under low status and 10.6 % with pH (r = 0.129**). Singh and Singh (1985) also reported
samples were categorized under medium N status (Table 5). similar results in Beel soils of Assam. No significant
In this way, almost all the soil samples tested were found to correlation found between available P and O.C, (table 9).In
be deficient in N. The mean value of N was found minimum soils of Kangra district of Punjab O.C. was found to be
i.e. 103.49 kg ha-1 in the village Birhabhata and maximum non-significantly correlated with available P (Chibba and
241.29 kg ha-1 in Sukhapali village. A positive significant Sekhon, 1985). Kanthaliya and Bhatt (1991) also observed
correlation of N with available P (r=0.133**). The significant the same relationship in soils of Mewar region of Rajasthan.
positive correlations were recorded between available N and
soil pH (r = 0.106**) and OC (r = 0.191**) as presented in
table 9. The results indicate that available N increased with
rise in pH. Kumar et al. (1995) also reported the identical
results. Similarly, O C status also markedly affects the soil N
status and the results are in agreement with those of Meenaet
al. (2006), Kumar et al. (2009), Sharma et al. (2008) and

60
Table 6: Distribution of available phosphorous status in the soils of Dabhra block
Samples under category of
Available P Samples under category of Vertisols
Inceptisols Total (%)
(kg ha-1) No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Low (<12.5) 1936 78.4 163 71.8 77.8
Medium (12.5-25) 530 21.5 60 26.4 21.9
High (>25) 4 0.16 4 1.7 0.3

Available K status:
The results showed (table 1) that the available potassium content ranged from 91 to 658 kg ha-1 with an average value
273 kg ha-1 of Inceptisols and Vertisols of Dabhra block. The available potassium ranged from 91 to 655 and 121 to 658
kg ha-1 with an average 270 and 315 kg ha-1 in Inceptisols andVertisolsof the study area. The data presented in table
4.8 reveals that 4.7 % samples had low and 70.6 % have medium available potassium content, whereas 24.7 % samples
have high in available potassium content of the study area. Distribution of the samples with respect to available potassium
indicates that in Inceptisols about 23.7 % samples had high, 72 % medium and 4.9 % in low available K content, where as
in Vertisols55.9 % in medium, 41.9 % in high and 2.2 % in low K content.Adequate (medium or high) available K in these
soils attributed to the prevalence of potassium-rich minerals like Illite and Feldspars (Sharma et al., 2008).A significant and
positive correlation (r=0.137**) found between available K with pH.Singh and Singh (1985) reported that a significant and
positive correlation between available K and pH in Beel soils of Assam. Pal and Mukhopadhyay (1992) in Inceptisol of West
Bengal obtained similar results. Ghosh and Mukhopadhyay (1996). Available P was positively correlated (r=0.121**) with
available K, Similar results were also reported by Sharma et al. (2008). Moreover, available K was found to be positively
and significantly correlated with EC (r=0.11**) table 9.

Table 7: Distribution of available potassium status in soils of Dbhra block

Available K
Samples under category of Inceptisols Samples under category of Vertisols Total (%)
(kg ha-1)
No. of Samples % Samples No. of Samples % Samples
Low (<135) 122 4.9 5 2.20 4.7
Medium (135-335) 1778 72.0 127 55.9 70.6
High (>335) 570 23.7 95 41.9 24.7

Table 8: Averages of available major nutrients in different Table 9: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chemial
ratings of pH, EC and organic carbon in soils of Dabhra properties and available N, P and K in soils of Dabhra block
block
  Ph EC OC N P K
Mean value of available
Soil pH            
No. of macronutrient content
properties Range EC 0.291**  
Samples (kg/ha)
OC 0.059 0.040  
N P K
N 0.106** 0.038 0.191**  
pH <5 699 179 8.53 255 P 0.129** 0.069* 0.032 0.133**  
5-6 1352 184 9.30 275 K 0.137** 0.11** 0.026 0.050 0.121**  
6.1-6.5 401 185 9.85 280
**Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level
6.6-7.5 228 198 10.0 301
>7.5 17 202 12.87 371
Conclusion:
EC <0.1 450 177 8.7 251 It can be concluded from the above results that the
0.1-0.2 1351 184 9.1 272 Inceptisols and Vertisols group of Dabhra block in Janjgir
district of Chhattisgarh was showed low in available N and
0.2-0.3 422 189 9.9 278 P, medium to high level in available K and characterized
under moderately acidic to neutral in soil reaction (pH) and
>0.3 474 185 9.7 293 less than one d Sm-1 soluble salt content (EC) comes under
OC <0.25 67 178 8.9 291 safe limit for all soils. The organic carbon level exhibited
low to medium (table4) and positively significant correlation
0.25- was exhibited amongst organic carbon and available N
907 177 9.2 269
0.50 (Table 8). Hence, the soils require attention regarding
0.50- nutrient management practices and regular monitoring of
1359 181 9.2 276
0.75 soil health for better crop production, in future.
>0.75 364 214 9.8 272

61
REFERENCES: Meena, H. B., Sharma, R. P. and Rawat, U. S. (2006).Status of
Macro and Micronutrients in some soils of Tonk
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W. W.  and Thomas,   G. W.  (1962).   Rock    some Entisols.Journal Indian Society of Soil
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Barakonda soils series of West Bengal.Journal
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Selvalakshmi, V. (2009).Phsico-chemical
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Karmakar, S. (2009). Appraisal of available
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Singh, H. (2008).Mapping of macronutrients
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Singh, R. K. and Singh, H. P. (1985). Nutrient status of Beel
soils in Assam. Journal of IndianSociety of Soil
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of DTPA-extractable micronutrients in the
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62
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 63-69 (2015)

EFFECTS OF TILLAGE PRACTICES ON SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CLAY

LOAM SOIL FOR CHICKPEA CROP IN CENTRAL INDIA
JITENDRA KUMAR JOSHI*, ATUL KUMAR SHRIVASTAVA, ABHISHEK CHAUHAN AND CHUMMANLAL
SAHU
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, JNKVV, Jabalpur

ABSTRACT
A field study was conducted during the year 2014 major crop growing seasons under rainfed conditions on clay loam (vertisol) to com-
pare the effect of different tillage practices on some selected soil physical properties under chickpea JG-14 variety of central India. A
replicated randomised complete block design with treatments consisting of (i) T1 (no- tillage) (ii) T2 (cultivator x 1 + disc harrow x 1)
(iii) T3 (cultivator x 2 + disc harrow x 1) and (iv) T4 (cultivator x 2 + disc harrow x 2) operations established at the Teaching and Re-
search Farm, JawaharLal Nehru Krishi Viswavidalaya, India was used for the study. The cone penetration resistance was determined
at the depths of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 22.5 and 25 cm while the soil moisture content and bulk density was measured at
the depth of (0–15 cm. 15-30 cm and 30-45 cm) soil. All the tillage operations were significantly different in their effects on soil bulk
density and was in the descending order of T1>T2>T3>T4. Compared with the all treatments, the T4 treatment followed by T2 treatment
gave the most favourable soil conditions (i.e. lowest soil penetration resistance, lowest dry bulk density, highest soil moisture content,
and highest total porosity). The no tillage plots produced the most unfavorable soil conditions (i.e. highest soil penetration resistance,
highest dry bulk density, lowest soil moisture content, and lowest total porosity). Therefore, under the soil and weather conditions of
the experiment, the best tillage practice identified for chickpea production is T4 followed by T2. The soil bulk density decreased with
the degree of soil manipulation during tillage practices, with no-tillage (T1) having the highest (1.42 g/cc) and T4 (cultivator x 2 + disc
harrow x 2) having the least (1.22 g/cc). The soil bulk density also increased with increase in time after cultivation. The soil penetra-
tion was consistent with bulk density data, with no-tillage also having the highest soil penetration of 610.3 kPa at 90 days after tillage.

KEYWORDS: Tillage, bulk density, moisture content, soil penetration, total porosity and pulverization index in Vertisol.

INTRODUCTION:
Reduction of labour requirements has been the
principal motivating force in agricultural mechanization.
The application of machines to agricultural production has
been one of the outstanding developments in the developed
countries. The expanding population of these countries has
required and will continue to demand an ever-increasing
agricultural production of feeds and fibres. The application
of machines to agricultural production did not only reduce
burden and drudgery of farm work, but also increased the
output per worker. Tillage operation is the mechanical
manipulation of soil to develop a desirable soil structure
for a seedbed and to establish specific surface configuration
for planting, irrigation, drainage, harvesting operations, etc.
(Kepner et al.,1978). Tillage operation is also concerned in
many ways with the adjustment of the soil moisture content
to meet the needs of the crop (Culpin, 1986). The cumulative
effect of tillage operations on soils leads to soil loosening.
The degree of loosening may depend upon the soil type, soil
moisture content, and the type of tillage operation. Some
physical properties of soil that may be affected by loosening
include bulk density, soil strength, infiltration capacity, water
redistribution within the soil and the moisture retention. Soil
parameters that are adversely affected by compaction or
loosening of soil particles are those that control the content
and transmission of water, air, heat and nutrients (Shafiq et
al., 1994). Soil dry bulk density and penetration resistance
increased with increase in the number of traffic passes while
air permeability has been found to decrease with increase
traffic intensity (Mamman and Ohu, 1998). Conservation
tillage practices have gained considerable support by merit
of their erosion control capabilities. Studied by Griffith et al.
(1973) and Van Doren et al. (1976) support the theory that the
yield potential of different conservation tillage practices is
site specific. They found that conservation tillage has alower
yield relative to conventional tillage practice onpoorly
drained, cool soils. On well-drained sites,where moisture
is in short supply, conservation tillage treatments produced
higher yields. Many farmers perform tillage operations
without being aware of the effect of these operations on
soil physical properties and crop responses (Ozpinar and
Isik, 2004). Tillage is a management input that affects soil
physical characteristics (Hamblin, 1985) cited by (Katsvairo
et al., 2002). Soil physical properties are important for
favourable conditions for crop growth and maintaining soil
quality (Rachman et al., 2003). The suitability of a soil for
sustaining plant growth and biological activity is a function
of physical and chemical properties (Mulumba and Lal,
2008). Soil is a key natural resource and soil quality is the
integrated effect of management on most soil properties that
determine crop productivity and sustainability (Anikwe and
Ubochi, 2007; Franzluebbers, 2002). It is essential to select
a tillage practice that sustains the soil physical properties
required for successful growth of agricultural crops (Jabro
et al., 2009). Seedbed preparation is crucial for crop
establishment, growth and ultimately yields (Atkinson et
al., 2007). Tillage systems create an ideal seedbed condition
for plant emergence, development, and unimpeded root
growth (Licht and Al-Kaisi, 2005). Studies by (Shaykewich,
1970 and Unger, 1975) indicated that disturbed soils, as in
sieved and repacked samples have higher water retention
capacities at a given water potentials than undisturbed soils.
In central India, there is limited documentation on the effect
of tillage systems on soil properties such as the bulk density,
bearing the drainable pore space for drainage design and to

63
check changes in the structure of a soil causedby tillage or cores.
mixing of soil layers. An understanding of how different
tillage methods affect these soil physical parameters will Penetration Resistance: Soil penetration resistance
be of importance in their propermanagement for sustained measurements were made using a cone penetrometer.
productivity. The objective of this study therefore, is to Penetration resistance of the plots was taken immediately
investigate the effect of different tillage methods on some after tillage operations with the use of a hand-held cone
physical properties of a loamy sand soil and its implication penetrometer to depths of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20,
to agricultural production. 22.5 and 25 cm was measured at different days of sowing i.e.
30, 60 and 90 days of sowing. The measurement were first
taken in kg cm-2 and later converted to kPa.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
Study Site Description Dry Bulk Density: Soil dry bulk density in the 0–15
Teaching and Research Farm, JawaharLal Nehru Krishi cm, 15-30 cm and 30–45 cm layers were determined using
Viswavidalaya, India was used for the study. Total annual the core method. Soil bulk density was determined from
rainfall of the study area is range 1000 to 1500 mm. The oven dried undisturbed cores as mass per volume of oven
average daily minimum temperature ranged between 200C dried soil. Three soil samples were randomly collected a day
and 220C and the average maximum temperature between after the treatments were applied and at monthly intervals
270C and 350C. In order to determine the physic-chemical thereafter until the before sowing and after sowing i.e. 0, 20,
properties of soil of the experimental area, random samples 45, 60 and 90 days using a stainless steel core sampler of
were drawn with the help of screw soil auger from different dimension 10 cm diameter by 15 cm height. The collected
location in each replication to a depth of 0-15 cm, before start soil cores were trimmed to the exact volume of the cylinder
and after completion of the experiment. This soil sample was and oven dried at 105oC for 24 hours. Precautions were
thoroughly mixed to obtain a composite sample, which was taken to avoid compaction inside the core sampler. Dry bulk
later analyzed for different physic-chemical properties of density was determined from the ratio of mass of dry soil per
soil. Soil physical properties and chemical compositions are unit volume of soil cores.
given in Table 1 and 2. Moisture Content: Three soil samples were taken
at random locations in each plot from the 0–15 cm, 15-30
Table 1: Soil physical properties cm and 30–45 cm soil layers with a soil core sampler 5 cm
long and 5 cm in diameter on a weekly basis for eight weeks
Particulars Values Method used
and after harvest. Samples were oven–dried at 105°C for 24
1. Sand 29.10 % International pipette hours to determine the soil moisture content gravimetrically
2. silt 20.15 % method (Piper, 1967) (ASABE Standards, 2008). The gravimetric moisture
3. clay 50.75% content was calculated as the mass of moisture in the soil
sample divided by the mass of the dry soil multiplied by 100.
Table 2: Chemical Compositions Total Porosity: The total porosity of the soil in the
Particulars Values 0–15 cm, 15-30 cm and 30–45 cm layers were calculated
Oc 0.48 % from the values of the dry bulk density and an assumed
Ec 0.08 ds/m particle density of 2.65 Mg/m3 using the following Equation
N 190 kg/ha (Chancellor, 1994). The result was multiplied by 100.
P 27.2 kg/ha
K 26.2 kg/ha Total porosity (%) =
Ph 7.31

An experimental plot consisting of four treatments and three Where, b = Dry bulk density (Mg m-3)
replicates was laid out in randomized complete block design. p = Particle density (Mg m-3)
The treatments consisted of 4 tillage methods as given be- Data Analyses: Statistical data analyses were
low: performed on all data collected using
the Balanced Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Model in
T1 = No- tillage. MINITAB Statistical Software Release 15 (MINITAB Inc.,
2007). The mean values of soil penetration resistance, dry
T2 = Cultivator x1 + disc harrow x1 bulk density, moisture content and porosity were compared
on treatment basis using the least significant difference test
T3 = Cultivator x1 + disc harrow x2 at p<0.05.

T4 = Cultivator x2 + disc harrow x2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Data Collection:
The maximum depth of tillage was maintained at 15
cm and five undisturbed soil samples per replicate treatment
were collected randomly from the upper (0–15 cm) layer
of the soil for laboratory using 50 mm x 54 mm cylindrical
The Table 3 shows the mean values of mean mass
diameter and bulk density of after each implement operation.
The mean mass diameter, bulk density and cone index was
decreased after each operation of implement.

64
Table 3: Soil Pulverization for different treatments soil (Smith, 1988).
Soil Pulverization, (mm) Fig.1.1 Effect of Tillage practices on Bulk density at 0-15
Cultivator After Disc harrow cm depth of soil for different treatments
S.N. Treatments
After After After After
1stpass 2ndpass 1stpass 2ndpass
1. T1 - - - -
2. T2 11.22 - 10.19 -
3. T3 11.75 - 10.19 9.21
4. T4 12.48 12.08 11.67 10.71

Table 4 Shows that the bulk density of soil before and after
used of different common tillage implement.

Table 4: Bulk density for different tillage treatments

Bulk density (g/cc)
After Disc
Treat- Cultivator
S.N.
ments Before harrow Fig.1.2 Effect of Tillage practices on Bulk density at 15-30
tillage After After After After cm depth of soil for different treatments
1stpass 2ndpass 1stpass 2ndpass
1. T1 1.344 - - - -
2. T2 1.300 1.252 - 1.227 -
3. T3 1.311 1.264 - 1.248 1.162
4. T4 1.331 1.250 1.241 1.223 1.185

Effect of Tillage Practice on Dry Bulk Density:

Soil bulk density is probably the most frequently
measured soil quality parameter in tillage experiments
(Rasmussen, 1999). The effect of the different tillage
practices on dry bulk density in the 0– 15 cm, 15-30 cm and
30–45 cm layers are depicted in Fig. 1.1, Fig. 1.2 and Fig. 1.3
respectively. Over the course of the study, tillage practices
significantly affected soil dry bulk density. The No Tillage
treatment recorded the highest dry bulk density significantly Fig.1.3 Effect of Tillage practices on Bulk density at 30-45
higher than that of the T2 followed by T4 treatment, which cm depth of soil for different treatments
produced the lowest dry bulk density. Soil dry bulk density
recorded in the 0–15 cm layer ranged from 1.240 g/cc to
1.40 g/cc for the No Tillage treatment, and from 1.130 g/cc
to 1.36 g/cc for the cultivator two passes followed by disc
harrow two passes treatment. Similarly, soil dry bulk density
in the 15–30 cm layer, ranged from 1.39 g/cc to 1.43 g/cc
for the No Tillage treatment and from 1.23 g/cc to 1.42 g/
cc for cultivator followed by disc harrowing treatment. The
lowest dry bulk densities found in the cultivator followed
by disc harrowing plots are supported by the best cowpea
performance. Conversely, the highest soil dry bulk densities
observed in the No Tillage plots are supported by the worst
cowpea performance (Aikins, and Afuakwa, 2010). Overall,
these findings widely agree with results found by (Kombiok
et al., 2005) working under Ferric Luvisol in the northern The Fig.1 shows the bulk density of soil for different
Guinea savannah zone of Ghana. Ojeniyi and Adekayode treatments. It is evident from the Fig.1 that the maximum
(1999) working under Ferric Luvisol in the rainforest zone bulk density (1.34 g/cc) was found for T1 and lowest was
at Akure in Nigeria also reported similar results. The bulk 1.185 g/cc for T4 treatment. There was virtually no change
density of a soil gives an indication of the soil’s strength in bulk density after tillage as using this machine only a slit
and thus resistance to tillage implements or plants as they is formed in the field and there is no disturbance of soil. The
penetrate the soil. Soils with higher proportion of pores to bulk density increased with time after tillage for all tillage
solids have lower bulk densities than those that are compact treatments as the soil gradually get compacted under the
and have fewer pores (Brady and Weil, 1999.). Bulk influence of rainfall and particle resettlement.
densities in excess of 1.6 g/cc can restrict root growth and
result in low levels of water movement into and within the

65
Effect of Tillage Practice on Soil Penetration Resistance:
Soil penetration is an indirect measure of soil shear
strength. Penetrometer resistance measurements of soil
can be used to assess the need for tillage operations, which
help maintain effective plant rooting and facilitate good
water and nutrient uptake (Veenstra et al., 2006). Fig. 2
shows the effect of the different tillage practices on soil
penetration resistance. Tillage practice significantly affected
soil penetration resistance over the period of the experiment.
Among the tillage practices, soil penetration resistance was
significantly higher under No Tillage as compared with
that in the tilled soil treatments. The soil penetration varied
significantly with the method of tillage operations. The
highest cone index which is measurement of soil penetration
was recorded 610.3 kPa at 90 days under the more compacted
no-tillage soil, while the least value of 466.89 kPa at 90
days was recorded on the more intensely manipulated for T4
treatment. However, while the soil penetration increased with
time after tillage under other treatments, it decreased slightly
under NT at the three depths sampled. There was almost a
convergence of CI values between the no-tillage and the
tilled plots (T2, T3 and T4) at the end of 3 months where there
was no significant difference amongst the soil penetration on
all the treatments at 0–5 cm depth. This was however not the
case at 5–10 cm and 10–15 cm depths as the soil penetration
resistance was significantly and consistently higher under
no- tillage throughout the 3 month duration of the study. The
soil penetration generally increased with increase in depth
for all treatments. While the time after tillage operations had
no significant effect on bearing strength of the plots. On the
average, the highest soil penetration was recorded at 3 month
(a) b)
Penetration depth, mm
(c) (d)
66
after tillage operations, while the least soil penetration was
recorded on the third week. The soil penetration decreased
with the intensity of soil manipulation during tillage.
There was also no significant difference in soil resistance
between the T3 (cultivator x1 + disc harrow x2) and the
conventionally tilled soil T2 (cultivator x1 + disc harrow x1).
The effect tillage practice on soil penetration resistance is
shown in fig.2 (a) for before tillage, fig.2 (b) for 30 days after
sowing, fig.2 (c) for 60 days after sowing and fig.2 (d) for 90
days after sowing. (Zhang et al. (2001) reported a significant
increase in soil penetration resistance and increase in shear
stress with little increase in bulk density. They attributed
this to lower saturation of the soil with high bulk density
compared with the low density soil at the same potential and
this tend to increase its adhesion over the soil with lower
bulk density soil. Soils with high bulk density will generally
have higher proportion of small diameter pores and therefore
higher suction and greater shear strength compared to soils
with lower density when they both have the same moisture
content. T4 plots which produced the lowest soil penetration
resistance gave the best chickpea performance. On the other
hand, the No Tillage plots which had the highest penetration
resistance values were associated with the poorest chickpea
performance (Aikins and Afuakwa, 2010). Penetration
resistance measures the energy that must be exerted by the
young seedling to emerge from the soil. It indicates resistance
that must be overcome by the young rootlets in their search
for nutrients and water in the soil (Olaoye, 2002).
Fig.2. Effect of Tillage practices on Soil penetration for dif- Fig. 3.1 Moisture content of soil at 0-15 cm for different
ferent depth of soil at (a) Before tillage (b) 30 days (c) 60 treatments
days (d) 90 days in response to different tillage methods

Effect of Tillage Practice on Moisture Content:

Soil moisture is the source of water for plant use
in particular in rainfed agriculture (Mweso, 2003). Soil
moisture is highly critical in ensuring good and uniform seed
germination and seedling emergence (Arsyid et al., 2009),
crop growth and yield. Fig. 3.1, Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3 depict
the mean soil moisture content values obtained under the
different tillage practices over the course of the study in the
0–15 cm 15-30 cm and 30–45 cm soil layers respectively.
Significant differences in soil moisture content were
observed at before tillage and 20, 45, 60 and 90 days after
sowing. The lowest soil moisture contents were located in the
No Tillage plots. In contrast, Ojeniyi and Adekayode (1999)
and Olaoye (2002) found higher soil moisture content in No
Tillage plots compared with that of disc ploughed followed
by disc harrowed plots. The highest moisture content values Fig. 3.2 Moisture content of soil at 15-30 cm depth for
in the cultivator followed by disc harrowing treatment were different treatments
associated with the best cowpea performance. On the other
hand the lowest moisture content values in the No Tillage
plots were associated with the worst cowpea performance
(Aikins and Afuakwa, 2010). The moisture content of soil
after sowing decreased in all treatments at different depth.
The moisture content of soil at depth 0-15 cm was minimum
i.e. 25.75% in T4 at the time of sowing and maximum i.e.
28.06% in T1 treatment. Similarly for 15-30 cm soil depth
the soil moisture content was minimum i.e. 28.34% in T4 at
the time of sowing and maximum i.e. 30.05 in T3 treatment,
and for 30-45 cm soil depth the soil moisture content
was minimum i.e. 30.39% in T3 at the time of sowing and
maximum i.e. 32.04% in T4 treatment. The moisture content
of soil at the time of harvesting i.e. 90 DAS was minimum
i.e. 12.14% in T1 and maximum i.e. 14.5 in T4 treatment.
Similarly for 15-30 cm soil depth the bulk density after at 90 Fig. 3.3 Moisture content of soil at 30-45 cm depth for
days of sowing was minimum i.e. 13.88% in and maximum different treatments
i.e. 15.9% in T4 treatment, and for 30-45 cm soil depth bulk
density of soil after at 90 days of sowing was minimum i.e.
Effect of Tillage Practice on Total Porosity
14.88% in T2 and maximum i.e. 16.93% in T4 treatment.
Soil porosity and organic matter content play a
The Fig.3.1 shows the moisture content of soil at 15 cm critical role in the biological productivity and hydrology
depth after 0, 20, 45, 60 and 90 days.The Fig.3.1 also shows of agricultural soils. Pores are of different size, shape and
that there was minimum loss of moisture in case of no-tillage continuity and these characteristics influence the infiltration,
(T4) compared to other treatments. Because, of the reason storage and drainage of water, the movement and distribution
that no tilling of soil in this treatment but 90 days after tillage of gases and the ease of penetration of soil by growing roots
the maximum loss of moisture content in this treatment and (Kay and Vanden Bygaart, 2002.). The mean total porosity
minimum moisture content of soil was 16.56% available for obtained in the 0–15 cm, 15-30 cm and 30–45 cm soil layers
T1 treatment at 90 days after tillage. under the four different tillage treatments over the field
experiment period are presented in Fig.4.1, Fig.4.2, and
Fig.4.3 respectively. Tillage practices significantly affected
soil porosity for the 0–15 cm, 15-30 cm and 30–45 cm soil
layers. Overall, in all the 0–15, 15-30 cm and 30– 45 cm soil
layers, the cultivatortwo passes followed by disc harrowing
with two passes (T4) treatment produced the highest total
porosity while the No Tillage treatment gave lowest total
porosity. Elder and Lal (2008) also reported higher total
porosity in the tilled plots compared with the No Tillage
plots for organic soils.

67

Fig.4.1 Effect of Tillage Practice on Total 0– 15 cm
depth of soil
Fig.4.2 Effect of Tillage Practice on Total Porosity:
Porosity : 15–30 cm depth of soil
Fig.4.3 Effect of Tillage Practice on Total Porosity: 30–
45 cm depth of soil
CONCLUSION
Bulk density, soil penetration, moisture content and
total porosity at different days of a clay loam soil subjected to
different tillage operations were measured. The bulk density
and the soil penetration of the soil surface decreased with
increase in the intensity of soil loosening by tillage operation.
Both soil bulk density and bearing strength increased with
increase in length of time after tillage. From the results, the
68
following can be concluded: Tillage treatments significantly
affected soil penetration resistance, dry bulk density,
moisture content and total porosity. The T4 (cultivator two
passes followed by disc harrowing two passes) treatment
presented the lowest soil penetration resistance and dry bulk
density, and the highest moisture content and total porosity.
The no tillage (T1) treatment produced the highest soil
penetration resistance and dry bulk density, and the lowest
moisture content and total porosity. Under the soil and
weather conditions of the experiment, the results indicate
that the best tillage treatment for the production of chickpea
crop is the cultivator two passes followed by disc harrowing
two passes (T4).
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to Dr. G.S. Rajput, Dean
and A.K.Shrivastava, HOD of Farm Machinery and Power
Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, Jabalpur
for providing all facilities and words of inspiration when
needed most.
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Different Tillage Practices on Cowpea
Performance, World Journal of Agricultural
Sciences. 6(6): 644–651.
Anikwe, M.A.N. and Ubochi, J.N. (2007). Short-term changes
in soil properties under tillage systems and
their effect on sweet potato (Ipomeabatatas L.)
growth and yield in an Ultisol in south-eastern
Nigeria, Australian Journal of Soil Research.
45: 351–358.
Arsyid, M.A, Camacho, F.T. and Guo, P. (2009). Corn Basics:
Corn Crop Management, Available
Online: http://www.dekalbasia.com/pdf/CB2_
CornCropManagement.pdf.
ASABE Standards (2008).ASAE S358.2 DEC1988 (R2008):
Moisture Measurement – Forages.
ASABE St. Joseph, Michigan.
Atkinson, B.S., Sparkes, D.L. and Mooney, S.J. (2007).
Using selected soil physical properties of
seedbeds to predict crop establishment, Soil &
Tillage Research. 97(2): 218-228.
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (1999).The Nature and Properties
of Soils, (12thedn.), Prentice Hall, Inc,
New Jersey.
Chancellor, W.J. (1994). Advances in Soil Dynamics: Volume
1, Chapter2, ASAE, St. Joseph, Michigan.
Culpin, C.,(1986). Farm Machinery, 11th ed. Collins
Professional and Technical Books, London,
p. 55.
Elder, J.W. and Lal, R. (2008). Tillage effects on physical
properties of agricultural organic
soils of north central Ohio, Soil & Tillage
Research. 98(2): 208–210.
Griffith, D.R., Mannering, J.V., Galloway, H.M., Parsons,
S.D., Rickey, C.B., (1973). Effect of
 eight tillage-plant systems on soil temperature, Ojeniyi, S.O. and Adekayode, F.O. (1999). Soil conditions
percent stand, plant growth and yield of and cowpea and maize yield produced by
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65:321–326. Soil and Tillage Research. 51(1): 1 6 1 –
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Jabro, J.D., Stevens, W.B., Evans, R.G. and Iversen, W.M.
(2009). Tillage effects on physical Olaoye, J.O. (2002). Influence of tillage on crop residue
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Kepner, R.A., Bainer, R., Barger, E.L., (1978). Principles of
Farm Machinery, third ed. AVI P u b l i s h i n g Rachman, A, Anderson, S.H., Gantzer, C.J. and Thompson,
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Cropping Systems on Soil Physical Properties
Katsvairo, T., Cox, W.J. and van Es, H. (2002). Tillage and Related to Soil Erodibility, Soil Science
Rotation Effects on Soil Physical Society of American Journal. 67:637–644.
Characteristics, Agronomy Journal. 94: 299–
304. Rasmussen, K.J. (1999). Impact of ploughless soil tillage on
yield and soil quality: A Scandinavian
Kombiok, J.M., Safo, E.Y. and Quansah, C. (2005). Yield review, Soil & Tillage Research. 53(1): 3–14.
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affected by tillage and Cropping Systems in Smith, M.J. (1988). Soil Mechanics, (4thedn.), Longman
the Northern Savanna Zone of Ghana, West Scientific & Technical, Essex.
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Kay, B.D. and VandenBygaart, A.J. (2002). Conservation physical properties as influenced by
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 70-73 (2015)

CORRELATION BETWEEN AVAILABLE MACRONUTRIENTS AND SOIL PHYSICO-

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN INCEPTISOLS OF JAIJAIPUR BLOCK IN DISTRICT
JANJGIR-CHAMPA OF CHHATTISGARH”
*
K. D. SAHU , SANGEETA JOSHI AND B.P. GARHEWAL
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, 492012
Email: kumardsahu111@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
A Study was undertaken to evaluate the fertility status of Jaijaipur block in Janjgir- Champa district, Chhattisgarh covering 105 villages
during 2011-2012. The systematic collection of samples in geo–referenced surface (0-0.15m) soils samples from 2485 sites representing
Inceptisols using Global Positioning System The statistical description of soil characteristics indicated that the pH of the soils varied
from 4.3 to 6.9. The electrical conductivity of soil-water suspension ranged from 0.06 to 0.32 dS m-1. The status of available nitrogen
was ranged from 100 to 276 kg ha-1 and concluded that soils were found to be low in N status. The status of available P in soils ranged
from 3.94 to 18.28 kg ha-1 and available potassium content generally found medium to high and only 0.12 per cent soil samples test-
ed low in available potassium. It ranged from 119 to 449 kg ha-1. A positive significant correlation was found between pH and EC
in Inceptisols. Further, the correlation studies of pH and available N, P and K had significant positive correlation in Inceptisols. The
positive significant correlation was also found between EC and available N, K and positive correlation with available P in Inceptisols

Key words: available macronutrients, soil properties, Inceptisols.

INTRODUCTION:
In developing nations like India, where the land-
person ratio is rapidly declining, the population of our
country is continuously increasing; the only means to fulfill
the needs of agricultural produce is through increased
productivity without detriment to environment and
sustainability. Soil fertility must be periodically estimated as
there is continuous removal of macro and micro nutrients by
the crop intensively grown in every crop season. In order to
achieve higher productivity and profitability, every farmer
should realize that fertility levels must be measured as these
measurements can then be used to manage soil fertility. It
is determined by the presence or absence of nutrients i.e.
macro and micronutrients. Balanced nutrient use ensures
high production level and helps to maintain the soil health.
experiences hot, sub humid climate, having average rainfall
of 1157.1 mm. with erratic pattern of distribution, mostly
concentrated in the month of June to September, with very
little amount from October to February. The hottest and
coolest months are May and December, respectively. The
maximum temperature during the summer may exceed even
490C and the minimum temperature often falls below 80C
during winter season.
Systematic survey will be carried out for evaluation
of soil fertility status of different villages of Jaijaipur Block
of Janjgir-Champa district, a surface  soil samples from(0-15
cm depth) will be collected from villages sites following the
standard procedures.

Soil test-based fertility management is an effective METHODOLOGY

tool for increasing productivity of agricultural soils that have
high degree of spatial variability resulting from the combined
effects of physical, chemical or biological processes
(Goovaerts, 1998). However, major constraints impede wide
scale adoption of soil testing in most developing countries.
In India, these include the prevalence of small holding
systems of farming as well as lack of infrastructural facilities
for extensive soil testing (Sen et al. 2008).
The soil test information for Jaijaipur block, district
Janjgir- Champa, Chhattisgarh is limited.
Keeping this in view a study will be planned entitled,
“Correlation between Available Macronutrients and Soil
Physico-Chemical properties in Inceptisols of Jaijaipur
Block in District Janjgir-Champa of Chhattisgarh”
STUDY AR EA
Jaijaipur is located at Janjgir-Champa district lying
between 21° 84’ 25’’N latitude to 82° 84’ 90 E longitudes. It
has an average elevation of 284 m. The region generally
The soil of experimental site was analyzed
for the physico-chemical properties like pH, electrical
conductivity, organic carbon and available macro and
micro nutrients (N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn. Soil pH was
measured by glass electrode pH meter in 1:2.5 soil water
suspension after stirring for 30 minutes as described by piper
(1967). The electrical conductivity of supernatant liquid was
determined by Solubridge. Organic carbon was estimated by
Walkley and Black’s (1934) rapid titration method. Available
nitrogen in soil was determined by alkaline potassium
permanganate method as described by Subbiah and Asija
(1956). Available phosphorus was estimated by the ascorbic
acid method as described by Olsen, (1954) in which 2.5 gm
soil sample was extracted with 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate
at pH 8.5. Available potassium was extracted from the 5
gm soil with the help of suitable extractant neutral normal
ammonium acetate using flame photometer.

70
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Electrical conductivity (EC)
General soil site characteristics The electrical conductivity varied from 0.06 to 0.32 dS
m-1 with a mean value of 0.16 dS m-1 at 25oC of the Jaijaipur
Soil reaction (pH) The overall soil pH of farmer’s field block. Data presented in table 3 reveal that in Jaijaipur block,
was strongly acidic to slightly alkaline in reaction and it 100 % soil samples comes under normal range. It indicates
ranged from 4.3 to 6.9 with an average of 5.6 in Inceptisols of that salinity is not at all a problem in these soils.
Jaijaipur block. Further, in yellow soil nearly 72.5 % samples
under moderately acidic (5-6.0), 17.5% under slightly acidic Table 1: Physicochemical properties of the soils
(6.1-6.5) and 9.1% under strongly acidic (<5.5), 1% samples Soil characteristics
under neutral in nature. As majority of the soil samples are Range Mean
acidic in nature, the farmers are suggested to grow pH loving
crops like rice etc. or liming should be advised for harvesting pH (1:2.5,Soil:water) 4.3-6.9 5.6
optimum productivity of the crops. E.C. (dS m-1) 0.06-0.32 0.16
Available N (kg ha-1) 100-276 211.15
Available P (kg ha-1) 3.94-18.28 9.2
Available K (kg ha-1) 119-449 256.22

Table 2: Limits for the soil test values used for rating the soil
Classification for pH values
Strongly acid Moderately acid Slightly acid Neutral Slightly alkaline
<5.0 5.0-6.0 6.1-6.5 6.6-7.5 7.6-8.5
Classification for total soluble salt content (EC as dS m-1)
<0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.3 >0.3
Macronutrients
Parameters Low Medium High
Av. N (kg ha-1) <280 280-560 >560
Av. P (kg ha-1) <12.5 12.5-25 >25
Av. K (kg ha-1) <135 135-335 >335

Table 3: Percentage of soil sample fallen under different rating of soil test values
Classification for pH values
Strongly acid Moderately acid Slightly acid Neutral Slightly alkaline
Soil type
9.1 72.5 17.5 1 0
Classification for total soluble salt content (EC as dS m )
-1

Soil type Normal Low salinity Medium salinity High salinity

100 - - -
Macronutrients
Parameters Low Medium High
Av. N (kg ha-1) 100 - -
Av. P (kg ha-1) 91.9 7.8 -
Av. K (kg ha-1) 0.2 88.3 11.5

AVAILABLE MAJOR NUTRIENTS STATUS
IN SOILS
Available N status
Results on available soil nitrogen status of Jaijaipur block is
presented in table-3 It ranged from 100 to 276 kg ha-1 with
an average value of 211.15 kg ha-1. In this way, almost all the
soil samples tested were found to be deficient in N. Desai et
al. (2009) reported that the available N content in the soils
of South Gujarat is 278 Kg/ha . It is fact that the available N
analyzed by alkaline KMnO4 method as suggested by Subbi-
ah and Asija (1956) do not exhibit the exact availability of N
in dry soil. It is the measure of the oxidisable N in dry soil.
The soils of the area are dominantly low in respect of their
available nitrogen and organic matter, therefore farmers are
advocated to use recommended doses of N fertilizer as per
crops along with application of organic manure for optimiz-
ing crop productivity and soil health.
Available P status
Distribution of available phosphorus status in the soils of 

71
Jaijaipur block are presented in the table 3 .The overall avail-
able P of the study area was varied from 3.94-18.28 kg ha-1
with a mean value of 9.2 kg ha-1 (Table -1) Considering
the soil test rating for available phosphorus (<12.5 kg ha-1as
low, 12.5-25 kg ha-1 as medium  and >25 kg ha1as high)  in
table-2, majority of the  samples( 91.1%) were low in avail-
able phosphorus status and (7.8%) were in medium available
P content respectively. Phosphorus is present in soil as solid
phase with varying degree of solubility. When water soluble
P is added to the soil, it is converted very quickly to insoluble
solid phase by reacting with soil constituents. These may in-
clude Ca ( Olsen, 1953), Fe and Al oxides (Dean and Rubins,
1947 and Chu et al. 1962) and partly organic matter. These
reactions affect the availability of P and as a result of these
reactions, a very small amount of total P is present in soil
solution at any time reflected by soil testing. However, a low
to medium range of soil available P under study area may
be mostly affected by pH, organic matter content, texture.
Therefore, the farmers will be advised to take care of various
fertilizer management and agronomic practices for higher P
use efficiency and thereby crop productivity.
Available K status
Distribution of available potassium status in
soils of Jaijaipur block are presented in table 3 The
results showed that the available potassium content
ranged from 119 to 449 kg ha-1 with an average value
256.22 kg ha-1 in soils of Jaijaipur block (Table 1).
Distribution of the samples with respect to potassium
ratings indicated in Table 2 concluded that about
88.3% samples are medium, 11.5% high and 0.2%
low in available K content. Adequate (medium or
high) available K in these soils may be attributed to
the prevalence of potassium-rich minerals like Illite
and Feldspars. Similar results are also reported by
(Sharma et al., 2006) in the soils of Jaisalmer district
of Rajasthan where, the available K ranged from 135
to 350 kg/ha.
significantly correlated with soil pH (r=0.125**) and EC
(r=0.319**). Similar results were reported by Singh et al.
(2009) and Yadav and Meena et al. (2009).
Table 4: Correlation coefficient (r) between physico-chem-
ical properties and Available N, P and K in Inceptisols of
Jaijaipur block
  pH EC
pH    
EC 0.163 **
N 0.131** 0.075*
P 0.180** 0.037
K 0.125** 0.319**
**Significant at 1% level *Significant at 5% level
CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that most of the Inceptisols of
Jaijaipur block in Janjgir-Champa district of Chhattisgarh
showed low status in available N, soils available phosphorus
was low to medium and, medium to high level in available
K and The soil pH (4.3-6.9) and electrical conductivity
(0.06 to 0.32 dS/m) indicated that soils were strongly
acidic to slightly acidic in reaction and non-saline in nature
which comes under safe limit for all soils. . The simple
correlation studies between available macronutrient (N, P,
K) and soil physico-chemical properties (pH, EC) showed
significant positive relations. The results of the study are of
potential practical use in determining site specific nutrient
management practices that would help in improving
fertilizer use efficiency, reducing cost of cultivation and
preventing environmental pollution hence, the soils require
attention regarding nutrient management practices and
regular monitoring of soil health for better crop production,
in future.

Co-relationship between soil physico-chemical properties

and available major nutrients in  Inceptisols
The data on simple correlation studies between
available macronutrient and soil physico-chemical properties
(pH, EC) for Inceptisols have been presented in Table 4
respectively.
Inceptisols
Available N resulted significant positive correlation
with pH (r = 0.131**), EC (r = 0.075*), as presented in
table 4. Results were confirmed with findings by Jatav
(2010), who reported the significant positive correlation in
soil samples of Baloda block of Janjgir-Champa district of
Chhattisgarh .The results indicate that available N increased
with rise in soil pH and electrical conductivity.
The results presented in table 4. Indicates that
available P was positively and significantly correlated with
soil pH (r=0.180**) and EC (r=0.740). Similar results were
reported by Jatav (2010).
The available K was found to be positively and

72
REFERENCE
Chu, C. R., Moschler, W. W.  and Thomas,  G. W.  1962.  Rock   phosphate  transformation in acid soils. Soil Science Society
of American Proceeding. 26: 471-478.
Dean, L. A. and Rubin, E. J. 1947. Anion exchange in soils ,exchangeable phosphorous and anion exchange capacity. Soil
Science. 63: 37-387.
Jatav, G. 2010. Evaluation of soil fertility status in Inceptisols of Baloda block of Chhatisgarh. M.Sc.Ag.Thesis,Indira
Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur , Chhattisgarh ,73.
Kumar, R., Sarkar, A. S., Singh, K. P., Agarwal, B. K. and Karmakar, S. 2009. Appraisal of available nutrients status in
Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science. 57(3): 366-369.
Meena, H. B., Sharma, R. P. and Rawat, U. S. 2006. Status of macro and micronutrients in some soils of Tonk district of
Rajasthan. Journal Indian Society Soil Science. 54(4): 508 -512.
Olsen, S. R., 1953. Inorganic phosphorous in alkaline and calcareous soils in W. H. Pierre and A. G. Norman (ed. Soil and
Fertilizer phosphorous), Journal of American Society Agronomy Madison Wis., Agronomy. 4: 81-122.
Olsen, S.R., C.V. Cole, F.S. Watanbe and L.A. Dean, 1954. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extaction with sodium
bicarbonate. USDA Circ., 939: 19
Piper, C.S. 1967. Soil and Plant analysis. Inter science publisher Inc., New York.
Sharma, B.K.,Singh ,N.and Kumar,H.2006.Sandy soils of Jaisalmer district ,their morphogenesis and evaluation for
sustainable land use. Annals of Arid zone,45:139-149.
Singh , V.S.,Agrawal, H.P. and Prasad , S.2009.Distribution of DTPA- extractable micro nutrients in the soils of district
Ghazipur,Uttar Pradesh. Journal Indian Society of Soil Science. 57(3): 370-372.
Subbiah, B. V. and Asija, G. L. 1956. A rapid procedure for the determination of available nitrogen in soils. Current Science.
25: 259-260.
Waghmare, M. S., Bavalgare, V. G., Deshmukh, V. A. and Takankhar, V. G. 2009. Status of available N, P and K in some
soil of Ausha tahsil of Latur district. International Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 27(1-2): 327-331.
Walkley, A. and I.A. Black, 1934. An examination of degtjarefe method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed
modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science. 37: 28–35.
Yadav, R. L. and Meena, M. C. 2009.Available micronutrients status and their relationship with soil properties of Degana soil
series of Rajasthan. Journal Indian Society of Soil Science. 57(1): 90-92.

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 74-81 (2015)

`TILLAGE PRACTICES AND EFFECT OF SOWING METHODS ON GROWTH AND

YIELD OF CHICKPEA CROP IN VERTISOL
JITENDRA KUMAR JOSHI**, A. K. SHRIVASTAVA*, CHUMMANLAL SAHU AND SHUSHANTA PADHAN

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to evaluate the effect of four types of tillage treatment and five methods of sowing and their combination
on yield of chickpea crop and also evaluate the performance of raised bed drill, zero till seed cum fertilizer drill andseed cum fer-
tilizer drill sowing machine for sowing of chickpea crop in vertisol. The experiments was conducted at J.N.K.V.V., Research Farm,
Jabalpur, (India) and randomized block design (RBD) was used for conducting the experiments. It was found thatthe cultivator with
two passes followed by disc harrow with two passes (T4) tillage treatment and raised bed sowing method (S5) was found most suit-
able in terms of benefit cost ratio and biometrics of plant. It was found that the total time required for making of raised bed and
sowing operations by the raised bed drill was 1.42 h/ha, which was 11.44% less time than conventional (seed cum fertilizer drill)
and 17.41% less time than zero till seed cum fertilizer drill and total cost required for making raised bed and chickpea sowing by
raised bed drill was Rs. 439.77/ha, which was 11.44% more than conventional (seed cum fertilizer drill) and 26.49% more than zero
till seed cum fertilizer drill sowing respectively. The average yield obtained by raised bed seed drill was 1211.3 kg/ha, whereas, by
conventional practices and tractor drawn zero till drill was 1127.83 kg/ha and 1137.8 kg/ha respectively. In terms of agronomical pa-
rameter such as seed emergence, plant height, depth of root, no. of roots/plant, no. of pods/plant, seed index was maximum while the
minimum plant population braches/plant, weed density, straw yield, straw to grain ratio was found in case of raised bed drill com-
pare to and followed by zero till and conventional sowing practices. The raised bed and zero till sowing practices was found at par in
terms of B:C ratio and the soil physical conditions were also found better in the case of the T.D. raised bed seed cum fertilizer drill.

Key wards: Bulk density, Plant biometrics, Tillage, Zero till drill, Raised bed drill, Field capacity, Field efficiency, Vertisol
and Cost economics.

INTRODUCTION

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), which used to be
grown as monsoon fallow on conserved moisture in rabi
season, has acquired a niche with a sound cropping system of
paddy-chickpea and it is the most important and most widely
cultivated pulses crop of the world. It has a good adaptability
to wide range of soils and climate. In addition, it constitutes
an important source of high quality food.
Tillage is mechanical manipulation of the soil to
provide the necessary conditions favorable to the growth
of crops (Hedge, 1995).The suitability of a tillage method
depends on factors such as soil physical characteristics,
rainfall availability and distribution, availability of tillage
equipment and cropping history of the land. The effects of
tillage practice may vary, depending on the stage of growth
of chickpea (Birch et al., 1996) and the time and energy for
preparing the seedbed in chickpea fields could be minimized
by use of efficient implements and machines.
In traditional sowing it is not possible to achieve
uniformity in distribution of seeds. There is also poor control
over depth of seed placement. The tractor drawn raised bed
drill is precision equipment that can meter bold seeds and
then place at predetermined depth with uniform seed to seed
and row-to-rows spacing. Thus it saves labor, time and an
operational cost and costly seeds.
Reduction of labour requirements has been the
principal motivating force in agricultural mechanization.
The application of machines to agricultural production has
been one of the outstanding developments in the developed
countries. The expanding population of these countries has
required and will continue to demand an ever-increasing
agricultural production of feeds and fibres. The application
of machines to agricultural production did not only reduce
burden and drudgery of farm work, but also increased the
output per worker.
For sowing of chickpea there are three different types
and mode of sowing machinery were used with combinations
of cultivation practices. The machinery such as raised
bed seed drill 2 bed furrower, raised bed seed drill 3 bed
furrower, conventional seed cum fertilizer drill and zero till
seed cum fertilizer drill respectively used to sow the seed
on raised bed in better pulverized soil so that the minimum
compaction of soil over sown seed, promote seed emergence,
higher moisture availability to the plants and better drainage
facility during rainfall from furrow are available for sowing
of chickpea.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
The field experiments were carried out at BSP
research farm of J.N.K.V.V during 2013-2014. The field
being low laying area was poorly drained. The soil of the
experimental field was classified as rich clay-loam (vertisol).
The clay, silt and other were inthe range of 54.75, 20.15
and 25.10 per cent respectively. The fieldexperiments were
carried out in combine harvested paddy fields on NOV 20
and 25, 2013. The field under each condition was divided in
four tillage treatment blocks. Each field was further divided
into six equal parts of size 10m X 3.6m. The experiments
were conducted using randomized block design. In combine

74
harvested field the loose residue dropped by combine was
burnt and standing paddy stubbles were left as such in the
field. The average height of standing stubble varied in the
range of 10-12 cm.
The machine performance was compared with the
conventional practices and zero tillage drill for chickpea
cultivation. Details of the tillage treatments and sowing
system are given below:
T1 = Zero tillage
S1 = Zero till seed cum fertilizer drill fig.1.1, fig.1.2, fig.1.3 and fig.1.4.
T2 = Cultivator x 1 + Disc harrow x 1
S2 = Conventional seed cum fertilizer drill
T3 = Cultivator x 1 + Disc harrow x 2
S3 = Broadcasting Table 1.1 shows the all machine parameter. The speed
T4 = Cultivator x 2 + Disc harrow x 2
S4 = Raised bed seed drill with 3 bed furrower cultivator with one pass in T4 as 3.7 km/h, cultivator with
S5 = Raised bed seed drill with 2 bed furrower
The three replication was conducted at the time of
raised bed sowing and conventional (seed cum fertilizer
drill). Time and fuel required for operations were recorded.
The reason of more speed in case of disc harrow may be
attributed to that the passive tools required less draft and
after single operation of cultivator the soil was tilted and
manipulated nicely with normal moisture content. The best
tillage treatment for convectional seed cum fertilizer drill was
found to be under the treatment T4. The similar results were
also reported by other researchers namely kumar et al. (2013)
Shrivastava et al. (2012) Gupta et al. (1989) and Mustafa
and Nihat (2002).The speed of seed cum fertilizer drill was
maximum i.e. 3.5 km/h in T4 treatment and minimum i.e.
3.3 km/h in T2 treatment over the three different treatments
respectively.The best sowing machine for all thee treatment
which has require high speed for sowing operation was 3.5
km/h in case of conventional seed cum fertilizer drill.The
similar opinion was also reported by Mead et al. (1992) and
Menon et al. (2007).
The draft of cultivator with one pass and cultivator
with two pass was maximum i.e. 6.29 and 5.44 kN in T4
(cultivator with two passes followed by disc harrow with
two pass) and draft of, disc harrow with one pass and disc
harrow with two pass was maximum i.e. 6.37 and 5.6 kN
in T4 (cultivator with two passes followed by disc harrow
with two pass) respectively. The similar results were also
reported by other researchers names as Goyal et al. (2006)
Singh and Singh (1998) and Prasad (1995). Draft of the
sowing machinery was maximum in raised bed drill with 2
bed furrower (S5) and minimum in case of conventional seed
drill (S2) sowing. The overall all maximum and minimum
draft of all tillage and sowing combination was found to be
4.6 kN in T4S5 and 2.14 kN in T4S2 treatments respectively.
The similar opinion was also reported by Sharma et al.(2001)
Singh and Singh (2006).
The maximum and minimum field capacity of
cultivator was found 0.71 and 0.67 ha/h in tillage treatment
T4 and T2 respectively. Similarly the maximum and minimum
field capacity of disc harrow was found 0.92 and 0.62 ha/h in
tillage treatment T3 and T2 respectively. The similar results
were also reported by other researchers namely kumar et
75
The recommended rate of 80kg/ha of seed and 20 kg/ha N,
60 kg/ha P2O5 kg/ha and 20 kg/ha K2O was applied at time of
sowing. Further irrigations were not required due to rainfall
during the crop season. The seed germination, plant height,
depth of root, number of nodules, pods/plant and yield were
also recorded. Speed, draft, time, fuel required and other
machine parameter were recorded for each operation of tillage
implement and sowing machine and their field capacity, field
efficiency and energy requirement were calculated. JG-14
chickpea variety was used for the performance evaluation
of sowing system. Tillage and sowing machine is shown in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Machine parameter
of cultivator was similar i. e. 3.5 and 3.6 km/h in T2 and T3
treatment respectively. The speed was found in the case of
two passes as 3.9 km/h. The speed was found in case of disc
harrow with one pass in T3 as 4.2 km/h, disc harrow with
two pass 4.6 km/h as respectively. Similarly disc harrow
speed was found in case of T4 as 4.1 and 4.5 respectively.
al. (2013) Shrivastava et al. (2012) Khan et al. (1990) and
Menon et al. (2007). The maximum and minimum effective
field capacity was found 0.72 ha/h in case of raised bed
drill and lowest found 0.56 ha/h in case of zero till seed
cum fertilizer drill.The similar opinion was also reported by
Kumar and Thakur (1999), Singh and Singh (2006).
The maximum field efficiency of cultivator was
obtained 87.6% in T4. The maximum field efficiency of
cultivator with one pass, cultivator with two passes and disc
harrow with one pass and disc harrow with two pass was
found to be 85.7, 87.6, 85.25 and 86.65 % in treatment T4
respectively as the draft of these implement was lower in T2
as compared to the other treatments. The similar results were
also reported by other researchers namely Bauer et al. (1991)
and Samerajeeva et al. (1995). Therefore, it had more speed
which enhanced the field efficiency of implements and the
maximum field efficiency of all sowing machine was found
to be 86.1% in case of T4S2 and minimum field efficiency
was found to be 76.0% in case of T4S5 treatments.The similar
opinion was also reported by Chaudhary and Singh (2002).
The total time required for seed bed preparation in T2,
T3 and T4 was obtained 2.78, 3.74 and 5.13 h/ha respectively.
In T1 treatment time required 25.66% less than T3 and
45.8% less than T4 for seed bed preparation, as in T2 one
operation of disc harrow was less than T3 and in T4 field
was ploughed by twice with cultivator and twice with disc
harrow so time requirement was less in T2 compared to T3
and T4 and the maximum and minimum time requirement of
all treatment was found to be 1.78 h/ha in T1S1 and 1.38 h/ha
inT4S5 treatments respectively.The similar results were also
reported by other researchers name as Goyal et al. (2006)
and Singh et al. (1998) and Chaudhary and Singh (2002).
The total fuel consumption in seed bed preparation
under T2, T3 and T4 was 10.1, 12.96 and 18.04 l/ha respectively.
In T2 treatment, fuel consumption was 22.06% less than T3
and 44.01% more than T4 for seed bed preparation. In T2, one
operation of disc harrow was less than T3 and in T3 field was
ploughed twice by the cultivator and disc harrow therefore,
time requirement was more in T4 compared to T3 and T2.
The similar results were also reported by other researchers
namely Kumar and Thakur (1999) and Khan et al. (1990).
The maximum and minimum fuel consumption was found to
be 7.65 l/ha in case of T1S1, and 5.1 in case of T4S5 treatments
respectively.The similar opinion was also reported by kumar
et al. (2013) and Shrivastava et al. (2012).
The Table 1.1 shows the average performance results
of all tillage treatment and sowing systems under vertisols.
It was revealed from the table that maximum time for seed
bed preparation and sowing operation was with T4S2 at 6.84
h/ha and minimum was T1S1 with 1.78 h/ha followed by
T4S4 i.e.6.59 h/ha and T4S5 i.e.6.62 h/ha. This means that
conventional practices required 73.7%, 3.65%, and 3.21%
more time than T1S1, T4S4 and T4S5. The similar opinion was
supported by Kumar and Thakur (1999) and Singh and Singh
(2006). The maximum fuel consumption was found to be in
treatment T4S5 the fuel consumption was the highest because,
the operation includes field preparation using cultivator with
two pass and disc harrow with two pass and then sowing
was using raised bed seed drill with 2 bed furrower. The fuel
consumption in treatment T1S1 was lowest because sowing
was done directly in the field without any soil manipulation.
The T2S2 fuel consumption in case of conventional seed cum
fertilizer drill required 53.63% more than T1S1. Its results
were supported by other researchers Kumar et al. (2013) and
Sharma et al. (2001) for the tractor drawn raised bed drill
with appropriate tillage for different soil condition.
Plant biometrics
All plant biometrics is shown on Table.1.2 and
Chickpea crop view after at 60 days of sowing is shown in
fig.1.8. The minimum seed emergence 85.4% was obtained
in T4S3 (broadcasting) followed by T2S2. This is due to the
reason that when sowing using by broadcasting method,
seed are placed directly in the soil surface and sometime
seeds were placed out of soil surface and also not covered by
soil which caused poor germination of seeds and similarly
in case treatment T2S2 soil are less pulverized than other
treatments. In treatments T4S2 the seed emergence was
obtained maximum than the same sowing method as by
conventional seed cum fertilizer drill.
The plant population was maximum obtained 55.81
and 48.23 plant/m2 at 20 and 90 Days after sowing in
treatment T4S2 and minimum was obtained 50.10 and 42.36
plant/m2 at 20 and 90 Days after sowing in T4S3 treatment
respectively. The maximum plant population was obtained
under treatment T4S2. This may be attributed to the fact that
probably better crop establishment occurred when seed
bed was prepared using cultivator with two pass and disc
harrow with two pass sowing done by conventional seed
cum fertilizer drill.The similar results were also reported by
other researchers namely Bauer et al. (1991) and Willis et
al. (1997).
The increase in height of plant in treatments T1S1, T2S2,
T3S2, T4S2, T4S3, T4S4, and T4S5, was uniform after 30, 45, 60,
and 90 Days after sowing but there was suddenly increase and
maximum from all other treatment plant height in treatment
T4S4 and T4S5 after 30, 60, and 90 as compared to other
treatments because the soil moisture and soil pulverization
76
was more which enhances the initial growth rate which was
same after 45 Days after sowing as others. The minimum
height of plants was found in case of treatment T4S3 because
sowing was done by using broadcasting followed by
treatment T2S2 i.e. sowing was done by conventional seed
cum fertilizer drill.
The highest branches per plant were found to be in
T4S3 and lowest in T4S5 treatments. In treatments T4S2 the
branches per plant was obtained maximum than the same
sowing method as by conventional seed cum fertilizer drill,
because in these treatment soil pulverization was more than
other treatment.The best sowing method for same tillage
treatment the treatments T4S2, T4S4 and T4S5 on the basis of
number of branches per plant was obtained T4S2 (cultivator
with two passes + disc harrow with two passes).
The depth of root at 40 Days after sowing was highest
in treatment T4S5 (14.2 cm) and lowest in treatment T4S3 (9.0
cm) respectively. But there was suddenly increase depth of
root after 40 DAS in T4S3 compare to T4S5 treatment. The
highest (16.17 cm) depth of root was obtained at 60 DAS in
T4S5 and lowest (14.19 cm) in T4S3. Because, in treatment
T4S3 sowing was done by broadcasting, so the all seeds
are placed randomly ultimately the competition for root
growth of each plant is lower than the treatment T4S5 sowing
was done by raised bed seed drill with 2 bed furrower, in
which seed was place in linear as well as well mannered.
The similar results were also reported by other researchers
namely Prasad (1995) and Chen et al. (2011).
The number of root at 40 Days after sowing was
highest in treatment T1S1 (28.3 cm) and lowest in treatment
T4S2 (22.76 cm) respectively. The highest (51.7 cm) depth of
root was obtained at 60 Days after sowing in T1S1 and lowest
(39.1 cm) in T4S2. In treatments T4S2 number of root per
plant was obtained minimum than the same sowing method
as by conventional seed cum fertilizer drill.
The nodules/plant in 60 DAS was highest in treatment
T4S5, followed by T2S2 and T4S4 with 49.28, 45.53 and 43.13
respectively. But there was suddenly increase nodules/plant
in T4S5, and T4S4 after 40 Days after sowing as compare
to other treatments because field preparation was done by
cultivator with two pass and disc harrow with two pass then
sowing was done by broad bed and raised bed drill.
The minimum number of weeds was obtained in
T4S5 and maximum in T1S1 treatments. Because, in this
treatment no soil manipulation was done and T4S5 the reason
of maximum weed is that pulverize seed bed was prepared
which included cultivator with two passes and disc harrow
with two pass. The similar results were also reported by
other researchers namely Chen et al. (2011).
 Table 1.1 Performance results of different machines.
Treatment
Treatment T2 Treatment T3 Treatment T4
T1
S.N. Particulars
Cul DH DH
ZTSCFD Cul x1 DH x 1 CS-CFD DH x 1 DH x 2 CS-CFD Cul x 1 Cul x 2 CS-CFD BD RBD-3BF RBD-2BF
X1 x1 x2

20, 12, 13, 19, 12, 13, 14, 19, 12, 12, 13, 14, 19, 19, 21, 21,
1 Date of test
Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013 Dec.2013

2 Topography of soil Plain P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P

3 Type of soil Clay loam CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL
4 Soil moisture content % 23.97 25.3 24.8 22.3 25.5 25.1 24.2 21.3 24.5 23.8 23.7 23.2 21.9 22.4 19.87 20.32
5 Av. Depth of cut, cm 4.1 10.3 10.1 5.2 10.8 9.4 10.3 5.5 9.95 10.7 9.22 10.3 5.7 - 5.1 5.3
6 Av. Width of operation m 1.762 1.92 2.01 1.77 1.91 2.02 2.03 1.78 1.91 1.92 2.01 2.02 1.78 - 2.258 2.269

7 Av. Speed of operation, km / h 3.2 3.5 4.1 3.3 3.6 4.2 4.6 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.5 3.5 - 3.2 3.0

8 Draft, Kn 3.1 5.78 6.23 2.56 5.96 6.35 5.83 2.48 6.29 5.44 6.37 5.6 2.42 - 3.9 4.6
Theoretical field capacity,
9 0.72 0.79 1.01 0.72 0.79 1.01 1.05 0.72 0.72 - 0.92 0.92
ha /h
10 Field capacity,ha / h 0.56 0.57 0.82 0.58 0.68 0.84 0.92 0.60 0.67 0.71 0.86 0.91 0.62 - 0.72 0.68

77
11 Time required for 1 ha, (h/ha) 1.78 1.49 1.21 1.72 1.47 1.19 1.09 1.66 1.47 1.4 1.16 1.10 1.61 - 1.38 1.47
Total time required for seed
12 bed preparation and sowing 1.78 4.34 5.33 5.13 6.84 5.09 6.59 6.62
operation
13 Field efficiency, % 77.78 84.8 81.1 80.5 86.0 83.1 87.6 83.3 85.7 87.6 85.2 86.6 86.1 - 78.2 73.9
14 Fuel consumption, (lit/h) 4.3 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.4 3.6 3.4 3.6 3.4 - 3.7 3.8
15 Fuel consumption, lit/ ha 7.65 5.51 4.59 6.70 4.99 4.28 3.69 5.97 5.39 4.62 4.32 3.71 5.47 5.10 5.58
Cost of operation,
16 321.06 425 360 350 425 360 360 350 425 425 360 360 350 - 400 440
Rs/ ha ,
17 Total yield, q/ ha 11.37 - - 10.1 - - - 11.0 - - - - 11.2 10.0 11.6 12.1

ZTSCFD = Zero till seed cum fertilizer drill, Cul= Cultivator, DH = Disc harrow, CSCFD = Conventional seed cum fertilizer drill, BD = Broadcasting RBD-3BF
= Raised bed seed drill with three bed furrower, RBD-2BF = Raised bed seed drill with three bed furrower, P = plain, CL= clay loam
YIELD AND YIELD ATTRIBUTE
The maximum pods per plant were found in T4S5 treatment.
The minimum number of pods per plant was found in T4S3.
In treatments T2S2 number of root per plant was obtained
minimum than the same sowing method as by conventional
seed cum fertilizer drill.
The maximum total yield of chickpea seed was obtained in
T4S5 (cultivator with two passes and disc harrow with two
pass sowing was done by raised bed seed drill with 2 bed
furrower) and minimum was obtained in T4S3 (cultivator
with two passes and disc harrow with two pass sowing was
done by broadcasting).
The maximum (3.53:1) straw grain ratio in case of treatment Fig.1.5 Total cost of chickpea production Rs/ha for different
T4S3 was found. It may be due to reason that in this treatment treatments
grain yield is less than other treatments. Similarly lowest
straw grain ratio was found T4S5.
The maximum weight of 100 grain was found to be 28.23
in case of T4S5 treatment and minimum was found to be
26.52 in cased of T4S3. Due to all over cause it can be said
that practically there is no variation in grain weight under
treatment T2S2, T3S2 and T4S2 as difference is minimal. Yield
and yield attribute is shown on table 1.3.
COST ECONOMICS OF CHICKPEA PRODUCTION
The maximum
total cost of chickpea production was obtained in T4S2 and
minimum was obtained in T1S1 (no tilled of soil). The sowing
methods i.e. S1 was best suitable chickpea cultivation method
compare to S2, and S3. In T4 treatment the S5 sowing method
was better than S4 and S3.Total cost of chickpea production Fig.1.6 Net income for chickpea production, Rs/ha for dif-
ferent treatments
Rs/ha for different treatments is shown on fig.1.5.
The net income from chickpea production was obtained
maximum in tillage treatment T4 and minimum was obtained
in T2 because the highest chickpea yield was obtained in T4
followed by T1, T2, and T3 respectively. In sowing methods
the highest net income was obtained S5 followed by S1 than
S4, S2 and S3 respectively. Overall maximum net income was
obtained in T4S5 and minimum Net income was obtained in
T4S3 and it is shown on fig.1.6.
The benefit cost ratio was obtained maximum in tillage
treatment T4 and minimum was obtained in T3. Because, the
highest yield of chickpea yield was obtained in T4 compare
to T1, T2 and T3 respectively. In sowing methods the highest
Fig.1.7 Benefit cost ratio for different treatments
benefit cost ratio was obtained in S5 followed by S1 and
S2 respectively.Overall maximum benefit cost ratio was CONCLUSIONS
obtained in T4S5 and minimum B:C ratio was obtained in In tillage treatments, T4 (cultivator with two passes
T4S3. B:C ratio for different treatments is shown on fig.1.7. followed by disc harrow with two passes) was found to be
most suitable for chickpea cultivation in vertisol in terms of
machine parameter, yield benefit cost ratio and biometrics
od plant in comparison to T3 (cultivator with one passes and
disc harrow with two pass) and T2 (cultivator with one pass
followed by disc harrow with one pass).
Sowing methods on tillage treatment, S5 (raised bed
seed drill with 2 bed furrower) was most suitable sowing
method of chickpea in vertisol in terms of machine parameter,
yield and benefit cost ratio and biometrics of plant and

78
followed by S4 (raised bed seed drill with 3 bed furrower) and S1 (zero till seed cum fertilizer drill).

The best tillage treatment for same sowing method S2 (conventional seed cum fertilizer drill) was found to be T3 (cultivator
with one passes followed by disc harrow with two passes) respectivelyin terms of B:C ratio and plant biometrics.The best
sowing method for same tillage treatment T4 (cultivator with one passes followed by disc harrow with two passes) was found
to be raised bed seed drill with 2 bed furrower followed by raised bed seed drill with 3 bed furrower in terms of B:C ratio and
plant biometrics.The treatment T4S5 and T1S1 was found at par in terms of B:C ratio. But in terms of total cost and total time
requirement for chickpea production the T1S1 was found less than T4S5 therefore T1S1 was recommended for the chickpea
cultivation.

Table.1.2 Biometrics of plants for different treatments

Plant population, Depth of root/ No. of roots /

Seed Plant height, (cm) Branches per plant Nodules /plant
Treat- (m2) plant plant
emergence,
ments
(%) 20 90 at 90 at 60 90 at 40 60
30 DAS 60 DAS 30 DAS 40 DAS 60 DAS 40 DAS 60 DAS
DAS harvest Harvest DAS Harvest DAS DAS
T1 S1 87.8 55.68 47.80 20.58 36.06 56.18 3.45 10.03 16.21 11 15.97 28.3 44.7 28.11 40.2
T2 S2 85.9 52.68 43.81 19.96 35.89 55.18 3.33 8.28 16.47 10.5 14.23 16.16 43.2 29.7 45.53
T3 S2 86.8 85.27 43.23 20.44 36.05 56.05 3.2 10.33 15.69 13.6 16.03 29.4 38.6 33.4 37.7
T4 S2 87.3 55.81 48.23 20.33 36.03 55.01 2.7 9.49 15.23 11.9 15.36 22.76 39.1 23.14 32.8
T4 S3 85.4 50.10 42.36 19.76 35.90 55.85 2.9 10.83 16.65 9 15.69 18.08 43.8 22.56 34
T4 S4 88.7 51.55 45.62 21.6 37.67 57.16 2.01 8.21 14.30 12.5 16.11 24.89 48.7 27.13 43.13
T4 S5 89.3 52.43 46.23 21.86 37.70 57.22 2.08 8.48 15.02 14.2 16.71 28.53 52.9 30.54 49.28

Table.1.3 Pods/plant, seed yield, Straw yield, straw to grain ratio and weight of 100 grain of chickpea
S.N. Treatments Pods/plant Seed yield(kg/ha) Straw yield (kg/ha) Straw to grain Weight of 100 grain
ratio
1. T1 S1 78.6 1137.8 3674.5 2.74 27.8
2. T2 S2 65 1014.2 3129.96 2.57 26.96
3. T3 S2 71.2 1106.17 3252.44 2.65 26.6
4. T4 S2 68.3 1127.83 3314.54 2.53 27.2
5. T4 S3 62.2 1008.5 3561.26 2.78 26.52
6. T4 S4 84.7 1165.29 2631.44 2.14 26.23
7. T4 S5 89.3 1211.3 3022.26 2.18 28.43

79
 Fig.1.8 Chickpea Crop view at 60 DAS
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 82-86 (2015)

EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON GROWTH AND SEED YIELD OF OKRA

*S.K. BHENDE1, A.H. NAGONE2, *H. K. DESHMUKH3 AND R. K. DEWANGAN4
1, 3 and 4 M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Dr. PDKV, Akola.
2 Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Dr. PDKV, Akola.
*bhendeshashikant@gmail.com & *hdeshmukh975@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
An experiment entitled “Effect of fertilizers on growth and seed yield of okra” was carried out during year 2013-2014 at the
Main Garden, Department of Horticulture, Dr.PDKV., Akola. An experiment was laid out in (FRBD) with three replications.
In the present investigation four level of phosphorus (0, 25, 50, 75kg P/ha) and four level of potassium (0, 25, 50, 75 kg K/
ha) with 16 combination were included. The effect of phosphorus and potassium was found to be influenced different growth
attributes. Significantly increased plant height, number of leaves per plant and number branches per plant was observed
with higher level of phosphorus 75 kg/ha and 75Kg/ha potassium. Seed yield observations like number of fruit per plant,
length of fruit, weight of fruit, seed yield (q), were found significantly increased with application of 75 Kg P/ha and 75 kg
K/ha. Overall assessment indicated that 75 kg P/ha and 75 kg K/ha was optimum dose for growth and seed yield of okra.
Key words: Okra, phosphorus, potassium, growth and seed yield.

INTRODUCTION
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), the member of family
Malvaceae is considered to have its origin in Africa. It is
grown all over India and in many tropical and sub-tropical
part of the world. India is the world’s second largest producer
of vegetables next only to China. India is largest producer
of okra in the world. The area under this crop is increasing
day by day. In India, the area under okra cultivation is 498.0
(000” ha), production is 5784.0 (000” MT) and productivity
is 11.6 MT/Ha during 2010-11. In Maharashtra, the area
under okra cultivation is 19.00 (000” Ha), production is
224.0 (000” MT) and productivity is 11.8 MT/Ha during
2012-13 (Anonymous, 2013) amongst the different
commercial varieties the Arka Anamika is commercially
grown in Maharashtra as well as in India.
Arka Anamika is vigorous, tall, erect and well branched
plants, bearing fruits in two flushes. Fruits are long (15 to 20
cm), spineless, lush green and tender. This variety is highly
tolerant to Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus. It is a heavy yielder.
Use of plant nutrient such as phosphorus and potassium
can help to increase the growth and seed yield of vegetable
crops. There is sufficient work has been carried out on okra
in this respect. Phosphorus is an essential part many sugar
phosphates involved in photosynthesis and respiration and
its helps in enhancing root growth and development activity
of rhizobia, formation of root nodules, and maturity of crop.
Potassium plays a unique role in osmotic regulation, opening
and closing of stomata. Potassium improves the color,
Flavors and size of fruits.
Now a day many farmers are not aware about the use
of plant nutrients Such as phosphorus and potassium its
dose. So the present investigation will be helpful to know
the effect of plant growth nutrients such as phosphorus and
potassium with proper dose (kg), which help in increase
growth and seed yield of okra.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study entitled “Effect of Fertilizers on
Growth and Seed yield of Okra” was carried out at the main
garden, Department of Horticulture, PGI, Dr. PDKV, Akola
during summer season of year 2013. The land used under
the experimental layout was fairly uniform with gentle
slope. The soil was medium black with uniform texture and
structure having good drainage. The experiment was laid out
in FRBD with two factors (Factor A - Level of Phosphorus
like P0 - 0 kg ha-1, P1 - 25 kgP2O5 ha-1, P2 - 50 kg P2O5 ha-1,
P3 - 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 and Factor B - Level of Potassium like
K0 - 0 kg K2O ha-1, K1 - 25 kg K2Oha-1, K 2 - 50 kg K2O ha-
1
, K3 - 75 kg K2O ha-1 ) and sixteen treatment combinations
like T1 (P0K0),T2 (P0K1), T3 (P0K2), T4 (P0K3), T5 (P1K0), T6
(P1K1), T7 (P1K2), T8 (P1K3), T9 (P2K0), T10 (P2K1), T11 (P2K2),
T12 (P2K3), T13 (P3K0), T14 (P3K1), T15: (P3K2), T16:(P3K3) and
three replications (Note: 50 kg N ha-1 will be common for
each treatment). Genetically pure and good quality of seed of
okra variety Arka Anamika was obtained from Main Garden,
Department of Horticulture,Dr. P.D.K.V. Akola. The seeds of
okra cv. Arka Anamika were sown on 8th February 2013 with
the spacing (60 × 45 cm). Healthy and uniform seed were
dibbled at the rate of two seeds per hill. Irrigations were given
at an interval of 8 to 10 days till last harvest. The different
dose of fertilizer for okra was applied by placement method
in two split doses. The Cultural operations were taken as per
the requirement of seedling experiment like Thinning, gap
filling, weeding, intercultural operation, plant protection and
harvesting of fruits starts from 40 to 45 days and the fruits are
harvested every second or third day. The best time of picking
of 6 to 7 days after the opening of flowers and picking of fruit
was done when fruits were green, tender and immature. Seed
production point of view, two-three pickings are done. Later
on, matured fruits are harvested. There are three picking of
matured fruits done. The observations were recorded growth
attribute like height of plant (cm), number of leaves per
plant, number of branches per plant and yield attributes like
number of fruits per plant, length of fruit, weight of fruit and
Seed yield (q/ha). Yield attributes observations were recored
at the time of harvesting. The statistical analysis of the data
in respect of the yield and yield components of fruit were
done according to the standard procedure given for Factorial

82
Randomized Block Design by Panse and Sukhatme (1985).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Effect of various levels of phosphorus on growth
attributes
Data presented in Table 1. regarding various levels of
phosphorus, Height of plant, number of branches per plant
and numbers of leaves at 30 to 90 DAS was significantly
Table 1. Effect of phosphorus and potassium on plant growth
influenced by various level of phosphorus.
The maximum height (65.65 cm) of plant was found
under treatment P3 (75 kg P/ha) followed by P2 (50 kg P/
ha) and least under P0 (53.83 cm) at 90 DAS. Application
of 75 kg P/ha (P3) produced maximum number of branches
(2.41) as compared to other level of phosphorous. Whereas,
minimum number of branches per plant were found under
treatment P0 (1.67) at 90 DAS.

Plant height Number of branches Number of leaves

(cm) per plant
Treatment
30 60 90 30 60 90 30 60 90
DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS
Phosphorus

P0 (0 kg P/ha) 6.74 40.14 53.83 0.82 1.12 1.67 5.80 14.25 21.24

P1 (25 kg P/ha) 7.42 44.97 59.71 1.03 1.49 1.96 6.43 16.11 23.95

P2 (50 kg P/ha) 7.58 51.04 64.26 1.17 1.72 2.28 6.61 17.22 26.68

P3 (75 kg P/ha) 7.67 52.08 65.65 1.29 1.81 2.41 6.73 17.91 27.98

‘F’ Test Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig

SE(m) ± 0.05 0.83 0.44 0.02 0.02 0.005 0.03 0.28 0.23

CD at 5% 0.15 2.40 1.28 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.09 0.83 0.68

Potassium
K0 (0 kg K/ha) 7.03 44.81 58.19 0.94 1.33 1.76 6.06 15.10 23.56

K1 (25 kg K/ha) 7.27 44.39 60.16 1.04 1.49 2.04 6.38 15.98 24.15

K2 (50 kg K/ha) 7.55 48.44 62.00 1.15 1.61 2.27 6.52 17.04 25.70

K3(75 kg K/ha) 7.56 48.59 63.11 1.19 1.71 2.24 6.62 17.36 26.44

‘F’ Test Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig Sig

SE(m) ± 0.05 0.83 0.44 0.023 0.023 0.005 0.03 0.28 0.23

CD at 5% 0.15 2.40 1.28 0.066 0.066 0.01 0.09 0.83 0.68

The result is in combination with the Amjad et al.,
(2001). At 90 DAS maximum number of leaves (27.98) was
recorded with application of 75 kg P/ha (P3) followed by P2,
P1 and least under control (21.24). The increase in number of
leaves was observed with higher level of phosphorous (75
kg P/ha). The results are in line with the finding of Singh et
al., (2012).
Effect of various levels of potassium on growth
attributes
Data presented in Table 1. regarding various levels
of potassium, height of plant, number of branches per plant
and numbers of leaves at 30 to 90 DAS was significantly
influenced by various level of potassium.
The maximum plant height (63.11 cm) of plant was
under the treatment K3 (75 kg K/ha) at par with K2 (50 kg P/
ha) and least under control (58.19cm) at 90 DAS
The application of 75 kg K/ha (K3) produce
maximum number of branches /plant (2.24) as
compared to all other treatments. The minimum number
of branches per plant (1.76) was found in K0 treatment
at 90 DAS. At 90 DAS maximum number of leaves
(26.44) were recorded with application of 75 kg K / ha
(K3) followed by K2 and least under K0 (23.56). Similar
results were observed by Omotoso and Shittu (2007) and
Singh et al., (2012).
Effect of various levels of phosphorus on seed yield
attributes
Data presented in Table 2. regarding various levels of
phosphorus, fruits per plant, fruit length, weight of fruit and
seed yield was significantly influenced by various level of

83
phosphorus. P3 (75 kg P/ha) 15.61 15.42 7.32 7.83
Fruits per plant were more (15.61) under 75 kg P /ha F test Sig Sig Sig Sig
(P3) as compared to those under other level of phosphorus and
SE(m) ± 0.016 0.018 0.008 0.009
least under P0 treatment (11.62). The treatment P3 produced
maximum fruit length (15.42cm) followed by P2 and P1. CD at 5% 0.048 0.052 0.023 0.026
Whereas minimum pod length (14.56cm) was observed with Potassium (K)
treatment P0. Significant effect of phosphorous on fruit length
also observed by Muhmmad et al., (2001). Maximum weight K0 (0 kg K/ha) 12.65 14.77 7.00 5.50
of fruit (7.32 g) were more under 75 kg P/ha as compared to K1 (25 kg K/ha) 13.72 14.95 7.06 6.21
those under other level of phosphorous and least under P0 K2 (50 kg K/ha) 14.21 15.21 7.11 6.74
(6.56 g). Similar trends are observed by Ahmad et al., (1997)
in okra. Maximum seed yield (7.83 q/ha) was obtained with K3(75 kg K/ha) 14.83 15.38 7.99 7.27
application of 75 kg P/ha followed by P2 and P1. Whereas F test Sig Sig Sig Sig
minimum seed yield per hectare (4.94 q/ha) was obtained in SE(m) ± 0.016 0.018 0.008 0.009
treatment P0.
CD at 5% 0.048 0.052 0.023 0.026
Effect of various levels of potassium on seed yield
attributes Maximum weight of fruit (7.99g) was under 75 kg K2O/
Data presented in Table 2. regarding various levels of ha. The minimum weight of fruit was observed in treatment
potassium, fruits per plant, fruit length, weight of fruit and K0 (7.00 g). Similar results are observed by Mani et al.,
seed yield was significantly influenced by various level of (1980). Maximum seed yield (7.27 q/ha) was obtained with
potassium. Application of 75 kg K/ha resulted in maximum application of 75 kg K2O /ha followed by (K2) and (K1) and
number of fruit (14.83) per plant as compared to all other least under K0 (5.50q/ha). The increase in seed yield might
level of potassium and least under treatment K0 (12.65). have been due to improvement in various yield components
Maximum fruit length (15.38 cm) was under 75 kg K2O/ with the increase in level of potassium. This result confirms
ha. The minimum fruit length was observed in treatment K0 the earlier finding of Rajput et al., (2002) in okra.
(14.77 cm). Similar results are observed by Ushakumari et Interaction effect of various levels of phosphorus
al., (1999).
and potassium on growth attributes
Table 2. Effect of phosphorus and potassium on seed yield The data presented in Table 3. indicates that the
Number Length Weight interaction effect of phosphorus and potassium on plant
Seed yield
Treatment of fruits of of fruit height, number of branches and number of leaves were found
(q|ha)
per plant fruit(cm) (g) to be non-significant at 30, 60 and 90 DAS except number of
Phosphorus (P) branches at 90 DAS.
P0 (0 kg P/ha) 11.62 14.56 6.56 4.94 Number of branches per plant was significantly
P1 (25 kg P/ha) 14.44 15.06 7.10 6.66 maximum (2.76) with application of 75 kg P2O5/ha and
75 kg K2O/ha (P3K3) as compared to other treatment
P2 (50 kg P/ha) 13.74 15.27 7.17 6.29 and least under control (1.52) at 90 DAS. The results
are in line with the finding of Omotoso and Shittu (2007).
Table 3. Interaction effect of various levels of phosphorus and potassium on growth attributes

Plant Height Number of branches per plant Number of leaves

Treatment 30 60 90 30 60 90
30 60 90
DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS DAS

P 0K 0 6.26 38.18 51.85 0.66 0.99 1.52 5.48 13.96 20.56

P 0K 1 6.44 40.06 53.79 0.85 1.10 1.64 5.74 13.58 20.69

P 0K 2 7.05 40.66 54.13 0.88 1.19 1.74 5.86 14.26 21.43

P 0K 3 7.20 41.66 55.57 0.88 1.23 1.77 6.13 15.21 22.29

P 1K 0 7.25 42.56 57.39 0.93 1.26 1.81 6.16 15.28 22.79

P 1K 1 7.41 43.64 58.92 1.02 1.49 1.95 6.50 16.16 23.48

P 1K 2 7.55 46.56 60.69 1.08 1.58 2.10 6.56 16.73 24.50

P 1K 3 7.50 47.11 61.85 1.10 1.62 1.98 6.53 16.30 25.03

84
 P 2K 0 7.28 51.35 62.23 1.00 1.52 1.85 6.20 15.63 24.92

P 2K 1 7.61 52.53 63.60 1.13 1.64 2.27 6.62 16.78 25.70

P 2K 2 7.80 51.44 65.52 1.25 1.84 2.55 6.84 18.47 28.27

P 2K 3 7.66 48.86 65.69 1.33 1.88 2.47 6.79 18.00 27.84

P 3K 0 7.33 47.16 61.28 1.16 1.54 1.87 6.43 15.55 25.96

P 3K 1 7.63 51.33 64.31 1.18 1.75 2.30 6.65 17.42 26.75

P 3K 2 7.80 55.13 67.65 1.39 1.85 2.71 6.82 18.71 28.63

P 3K 3 7.91 56.71 69.35 1.46 2.10 2.76 7.02 19.96 30.59

‘F’ test NS NS NS NS NS Sig NS NS NS

SE(m) 0.10 1.66 0.88 4.62 4.58 0.01 0.06 0.57 0.47

CD at 5% - - - - - 0.03 - - -

Interaction effect of various levels of phosphorus P3K2 16.04 15.54 7.36 8.04
and potassium on seed yield attributes P3K3 16.28 15.97 7.40 8.99
The data presented in Table 4. indicates ‘F’ test Sig Sig Sig Sig
that, an interaction effect of phosphorus and potassium on SE(m) 0.033 3.59 0.01 0.018
number of fruit per plant of okra was found significant on CD at 5% 0.097 0.10 4.89 0.052
fruit per plant, fruit length, weight of fruit and seed yield per
hectare. The maximum fruit per plant was observed in P3K3
and minimum under (P0K0). Maximum fruit length (15.97)
CONCLUSION
observed under (P3K3) and minimum fruit length (14.52)
On the basis of results obtained from the present experiment
recorded in (P0K0). Maximum weight of fruit (7.40g) was
following conclusion could be drawn. The maximum plant
under (P3K3) and the minimum weight of fruit (6.54) was
height, number of leaves and number of branches were
observed in treatment (P0K0). Maximum seed yield (8.99 q/
maximum with the application of 75 kg P/ha and 75 kg
ha) was obtained under (P3K3). Whereas minimum seed yield
K/ha. Seed yield contributing characters and seed yield
per hectare (4.23 q/ha) was obtained in treatment (P0K0). The
were highest with application of 75 kg P/ha and 75 kg K/
seed yield per hectare of okra was found increased with the
ha. Phosphorus and potassium at the rate of 75:75 kg/ha
increase in phosphorous and potassium level was reported
respectively produced maximum seed yield and thus was
by Kotur (2012) and Bhushan (2013).
optimum fertilizer dose.
Table 4. Interaction effect of various levels of phosphorus
and potassium on seed yield attributes REFERENCE
Number of Length Anonymous. (2013) Area and Production of Okra in India
Weight of Seed yield (q/
Treatment fruits per of fruit and Maharashtra. Indian Horticulture database.
fruit(g) ha)
plant (cm)
P0K0 10.06 14.52 6.54 4.23 Amjad Muhumud, M. A. Anjum and Ahmed Ali, (2001)
P0K1 11.44 14.28 6.65 4.76 Effect of phosphorus and Planting density on
P0K2 12.13 14.71 6.75 5.19 seed production in okra. International Journal
of Agricultural Science.,3(4):0380-383.
P0K3 12.85 14.76 6.33 5.61
P1K0 13.37 14.80 6.88 5.82 Bhushan A, K.L. Bhat and J.P. Sharma, (2013) Effect of
P1K1 13.98 15.13 7.03 6.56 azotobacter and inorganic fertilizers on fruit
P1K2 14.88 15.16 7.20 6.98 and seed yield of okra Agricultural Science
Digest 33(2) : 135 - 138
P1K3 15.55 15.16 7.30 7.30
P2K0 12.72 14.82 7.32 5.29 Kotur, S. C. (2012) Fertiliser management of vegetable and
P2K1 13.77 15.17 7.05 5.93 seed purpose okra with emphasis on yield, N
P2K2 13.80 15.44 7.13 6.77 and P and K fertilizer use efficiency and seed
P2K3 14.67 15.66 7.20 7.20 quality. Indian Journal of Fertilizers; 9(5):70-
74. 4 ref.
P3K0 14.45 14.96 7.25 6.67
P3K1 15.70 15.22 7.28 7.62 Omotoso,S.O. and O.S. Shittu, (2007) Effect of NPK

85
 Fertilizer Rates and Method of Application
on Growth and Yield of Okra . International
Journal of Agricultural Research, 2: 614
Mani, S.K. and M. Ramnathan, 1980.Effect of nitrogen and
potash on yield of okra. South Indian Journal
Hort. 28(4): 257-267.
Muhumud Amjad, M. A. Anjum and Ahmed Ali, (2001)
Effect of phosphorus and Planting denisity on
seed production in okra. International Journal
of Agricultural Science ,3(4):0380-383.
Panse, V. G. and P. V. Sukhatme (1985) Statistical methods
for Agriultural workers. ICAR, New Delhi. 381
86
Rajput , T.B., Neelam Patel and N. Patel, (2002) Yield
response of okra. Annonymous Agricultural
Research, 23(1): 164-167
Singh, S.K., Sanjay kumar, YogeshChandanYadav and
Adesh Kumar (2012) Effect of NPK level
on Growth, yield and quality of okra cv.
Arkaanmika.Horticultural Flora Reaserch
Spectrum 1(2):190-192..
Ushakumari, K., P. Prabhakumari and P. Padmaja , (1999)
Efficiancy of vermicompost on growth and
yield of summer crop okra. Journal of Tropical
Agriulture, 37(1-2):87-88.
.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 87-89 (2015)

STUDIES ON PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF GINGER BLENDED

POMEGRANATE READY TO SERVE BEVERAGES
*N. VASURE1, DR. S. R. PATIL2 AND R.K. DEWANGAN3
*Email- narendravasure@gmail.com, ramkumardewangan900@gmail.com
1&3
Department of Horticulture, PGI, Dr. PDKV., Akola (MH).
2
Associate Professor, Department of Horticulture PGI, Dr. PDKV., Akola (MH).

ABSTRACT
An investigation entitled “Storability studies in ginger blended pomegranate ready- to- serve beverage” was undertaken during the year
2013 – 2014 in the Post Harvest Laboratory, Department of Horticulture Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola with the objective to study the chemical changes
and sensory qualities of ginger blended pomegranate ready-to-serve beverage under different storage conditions and to find out the better
storage condition for ginger blended pomegranate ready-to-serve beverage. Minimum change in TSS was observed in refrigerated storage
condition, while maximum change was recorded in at ambient storage conditions. The ginger blended pomegranate RTS stored at refrig-
erated storage condition recorded more acceptable score, while the beverages store at ambient storage were found to be less acceptable.

Key words: Pomegranate, pomegranate & ginger juice, RTS and TSS.
INTRODUCTION

Pomegranate is a favourite fruit of tropical and sub-
tropical regions of the world, belongs to the family of
Punicaceae. It is believed to be native of Iran but it is now
especially grown in the moderate climates of Mediterranean
countries. In India, pomegranate is grown in Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Singh et al., 2005). Maharashtra
state is a leading producer of pomegranate. In India, more
than 0.1 million hectares of area is under pomegranate
cultivation (Wakade, 2012). The Pomegranate enjoys
reputation for its healthy, dietetic and medicinal properties.
The introduction of high yielding varieties like Ganesh,
Bhagawa, Phule Arakta and Mrudula has helped in boosting
the production of pomegranate in Maharashtra.
The edible portion of pomegranate fruit contains 1.60
to 1.96 per cent protein, 0.10 to 2.11 per cent fat, 14.6 to 20.0
per cent carbohydrate, 5.1 per cent crude fibre, 0.66 to 0.76
per cent ash and 0.47 to 0.55 per cent pectin. The levels of
some essential minerals are 10 to 24 mg calcium, 33 to 70
mg phosphorus, 0.30 to 0.69 mg iron, 12 mg magnesium,
0.17 mg copper, 4.0 mg sodium, 17.1 mg potassium and 25
to 28 mg sulphur per 100 g edible part (Sood et al., 1982)
and 9.2mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g in pomegranate juice.
(Dhumal, 1984).
MATERIAL AND METRHODS
The present experiment was undertaken in the
Department of Horticulture Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola during
the year 2013 – 2014. The experiment was conducted in
Factorial Completely Randomized Block Design with
three replications consisting two storage conditions viz.
Refrigerated Storage (8 ± 1°C) and Ambient Storage (
39°C) and six beverage blending conditions viz. 10%
Pomegranate Juice + 1% Ginger Juice, 10% Pomegranate
Juice + 2% Ginger Juice, 15% Pomegranate Juice + 1%
Ginger Juice, 15% Pomegranate Juice + 2% Ginger
Juice, 20% Pomegranate Juice + 1% Ginger Juice and 20
% Pomegranate Juice + 2% Ginger Juice. The total 12
treatment combinations were tested in the experiment. The
well developed fruits of uniform size, colour and mature
Bhagva variety were brought to the laboratory from local
market for further experimentation. All the analysis were
carried out with their standard procedure.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect Of Treatments On TSS (ºb) Content Of
Ginger Blended Pomegranate RTS Beverages
The peep of table revealed that, the effect of different
treatments on TSS content of ginger blended pomegranate
RTS was found significantly increasing throughout storage
period.
At the 1st day of storage, all treatments recorded (15.00
ºB) TSS. At 15th day of storage, the treatment T1 (pomegranate
juice 10%+1% ginger juice) recorded minimum TSS
(15.02ºB) and T2 (pomegranate juice 10%+2% ginger
juice) TSS (15.03ºB) and T3 (pomegranate juice 15%+1%
ginger juice) TSS (15.03ºB) which were at par with each
other, While maximum TSS (15.06ºB) was recorded in T6
(pomegranate juice (20%+2% ginger juice) treatment.
At the end of storage, observations showed that the
minimum TSS (0.54) was increased in T1 (pomegranate juice
10%+1% ginger juice) While, maximum (1.02) T.S.S. was
increased in T6 (pomegranate juice 20%+2% ginger juice).
Effect of storage conditions on TSS (ºB) content of
ginger blended pomegranate RTS
It is revealed from the data that, TSS content of ginger
blended pomegranate RTS increased with the advancement
of storage period in both storage conditions. On the 1st day
of storage, ambient storage and refrigerated storage showed
(15.00ºB) TSS. Further, on advancement of storage period
ambient storage showed maximum TSS (15.23ºB) While,
refrigerated storage (15.22 ºB) showed minimum TSS. On 60th
day of storage, ambient storage showed TSS (16.01 ºB) While,
refrigerated storage showed minimum TSS (15.54 ºB).

87
 At the end of 60th days the maximum percentage of
increased in TSS of ginger blended pomegranate RTS
was found in ambient storage (15.53ºB) while minimum
(13.49ºB) TSS was recorded in refrigerated storage.
3. Interaction effect of treatments and storage
conditions on TSS (ºB) content of ginger blended
pomegranate RTS beverage
The data representing the interaction effects of
different treatments and storage conditions on T.S.S. content
of ginger blended pomegranate RTS in Table 2.
It could be observed from the data that, the T.S.S.
content was increased with the advancement of storage and
influenced significantly by different treatments and storage
conditions.

Table1. Changes in TSS (ºB) of ginger blended pomegranate RTS as influenced by different treatments and storage condi-
tions
TSS (ºB)
Treatments
Storage (days)
1st 15th 30th 45th 60th Increase
B. Blended beverages
T1 15.00 15.02 15.04 15.06 15.54 0.54
T2 15.00 15.03 15.04 15.07 15.64 0.64
T3 15.00 15.03 15.05 15.07 15.55 0.55
T4 15.00 15.05 15.07 15.09 16.00 1.00
T5 15.00 15.04 15.06 15.08 16.01 1.01
T6 15.00 15.06 15.08 16.00 16.02 1.02
'F' test NS Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig _
SE(m)± _ 0.005 0.002 0.009 0.02 _
CD at 5% _ 0.014 0.005 0.027 0.06 _
A. Storage conditions
A1 15.00 15.03 15.05 15.22 15.54 0.54
A2 15.00 15.04 15.06 15.23 16.01 1.01
'F' test NS Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. _
SE(m)± _ 0.003 0.001 0.005 0.013 _
CD at 5% _ 0.008 0.003 0.016 0.039 _

On the 1st day of storage, all treatment combinations showed TSS (15.00ºB). On the 15th day of storage, the treatment
combination A1T1 recorded minimum (15.01ºB) TSS and treatment combinations A1T6 (15.02ºB), A2T2 (15.02ºB), A1T4
(15.03ºB) which were at par with each other While, treatment combination A2T6 recorded maximum (15.07 ºB) TSS.
Regarding the increased and decreased of T.S.S. content, it was found that treatment combination A1T1 showed
minimum (0.09ºB) increase in TSS while treatment combination A2T6 showed maximum (1.03ºB) increase in TSS content.
Table2. Interaction effect of different treatments and storage conditions on TSS (ºB) content of ginger blended pomegran-
ate RTS beverage
TSS (ºB)  
Treatments Storage (days)  
1st 15th 30th 45th 60th Increase
A1T1 15.00 15.01 15.03 15.05 15.09 0.09
A1T2 15.00 15.06 15.06 15.09 16.00 1.00
A1T3 15.00 15.05 15.08 15.09 16.00 1.00
A1T4 15.00 15.03 15.04 15.07 16.01 1.01
A1T5 15.00 15.05 15.06 15.09 16.02 1.02
A1T6 15.00 15.02 15.04 15.06 16.00 1.00
A2T1 15.00 15.06 15.08 16.00 16.01 1.01
A2T2 15.00 15.02 15.04 15.06 16.03 1.03
A2T3 15.00 15.05 15.07 15.09 16.00 1.00

88
 A2T4 15.00 15.04 15.06 15.08 16.03 1.03
A2T5 15.00 15.04 15.06 15.08 16.00 1.00
A2T6 15.00 15.07 15.09 16.01 16.03 1.03
'F' test NS Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. _
SE(m)± _ 0.007 0.002 0.013 0.033 _
CD at 5% _ 0.020 0.006 0.038 0.096 _

The present findings are in conformity with the results
of different workers. It is reported that the total soluble solids
was slightly increased during storage of guava :pomegranate
(30 : 70) and guava : ber (40 : 60) mixed juice beverage
(Vaidya et al.1998). An increase in TSS of ginger blended
pomegranate RTS beverages may be possibly be due to
conversion of polysaccharides into sugar. Similar results
have also been reported in pineapple, pear and pomegranate
juice beverages (Kumar and Manimegalai.2001). Deka et
al. (2005) reported increase in TSS was more at ambient
storage.
CONCLUSION
From the above investigation conclusion can be
drawn. There was continuous increase in the TSS content in
pomegranate RTS with the advancement of storage period.
The above conclusion is however based on the laboratory
study and hence suggestive.
REFERENCE
Deka, B.C., Vijay Sethi and A. Saikia.(2005) Changes in
quality of mango pineapple spiced beverage
during storage. Indian Journal Horticulture
62(1): 71-75.
Dhumal, J. (1984) Studies to prolong the shelf life of
pomegranate fruits. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis
(Unpub.) MPKV, Rahuri (M.S.) India.
Kumar, P.M. and G. Manimegalai.(2001) Storage stability
of mixed fruits RTS beverage in different
storage conditions. Beverage and Food World,
28(2):42-52.
Singh, J., A. K. Singh and H. K. Singh (2005) Preparation
and evaluation of Pomegranate (Punica
granatum L.) RTS. Beverage & Food World,
32(6): 46-47.
Sood, D. R., K. S. Dhindra, and D. S. Wagle (1982) Studies
on the nutritive value of pomegranate (Punica
granatum L). Haryana Journal Horticulture
Science 11 (3-4):175-178.
Wakade, N. P. (2012) Studies on effect of post-harvest
treatment and packaging on self-life of
pomegranate (Punica granatum L.). M.Sc.
(PHM) Thesis (Unpub.)Dr. B.C.K.K.V. Dapoli
Dist.Ranagiri (M.S.)

89
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 90-93 (2015)

ASSESSMENT OF SECONDARY EXPOSURE OF BT PROTEIN ON PREDATORY INSECT

STAPHYLINID BEETLE, PAEDERUS FUSCIPES CURTIS. EXPRESSED IN TRANSGENIC
RICE EVENTS
PANKAJ BHARGAV*, GAJENDRA CHANDRAKAR , YEETESH CHANDRAKAR , SANJAY SHARMA AND
GIRISH CHANDEL
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur- 492012. (Chhattisgarh)
*
E-mail : pkjbhargav@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The effects of Bt rice, i.e. genetically modified rice that contains genes mCry1Ac expressing δ (delta)-endotoxin, on target pest and non
target beneficial arthropods were determined under roof of Transgenic containment facility at IGKV, Raipur during 2014-15. Although
Bt-rice is lepidopteran specific, non-lepidopteran arthropod populations may be indirectly influenced by the δ-endotoxin. Non-target pest
arthropods, Brown plant hopper, (Nilaparvata lugens Stal.) and non-target beneficial arthropods, Staphylinid beetle (Paederus fusci-
pes Curtis.) were used to assess the primary and secondary exposure of Bt protein, respectively. P. fuscipes provided thirty nymphs of
BPH per day reared on transgenic rice events under the no-choice condition and observed the feeding potential by number of pray
eaten. Based on data collected, the mean of number of insect consumed by P. fuscipes was 7.29 individual per day and test weight of
single beetle was recorded 4.31 mg. Feeding potential of P. fuscipes showed statistically, non-significance different between five trans-
genic and two non-transgenic crops. After five days feeding on BPH, no any mortality of P. fuscipes were observed. Quantitative plant
and insect immunoassay through ELISA confers the Bt protein, expressed in plant and presence inside midgut of the insect. In trans-
genic events, the highest amount of Bt protein were expressed in IR64-3 line, (i.e, 0.97 μg/g in leaf tissue) whereas lowest in IR64-
4, (0.68 μg/g in leaf tissue). Primary exposure of protein accounted highest on IR64-4 fed, N. lugens, i.e. 0.10 μg/g in insect tissue
and lowest on IR64-1 fed, N. lugens, i.e. 0.04 μg/g in insect tissue. Secondary exposure of protein on P. fuscipes accounted highest,
when it fed on IR64-4-fed N. lugens, i.e. 0.22 μg/g in insect tissue and lowest in IR64-1-fed N. lugens, i.e. 0.06 μg/g in insect tissue.

Key words: Bt rice, feeding potential, BPH, Staphylinid beetle, Bt protein, ELISA
INTRODUCTION
Rice is a most important food crop of developing
country and also a major source of carbohydrates. It is accounted,
more than 100 insect pests, out of this 20 being of major importance.
During past several years, the major yield limiting factors in
rice are insect pests infestation (Behura et al., 2011). Numerous
genotypes of genetically modified (GM) rice with insecticidal Bt
gene(s) have been developed that confer strong resistance against
rice stem borers (Scirpophaga incertulas Walker) and leaffolders
(Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee) (Chen et al. 2006). 4 million
hectares were planted with engineered crops genetically to produce
toxins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner
(Bt) (James, 1997). James (2011) reported that the global area
planted to Bt crops was over 66 million hectares, during this time,
maize and cotton covered the majority of the world’s agricultural
landscape devoted to Bt crops. The use of Bt crops reduce
insecticides application could be benefited for non-target insect
species. Transgenic crops producing the insecticidal proteins of
B. thuringeinsis have the potential to contribute to natural enemy
conservation through both their selective activity and associated
reductions in the broad-spectrum insecticides, (Shelton et al.,
2002). Considerable effort has been expended to determine the
effects of Bt crops on non-target arthropods (Dutton et al., 2002;
Jasinski et al., 2003; Men et al., 2003; and Sisterson et al., 2007).
Homoptera: Delphacidae). Staphylinid beetle (Paederus fuscipes
Curtis.) is a most common generalised predator of rice field and
distributed throughout agro-ecosystem of India, because they
are dominant in terms of activity-density (the average number of
individuals per pitfall trap) (Shah et al., 2003). Bt protein could be
transferred to the arthropod predators (Chrysoperla spp., Coccinella
spp. Paederus fuscipes, Ophionea spp. etc.)
The main aim of this study to determine the effects of Bt
protein (expressed in transgenic events) on the Non-target insect
BPH and Staphylinid beetle as a primary and secondary exposure,
respectively. And also, to evaluate whether Bt is stable or transferred
to the natural enemies when it fed on transgenic rice line-fed BPH.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Experimental location
The investigation related to Bt rice will be carried out at the
Transgenic containment facility, IGKV, Raipur during 2014-15 as
per the guidelines of bio-safety regulations. Different events of IR-
64 Bt lines will be procure from The Department of Plant Molecular
Biology and Biotechnology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidylaya,
Raipur.

All transgenic research concerned about the potential impact
on the non-target arthropods, especially natural enemies through
pray-predator interactions. Obrist et al., (2006) reported that Bt
toxin could be transferred to arthropod predators (Orius spp.,
Chrysoperla spp. and Stethorus sp.) in Bt maize field. Chen et al.
(2005) also found that Bt toxin could be taken up by the predator,
Pirata subpiraticus Bosenberg. (Araneae: Lycosidae) when it fed
on Bt rice-fed brown plant hopper (BPH) (Nilaparvata lugens Stal.;
Experimental materials
Seeds of transgenic events IR64-1, IR64-2, IR64-3, IR64-
4 and IR64-C, containing mCryIAc gene were obtained from
Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology and
seeds of variety non transgenic, TN-1 and PtB-33 were obtained
from Department of Entomology, IGKV, Raipur. The well
germinated seeds of each transgenic and non transgenic lines were
sown in randomly labelled plastic pots (20 x 17 cm2 diameter

90
having four kilo-gram capacity of soil) which were filled with soil
and placed on iron platform in Transgenic containment facility.
Fertilizer was applied on soil test basis in three splits before sowing
and twenty days interval in pots. When plants were one month old,
leaves were taken for quantification of crystal protein produced by
mCryIAc gene through ELISA method.
Mass rearing of Brown Plant Hopper (BPH)
To get the regular supply of insect for studies, the brown
plant hopper (BPH), was mass reared initially at 30 ± 50C on potted
five IR-64 Bt rice genotypes including TN-1 and PtB-33 varieties
and the population was maintained throughout the season in the
air cooled Transgenic Containment Facility. BPH population were
reared on 30 to 35 days old plants, consisting of plastic pot (12 x 8
cm2) with base plate at the base to avoid the entry of ants and other
crawling insects and cover with Nylon net. Cages were mounted
on wire platform over the pots. Five gravid female of BPH were
release in each cage. After 2-3 days, the females started egg laying
inside the leaf sheath of plants. After emergence of nymphs from
plants, when newly emerged nymphs reached to 4-5 instar, nymphs
of BPH were provided to adult of staphylinid beetle as food. During
this period Some of BPH were taken as a sample for quantification
of crystal protein in their gut through ELISA test.
Study of daily consumption rate of Staphylinid
beetle
Staphylinid beetle (P. fuscipes) were collected from
paddy field of research cum industrial form of IGKV, Raipur and
kept in laboratory under controlled ambient conditions (24 ± 3 0C
and 75 ± 90 % R.H.) for four hours starvation. As a food, thirty
BPH nymph; reared on the transgenic rice plant were provided to P.
fuscipes at adult stage in test tube 8 x 2 cm2 diameter and open end
of the test tube was tightly enclosed with muslin cloth. Total number
of BPH consumed by adult beetle was recorded daily. There are five
replications were conducted and predatory potential of Staphylinid
beetle was assessed for five day. After five days feeding on BPH,
Staphylinid beetles were collected as a sample for the ELISA test.
Other Materials
Plastic pots, nylon nets, wired platforms, petridishes, glass
vials, Envirologix plate kit, aspirator, ethyl alcohol, cotton etc. were
arranged from the Department of Entomology and Plant Molecular
Biology and Biotechnology, IGKV, Raipur.
Quantative analysis of Bt protein
The concentrations of Cry1Ac in fresh rice leaves and insect
samples were measured by double-sandwich ELISA using the
Cry1Ac detection kit from Envirologix Inc. (Portland, ME, USA).
Extraction of protein and sample dilution
Before measurement, the collected insect samples were
washed in deionized water to remove any Bt protein from
their outer surface before lyophilization.The protein extraction
protocol of Envirologix plate kit was followed to isolated protein;
approximately 20 mg of insect sample or leaf tissues from the
young transgenic rice lines and control non-transgenic lines were
collected, crushed and mixed thoroughly with 250 µl of extraction
buffer using microtiter plates and glass rod at 4°C. Another 250 µl
of extraction buffer was added and mixed with tissues thoroughly
for 30-40 seconds. The crushed tissues along with the extraction
buffer were collected into 1.5 ml micro centrifuge tube. The samples
were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 5 min at 4°C and supernatant
91
containing soluble proteins was collected and stored at -20°C.
Extracted proteins were diluted to 1:11 times with extraction/
dilution buffer before subjected to ELISA test.
Estimation of Cry1Ac protein
100 μL of negative control, 100 μL of each calibrator, and
100 μL of each sample extracts were added on respective wells. The
contents of the wells were mixed thoroughly for 20-30 seconds.
The wells were covered with parafilm and incubate at ambient
temperature for 15 minutes at 200 rpm. 100 μL of Cry1Ab-Enzyme
Conjugate was added to each well and mixed thoroughly by shaking
at 200 rpm for 1 hour. After incubation, the content of each well
was removed by washing with buffer and later to empty. The plate
was kept upside down on a paper towel to remove wash buffer,
as much as possible. 100 μL of substrate to each well was added
and mixed thoroughly by shaking and incubated for 30 minutes at
ambient temperature. After that 100 μL of Stop Solution (1N HCL)
was added to each well and was taken for reading within 30 minutes
of stop of reaction.
The absorbance of content situated within the each well
was recorded by spectrophotometer at 450 nm. For quantitative
estimation of Cry1Ac toxic protein following procedure was used:
• The OD of each set of calibration and sample were
averaged.
• A standard graph was made by plotting the mean OD of
each calibrator against its Cry1Ac concentration.
• The amount of Cry1Ac protein was estimated by
following formula and expressed as μg Cry1Ac toxins
per gram of tissue.
RESULT
1. Predatory potential of Paederus fuscipes on BPH
reared on transgenic lines
The laboratory study of feeding potential of common
predators, P. fuscipes showed that predators species consumed
brown planthopper nymphs when offered in a no-choice situation.
The feeding or predatory potential or number of nymphs consumed
or killed per day is presented in Table 1. Predator accepts brown
planthopper nymphs as a prey in each replication. Based on
data, it was found that P. fuscipes. consumed on an average 7-8
brown planthopper nymphs daily. It is statistically, no significant
differences between the feeding potential of BPH fed on Bt rice and
non Bt rice. During the experiment, there is no any mortality were
recorded after feeding of BPH.
Table 1. Predatory potential of Paederus fuscipes on BPH
reared on transgenic lines.
Paederus fuscipes
Sr. No. Transgenic line Number Test weight of
of insect single beetle
consumed (mg)
1 IR64-1 7.6 (0.87) 4.12
2 IR64-2 7.2 (0.85) 4.37
3 IR64-3 6.8 (0.80) 4.54
4 IR64-4 7.0 (0.84) 4.27
 5 IR64-C 6.8 (0.82) 4.15 in IR64-C. The secondary exposure of Bt protein on predatory
insect Paederus fuscipes were accounted in detectable level.
6 TN-1(C) 8.4 (0.91) 4.44 The highest amount of protein i.e. 0.22 μg/g in insect tissue
7 PTB-33(C) 7.2 (0.85) 4.25 and lowest i.e. 0.06 μg/g in insect tissue, was detected on beetle
prayed on IR64-4 and IR64-1 fed BPH, respectively.
Mean 7.29 4.31
SE(m) 0.053 0.222 Discussion
CD (P=0.05) (0.154) NS 0.645 (NS) In this food crisis and low productivity of land,
development and commercialization of Bt plants as a new
The values in parenthesis are logarithmic transformed revolutionized insect pest management are subject of major
values. concern for most of the researchers (Shelton et al. 2002).
Data based on the five replications and each replicate con- After the commercialization in 1996, area of transgenic crop is
sists 30 adult/nymph in one glass tube with single predator. increased and it was estimated that 42.1 million ha area covered
C-Transgenic control, worldwide upto 2007 (James, 2007). The consumption rate of
TN-1 and PtB-33 are non transgenic lines. Paederus fuscipes were observed on an average 8.7 BPH per
day in the laboratory condition (Rajendran and Gopalan, 1989).
NS-non-significant. Laba (1999) found that P. fuscipes, and Ophionea sp. consumed
4.9 and 2.7 brown planthopper per day respectively, in field
Fig. 1. Predatory potential of Paederus fuscipes on BPH condition. No significantly negative or unintended effects of
reared on transgenic lines. transgenic rice on non-target arthropods were found compared
with non-transgenic rice (Chen et.ai.,2006) Many field studies
shown negligible impact on non-target organisms (Romeis et al.
2006; Marvier et al. 2007). Only trace amount of Cry proteins
have been detected in sap feeders on different Bt transgenic
events in maize (Meissle and Romeis 2009).
However, as the feeding time increased from 1 to 5 days, the
presence of Cry1Ab did not show a tendency to bio-accumulate
in different consumers (primary and secondary) belonging to
the food chain comprising Bt rice, C. medinalis. In a biomass
pyramid, it is possible that any toxin/pollutant in producers
(plants) would move into primary consumers (herbivores) by
feeding, then into secondary consumers (predators) by preying;
2. Plant and insect immunoasssay by ELISA thus bioaccumulation and bio-magnification would take place
ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay) (Serrano et al. 1997a, b)
test were carried out using Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac QuantiPlate kit There were no adverse effects on non-target arthropods in
(EnviroLogix, Portland, ME) to detect the presence of Cry1Ab in Bt Bollgard cotton (Bt cotton) fields compared with conventionally
rice events, BPH and Paederus fuscipes. The ELISA data (Fig. 2) grown cotton. When conventionally grown cotton requires
indicates that the amount of Bt protein in IR64-3, (i.e. 0.97 μg/g in synthetic insecticide treatments for tobacco budworm or
leaf tissue) and IR64-1, (i.e. 0.94 μg/g in leaf tissue) is greater than cotton bollworm control, Bollgard cotton fields often have
the other Bt rice events whereas protein is not in detectable level in significantly more non-target arthropods than conventionally
IR64-C. The minimum amount of protein was expressed in IR64-4, grown cotton fields (Moar et al., 2002). Transgenic Bt cotton
i.e. 0.68 μg/g in leaf tissue. The Primary exposure of Bt protein on did not exert any adverse effects on natural enemies and the
non-target insect BPH, N. lugens were accounted in detectable level activity of coccinellids and spiders was more or less uniform
and found highest in IR64-4 fed N. lugens, i.e. 0.10 μg/g in insect on Bt and non-Bt cotton fields in India (Rao and Rao, 2008).
tissue followed by IR64-2 fed, i.e. 0.08 μg/g in insect tissue, IR64- In USA, Naranjo (2005) reported, no effects of Bt cotton on
3, i.e. 0.07 μg/g in insect tissue nature enemy function in Arizona cotton and further showed
that minor reductions in density of several predator taxa in Bt
Fig 2. Amount of Bt protein (μg/g of tissue) detected in the cotton observed in a companion study may have little ecological
plant and insect manning relative to natural enemy impact on key pests in the
system. Also, these studies showed essentially no significant
different between the abundance of non-target pest arthropods
and non-target beneficial arthropods on Bt cotton and non Bt.
However, none of them has been approved for
commercialization not only because of ecological risk concerns
from domestic and international bodies, but also because of
political, economic, and trade concerns. From a standpoint of
scientifically sound ecological risk assessments (ERA), the
data we presented here used a tier-based method to rigorously
evaluate the potential impact of Bt rice on an important non-
target predator and did not find a negative direct effect. As the
and IR64-4, i.e. 0.04 μg/g in insect tissue. Very few first study to investigate the possibility of bioaccumulation
amount of protein i.e. 0.001 μg/g in insect tissue is present

92
of Cry toxin used in Bt rice in a food chain and its ecological
impact in the fields, our results present valuable information
that can be used by regulatory agencies to develop scientifically
based ERA policies and have broad implications for ecological
safety of Bt plants.
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yellow stem borer (Scirphopha incertulas)
resistance gene, into cultivated rice (Oryza sp.)
from wild spp. Indian J Agric Sci. 81:359-362.
Chen, M., Zhao, J.Z., Ye, G.Y., Fu, Q., and Shelton, A.M. (2006)
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insect pests and non-target arthropods in China.
Insect Sci. 13:409–420.
Chen, M., Ye, G.Y., Lu, X.M., Hu, C., Peng, Y.F., Shu, Q.Y., and
Illimar, A. (2005) Biotransfer and bioaccumulation
of Cry1Ab insecticidal protein in rice plant-brown
planthopper-wolf spider food chain. Acta Entomol
Sin. 48:208–213
Dutton, A. Klein, H. Romeis, J. and Bigler; F. (2002) Uptake of
Bt-toxin by herbivores feeding on transgenic maize
and consequences for the predator Chrysoperla
carnea. Ecological Entomology, 27: 441–447.
James, C. (1997) Global status of transgenic crops in 1997.
ISAAA Briefs No. 5. Ithaca: ISAAA.
James, C. (2007) Global status of commercialized biotech/
GM crops: 2007. ISAAA briefs, no. 37, ISAAA:
Ithaca, New York.
James, C. 2011. Global status of commercialized biotech/GM
Crops: ISAAA Brief No. 43. Ithaca, New York.
Jasinski, J. R., Eisley, J. B, Young, C. E., Kovach, J. and Willson,
H. (2003) Select non target arthropod abundance
in transgenic and non transgenic field crops in
Ohio. Environmental Entomology, 32: 407–413.
Laba, I.W. (1999) Aspek biologi dan potensi beberapa predator
hama wereng pada tanaman padi. Jurnal Penelitian
dan Pengebangan Pertanian. 18(2):56-62
Marvier, M., McCreedy, C., Regetz, J., and Kareiva, P. (2007) A
meta-analysis of effects of Bt cotton and maize on
non-target invertebrates. Science, 316:1475–1477.
Meissle, M., and Romeis, J. (2009) The Web-building Spider
Theridion impressum (Araneae: Theridiidae) is
Not Adversely Affected by Bt Maize Resistant to
Corn Rootworms. Plant Biotechnology Journal.
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Men, X., Ge, F., Liu, X. and Yardim E.N. (2003) Diversity of
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and non transgenic cotton agro-ecosytems.
Environmental Entomology. 32: 270–275.
Moar, W. J., Eubanks, M., Freeman, B., Turnipseed, S.,
Ruberson, J. and Head, G. (2002) Effects of
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Naranjo, S. E. (2005) Long-term assessment of the effects of
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Entomology, 34: 1193–1210.
Obrist, L.B., Dutton, A., Albajes, R., and Bigler, F., (2006)
Exposure of arthropod predators to Cry1Ab toxin
in Bt maize fields. Ecol Entomol. 31:143–154.
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Paederus fuscipes Custis. – A potential bio-control
agent in rice. Current Science, 58(1):40-45.
Rao, N. S. and Rao, P. A. (2008) Seasonal occurrence of natural
enemies on Bt and non-Bt cotton. Journal of
Applied Zoological Researches, 19(1): 33-36.
Romeis, J., Meissle, M., and Bigler, F. (2006) Transgenic crops
expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxins and
biological control. Nat. Biotechnol. 24:63–71.
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Bioconcentration, depuration and chronic toxicity
of the organophosphorus pesticide chlorpyrifos in
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 94-98 (2015)

EFFECT OF AGROMETEOROGICAL INDICES ON SOYBEAN CROP UNDER

DIFFERENT SOWING DATE IN CHHATTISGARH PLAINS
1
DEEPANSHU MUKHERJEE , 1R. SINGH , 2HARSH MISHRA , 3HEMKANT
CHANDRAVANSHI AND 4UMESH CHANDRAKAR
1
Department of Agrometeorology, 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 3Department of Entomology, 4Department of
Agronomy, Collage of agriculture (IGKV) Raipur- 492012

ABSTRACT
Field experiment on soybean was carried out during kharif season of 2014-15. The experiment was conducted with three dates
of sowing as main plot (10, 20 and 30 June ) and three soybean varieties(JS 97-52, JS 335 and JS 93-05) as sub-plot in factorial
RBD, with three replications. The heat unit like growing degree days (GDDs), Photo-thermal units (PTU) and Heliothermal
Unit (HTU) values decreased with the day is sowing under all the varieties. However, higher values of radiation use efficien-
cy and heat use efficiency were recorded with variety JS 97-52. Based on the results it was concluded that heat use efficiency
of soybean cv. JS 97-52 and JS- 355 were far better to utilize heat units under all the sowing dates as compared to JS-93-05.

Key word: Date of sowing, Varieties, GDD, HTU, HUE, RUE, Soybean.
INTRODUCTION
Soybean (Glycine max. [L] mirrll.) is one of the
leguminous oilseed crops in tropical and sub-tropical regions
of India. It is a short duration and thermo-sensitive crop and
its response to yield varies with variety and temperature. This
crop is successfully grown in Kharif as well as in summer,
where adequate irrigation facilities are available. India has
made impressive progress in agriculture during the last three
decades, culminating in self-sufficiency in cereals and made
good efforts in increasing the production and productivity
of pulses and oilseeds crops. Oilseed crops have been the
backbone of country economy from time immemorial.
Soybean (Glycine max L.) ranks first amongst oilseed crops
in the world and is also known as the wonder crop of the
twentieth century. It contributes nearly 25 per cent of the
world’s total oil and fat production. World’s soybean area,
production and productivity is 97 m ha, 231 mt and 2.3 t
ha-1, respectively (Anonymous, 2009). The United States
of America, Brazil, Argentina, China and India are the five
major Soybean producing countries accounting 90 per cent
of world’s production (Anonymous 2010). Soybean is the
cheapest source of vegetable oil and protein. It contains
about 40 per cent protein well balanced in essential amino
acids, 20 per cent oil rich with poly unsaturated fatty acids
specially Omega 6 and Omega 3 fatty acids, 6-7 percent
total mineral and 5-6 per cent crude fibre (Chauhan et al.,
1988). The protein quality of soybean is equivalent to that
of meat, milk products and eggs. It is generally grown as a
rainy season crop under rainfed situation predominantly in
Vertisols and associated soils.
Planting date plays an important role in plant growth
during the season and the final yield production. This factor
is even more important in the regions with harsh climatic
variations weather is the most critical limiting factor for
agricultural systems. For example, in tropics or subtropics,
planting date is usually delayed until the beginning of rainy
season. In such situations, early planting dates with low soil
moisture will damage seedlings growth and late planting
dates cause drought incidence at the end of growing season,
which is important stage in plant growth and directly affects
yield. Researchers have represented that late planting date
in soils with enough moisture is always better than early
planting date in unfavorable soil conditions.
Soybean is known for its versatility to grow in diverse
in climatic condition and for its unmatched nutritional
value, which make it one of the commercial crops in many
countries including India. Soybean is a World’s first rank
crop as a source of vegetable oil. In oilseed scenario of India,
it occupies number one place. In India, soybean occupies
an area of 12.2 m ha, with production potential of 11.95
million tonnes and average productivity of 979.3 kg ha-1
(Anonymous, 2013). The productivity of soybean is less in
India as compared to world average (2484.1 kg ha-1). Global
area and production of soybean is 111.27 m ha and 276.4
million tonnes respectively (Anonymous, 2013). The major
soybean producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
(Anonymous, 2013).
In Chhattisgarh, agriculture is mainly based on
rainwater, therefore most of the crops are grown as rainfed in
kharif season. Soybean occupies 159.59 thousand ha area with
a yield of 1150 kg ha-1 (Anonymous, 2015). In Chhattisgarh,
major soybean growing districts are Rajnandgaon, Durg,
Mungeli, Bemetara, and Kabirdham..Optimum temperature
for germination of soybean is approximately 30oC with base
temperature of 10o C (Ghadekar, 2001). Soybean is one of the
classical short day plants and most of its genotypes respond
as quantitative short day plant. The variation of photo period
sensitivity among soybean genotypes allows the crop to
grow successfully across a wide range of latitudes. Photo
period influences the rate of development during pre and post
flowering stages. Changes, in photo period and temperature
are reported to alter the happening of growth stages, the
growth and partitioning of dry matter of this photo period

94
and thermo sensitive short day C3 crop (Lawn 1989).
Radiation use efficiency (RUE) is the conversion factor
between the amount of radiation intercepted or absorbed by a
plant canopy and the corresponding amount of carbon dioxide
fixed or biomass produced. The RUE concept represents a
fundamental description of plant growth which has enhanced
understanding of both potential growth rates and reductions
in these potentials owing to stressful conditions. Variability
in RUE values can be understood in terms of the physical
and biological processes which determine the state of the
plant canopy. Furthermore, the use of RUE has advanced the
development of robust plant growth models.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present experiment was conducted during the
Kharif season of 2014 at Research and Instructional Farm
of Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur situated
in Eastern Central part of Chhattisgarh at latitude of 21016’
N, longitude 81036’ E and altitude 289.5 m above mean sea
level. The experimental soil was clayey vertisol having clay
content 43.40%, pH- 7.10, E.C.- 0.15 (d sm-1), available
nitrogen 223.60 kg ha-1, available P2O5 11.70 kg ha-1 and
available k2O 369.40 kg ha-1 which are respectively low
nitrogen, low P2O5 and high K2O. The present experiment
was laid out in Factorial RBD three sowing dates (10, 20
and 30 June ) and varieties (JS 97-52, JS 335 and JS 9305)
replicated three times. The gross plot size was 6.00x 4.0=
24.0 m2 and net plot size 5.0m x 2.4m was harvested for
data collection. Seed rate of 75 kg ha-1 was used for sowing
at spacing 30cm X 10cm in all treatments. The crop was
fertilized with a dose of 20 kg ha-1N, 60 kg ha-1P2O5 and
40 kg ha-1 K2O. Nitrogen supplied as urea, phosphorus as
SSP and potash as MOP. The Following formulas were
used to calculate the agro- meteorological indices which are
as given below. In order to determine the mechanical and
chemical composition of experimental plot, soil samples
were collected randomly from the experimental site up to
20 cm depth with the help of soil auger. A composite sample
was drawn from mixed representative samples by dividing
repeatedly till the amount of representative samples remain
about 250 gm and then it was used for analysis.
Growing degree days
Growing Degree Days (GDD) concept assumes that
there is a direct and linear relationship between growth and
developments of plants and temperature and the growth is
dependent on the total amount of heat to which it is subjected
during its life time. The growing degree days from sowing to
harvesting were computed for each variety using 4 method
as described below:
1. Heliothermal Unit (HTU)
HTU is calculated by multiplying GDD with actual
sunshine hours (n).
HTU = GDD × n
Where,
n = actual sunshine hour
2. Heat Use Efficiency (HUE)
95
Heat Use Efficiency (HUE) for total dry matter was
obtained as under
Biomass (g / m2)
HUE (g/m2 / 0 day) = -----------------------------
GDD (0 days)
3. Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE)
RUE (gMJ -1 ) = Biomass (g / m-2 ) / IPAR (M J -2 )
Where,
IPAR is cumulative intercepted photo synthetically active radiation.
The photo synthetic active radiation can be
calculated by using the following formula
PAR = Rs X 0.5
Where,
Rs = incoming solar radiation
The incoming solar radiation can be calculated by the
formula
Rs = Rs0 (a + b x n/N)
Where,
Rs0 = Extra terrestrial radiation
n = Bright sunshine hours
N = Possible sunshine hours
a = 0.18, b = 0.55
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Accumulated Growing degree days (GDD)
The accumulated growing degree days (GDD) of
different soybean genotypes under different dates of sowing
varied considerably from sowing to maturity in (Table
4.1.).Different soybean varieties responded differently in
terms of accumulated GDD at the time of maturity. Highest
accumulated growing degree day was observed under 10th
June sowing in variety (JS- 9752) at maturity stage (2057.2).
In case of (JS- 9752) highest accumulated growing
degree day was noticed under 10th June sowing (2057.2)
followed by 20th June sowing (1726.3) and 30th June sowing
(1652.5). Similarly (JS-9305) higher accumulated growing
degree day was observed at maturity under 10th June sowing
(1982) followed by 20th June (1652.5) and 30th June (1615.8).
Among the variety (JS- 335) was found that the highest
accumulated growing degree day under 10th June sowing
(1928.1) followed by 20th June sowing (1615.8). In general
the accumulated growing degree day values decreased when
the sowing was delayed from 10th June, 20th June and 30th
June due to early maturity of crops under delayed sowing
condition because of minimum temperature at maturity.
These results are in general agreement with the findings of
Kumar et al. (2008). Accumulated Helio thermal units
(HTU)
The data pertaining to accumulated helio thermal
unit due to different dates of sowing varieties of soybean are
presented in (Table 4.2). Helio thermal unit (HTU) of soybean
varieties under different sowing dates varied considerably
at maturity (JS-9752) recorded that highest accumulated
helio thermal unit was observed under 10th June sowing
(16978.3) followed by 20th June sowing (14373.2) then
30th June sowing (13774.6) at maturity. Among the variety
(JS- 9305) was observed under 10th June (16250), followed
by 20th June sowing (13866.9), 30th June sowing (13794.3)
at maturity. Similarly the variety (JS-335) was observed
maximum accumulated helio thermal unit under 10th June
sowing (15942.7), followed by 20th June sowing (14135.7),
then 30th June sowing (13794.3) at maturity.
Heat use efficiency (g m-2 day-1)
Heat use efficiency (HUE) for three soybean varieties
under different dates of sowing are presented in (Table 4.3.).
Higher heat use efficiency was observed that is (JS-9752)
under 10th June sowing (0.19g m-2 day-1) closely followed by
20th June sowing (0.14g m-2 day-1) then followed by 30th June
sowing (0.10g m-2 day-1). Similarly (JS- 9305) maximum heat
unit efficiency was observed in 10th June sowing (0.15g m-2
day-1) followed by 20th June (0.14g m-2 day-1) and 30th June
sowing (0.09g m-2 day-1). Among the (JS-335) maximum heat
unit efficiency was found that of 10th June sowing (0.17g m-2
day-1) followed by 20th June sowing (0.15g m-2 day-1) and 30th
June sowing (0.10g m-2day-1). Maximum heat unit efficiency
was found with JS- 9752 10th June (0.19g m-2 day-1). Similar
results were also reported by Singh et al. (2007).
Radiation use efficiency (g MJ-1)
Radiation use efficiency (RUE) of different soybean
genotypes under different dates of sowing varied considerably
and was shown in (Table no. 4.4). The data revealed that
(JS- 9752) exhibited higher radiation use efficiency under
10th June sowing (0.87gMJ-1) followed by 20th June sowing
(0.73 gMJ-1) and 30th June sowing (0.56 gMJ-1). Similarly
among (JS-9305) the highest radiation use efficiency was
observed in 10th June sowing (0.69 gMJ-1) followed by 20th
June (0.69 gMJ-1) and 30th June (0.51 gMJ-1). Among the
(JS- 335) maximum radiation use efficiency was found in
10th June sowing (0.76 gMJ-1), followed by 20th June sowing
(0.75 gMJ-1) and 30th June sowing (0.54 gMJ-1). Highest
radiation use efficiency was observed under 10th June sowing
by all the varieties. Higher radiation use efficiency in 10th
June sowing might be due to better conversion of light in to
dry matter, better yield component and harvest index in 10th
June and 30th June. Similar results were reported by Singh et
al. (2007) and Kumar et al. (2008b).

Table 4.1: Accumulated growing degree days (GDD) at different growth stages of soybean varieties under different sowing
dates
Accumulated growing degree days (GDD)
Treatments
50% 100% Pod Physiological
Emergence
Flowering flowering formation maturity
Sowing Dates
V1- JS- 9752
D1- 10 June 104.5 1093.2 1212.3 1396.7 2057.2
D2- 20 June 76.5 1309.5 1430.5 1545.6 1726.3
D3- 30 June 93.4 824.3 955.4 1047 1652.5
V2- JS- 9305
D1- 10 June 104.5 935.5 1021.4 1139.6 1982
D2- 20 June 76.5 1251.2 1365 1528.4 1652.5
D3- 30 June 93.4 770.9 860.1 955.4 1615.8
V3- JS- 335
D1- 10 June 104.65 985.4 1093.2 1212.3 1928.1
D2- 20 June 76.5 1196.5 1270.8 1447.4 1690.9
D3- 30 June 93.4 734.1 860.1 955.4 1615.8

96
Table 4.2: Accumulated Heliothermal Units (HTU) at different growth stages of soybean varieties under different sowing dates

Accumulated Helio thermal Units (HTU)

Treatments
50% 100% Pod Physiological
Emergence
Flowering flowering formation maturity
Sowing Dates
V1- JS- 9752
D1- 10 June 693.7 8817.7 9788.1 11237.9 16978.3
D2- 20 June 607 10571 11798.9 12909.5 14373.2
D3- 30 June 708 6595.2 7672.7 8266.1 13774.6
V2- JS- 9305
D1- 10 June 693.7 7584.7 8181.5 9251.1 16250.5
D2- 20 June 607 10024.4 11128.9 12745.6 13866.9
D3- 30 June 708 6222.9 6902.6 7672.7 13794.3
V3- JS- 335
D1- 10 June 693.7 7902.2 8817.7 9788.1 15942.7
D2- 20 June 607 9665.9 10214.5 11969.6 14135.7
D3- 30 June 708 6003 6902.6 7672.7 13794.3

Table 4.3: Heat use efficiency (g m-2day-1) of soybean varieties under different sowing dates

Treatments Heat use efficiency (g m-2day-1)

20 DAS 35 DAS 50DAS 65DAS 80DAS 95DAS
Sowing Dates
V1- JS- 9752
D1- 10 June 0.20 0.21 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.19
D2- 20 June 0.29 0.14 0.15 0.13 0.16 0.14
D3- 30 June 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10
V2- JS- 9305
D1- 10 June 0.13 0.10 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15
D2- 20 June 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14
D3- 30 June 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09
V3- JS- 335
D1- 10 June 0.23 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.17
D2- 20 June 0.09 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.15
D3- 30 June 0.08 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.10

Table 1.4: Radiation use efficiency (g MJ-1) of soybean varieties under different sowing dates.
Treatments Radiation use efficiency (g MJ-1)

20 DAS 35 DAS 50DAS 65DAS 80DAS 95DAS

Sowing Dates
V1- JS- 9752
D1- 10 June 1.08 1.11 1.23 1.06 0.96 0.87
D2- 20 June 0.76 0.89 0.87 0.73 0.81 0.73
D3- 30 June 0.80 0.88 0.77 0.64 0.59 0.56
V2- JS- 9305
D1- 10 June 0.70 0.52 0.76 0.69 0.71 0.69
D2- 20 June 0.81 0.78 0.71 0.69 0.74 0.69
D3- 30 June 0.77 0.85 0.70 0.60 0.51 0.51
V3- JS- 335
D1- 10 June 1.22 0.88 0.93 0.85 0.79 0.76
D2- 20 June 0.74 0.89 0.78 0.71 0.80 0.75
D3- 30 June 0.80 0.91 0.68 0.63 0.53 0.54

97
Conclusion:-
The experiment was conducted with three dates
of sowing as main plot (10,20 and 30 June 2014) and three
soybean varieties (JS-9752, JS-9305 and JS- 335) as sub plot
factorial RBD with three replications. The results indicate
that maximum production of soybean can be achived if
sowing is done around 10th June and variety JS- 9752 give
the highest yield. The best combination of sowing date and
variety was found to be 10th June and JS- 9752. Based on the
result it was concluded that heat use efficiency and radiation
use efficiency point of view, soybean cv. JS- 9752 and JS-
335 were far more efficient to utilize heat units over all the
sowing dates as compared to JS- 9305.
REFERENCES
Anonymous,(2003). Crop Survey conducted by SOPA (The
Soybean Processors Association
Indore. (M.P.) of India. September 16 to 24.
Anonymous 2010. Mention wheather it is from Annual
report or from status report. Department
of Agronomy, Indira G. A. U., Raipur (C.G.).
Directors Report and summary tables of
experiments on soybean.15.
Anonymous (2013). Directors Report and summary tables
of experiments on soybean. Department of
Agronomy, I.G.A.U., Raipur (C.G.). 15.
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Anonymous, 2015. Krishi Darshika, I.G.K.V., Raipur (C.G.).
pp 4.
Chauhan, G.S., Verma, N.S. and Bains, G.S. (1988). Effect of
extrusion processing on the nutritional quality
of protein in rice legume blends. Nahrung 32:
43.
Ghadekar, S.R. (2001) Crop Climatology, Meteorology (Ed.
S.R. Ghadekar). Agromet Publishers Nagpur
186- 19.
Kumar, A., Pandey, V., Shekh, A.M. and Kumar, M.
(2008b). Growth and yield responses of soybean
(Glycine max L.) in relation to temperature,
photoperiod and sunshine duration at Anand,
Gujrat India American- Eurasian Journal of
Agronomy 1(2): 45-50.
Lawn, R.. J. (1989). Agronomic and physiological
constraints to the productivity of tropical grain
legumes and prospects for improvement. Exptl.
Agric, 25 (2): 509-528.
Singh, A., Rao, V.U.M., Singh, D. and Singh, R. (2007). Study
on agrometeorological indices for soybean crop
under different growing environments. Journal
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 99-101 (2015)

SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF INSECT PEST OF KARANJA, Pongamia pinnata AT THE

AGRO-FORESTRY FIELD OF IGKV, RAIPUR
HEMKANT CHANDRAVANSHI*, JAYALAXMI GANGULI, AKASH NIRMAL, RUPESH GAJBHIYE AND
GAJENDRA CHANDRAKAR
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, IGKV, Raipur (C.G.) 492012
*Author for correspondence: hkpihu05@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Chhattisgarh region is one of the richest sources of biodiversity in India, having a wide range of medicinal plants. Karanja, Pongamia pinnata
is well known for its medicinal properties. The present studies were undertaken during November 2014 to March 2015 to record the insect-pest
complex of Karanja plants in Agro-forestry farm, College of Agriculture, IGKV, Raipur. Four insect species viz. leaf blotch miner, gundhi bug,
hairy caterpillar, Euproctis sp. and leaf hopper, belonging to two orders were observed to be associated with Karanja plant. Out of these, leaf
blotch miner occurred throughout the season with highest and lowest infestation of 18.28 and 4.83 blotches/plant respectively. Highest pop-
ulation of Gandhi bug was observed during first fortnight of December with 0.22 insects/ plant. The peak activity of hairy caterpillar and leaf
hopper was occurred during second fortnight of December with mean population of 0.17 larvae/plant and 1.61 hoppers/plant respectively.

Key words- Agro-forestry, Karanja, Pongamia pinnata, Seasonal incidence

INTRODUCTION
Karanja, Pongamia pinnata belongs to the family
Fabacese (Papilionacease).It is a medium sized evergreen
tree with a spreading crown and a short bole. The seeds
are largely exploited for extraction of a non edible oil
commercially known in India as ‘Karanja oil’ which is well
known for its medicinal properties. All parts of the plant
have been used as crude drug for the treatment of tumors,
piles, skin diseases, wounds and ulcers (Tanaka et al., 1992).
Historically, this plant has long been used as a source of
traditional medicines, animal fodder, green manure, timber,
fish poison, fuel and also used as source of biodiesel. P.
pinnata has an added advantage of nitrogen fixing ability and
drought resistance due to its nodulation properties (Sangwan
et al., 2010). Other uses are incorporation of leaves and the
press cake into soils which improves fertility. Dried leaves
are used as an insect repellent in stored grains. The press
cake, when applied to the soil, has value as a pesticide,
particularly against nematodes (Anon., 1986; Orwa et al.,
2009). P. pinnata seeds contain about 40% oil, which can be
converted to biodiesel by transesterification method (Meher
et al., 2006).
Among the various factors causing a negative impact
on the vigour, growth and yield of the plant, insect pests are
a major constrain. Sahu, 2014 reported (leaf webber, leaf
blotch miner, leaf hopper, leaf gall maker, bark borer, leaf
defoliator, beetle, green bug, gundhi bug, thrips, leaf folder,
mealy bug, cow bug, hairy caterpillar, hawk moth and red
cotton bug) on karanja from the agro forestry field, IGKV,
Raipur. The activity of the above mentioned insects varies
from time to time and very scarce information is available
regarding the incidence of major and minor insect pests.
Hence, the current experiment was taken up to study the
seasonal incidence of various insect pests of karanja and
their peak activity period on the basis of which management
strategies can be formulated in future.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present studies were conducted from
‘November 2014 to March 2015’ at the Agro-forestry farm,
College of Agriculture, IGKV, Raipur on the provenance
Jabalpur of karanja, Pongamiapinnata. Observation was
recorded on the provenance Jabalpur at fort nightly interval
on the various species of insects and their numbers on 6 trees
randomly selected. From each tree 3 branches were tagged
for recording observations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present studies, four insect pests were
observed, namely the leaf blotch miner, gundhi bug, hairy
caterpillar, Euproctis sp. and leaf hopper,
Leaf blotch miner
Blotch miner is a very serious and common pest of
karanja, P. pinnata. The larvae makes circular blotches on
the upper (dorsal) surface of the leaves. On an average 4-17
blotches were observed per 3 leaves and sized on an average
about 8-20 mm in length and 4-12 mm in width and there
was only a single larvae/blotch. Severe infestations led
to reduction in the photosynthetic area of the leaves thus
reducing growth and vigour of the plants. The full grown
larvae was slender, minute, orangish-yellow with large black
head measuring about 4-6 mm in length. The peak activity
of blotch miner was noticed during the 2nd fort night of
December with an average population of 18.28 blotches/
plant; and lowest 4.83 blotches/plant during 1st fort night
of February. The population again showed a rising trend in
the 2nd fort nightly of February after which it declined in the
following months. (Table:1)
Gundhi bug
Both nymphs and adults sucked the sap of young
leaves. Body of the bugs was green in color with brown
colored wing. Adult bug measured about 12.0 to 15.0 mm in

99
length and 3.0-4.0 mm in width. It was also observed that the karanja, P. Pinnata. Both nymphs and adults were found
bugs secreted a green colored liquid having a strong offensive sucking the young leaves and shoots of the plants. They
odor. The activity of this insect was noticed from the 2nd fort also secreted ‘honey dew’ on which sooty mould was seen
night of November with a mean population of 0.17 adults & as black patches, due to which plants appeared sickly and
nymphs/plant and increased to a maximum of 0.22 adults & vigour was affected. Adult leaf hopper of karanja measured
nymphs/plant in the 1stfort night of December, which later about 4-5 mm long with light green to dark green with black
decreased with no population at all in the following months colored eyes and two black spots on the dorsal side of the
from January to March. (Table:2) prothorax. The population of leaf hopper started building
up from the 1st fort night of December with 1.22 adults &
Hairy caterpillar, Euproctis sp. nymphs/plant and increasing up to 1.61 adults & nymphs/
Hairy caterpillar, Euproctis sp. was noticed although plant in the forth coming fort nights of January, particularly
a very low population was seen. Early instar larvae of hairy in the 1st fort night, and thereby decreasing to 0.89 adults
caterpillar, Euproctis sp. fed on the green part of the leaves & nymphs/plant in the 2nd fort night of January and with nil
and skeletonized them but later instar larvae completely population during February and March. (Table:4)
ate the leaves along with soft apical shoots of plants. The
activity of Euproctis sp. was seen from the 2nd fort night of
November with a population of 0.11 larvae/plant and rose
to 0.17 larvae/plant in the 2nd fort night of December. No
population of Euproctis sp. was observed in the following
months up to march. (Table:3)
Leaf hopper
Leaf hopper was one of the major sucking pests of
Table 1: Seasonal incidence of Leaf blotch miner of Karanja, Pongamia pinnata:
Mean observations Pooled
No. of plants
12Nov 27Nov 12Dec 27Dec 11Jan 26Jan 10Feb 25Feb 12Mar 27Mar Mean
P1 9.33 10.33 15.33 16.33 10.00 8.33 6.67 9.67 5.33 4.33 9.57
P2 31.00 27.00 25.67 23.00 13.00 8.33 7.33 9.00 9.00 7.00 16.03
P3 15.00 14.67 14.33 11.67 7.67 5.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 3.67 8.50
P4 17.67 17.67 21.33 17.67 13.00 8.00 3.00 6.00 4.67 4.00 11.30
P5 14.67 13.67 13.33 13.33 8.33 7.00 3.33 5.67 7.67 5.67 9.27
P6 14.33 19.67 19.67 21.00 17.33 14.33 4.67 13.33 7.00 6.33 13.77
Pooled Mean 17.00 17.17 18.28 17.17 11.56 8.50 4.83 7.94 6.44 5.17  

Table 2: Seasonal incidence of Gundhi bug of Karanja, Pongamia pinnata:

Mean observations Pooled
No. of plants
12Nov 27Nov 12Dec 27Dec 11Jan 26Jan 10Feb 25Feb 12Mar 27Mar Mean
P1 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
P2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
P3 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07
P4 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07
P5 0.00 0.33 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07
P6 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
Pooled Mean 0.00 0.17 0.22 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00  

Table 3: Seasonal incidence of Hairy caterpillar of Karanja, Pongamia pinnata:

Mean observations Pooled
No. of plants
12Nov 27Nov 12Dec 27Dec 11Jan 26Jan 10Feb 25Feb 12Mar 27Mar Mean
P1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
P2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
P3 0.00 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20
P4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
P5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
P6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pooled Mean 0.00 0.11 0.11 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00  

100
Table 4: Seasonal incidence of Leaf hopper of Karanja, Pongamia pinnata:
Mean observations Pooled
No. of plants
12Nov 27Nov 12Dec 27Dec 11Jan 26Jan 10Feb 25Feb 12Mar 27Mar Mean
P1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33
P2 0.00 0.00 3.33 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.73
P3 0.00 0.00 2.33 4.33 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.77
P4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.53
P5 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.33 0.00 5.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63
P6 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20
Pooled Mean 0.00 0.00 1.22 1.61 1.61 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00  

Graph 1: Seasonal incidence of insect pest of Karanja, Pongamia pinnata:

Sandarbh Chhattisgarh (2002) Deshbandhu Publishers

REFERENCES Raipur, pp 74-75.
Anonymous (1986) The useful plants of India. Publications Sangwan, S., Rao, D. V. and Sharma, R.A. (2010) A review on
and Information Directorate, CSIR, New onPongamiapinnata(L.) Pierre: A Great
Delhi, India. versatile Leguminous Plant, Biotechnalogy lab,
lab no.5, Department of Botany,
Meher, L. C., Vidya, S. D. and Naik, S. N. (2006) University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.
Optimization of Alkali-catalyzed
transesterification of Pongamiapinnata oil for Tanaka, T., Iinuma, M., Fujii, Y., Yuki, K. and Mizuno, M.
production of biodiesel.Bioresource (1992) Flavonoids in root bark of
Technology 97: 1392-1397. Pongamiapinnata. Phytochemistry 31: 993-
998.
Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadass, R. and Simons,
A. (2009) Agroforestry Database: a tree
reference and selection guide version 4.0.

Sahu, C. M. (2014) Studies on various provenances of karanja,
Pongamiapinnata L. Pierre against major
insect pests intercropped with paddy under
different Agro-forestry
cropping pattern. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis. Indira
Gandhi Agriculture university, Raipur. 111p.

101
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 102-107 (2015)

MARKETING ANALYSIS OF RICE IN NALGONDA DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESH

Y. ARCHANAKARUNI, K. SUHASINI
Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture,PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in Nalgonda District of Andhra Pradesh during 2012-13. Both primary and secondary data were
collected and a total of six marketing channels were identified. The Price spread, producer’s price, producer’s share in consum-
er rupee, marketing margin, total marketing cost and marketing efficiencies were worked out. The results revealed that low-
est producer’s share in consumer’s rupee 49 % for raw rice was realized from channel 6 (F- CA –M –CA -W-R-C) while high-
est marketing efficiency 7.64 and 2.57 was observed in the channel 1 (F-M-C) through Shepherds and Acharya’s approach.

Keywords: Acharya’s approach, market channels, marketing margin and price spread.

INTRODUCTION:
With the advent of Green revolution initiatives, India
has achieved self-sufficiency in food grains production.
However, Marketing is as critical to better performance
in agriculture as farming itself. Agricultural Marketing is
an area for the “second generation” of green revolution
problems. Indian Marketing is undergoing a  significant
metamorphosis because of economic liberalization
and globalisation. The agricultural marketing sector
ischaracterized by complex and diversified value chain.
Multiple market intermediaries; higher transaction costs,
lack of awareness and several other socio-economic factors
are some of the acute problems being faced by the Indian
agriculture. Hence, studying the marketing of agricultural
commodities occupies prime position in agricultural
economics research. As paddy is important staple food
crop it is difficult to plan and design policy related to
paddy without examining the existing marketing network
margins to various stakeholders. The present study has been
undertaken in Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh. As it has
major markets for paddy and is grown as the major crop in
the Nagarjunasagar project (NSP) canal area. The marketing
of paddy based on diversified value addition to paddy before
it reached the final consumer is studied. It has been observed
that the value chain of paddy is complex therefore, study of
value chain will provide information on different marketing
channels of paddy and provide insights about different stages
of value chain. The results would be useful to both farmers
and policy makers to realize the extent of exploitation of
middlemen in different sub chains and need for new market
innovators to help the farmers .The study was conducted
with the following objectives:To study the various marketing
channels of rice through commission agents, wholesalers
and retailers and estimate the market margins, price spread
and efficiency.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in Miryalaguda
and Huzurnagarmandals of Nalgonda District in Andhra
Pradesh during 2012-13. The sample size of 120 farmers
and 12 intermediaries 10 parboiling mills 8 wholesaling and
retailing shops were randomly selected for data collection.
Data on profits of the various market functionaries involved
in moving the produce from the initial point of production
till it reached the ultimate consumer were collected.
Total cost of marketing: The total cost incurred on
marketing was computed as follows:
C = CF + Cmi+Cm2+Cm3+Cmn
C = total cost of marketing of the commodity
CF = Cost paid by the producer from the time the
produce leaves the farm till he sells it.
Cmi= cost incurred by the ith middlemen in the process
of buying and selling the product.
a. Sum-of-Average Gross Margin Method
The average gross margins of all the intermediaries
were added to obtain the total marketing margin as well as
the breakup of the consumer’s rupee.
n
MT = Σ {[Si – Pi]}
i=1 Qi
Where,
MT = Total Marketing Margin
Si = Sale value of a product for ith intermediary
Pi = Purchase value paid by the ith intermediary
Qi = Quantity of the product handled by the ith
intermediary
i = 1, 2, 3 … n (Number of intermediaries involved in
the supply chain)
b. Producer’s Share in Consumer Rupee
Further, the Farmer’s share in consumer rupee was
calculated with the help of the following formula.
Where,
Fs= Farmer’s share in consumer rupee (percentage)

102
 Fp = Farmer’s price
Cp= Consumer’s price
Analysis of marketing efficiency under different
marketing channels.
Marketing efficiency is a measure of market
performance.
a. Shepherd’s Formula
Shepherd (1965) suggested that the ratio of total
value of goods marketed to the marketing cost could be used
as a measure of marketing efficiency. The higher this ratio,
higher would be the efficiency and vice versa. This can be
expressed in the following form:
ME = [(V/I)-1]
Where,
ME = Index of marketing efficiency
V = Value of goods sold
I = Total marketing cost
b. Acharya’s Approach
Acharya (2003), an ideal measure of marketing
efficiency, was adopted.
a) Total marketing costs (MC)
b) Net marketing margin (MM)
c) Prices received by the farmer (FP)
d) Prices paid by the consumer (RP)
Further, the measure should reflect the following relationship
between each of these variables and the marketing efficiency.
i) Higher the (a), the lower the efficiency
ii) Higher the (b), the lower the efficiency
iii) Higher the (c), the higher the efficiency
iv) Higher the (d), the lower the efficiency
As there is an exact relationship among four variables,
i.e. a+b+c = d, any three of these could be used to arrive
at a measure for comparing the marketing efficiency. The
following measure is suggested by Acharya.
ME = FP ÷ (MC + MM)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
The producers in the sample area mainly marketed
their produce directly to the millers. However, few farmers
also marketed their produce to intermediaries such as fellow
farmers, money lenders and also commission agents. The
commission agents would collect the produce from nearby
five to six villages and trade them to millers. The farmers
also preferred to sell to commission agents rather than
millers because if they sell to millers they would recieve a
price less than MSP due to high moisture content and other
quality parameters. During the study marketing channels
were identified for raw and parboiled rice. FCI procured 75
percent of the milled paddy either raw or parboiled from the
millers. While the millers exported both raw and parboiled
through commission agents to both outside the state and
country categorised as C-form and H-form respectively.
103
However within AP only raw rice is traded as parboiled rice
was not in use for food consumption.
Hence Marketing costs, marketing margins and price
spread of intrastate trade of raw rice are worked out for
various existing marketing channels as mentioned below 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Marketing channel involving wholesaler and
retailers sold within AP (raw rice)
Channel 1: Farmer – Miller - Consumer
(AMC)
Channel 2: Farmer – Miller – Wholesaler – Consumer
Channel 3: Famer – Miller - Wholesaler – Retailer – Con-
sumer
Channel 4: Farmer – Commission agent – Miller - Whole-
saler – Consumer
Channel 5: Farmer – Fellow farmer/ Money lender/Commis-
sion agent - Miller– Wholesaler – Retailer - Consumer
Channel 6: Farmer – Commission agent – Miller- Commis-
sion agent - Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer
Channel 1: Farmer – Miller - Consumer
(AMC)
The channel 1 was identified in Miryalaguda the
farmers marketed their produce in the AMC. It could be seen
from the Table 1 that in channel 1, the net sale price received
by farmer was `12540 after meeting transport (`100) and
hamali charges (`92) and minor costs for loading, weigh
man and others. Further the table indicated that marketing
costs of miller were worked to `1757.25. The major costs
incurred by miller were VAT amounting to `871.25 and
processing charges `250 followed by gunny bags costs,
market fee (`128) hamali charges among the minor costs.
The miller received a net margin of `2867.75. while the
producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was found to be 71.97
per cent.
Channel 2: Farmer – Miller – Wholesaler –
Consumer
From table 1 in channel 2, it is seen that the net sale
price received by the farmer was `12660 and the total
marketing costs amounted to `140. While the millers
purchase price was `12800 incurring marketing costs of
about `1757.25 and gained a net margin of `2867.75 per
ton of paddy milled. The major items of costs were similar
to that in channel 1. The wholesaler has claimed a net margin
of `2735 by incurring a total marketing cost of `750. and
thus the consumer’s price was `20910 per ton paddy milled.
While the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was found
to be 61.21%
Channel 3: Famer – Miller - Wholesaler – Retailer
– Consumer
It is evident from the Table 1 that in channel 3, on
average the total marketing cost incurred by the trader was
`260. The major item of cost was transportation charges
(`100) followed by hamali charges (`92). The other
expenses incurred were loading charges (`92) weigh man and
other (`28) among minor costs. Further the table indicated
that the miller incurred a total cost of `1757.25. The net
margin of miller was realized as `2867.75 per ton paddy
processed. While the net margin of wholesaler was estimated
to be `2735 and incurred costs on of transportation (`530)
storage loading and unloading with total costs amounting to
`750. Further the retailer secured a margin of `2488 while
incurring a total cost of `300 for trading the raw rice. The
producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was worked out the
52.92 percent.
Channel 4: Farmer – Commission agent – Miller -
Wholesaler – Consumer
In the marketing channel 4, farmers sold their produce
to the miller through the involvement of commission agent.
The table reveals that on an average the producers incurred
a marketing cost of `191 per ton. While commission agent
incurred a cost of `90 towards hamali charges for loading
and unloading. The net margin claimed by the commission
agent was estimated at `410. Further it was noted from
the table that the purchase price of miller was `13300
and marketing expenses were estimated to `1932.25. The
major costs incurred by the miller were VAT (`971.25)
transporting charges, processing charges followed by gunny
bags cost(`238)While the other minor costs included hamali
(`120) market fee (`133) commission agent fee (`70). The
net margin of the miller was realized to be `2192.75. Further
it is also noted that the wholesaler secured a net margin of
`2735 with major costs constituted by transporting costs
(`530) followed by loading and unloading storage cost.
Thus a total marketing cost of `750 was worked out for
wholesaler. The producer’s share in consumer’s rupee in this
channel was projected to be at 60.30 per cent
Channel 5 Farmer – Fellow farmer/ money lender -
Miller– Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer.
From Table 1 in the marketing channel 5, producer
received a net price of `12609. Transportation, (`100)
loading and unloading charges were the major items of
cost incurred by retailer. The intermediaries namely fellow
farmers or money lenders procured the produce from farmers
and incurred storage costs of `70. The fellow farmers
or money lenders incurred a marketing cost of `170 and
claimed a net margin of `530 while the average sale price of
the fellow farmer or money lender to the miller was `13500.
The miller incurred a total marketing cost of `1864.25 with
VAT, processing transporting and gunny bags as major costs
and hamali market fee and others among the minor costs.
The net margin of miller was worked out as `2060.75. The
wholesaler incurred a total cost of `750 where transporting
cost constituted to `530 followed by storage loading
and unloading costs of `80 and `140 respectively. The
wholesaler realized a net margin of `2735 while the retailer
claimed a net margin of `3185 with total marketing costs
of `300. The producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was
104
projected to be 52.47 per cent.
Channel 6: Farmer – Commission agent – Miller-
Commission agent - Wholesaler – Retailer –
Consumer
Channel 6 observed from the in Table 1 that total
marketing cost per ton of paddy incurred by the farmer was
`447. The net sale price received by farmer is `12353.
Major items of cost in channel 6 were commission fee (`256)
transport costs (`100) followed by loading and unloading
costs (`91). The commission agent incurred a cost of `90
towards hamali charges for loading and unloading. The net
margin secured by commission agent was worked out to
`410. The net margin of miller from processing paddy to
raw rice was `3134. The processing cost was same in the
entire channel for raw rice while the total marketing cost in
channel 6 was worked out to `1952.25 with VAT as major
cost item followed by transporting costs, processing, while
hamali market fee were among the minor costs. Further it
was observed that the commission agent involved in trading
the rice to wholesaler `180 and earned a net margin of
`565.5 by just trading between miller and wholesaler. The
wholesaler marketing cost was estimated to `490 with
commission charges accounting as major cost. The handling
charges amounted to `90. The wholesaler secured a net
margin of `3343.5 while retailer obtained a net margin
of `3185. The producer’s share in consumer’s rupee was
estimated as 49.63 % .
Marketing efficiency
The results of marketing efficiency for raw rice
presented in Table 2 and 3 revealed that the marketing
efficiency was relatively higher in ( Farmer – Miller –
Consumer) marketing channel 1 in both the approaches
that is Shepherd’s approach and Acharya’s approach. Thus
the results revealed that the marketing channel in which the
intermediaries were low had the highest efficiency.
The findings clearly reveal that the marketing channel
in which the number of intermediaries was low had the highest
efficiency. The lowest producer’s share in consumer’s rupee,
49.63 percent was obtained by the farmer in channel 6 that
is (Farmer – Commission agent – Miller- Commission agent
- Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer) followed by channel 5
and 3 with 52.47 and 52.92 that is (Farmer – Fellow farmer/
money lender - Miller– Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer)
and (Famer – Miller - Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer)
.While the highest producer’s share in consumer’s rupee,
was registered in channel 1 (71.97 percent) due to no
involvement of intermediaries.
Agricultural marketing is of critical concern especially
in the areas which have potential for high production.
Hence measures like encouraging the formation of group
farming and marketing, providing paddy procurement
centers during the harvesting, provision of godowns
facility at divisional level involving a group of villages in
the mandal helping the marginal and small farmers to reap
the benefits ofstorage. Thus helping farmers in selling the
produce for a renumerative price reducing the exploitation
by intermediaries in marketing.
Table 1 Marketing margins and price spread in raw rice within Andhra Pradesh
Channel 8 Channel 9 Channel 10 Channel 11 Channel 12 Channel 13
Particulars
S.No. ` /ton ` /ton ` /ton ` /ton ` /ton ` /ton
Sale price received by farmer/ 12800.00 12800.00 12800.00 12800.00 12800.00
1 12800.00
producer (73.46) (61.21) (37.65) (61.21) (49.63)
costs incurred by producer
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
transport costs
(0.57) (0.48) (0.29) (0.48) (0.41) (0.39)
91.00
40.00 40.00
loading charges (0.35)
(0.23) 40.00 (0.12) 91.00 91.00
(0.19) (0.44) (0.37)
92.00 92.00
Hamali charges
(0.53) (0.27)
28.00 12660.00 28.00 256.00
Weigh men and others
(0.16) (60.55) (0.08) (0.99)
260.00 140 260.00 191.00 191.00 447.00
total marketing costs
(1.49) (0.67) (0.76) (0.91) (0.78) (1.73)
12540.00 12660 12540.00 12609.00 12609.00 12353.00
Net sale price received by farmer
(71.97) (60.55) (36.88) (60.30) (51.69) (47.90)
Commission agent/Trader/fellow
2
farmer money lender
costs incurred
100.00
Transportation costs
0.41 ()
70.00
Storage costs
(0.29)
90.00 90.00
Hamali charges
(0.43) (0.35)
90.00 170.00 90.00
Total costs
(0.43) (0.70) (0.35)
Net Margin of commission agent/
410.00 530.00 410.00
trader/ fellow farmer/ money
(1.96) (2.17) (1.59)
lender
sale price of commission agent/ 13300.00 13500.00 13300.00
trader/fellow farmer /money lender (63.61) (55.34) (51.57)
3 Miller
12800.00 12800.00 12800.00 13300.00 13500.00 13300.00
Purchase price of miller
(73.46) (61.21) (37.65) (63.61) (55.34) (51.57)
150.00 150.00 150.00 250.00 13500.00 250.00
Transport costs
(0.86) (0.72) (0.44) (1.20) (55.34) (0.97)
250.00 250.00 250.00 250.00 250.00 250.00
Processing charges
(1.43) (1.20) (0.44) (1.20) (1.02) (0.97)
120.00 120.00 120.00 120.00 250.00 120.00
Hamali charges
(0.69) (0.57) (0.35) (0.57) (1.02) (0.47)
128.00 128.00 128.00 133.00 120.00 133.00
Market fee
(0.73) (0.61) (0.38) (0.64) (0.49) (0.52)
238.00 238.00 238.00 238.00 135.00 238.00
Cost of gunny bags
(1.37) (1.14) (0.70) (1.14) (0.55) (0.92)
70.00 238.00 70.00
Commission charges
(0.33) (0.98) (0.27)
871.25 871.25 871.25 871.25 871.25 871.25
VAT
(5.00) (4.17) (2.56) (4.17) (3.57) (3.38)
1757.25 1757.25 1757.25 1932.25 1864.25 1932.25
Total marketing costs
(10.08) (8.40) (5.17) (9.24) (7.64) (7.49)
886.00 886.00 886.00 991.00 993.00 991.00
Marketing costs without tax
(5.08) (4.24) (2.61) (4.74) (4.07) (3.84)
2867.75 2867.75 2867.75 2192.75 2060.75 3134.00
Net margin of miller
(16.46) (13.71) (8.43) (10.49) (8.45) (12.15)

105
 17425.00 17425.00 17425.00 17425.00 17425.00 17425.00
Sale price of 697 kg
(100.00) (83.33) (51.25) (83.33) (71.43) (67.57)
25000.00 25000.00 25000.00 25000.00 25000.00 25000.00
Sale price per ton
(143.47) (119.56) (73.53) (119.56) (102.48) (96.94)
4 Commission agent
300.00
Transport costs
(1.16)
180.00
Loading and loading
(0.70)
480.00
Total costs
(1.86)
565.50
Net Margin of commission agent
(2.19)
Sale price of commission agent of 18470.50
697 kg @ 26.50/kg (71.62)
5 Wholesaler
400.00
Commission charges
(1.55)
530.00 530.00 530.00 530.00 90.00
Transport costs
(2.53) (1.56) (2.53) (2.17) (0.35)
140.00 140.00 140.00 140.00
Loading and unloading costs
(0.67) (0.41) (0.67) (0.57)
80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00
Storage costs
(0.38) (0.24) (0.38) (0.33)
750.00 750.00 750.00 750.00 490.00
Costs borne by wholesaler
(3.59) (2.21) (3.59) (3.07) (1.90)
2735.00 2735.00 2735.00 2735.00 3343.50
Net margin of wholesaler
(13.08) (8.04) (13.08) (11.21) (12.96)
Sale price of wholesaler for 697 kg 20910.00 20910.00 20910.00 20910.00 22304.00
@30/kg (100.00) (61.50) (100.00) (85.71) (86.49)
30000.00
Sale price of wholesaler per ton 30000.00 32000
6 Retailer
100.00 100.00 100.00
Transport costs
(0.29) (0.41) (0.39)
200.00 200.00 200.00
Loading and unloading costs
(0.59) (0.82) (0.78)
300.00 300.00 300
Total costs
(0.88) (1.23) (1.17)
Sale price of retailer of 697kg @ 23698.00 24395.00 25789.00
34/kg (69.70) (100.00) (100.00)
2488.00 3185.00 3185.00
Net margin of retailer
(7.32) (13.06) (12.35)
7 Consumer
Consumer purchase price for 697 17425.00 20910.00 23698.00 20910.00 24395.00 25789.00
kg (100.00) (100.00) (69.70) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)
3185.00
Sale price of one ton rice 30000.00 34000 30000.00 3185.00
(13.06)
Producer’s share in consumer’s
71.97 61.21 52.92 60.30 52.47 49.63
rupee (percentage)

Marketing efficiency
The results of the marketing efficiency through Shepherd method and Acharya’s approach are furnished in the following
tables.

106
Table 2 Marketing efficiency of raw rice through Shepherd
method
Total
Final sale
marketing
Marketing REFERENCES:
Market price efficiency
S.No
channel cost Acharya, S. S and Agarwal, N. L. (2009).Agricultural
Raw rice Raw rice Raw rice
Marketing in India.FourthEdition.Oxford&
IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Market
8 17425.00 2017.25 7.64
channel 1 Deepak, A.and Sharma, V.K. 2009. Price spread of Litchi
Market in Punjab. Indian journal of Agricultural
9 20910.00 2647.25 6.90 marketing. 23(2): 147-150
channel 2
Market
10 23698.00 3067.25 6.73 Tawale, J. B.,  Pawar, B. R.,  Maske, V. S.,  Jagde, S. A.
channel 3
2009. Marketing cost, marketing margin
Market and price spread through different channels
11 20910.00 2963.25 6.06
channel 4
of rabi jowar in Osmanabad district of
Market Maharashtra. International Journal of
12 24395.00 3275.25 6.45
channel 5 Commerce and Business Managaement. 2: 1,
Market 28-30.
13 25789.00 3739.25 5.90
channel 6
Rama Rao, C. A., Sudhakarreddy P., Srinivas V.and Reddy
Y. V. 2008. Price Spread and Efficiency of
Table 3 Marketing efficiency of raw rice through Acharya’s Sorghum Grain Marketing in Mahabubnagar
approach District of Andhra Pradesh.Indian Journal of
Net price Marketing cost Agricultural Marketing. 22(1): 25-34.
Market Marketing
S.No received by + marketing
channel efficiency
farmer margin
Market
8 12540.00 4885.00 2.57
channel 1
Market
9 12660.00 8250.00 1.53
channel 2
Market
10 12540.00 11158.00 1.12
channel 3
Market
11 12609.00 8301.00 1.52
channel 4
Market
12 12609.00 11786.00 1.07
channel 5
Market
13 12353.00 14377.25 0.86
channel 6

107
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 108-113 (2015)

DISTRIBUTION OF DTPA-EXTRACTABLE MICRONUTRINENT IN SOILS OF RAIPUR

DISTRICT OF CHHATTISGARH
AWANISH KUMAR*, V N MISHRA, L K SRIWASTAVA AND ANUSUIYA PANDA
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur -492012, Chhattisgarh
Corresponding author: Awanish Kumar, Research Scholar, Department of Soil Science
and Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV, Raipur, (C.G.)
Email- awanish09_raj@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT
Evaluation of the soil fertility status of Raipur district of Chhattisgarh was undertaken during 2011-12 covering 33 villages (each village 6 soil
samples) and 198 samples identified were analyzed for pH, EC, organic carbon and DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn. The pH (soil reaction)
varied from 5.70 to 8.20 with the mean value 7.25, EC ranged from 0.02 to 0.44 with the mean value 0.12 dS m-1. The variation in organic carbon
content in sampled soils was from 0.23 to 0.96 with the mean value 0.64 %. DTPA-extractable Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn status were recorded as 0.20
to 3.87 (0.84 mg Fe kg-1), 2.28 to 118.96 (19.85 mg Mn kg-1), 0.18 to 5.06 (1.51 mg Cu kg-1) and 0.52 to 56.64 (20.30 mg Zn kg-1), respectively.

Keywords: DTPA-Extractable Micronutrient and Fertility status

INTRODUCTION

Chhattisgarh state lies between 17o46’ – 24o8’ N latitude
and 80o15’ – 84o24’ E longitude. The total geographical area
of the State is 136034.28 km2 North to South and 336 km.
from East to West with a total area of 1, 35,194 km2. The use
of plant nutrients in a balanced manner is the prime factor for
efficient fertilizer program. Balanced nutrient use ensures
high production level and helps to maintain the soil health.
Chhattisgarh State has four major soils type i.e. Entisols,
Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols and broadly comes under
red and yellow soils group. Almost all soils are deficient in
nitrogen and phosphorus and medium to high in potassium.
Soil fertility is determined by the presence or absence of
nutrients i.e. macro and micronutrients. Soil fertility is the
inherent ability of soils to supply nutrient elements to plants.
Soil fertility is related to the amount of available nutrients.
Some measure it by the yield capacity, and others seem it
to be a function of organic matter or even soil texture. In
brief, soil fertility refers to the availability status of essential
macro and micro nutrients in the soil. In view of the
limited scenery of natural resources, their management in a
sustained manner has become an issue of primary concern.
Sustainability of the agricultural production systems is the
most crucial issue in this part of the green revolution. A
system is sustainable when it improves or at least maintains
the quality of soil, water and atmosphere. Application
of chemical fertilizers has been rated as one of the most
important production factor affecting the sustainability. The
increasing population has forced farmers to make use of high
doses of chemical fertilizers. Its unscientific use (nutrient
imbalances, inaccurate amounts) is a serious threat to
sustainable agricultural production system. Micronutrients
are important for maintaining soil health and also increasing
productivity of crops. These are needed in very small
amounts. The soil must supply micronutrients for desired
growth of plants and synthesis of human food. Increased
removal of micronutrients as a consequence of adoption
of high yielding verities and intensive cropping system
together with shift towards high analysis NPK fertilizers
has caused decline in the level of micronutrients in the soil
to below normal at which productivity of crops cannot be
sustained. The deficiencies of micronutrients have become
major constraints to productivity, stability and sustainability
of soils. Availability of micronutrients is influenced by their
distribution in soil and other physico-chemical properties of
the soil (Sharma and Chaudhary 2007). Thus, knowledge
of status of micronutrients and their interrelationship with
soil characteristics is helpful in understanding the inherent
capacity of soil to supply these nutrients to plants. Besides
soil characteristics, land use pattern also plays a vital role
in governing the nutrient dynamics and fertility of soils
(Venkatesh et al. 2003). Due to continuous cultivation,
soils under a particular land use system may affect physico-
chemical properties which may modify DTPA-extractable
micronutrients content and their availability to crops. So,
analysis of these properties along with micronutrient status of
different land use systems may have significant importance.
Soil test-based fertility management is an effective tool for
increasing productivity of agricultural soils that have high
degree of spatial variability resulting from the combined
effects of physical, chemical or biological processes
(Goovaerts, 1998). However, major constraints impede wide
scale adoption of soil testing in most developing countries.
In India, these include the prevalence of small holding
systems of farming as well as lack of infrastructural facilities
for extensive soil testing (Sen et al., 2008). Soil testing
provides information regarding nutrient availability in soils
which forms the basis for the fertilizer recommendations for
maximizing crop yields. Soil testing program is beneficial to
formulated specific fertilizer recommendations.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study area
Different group of the soils covered viz. Entisols,
Inceptisol, Alfisol and Vertisol under the Raipur district of
Chhattisgarh. The groups of the soils have been taken for
fertility evaluation under various aspects. Soil samples (0-
15 cm depth) were collected from Raipur district using GPS
marked. Prior to the actual fieldwork, tentative sampling sites

108
were fixed on the cadastral maps. The sampling points were
taken from the cadastral map of different villages by locating
in such that from each village six or 20 hectare area may
represent one grid based soil sample. The soil samples (0-
15 cm) were collected from each grid point using soil auger
and local spade with proper labels. Soil samples collected
from the study area were dried and crushed with the help
of wooden rod and passed through 2 mm sieve and stored
in properly labeled plastic bags for analysis by adopting
standard laboratory methods.
Methods of analysis
Soil pH was determined by glass electrode pH (Piper,
1967), Electrical Conductivity with Solu-bridge method
(Black, 1965), Organic Carbon by wet digestion method
(Walkley and Black’s rapid titration method, 1934). The
micronutrients Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn were extracted by using
0.005M di-ethylene tri-amine penta acetic acid (DTPA),
0.01M calcium chloride dehydrate and 0.1M tri-ethanol
amine buffered at pH 7.3 (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978)
and concentrations were analyzed by atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS). The data on available Fe, Cu, Mn
and Zn of soils were characterized for deficient and adequate
status using the threshold values 4.50 mg kg-1 for Fe, 0.20
mg kg-1 for Cu, (Katyal and Randhawa, 1983), 3.50 mg
kg-1 for Mn (Shukla and Gupta,1975) and 0.60 mg kg-1 for
Zn (Katyal,1985). The samples were categorized as per the
rating limit given in Table 2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Available Fe
The DTPA-extractable Fe content under study area
varied from 2.28 to118.96 mg kg-1 with an average content
of available Fe was 19.85 mg kg-1 (Table 1). Considering
4.5 mg kg-1 (Table 2) DTPA-extractable Fe as critical limit
(Lindsay and Norvell 1978), the data reveals that 10% soil
samples were found to be deficient in available Fe content
and 20% found to be in medium and 70% higher level in
Iron (Table 4). High available Fe content in Dharsiwa block
might be due to cultivation of rice, which induced prolonged
submergence coupled with reducing conditions. The nutrients
index value is 2.6 and high fertility rating in district. The soil
pH had reverse effect on the availability of Fe content in
soil. Rajeswar et al. (2009) in soils of Garikapadu of Krishna
District of Andhra Pradesh have also reported the similar
trends in available Fe content.
Table 1: Salient soil properties of study area
Soil characteristics Range Mean
pH (1:2.5, Soil water) 5.7-8.2 7.25
E.C. (dS m-1) 0.02-0.44 0.115
O.C. (%) 0.23-0.96 0.64
Available Fe (mg kg-1) 2.28-118.96 19.85
Available Mn (mg kg-1) 0.52-56.64 20.30
Available Cu (mg kg-1) 0.18-5.06 1.51
Available Zn (mg kg )-1
0.20-3.87 0.84
Available Mn
109
The DTPA-extractable Mn content of soils under study
area varied from 0.52 to 56.64 mg kg-1 with an average content
of available Mn was 20.30 mg kg-1 (Table 1). Considering
3.5 mg kg-1 (Table 2). DTPA-extractable Mn as critical limit
(Lindsay and Norvell 1978), the data reveals that 84% soil
samples were found to be higher in available Mn content
and 7, 9 % found to be in low to medium level (Table 4).
The nutrient index value in district 2.77 and fertility rating is
very high (Table 5). The Mn bearing minerals in the parent
material might be the reason for higher Mn content in the
soils and due to better supply of Mn to rice in flooded soil as
Mn is soluble in relatively acidic and reduced soil condition
(Mandal and Haldar, 1980).
Available Cu
The DTPA-extractable Cu content of soils under
study varied from 0.18 to 5.06 mg kg-1 with an average
content of available Cu was 1.51 mg kg-1 (Table 1). Taking
to 0.2 mg kg-1 (Table 2) DTPA-extractable Cu as critical
limit (Follett and Lindsay 1970), only 1% soil samples were
found to be deficient in available content of Cu and 92% soil
sample found to be in higher level (Table 4). The nutrient
index value in district 2.91 and fertility rating is very high
(Table 5).
Available Zn
The DTPA-extractable Zn content of soils under
study varied from 0.20 to 3.87 mg kg-1 with an average
content of available Zn was 0.84 mg kg-1 (Table 1). The
critical limit (Table 2) of Zn in soil has been marked as 0.6
mg kg-1 (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978). It was observed from
the analytical results that 27% percent soil samples were
found to be deficient, 62 % soil samples were found to be
medium and only 11 % soil sample found to be in higher
level in available Zn content (Table 4). The nutrient index
value in district 1.84 and fertility rating is marginal in Zn
status (Table 5). In view of widespread deficiency of Zn
in of Raipur district, required Zn application for optimum
production and to get full benefit from NPK fertilization.
The Zn deficiency increased with increase in pH. Similar
observation was made by Rai et al. (1970) in deep black soils
of Madhya Pradesh.
Table 2: Limits for the soil test values used for rating the soil
Classification for pH values

Strongly acid Moderately acid Slightly acid Neutral

<5.5 5.5-6.0 6.0-6.5 6.5-7.5

Classification for total soluble salt content (EC as dS m-1)

Critical for germination

No deleterious effect on crop Critical for salt sensitive crop Injurious to most crops
<1.0 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.0 >3.0
Parameters Low Medium High
O.C. (%) 0.25-0.50 0.50-0.75 >0.75
Micronutrients
Deficient Sufficient High level
Av. Fe (mg kg-1) <4.50 >4.50 >9.00
Av. Mn (mg kg-1) <3.50 >3.50 >7.00
Av. Cu (mg kg ) -1
<0.20 >0.20 >0.40
Av. Zn (mg kg )-1
<0.60 >0.60 >1.20

Table 3: Range and mean values of available micro nutrients (mg/kg) in different Blocks of Raipur district

Tahsil/ Total No of DTPA extractable micronutrient status (mg kg-1)

SN
Blocks samples Zn Fe Cu Mn
0.20-3.87 2.28-118.96 0.18-2.76 2.10-56.64
1 Dharsinwa 53
(0.78) (23.01) (1.19) (21.59)
0.26-1.82 3.36-76.34 0.28-4.38 0.76-47.48
2 Arang 42
(0.70) (19.37) (1.56) (19.38)
0.44-2.04 3.44-69.76 0.20-3.74 1.78-46.10
3 Abhanpur 48
(0.80) (21.22) (1.05) (20.73)
0.54-2.84 2.86-82.94 0.32-5.06 0.52-44.72
4 Tilda 55
(1.05) (16.00) (2.18) (19.37)
0.20-3.87 2.28-118.96 0.18-5.06 0.52-56.64
Over all mean 198
(0.84) (19.85) (1.51) (20.30)

Table 4: Per cent sample category of soil micronutrient status in different Tahsil/Blocks of Raipur district
S. Name of the No. of Zinc Iron Copper Manganese
No taluks samples D M H D M H D M H D M H

1 Dharsinwa 53 45 43 11 2 4 94 2 6 92 8 8 85

2 Arang 42 48 45 7 5 29 67 0 7 93 7 7 86
3 Abhanpur 48 19 77 4 6 29 65 2 15 83 8 10 81
4 Tilda 55 2 78 20 25 22 53 0 2 98 5 11 84
Over all Mean 198 27 62 11 10 20 70 1 7 92 7 9 84

110
Table 5: Nutrient index values of soil available micronutrients in different Tahsil/Blocks of Raipur district
Nutrient Index value Fertility rating
S. Name of No. of
No the taluks samples Zn Fe Cu Mn Zn Fe Cu Mn

1 Dharsinwa 53 1.64 2.92 2.9 2.77 Low Very High Very High Very High

2 Arang 42 1.59 2.64 2.93 2.79 Low High Very High Very High

3 Abhanpur 48 1.85 2.59 2.81 2.73 Marginal High Very High Very High

4 Tilda 55 2.18 2.28 2.98 2.78 Adequate Adequate Very High Very High
Very Very
Over all Mean 198 1.84 2.6 2.91 2.77 Marginal High
High High
Conclusions
It can be concluded from the results under study
area that the group of soil is characterized under neutral
to saline in soil reaction, less than one dS m-1 soluble salt
content comes under safe limit for all crops. The organic
carbon level exhibited medium to high. In general, the
soil samples were tested sufficient in DTPA-extractable Fe,
Mn and Cu. Whereas, Zn deficiency was observed in study
area. The Soil pH is the main soil characteristics which
control micronutrient availability in soil. Hence, the soils
require attention regarding integrated nutrient management
practices and regular monitoring of soil health for better crop
production.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to PC STCR, IISS, Bhopal
(M.P.) for encouragement and providing necessary facilities
and funds for the conducting this scientific study.

111

REFERENCES
Black, C.A. (1965) Method of soil analysis American
Agronomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA. P
131-137.
Goovaerts, P. (1998) Geo-statistical tools for characterizing
the spatial variability of microbiological and
physic-chemical soil properties. Biology and
Fertility of Soil. 27: 315-334.
Katyal, J.C. and Randhawa, N.S. (1983) In Micronutrient
F. A. O. fertilizer and plant nutrition bulletion
No.5, Rome, P 92.
Katyal, J.C. (1985) Research achievements of the all India
coordinate scheme on micronutrients in soils
and plants. Fertilizer News 30(4):67-81.
Kumar, Rakesh, Sarkar, A.S., Singh, K.P., Agarwal, B.K.
and Karmakar, (S. 2009) Appraisal of available
Nutrients status in Santhal Paraganas Rgion of
Jharkhand. Journal of Indian Society of Soil
Science 57(3): 366-369.
112
Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of
DTPA soil test for Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu. Soil
Science Society of American Journal 42: 421 –
428.
Mandal, L.N. and Haldar, M. (1980) Influence of phosphorus
and zinc application on
the availability of zinc, copper, iron, manganese and
phosphorus in warelogged rice soils. Soil
Science 130, 251-257.
Piper, C.S. (1967) Soil and Plant analysis. Inter science
publisher Inc., New York.
Rai, M.M., Shitalegy, D.B., Pal, A.R., Vakil, P. and Gupta,
S.K. (1970) Available micronutrient status of
deep black soils of Madhya Pradesh. J. Indian
Soceity Soi ofl Science. 18: 383-389.
Rajeswar, M., Rao, C.S., Balaguravaiah, D., and Khan,
M.A.A. (2009) Distribution of available Macro
and Micronutrients in soils Garikapadu of
Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh. Journal of
Indian Soceity of Soil Science 57(2): 210 – 213.
Sharma, J.C. and Chaudhary, S.K. (2007) Vertical
distribution of micronutrient cations in relation
to soil characteristics in lower Shiwaliks of
Solan district in North-West Himalayas. J.
Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 55, 40-44.
Sen, P., Majumdar, K. and Sulewski, G. 2008. Importance of
spatial nutrient variability mapping to facilitate
SSNM in small land holding systems. Indian J.
Fert. 4(11): 43-50.
Shukla, U.C. and Gupta, B. L. 1975. J. Indian Society Soil
Science 23: 357-360.
Venkatesh, M.S., Majumdar, B., Kumar, K. and Patiram
(2003) Status of micronutrient cations under
various land use systems of Meghalaya. J.
Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 51, 60-64.
Walkley, A. and Black, C.A. 1934. An examination of the
degtjareff method for determining the soil
organic matter and a proposed modification of
the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science
37: 29-38.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 113-115 (2015)

IMPACT OF INCOME AND PRICES ON PRODUCTION AND MARKETING BEHAVIOUR

OF BENGAL GRAM
1
B SOWJANYA
Teaching Associate, Department of Agricultural Economics
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad,500030.
D V SUBBA RAO
Professor & Head, Department of Agricultural Economics
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad, 500030.
R VIJAYA KUMARI
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad, 500030.

ABSTRACT
The present study was under taken in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh to study the determinant of net income of farmers and ef-
fect of lagged prices on arrivals and current prices. Primary data was collected from a sample of 15 farmers. Secondary data in-
cludes prices and arrivals collected from Kurnool agricultural market committee. Multiple linear regression analysis and auto regres-
sive distributed lag models were used to analyze the data. The coefficient of multiple determination R2 in multiple linear regression
analysis was 84. Area, expenses on production material, expenses on marketing services and labour costs were found significant-
ly influencing the income of the farmers. Autoregressive distributed lag models for factors effecting arrivals, the coefficient of mul-
tiple determination showed that 68 percent of variation explained by the variables in the model. Current prices Pt were found sig-
nificantly influencing the current arrivals of bengal gram by 0.241 quintal. Similarly Autoregressive distributed lag models for
factors effecting current prices, the coefficient of multiple determination showed that 67 percent of variation was explained by the
variables in the model. Lagged prices Pt-1 (one month lag) were found significantly influencing the current price of the bengal gram.

Key words : Autoregressive distributed lag models, Farmers income, Lagged prices, Current prices.

INTRODUCTION was selected for present study. Samples of 15 farmers were

Bengal gram was one of the major important pulse
crops in India. The area under Bengal gram cultivation
in India was 8.32 M ha and production was 7.58 MT. In
Andhra Pradesh the area under Bengal gram cultivation was
5.6 lakh hectares and production was 5.2 lakh tones. Most
agricultural commodity markets generally operate under the
normal forces of demand and supply. To protect the farmers’
interest and to encourage them to increase production, the
government also fixes minimum support/statutory prices for
some crops and makes arrangements for their purchase on
state account whenever their price falls below the support
level. Prices in the market are formed based on supply and
demand principles rather than production costs. (Erdal etal
2009) Low supply elasticity of agricultural produces in
short term makes the demand critical factor to determine the
price. Farmers are not well organized in input and produce
markets. All these factors make price uncertainties for the
farmers. Farmers consider the previous years’ price when
planning the production. Such a planning causes big price
and production fluctuations in agricultural production
markets. Keeping in this view, an attempt is made to study
the income determinants and the effect of lagged prices on
arrivals and current prices for bengalgram.
METHODOLOGY
The present study was carried out in Kurnool district
of Andhra Pradesh. Kurnool agricultural market committee
selected for present study to know the determinants of
income. Secondary data were collected on prices and arrival
to assess the impact of lagged prices on arrivals and current
prices. For present study multiple linear regression model
was carried out for factors determining the income of the
farmers. The model included one dependent variable and
five explanatory variables. The following linear model was
used to determine the income of the farmer for individual
crops.
Y= β0+ β1X1 + β2X 2+ β3X3 + β4X4+ β5X5+ ui
Y= Net income of the farmer (Rs)
X1 (ACROP) = Area of the crop under consideration
(ha)
X 2(MCCROP) = Material costs (Rs)
X3 (LCCROP) = Labour costs (Rs)
X4 (MRCCROP) = Marketing costs (Rs)
X5 (PCROP) = price (Rs)
ui = disturbance term
Here β0 is the intercept term, giving average effect

113
of Y when all the included variables were absent. The
stochastic term ui reflect intrinsic randomness in the data. β1
to β5 are partial regression coefficients. The partial regression
coefficient, (β1 to β5) measures change in the mean value of
Y per unit change in Xi holding other variables constant.
Autoregressive Distributed lag Models (ARDL)
Time series data were collected over a period of time.
A time series is a set of observations on the values that a
variable takes at different times (Gujarati, 2009). For present
study monthly intervals of prices and arrivals were collected
for analysis. Numbers of observations for bengalgram was
61. Time period is from January 2005 to March 2011. In
regression analysis involving time series data, the regression
model includes not only the current but also the lagged
(past) values of the explanatory variables (the X’s), it is
called a Distributed-lag model (Gujarathi, 2010). If the
model includes one or more lagged values of the dependent
variable among its explanatory variables, it is called an
Autoregressive model.
Thus, Yt = α + β0Xt + β1Xt-1+ β2Xt-2 + ut ……………… (1)
Equation (1) represents a distributed-lag model.
Yt = α + βXt + γYt-1 + ut ……………………….(2)
Equation (2) represents an autoregressive model.
ARDL model is an econometric dynamic model in
which the independent variables influence the dependent
variable with a time lag and at the same time the dependent
variable is correlated with lag(s) of itself. According to
Baltagi, 2008 the simplest form of an ARDL model is given
by Yt = α + λYt -1 + β0 Xt + β1 Xt + ut …………..(3)
Equation (3) represents an autoregressive distributed
lag model.
The estimation of ARDL model may result in residuals
that violate the assumption of normality of the error term.
This is a simplifying assumption of the classical normal
linear regression model, and must be satisfied for the method
of ordinary least squares to the best linear unbiased estimator
(BLUE) (Muchapondwa, 2008). Autoregressive distributed
lag model was formulated to study the factors determining
the prices of the farmers. An ARDL (2,1) model would have
2 lags on dependent variable and one lag on independent
variables. The model included one dependent variable and
four explanatory variables (two lagged dependent variables,
one lagged independent variable). The model was lagged
once and the lag length of the model was determined by
the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC). Kavinya (2013).
The model was estimated using least squares method as
presented below:
At = α + β0 Pt + β1Pt -1 + β2 Pt -2 + λ0 At-1 + ut …………..(4)
Where, At = Arrivals of the crop (Rs/q)
Pt = prices of the crop (Rs/q)
Pt -1 = Lagged price with one month period
114
Pt -2 = Lagged price with two months period
At-1 = Lagged arrivals of produce (q)
The model was estimated using least squares method as
presented below:
Pt = α + λ0 Pt -1 + λ1 Pt -2 + β0 At + β1 At-1 + ut ..(5)
Where, Pt = prices of the crop (Rs/q)
Pt -1 = Lagged price with one month period
Pt -2 = Lagged price with two months period
At = Arrivals (q)
At-1 = Lagged arrivals of produce (q)
Validity of the estimated coefficients need to be done
with the help of‘t’ test and ‘F’ test. Durbin-Watson statistic,
d test for autocorrelation was employed to allow a decision
to be made regarding the presence of autocorrelation among
the residuals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For present study multiple linear regression model was
carried out for factors determining the income of the farmers.
Auto regressive lag model was used to know the impact of
lagged prices on arrivals and current prices of bengalgram.
Table 1 indicates that the coefficient of multiple
determination R2 showed that 84 percent of variation in
income was explained by the variables included in the
model. Area, expenses on production material, expenses on
marketing services and labour costs were found significantly
influencing the income of the farmers. One unit increase
in area will increase the income of farmers by Rs. 34,318.
However, a rupee increase in labour costs will decrease the
income by Rs.1.096. It is because increase in labour wages
will decrease the income of the farmer. One rupee increase in
expenses on production material and expenses on marketing
services will increase income of the farmer by Rs. 1.39 and
Rs.1.45 respectively. Increase in the quantity of produce
will increase the expenses on marketing services which will
increase the income of the farmers.
Table 2 indicates that Autoregressive distributed
lag models for factors effecting arrivals the coefficient of
multiple determination R2 showed that 68 percent of variation
in arrivals was explained by the variables included in the
model. Current price was found significantly influencing the
arrivals of the farmers. One rupee increase in current price
will increase the arrivals by 0.241 quintals. The Durbin-
Watson ‘d’ statistic for autocorrelation was 1.97, the presence
of autocorrelation is ruled out.
Table 3 indicates that Autoregressive distributed lag
models for factors effecting current prices the coefficient of
multiple determination R2 showed that 67 percent of variation
in current prices was explained by the variables included in
the model. Lagged price (Pt-1) was found to be significantly
influencing the current price of the farmer. The current price
would have been increased by Rs. 0.748 if the lagged price
(Pt-1) will increased by one rupee. The Durbin- Watson ‘d’ N 61
statistic for autocorrelation is 1.78 since the presence of (January 2005 to
autocorrelation is ruled out. Period
2011 March)
Durbin –Watson ‘d’
1.97
CONCLUSION statistic
Prices in the market are formed based on supply and Note: 1) .Pt-1 : Lagged price (one month lag); Pt-
demand principles rather than production costs. The present Lagged price (two months lags); At-1:Lagged arrivals (one
study was carried out to know the income determinants of 2:
month lag 2) Figures in parenthesis are standard error 3)
farmers and impact of lagged prices on arrivals and current **
Significant at 5 % level, ***Significant at 1% level
prices. Area, expenses on production material, expenses on
marketing services and labour costs were found significantly Table 3. Autoregressive distributed lag models for factors
influencing the income of the farmers. Current prices Pt effecting current prices of bengalgram
were found significantly influencing the current arrivals of
S.no Variables Coefficients t- value
bengal gram. Lagged prices Pt-1 (one month lag) were found
Intercept 448.365
significantly influencing the current price of the bengal gram.
0.748***
1 Lagged prices Pt-1 (Rs/q) 5.600
Table 1. Multiple linear regression for factors effecting (0.13)
income of bengalgram farmer 0.072
2 Lagged prices Pt-2 (Rs/q) 0.549
(0.13)
Dependent variable: Net income from crop (Y) -0.068
3 Arrival At (q) -0.493
S.no Variables Coefficients t - stat (0.13)
Intercept 20126 -0.036
4 Lagged arrivals At-1 (q) -0.263
(0.138)
34318.09***
1 Area (ha) 5.851 R2 0.67
(5864.91)
Expenses on production Adj. R2 0.65
1.395**
2 2.370 F- ratio calculated 29.60
material (0.588)
N 61
-1.096**
3 Labour costs -1.812 (January 2005 to
(0.604) Period
2011 march)
Expenses on marketing 1.451
4 1.344 Durbin –Watson ‘d’
services (1.079) 1.78
statistic
1.569
5 Price (Rs) 0.254 Note: 1) .Pt-1 : Lagged price (one month lag); Pt-
(6.168)
R2
0.84 2:
Lagged price (two months lags); At-1:Lagged arrivals (one
Adj. R2 0.76 month lag 2) Figures in parenthesis are standard error 3)
F- table 9.89
**
Significant at 5 % level, ***Significant at 1% level
N 15 REFERENCES
Note: 1) Expenses on production material include seed, Baltagi, B.(2005). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data-
FYM, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals.2)Labour costs Third Edition. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. pp:
include ploughing, sowing, manures, fertilizers and plant 320.
protection chemical application and harvesting costs. 3)
Expenses on marketing services consists of bagging, hamali, Damodar N, Gujarathi. (2010). Basic Econometrics, Tata
chatavali, weighing, storage and commission charges.4) Mc Graw Hill Publications, 4th Edition pp:
Figures in parenthesis are standard errors 5) **Significant at 5 672
% level, ***Significant at 1% level
Erdal, H., Eardal, G and Esengun, K. (2009). An analysis
Table 2. Autoregressive distributed lag models for factors of production and price relationship for potato
effecting arrivals of Bengalgram in Turkey: A distributed lag model application.
Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Sciences.
S.No Variables Coefficients t- value 15(3): 243-250.
Intercept 223.59
0.241** Kavinya, (2013). Maize hectarage response to price and non-
1 Prices (Rs/q) 1.86 price incentives in Malawi, sixth international
(0.129)
-0.063 conference on agricultural statistics, 1-9.
2 Lagged prices Pt-1 (Rs/q) -0.49
(0.128)
Muchapondwa, E. (2008) Supply response of Zimbabwean
0.117 agriculture: 1970-1999, Afjare (3):1.
3 Lagged prices Pt-2 (Rs/q) 0.73
(0.15)
-0.104
4 Lagged arrivals At-1 (q) -0.81
(0.12)
R2 0.68
Adj. R2 0.68
F- ratio calculated 26.35

115
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 116-118 (2015)

EFFECT OF CERTAIN CHEMICALS AND SOME PLANT EXTRACT ON CITRUS

NEMATODE (Tylenchulus Semipenetrans, cobb 1913) ON KHASI MANDERINE (Citrus
reticulate, Blanco)
B. KALITA1, B. GOGOI2, B. B. DEORI3 AND M. DAS4
Jr. Scientist (Agronomy), AICRP on Maize, RARS, AAU, Gossaigaon -60, Assam1
Jr. Scientist (Soil Science), IFS, AAU, Jorhat -13, Assam2
RA (GKMS Project), AMFU, RARS, AAU, Gossaigaon -60, Assam3
Department of Nematology, AAU, Jorhat-13, Assam, India4

ABSTRACT
The efficacy of certain chemicals as bare root dip treatment and effect of some plant extract on citrus nematode, T. semipenetrans ex-
periment was conducted at screen house in the Department of Nematology of Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat. The plant height,
root length, fresh and dry weight of shoot and root were increased and the nematode population was found to be reduced both in soil and
root, with increase in chemical concentration from 0.1-0.2 percent. The treatment with carbosulfan at 0.2% concentration was found to
be best among all treatments, followed by triazophos and monocrotophos at the same concentration. The treatment, citronella leaf extract
at 1:1 concentration was found to be the best in respect of mortality of T. semipenetrans, followed by posotia at the same concentration.

INTRODUCTION
Citrus are on of the important fruit crops particularly
in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. In
Assam Citrus is grown in on area of 7.8 thousand hectares
approximately with production of 57.89 thousand tones
(Bansil, 1990). The area under commercial orchards of
different citrus species has been expanded considerably
during last three decades. The productivity of these crops
is not up to the mark is mainly due to association of citrus
nematode, Tylenculus Semipenetrans considered to cause,
virtually immeasurable loss to the citrus industry (Ducharme,
1969). Evaluation of efficacy of certain chemicals as bare
root dip treatment and effect of some plant extract on citrus
nematode, T. semipenetrans is therefore very much required,
which hitherto is lacking in Assam. Therefore, the present
study was undertaken with these two above mentioned
objectives.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted during the month of
June-July, 1998 in the screen house of the Department of
Nematology, Assam Agricultural University. Three chemicals
at two concentrations each (0.1% and 0.2%) with a dipping
period of 45 minutes were tested. The experiment was laid
out in completely Randomized design with the following
treatments. T1= Control (untreated), T2 = Carbosufan 20 EC
0.1% (v/v), T3 = Carbosufan 20 EC 0.2% (v/v), T4 = Trizophos
40 EC 0.1% (v/v), T5 = Triazophos 40 EC 0.2 % (v/v), T6 =
Monocrotophos 36 EC 0.1% (v/v), T7 = Monocrotophos 36
EC 0.2% (v/v), treatment was replicated 5 times each. Six
months old healthy seedlings of khasi mandarin were selected
and uprooted carefully and roots were washed to make free
of soil. Then, the seedlings were kept in shade for half and
hour and dipped in respective chemicals for 45 minutes
prior to planting. The treated seedlings were transplanted in
earthen pot (20 x 25 cm size) containing 3.5 kg of steam
sterilized soil (2:1:1). The soil was infested with 5000 active
second stage juveniles (J2) of T. semipenetrans in each pot
one day prior to transplanting of seedlings. The plants were
uprooted carefully after six months of transplanting and
observation were recorded. The water extract of different
plants parts (leaf along with petiole, stem and buds) of six
different plants viz. Biholongoni (Polygonum hydropiper),
Mustard (Brassica spp.), Citronella (Java spp.), Gandhalibon
( Ageratum conyzoides), Pineapple (Anonus comosus), and
Posotia (Vitex nigando) were prepared by grinding 2g of fresh
plant material in 5 ml water and kept 24 hrs in refrigerator as
stock solution. For each of the plant extract 1:1, 1:5 and 1:10
dilutions were prepared by adding 5,1 and 0.5ml of stock
solution of each plant extract in 5ml suspension containing
10 J2 of T. semipenetrans along with in distilled water
taken as control. Each treatment was replicated for 5times.
Observation on survival ability was taken after overnight
and mortality percentage was calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was observed that (Table 1) the maximum and
minimum plant height and rot length were recorded in
Carbosulfan at 0.2% concentration and control respectively.
All the treatments at the different concentration were found
to be significantly different from the untreated control.
The treatments (Carbosulfan at 0.1%, Triazophos at 0.1%
and Monocrotophos at 0.1% concentrations) were at par.
Similarly the treatment Carbosulfan 0.2 %, Triazophos at
0.2% concentration were also at par. The maximum fresh and
dry weight of shoot and root were recorded at Carbosulfan at
0.2% concentration and minimum in the untreated control.
All the chemicals at different concentrations increased
weight and increase was greatest in Carbosulfan at 0.2%
concentration. The maximum and minimum soil nematode
population, adult female nematode population, nematode
population, total nematode population and nematode
population per plant were (Table 2) recorded in untreated
control and the treatment with Carbosulfan at 0.2%
concentration respectively. Soil nematode population and
female nematode in the treatment T2, T3, T5 and T7 were found
to be statistically at par. Further it was observed that the soil
nematode population, adult female population, nematode
population in root, total nematode population in root and

116
nematode population in plant found to be decreased with the
increase in the concentration of different chemicals. Among
the all chemicals Carbosulfan at 0.2% concentration was
found to be best followed by Triazophos and Moncrotophos
at the same concentration. It was revealed that the maximum
percentage of mortality was recorded in ‘citronella’ (60%) in
1:1 concentration followed by ‘Posotia’ (46%) in the same
concentration while no mortality was recorded in control
(Table 3). In case of ‘Mustard’ the concentration of 1:1 and
1:5 were found to be at par. There was no mortality at 1:10
concentration as in case of control. In ‘Citronella’ all the
concentration caused morality. In case of ‘Gandhalibon’ the
concentrations 1:1, 1:5 were found to be at par where they
differed significantly different from control. In case case of
‘Pineapple’ the concentrations 1:1 and 1:5 were found to be
at par and there was no mortality in 1:10 as in ‘Mustard’.
In case of ‘Posotia’ all the concentrations were found to be
significantly different from each other in respect of mortality
of T. semipenetrans. ‘Citronella’ leaf extract at 1:1, 1:5 and
1:10 concentrations were found to be the best among all
the best among all the six-leaf extract followed by Posotia,
Mustard, Gandhalibon, Bihologoni and Pineapple.

Table 1: Plant height (cm), root length (cm), fresh and dry weight of shoot (g) and root (g) inoculated with T. semipene-
trans in different treatments of chemicals (Mean of 5 replications)
Shoot weight Root weight
Treatment Plant height Root length
Fresh Dry Fresh Dry
T1: Control (untreated) 10.50 d 10.50 d 1.85 d 0.80 b 1.53 b 0.51 b
T2: Carbosulfan 0.1% 13.70 bc 21.60bc 2.50 bc 0.94 a 2.05 ab 0.63 ab
T3: Carbosulfan 0.2% 16.20 a 25.40 a 3.05 a 0.98 a 2.85 a 0.93 a
T4: Triazophos 0.1% 13.10 c 21.30 bc 2.35 bc 0.93 a 1.95 ab 0.59 b
T5: Triazophos 0.2% 15.75 ab 24.00 ab 2.60 b 0.97 a 2.25 ab 0.67 ab
T6:Monocrotophos 0.1% 13.00 c 19.50 c 2.15 cd 0.88 ab 1.80 b 0.54 b
T7: Monocrotophos 0.2% 15.30 abc 23.00 ab 2.40bc 0.92 a 2.15 ab 0.64 ab
C.D. at 5% 2.14 2.93 0.37 0.09 0.84 0.28
C.D. at 1% 2.90 3.95 0.50 0.12 1.13 0.37

Table 2: Nematode population in soil, adult females in roots, root population and total nematode population per plant
inoculated with T.semipenetrans in different treatments of chemicals (mean of 5 replications)
Nematode
Adult female Total nematode
Soil nematode population population Nematode population
Treatment nematode population population per root
per pot per root per plant
per root system system
system
T1: Control (untreated) 16,349.2 (127.48) a 72.8 a 1074.6 a 1147.4 (33.84) a 17,496.6 (131.92) a
T2: Carbosulfan 0.1% 7691.6 (86.69) c 40.2 b 311.0 d 351.2 (18.72) d 8042.8 (88.72) a
T3: Carbosulfan 0.2% 4844 (68.69) c 29.6 b 169.4 c 198.8 (13.78)c 5042.8 (70.09) c
T4: Triazophos 0.1% 11522 (107.17) b 42.2 b 323.8 d 366 (19.08) d 11,888 (108.87) b
T5: Triazophos 0.2% 6297.2 (79.30) c 32.2 b 333.2 d 365.4 (19.10) d 6662.6 (81.58) c
T6:Monocrotophos 0.1% 15,218 (120.92) ab 66.6 a 628.4 b 695 (26.32) b 15913 (123.92) ab
T7: Monocrotophos 0.2% 7201.6 (84.77) c 33.2 b 468 c 501.2 (22.21) c (87.71) c
C.D. at 5% 17.78 24.32 1.28 2.85 17.32
C.D. at 1% 23.99 32.81 1.72 3.85 23.37
N.B: values within parenthesis indicated by √n + 0.5, where n= observed data
Table 3: Mortality percentage of T.semipenetrans in different concentration of leaf extracts of certain plant after 24 hr of
treatment (Mean of 5 replications)
Treatment
Biholongoni Mustard Citronella Gandhaliboan Pineapple Posotia
(concentration)
T1: Control 0 (0.025) b 0 (0.025) b 0 (0.025) d 0 (0.025) c 0 (0.025) b 0 (0.025) d
T2: 1:1 8 (14.749) a 22 (27.598) a 60 (50.87) a 18 (26.642) a 8 (14.749) a 46 (42.692) b
T3: 1:5 4 (7.387) ab 12 (20.058) b 44 (21.686) a 14 (21.686) a 4 (7.387) ab 28 (31.758) c
T4: 1:10 0 (0.025) b 4 (7.387) b 34 (35.618) c 6 (11.068) b 0 (0.025) b 14 (21.686) a
C.D. at 5% 8.72 8.27 4.99 8.50 8.72 5.80
C.D. at 1% 12.02 11.39 6.88 11.71 12.02 7.99

N.B: The data in the parenthesis indicated angular transformed values.

117
REFERENCES
Bansil, P. C. (1990). Agricultural Statistical Compendium,
Vol.1, TERI, New Delhi, P.256.
Bora, J. (1995). Pathogenecity and management of citrus
nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans, Cobb
1913) on Khasi Mandarin (Citrus reticulate,
Blanco). M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis, Assam Agril.
Univ. Jorhat.
Cabanillas, E. and Barker, K. R. (1989). Impact of
paccilionmyces lilacinus level and application
time in control of Metoidogyne incognita. J.
Nematol. 21(1): 115-120.
Das, T. K. and Mukhupadhyaya, M. C. (1981). Occurrence
of Tylenchulus semipenetrans on citrus in 2
districts in West Bengal. Indian J. Nematol.
11(2):221-224.
Ducharme, E. P. (1969). Nematode pest of citrus. In:
Nematodes of tropical Crops. Peachoy, J. E.
(ed.) Technical Communication No. 40, CAB:
225-137.
Moznur, S. (1997). Management of citrus nematode
(Tylenchulus Semipenetrans Cobb, 1913) on
Khasi Mandarin (Citurs reticulate, Blaneo).
M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis, Assam Agril. Univ. Jorhat.
118
Phukan, P. N. and Sarma, D.K. (1983). Plant parasitic
nematodes associated with citrus in Assam. J.
Res. Assam Agri. Univ. a (b):68-71.
Sinha, A. K.; Phukan, P. N. and Rahman, M. F (1994).
Occurrence of Citrus nematode. Pl. Protection
News. 1 (1):2.
Egunjobi, O. A. and Afolami, S.O. (1976). Effect of neem
(Azadirachta indica) leaf extracts on population
of Pratylenchulus brachyurus and on the growth
and yield of maize. Nemato logica 22 (2): 125-
132.
Jain, R. K. and Bhatti, D. S. (1988). Effect of degradation
of neem leaves on incidence of root knot
nematodes in tomato. In. Nematol.Network.
Newsl. 5 (1):7-9.
Mani, A. (1989): Control of citrus nematode, Tylendchulus
semipenetrans by bare-root dip treatment of
acid lime seedling in pesticides. Int. Nematol
Network Newsl. 6 (3):20-23.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 119-121 (2015)

EFFECT OF OPENCAST COAL MINING ON SOIL FERTILITY IN CULTIVATED SOILS

OF TELANGANA STATE
B. MADHAVI AND G. JAYASREE
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad- 500030,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
B. Madhavi*, G.Jayasree, Department of Soil Science & Agril. Chemistry, College of Agriculture,
PJTSAU, Hyderabad- 500030
E-mail ID: saimadhavi75@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was undertaken to understand and estimate the impact of opencast coalmining on soil available macronutrients
in cultivated souls of Telangana state. Soil samples were collected from Srirampur (Adilabad), Medipalli (Karimnagar), Bhupalapally
(Warangal) and Yellandu (Khammam) opencast areas of Telangana. At each opencast mining place surface samples (0-15 cm) depth were
collected. 10 surface samples at a distance of 1.5 km (approximately) from opencast coal mining area and another 10 surface soil sam-
ples from 3.5 km from coal mines in all directions. These samples are designated as samples within 2 km from coal mining and beyond 2
km respectively. With an assumption that accumulation of coal dust will be within 2 km from mining site. Thus a total of 80 samples were
collected i.e 40 within 2 km another 40 beyond 2 km from mining area from four places of opencast i.e Srirampur, Medipalli, Bhupalpally
and Yellandu. The data was analysed statistically by two sample t test to compare NPK contents in samples within 2 km and beyond 2
km from opencast coal mining. . Significantly lower amounts NPK were observed within 2 km area of mining than beyond 2km samples .

Key words : NPK, macro nutrients, opencast and coal mine

INTRODUCTION

In India the mining operations have degraded
significant area of land and have replaced ecosystem of
the mined out areas with the undesirable waste materials in
form of overburden dumps. The process of coal extraction
drastically alters the physical and biological nature of the
mined out areas, so the land protection becomes an inevitable
aspect and should be given the prime importance right from
the initial stage of mining operation. However in most of
the mining areas in India, large scale exploitation of mineral
resources has been carried out since early days of mining
without taking due care of the land protection and also
without any proper plan for the future use of degraded land.
Due to these unscientific mining techniques used earlier large
scale degradation of land, subsidence of strata, disturbance
of water table, pressure on the nearby forest areas, threat to
flora and fauna and many other hazards have taken place.
The present investigation was undertaken to understand
and estimate the impact of opencast coalmining on soil
available macro nutrients viz., N, P and K in Telangana state.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Soil samples were collected from Srirampur (Adilabad),
Medipalli (Karimnagar), Bhupalapally (Warangal) and
Yellandu (Khammam) opencast areas of Telangana. At
each opencast mining place surface samples (0-15 cm)
depth were collected 10 surface samples at a distance of 1.5
km (approximately) from opencast coal mining area and
another 10 surface soil samples from 3.5 km from coalmines
in all directions. These samples are designated as samples
within 2 km from coal mining and beyond 2 km respectively.
With an assumption that accumulation of coal dust will be
within 2 km from mining site. Thus a total of 80 samples
were collected i.e 40 within 2 km another 40 beyond 2 km
from mining area from four places of opencast i.e Srirampur,
Medipalli, Bhupalpally and Yellandu.
The available nitrogen was estimated by the alkaline
potassium permanganate method as described by Subbiah
and Asjia (1) and the results were expressed as Kg ha-1.
Available phosphorus in the soils was extracted by
using Olsen’s extractant as described by Olsen et al. (2) and
phosphorus in the extract was determined by using ascorbic
acid as reducing agent as described by Watanabe and Olsen
(3) using spectrophotometer at 660 nm wavelength and
were expressed as kg ha-1.
Available potassium in the soils was extracted by
employing neutral normal ammonium acetate and determined
by aspirating the extract into the flame photometer (4) and
results were expressed were in Kg ha-1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The available N content of soils ranged between 57.0
to 26.00 kg ha-1 within 2 km from the mining activity and
180.2 to 487.6 kg ha-1beyond 2 km from the mining activity
(Table 1).
Soil close to mining activity of all under low category
(< 280 kg N ha-1) and soils away from mining activity fall
under medium category (280 – 560 kg N ha-1).
The available nitrogen content was significantly lower
in soils within 2 km compared to those in 2 km+ zone from
the mining activity ( Fig.1). Which may be attributed to the
intensive cultivation in this area than within 2 km pedons
and also high organic carbon content.
Available phosphorus of surface samples within 2

119
km from opencast area ranged from 2 to 35.14 kg ha-1 and The mean lower values were observed around opencast
beyond 2 km from opencast area ranged from 8.2 to 64.5 kg mining areas than in normal areas of lb river coalfield Orissa
ha-1(Table 2) (6).
The available P content (kg ha-1) within 2 km distance Available potassium of surface samples within 2 km
from the mining activity, was lower compared to beyond 2 from opencast area ranged from 51 to 280.4 kg ha-1 and
km from the mining activity. There was significant change beyond 2 km from opencast area ranged from 206.0 to
in P content of soils within 2 km and beyond 2 km of the 475.2 kg ha-1. Significantly lower available potassium were
mining activity (Fig.2). observed within 2 km zone than in beyond 2 km zone (Table
1 and Fig.3).
This may be attributed to the addition of mine spoil
which removes natural vegetation and destroys natural As soil fertility status of was found to be low due to
condition. Also addition of coal dust upto 2 km of mining above mentioned reasons in cultivated soils within 2km
area which fixes more P than in beyond 2 km area. Sadhu et from opencast coal mining suitable crops/plantations may
al. (5) also observed more available P in native soil than in be selected according to land suitability criteria and heavy
mine spoil in lower Gondwana coal fields of Raniganj coal metal accumulation status for sustainable and safe produce.
mines area in India.
Table 1. Variation in Nitrogen (N) content in within 2 km and beyond 2 km area in opencast mining areas of Telangana
Srirampur Medipalli Bhupalapally Yellandu
< 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km
200.4 230.6 88 275 65 259 98 138.6
170.2 250.2 85 208.8 89 256.2 61 148.3
150.5 300.9 76 196.2 68 231.0 187 487.6
190.2 270.4 57 282 104 258.7 150 200.1
260 301.2 87 285.4 84 249.6 58 366.9
212.5 246.5 92 310.5 84 186.7 121 285.4
149.6 190.2 110 210.6 200.4 120.0 130.3 245.3
130.3 366.9 138 301.2 170.2 215.4 170.2 301.2
150.5 311.5 60 257 130.3 204.8 130.4 311.5
210.4 345.5 85 300.9 210.4 215.4 120.7 180.2
Mean
281.39 87.80 262.76 120.53 219.68 122.66 266.51
182.46

Table 2. Variation in Phosphorus (P) content in within 2 km and beyond 2 km area in opencast mining areas of Telanga-
na
Srirampur Medipalli Bhupalapally Yellandu
< 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km
29.8 44.5 13 26.9 9 22.7 11 20.2
16.12 60.1 12 25.6 14 34.1 5 14.98
11.8 30.32 9 18.2 11 8.2 10 64.2
35.14 24.25 10 35.8 10 45.7 9 20.50
18.65 41.44 8 35.14 2 20.2 3 39.50
22.45 29.48 9 20.52 2 31.1 8 8.90
21.45 13.25 8 55.12 11.8 31.3 13.25 22.15
13.3 39.5 14 21.45 16.12 30.6 16.12 20.52
11.8 21.1 12 18.9 13.25 21.6 11.80 21.10
15.18 54.23 12 29.8 16.14 30.6 16.66 15.22
Mean
35.81 10.7 28.74 10.53 27.61 10.38 24.72
19.56

Table 3. Variation in Potassium (K) content in within 2 km and beyond 2 km area in opencast mining areas of Telangana
Srirampur Medipalli Bhupalapally Yellandu
< 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km < 2 km > 2 km
170.88 490.8 134 312 51 259.9 148 348.3

120
 189.53 350.25 122 206 156 222.0 152 203.3
260.14 296.54 102 284 187 475.0 257 375.6
388.77 280.77 97 312 68 254.2 226 300.10
400.11 315.99 120 388.5 175 348.3 134 466.45
280 315.6 58 370.5 142 308.3 216 388.45
257.99 484.31 122 460.7 200 208.1 280.40 280.64
296.54 466.45 160 430.15 170.88 228.1 170.88 430.15
260.14 444.14 57 231 180.94 208.41 175.0 444.14
189.33 441.54 240 450.62 172 228.1 242.2 333.12
Mean
388.63 121.20 344.54 150.28 274.04 200.14 357.02
269.34

Figure 1. Variation in Nitrogen content within 2 km and

beyond 2 km area from opencast mining areas of Telan-
gana region

* Each value is an average of 10 surface samples

REFERENCES:
* Each value is an average of 10 surface samples
Subbaiah B.V and Asija, G.L. 1956. A rapid procedure for
the estimation of available nitrogen in soils.
Figure 2. Variation in Phosphorus content within 2 km and beyond 2
Current Science. 25:259.
km area from opencast mining areas of Telangana region
Olsen S.R., Cole C.V., Watanable F.S and Dean L.A. 1954.
Estimation of available phosphorus in soil by
extraction with sodium bicarbonate, Circular,
U.S.D.A. 939-945.
Watanabe F. S and Olsen S. R. 1965. Test of ascorbic acid
method for determining phosphorous in water
and sodium bicarbonate extracts of soils.
Proceedings of Soil Science Society of
America. 29: 677-678.
Jackson M.L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis. Oxford IBH
Publishing House, Bombay. 38.
Sadhu K., Adhikari K. and Gangopadhyay A. 2012. Effect
of mine spoil on native soil of lower gondwana
coal fields: Raniganj Coal mines areas, India.
International Journal of Environmental
Sciences 2(3): 1675-1687.
* Each value is an average of 10 surface samples
Mohapatra H and Goswami. S. 2012. Impact of Coal mining
Figure 3. Variation in Potassium content within 2 km on soil characteristics around lb river coal
and beyond 2 km area from opencast mining areas of Tel- field, Orissa, India. Journal of Environmental
angana region Biology 33: 751-756.

121
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 122-126 (2015)

RESPONSE OF RABI MAIZE (ZEA MAYS) TO SOIL AND CLIMATE BASED

DRIP IRRIGATION SCHEDULES
B.KEERTHANA, V.RAMULU, V. PRAVEEN RAO, M.UMA DEVI and A.V. ANUSHA
Department of Water Management, College of Agriculture, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agriculture University, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad-500030

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during rabi 2013-14 cropping season at Acharya N.G. Ranga Agriculture University, Hyderabad to evaluate
the response of rabi maize to soil and climate based drip irrigation schedules. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with
eight treatments in three replications. The treatments comprises of soil and climate based drip irrigation schedules. Significantly the highest
plant height and leaf area were observed in drip irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars threshold soil moisture potential which is closely followed
by drip irrigation scheduled at 125% Epan equivalent replenishment at all growth stages except at 30 DAS. The highest LAI and CGR was
noticed with irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars soil moisture potential (I1) and differ significantly over rest of the irrigation schedulings ex-
cept with irrigation scheduled at 125% Epan (I5) and 100% Epan (I6) at all growth stages. Leaf area duration (LAD) was also significantly
influenced by soil and climate based irrigation schedules at all days intervals. The maize grain yield realised with irrigation scheduled at 20
cbars soil moisture potential was highest (9.062 t ha-1) and differed significantly with rest of the irrigation schedulings except with irrigation
scheduled at 125% Epan and 100% Epan while the lowest grain yield was observed in irrigation scheduled at 50 cbars soil moisture potential.

Key words: Drip irrigation scheduling, Grain yield, Growth parameters, Pan evaporation, Soil moisture potential

INTRODUCTION
Maize is a water demanding crop and requires high
amount of water i.e. 450-600 mm compared to other I.D
crops and the crop responds well to input usage viz., water
and nutrients and highly efficient in producing high dry
matter per unit quantity of water used. Bharathi et al. (2007)
reported that the plant height, dry matter production, leaf
area index and yield of maize was significantly increased
with increase in the level of irrigation.
Water is crucial input for augmenting agricultural
production towards sustainability in agriculture. Scientific
water management aims in providing suitable soil-moisture
to the crop to obtain optimum yield with maximum economy
in irrigation water and maintenance of soil productivity. The
utilization of applied water by crop varies with irrigation
levels and methods adopted. Among the various methods
of water application, micro irrigation may help in saving in
amount of water applied and minimizes the water and nutrient
losses either surface runoff or leaching. A good irrigation
water management starts with sound irrigation scheduling,
which is a decision making process and involves how much
water to apply and when to apply in each scheduling. The
yield of any crop not only depends on the available or
non availability of soil moisture but also on the climatic
conditions and also critical soil moisture depletion levels
allowed in the root zone depth. Sepaskhah and Ghahraman
(2004) reported that the field scale irrigation scheduling
can be improved by quantifying the soil water content by
using advanced instrumentation techniques for irrigation
scheduling for effective and economic use of limited water
supplies. Soil and climate based irrigation scheduling is one
such strategy for maximizing growth, yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at college farm,
Agricultural college, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during rabi
season 2013-14. The experimental soil was sandy loam in
texture, slightly alkaline in reaction and non-saline with the
field capacity moisture content of 19.26 %.The fertility status
of the experimental soil was low in organic carbon (0.38%)
and available nitrogen (160 kg ha-1), medium in available
phosphorus (32 kg ha-1) and high in available potassium
(343 kg ha-1). The maize hybrid DEKALAB super 900M
was selected as test crop and the experiment was laidout
in randomised block design with three replications. The
treatment combinations consisted of soil and climate based
irrigation schedules (8); drip irrigation at 20 cbars (I1), 30
cbars (I2), 40 cbars (I3), 50 cbars (I4) threshold soil moisture
potential level and drip irrigation equivalent to 125% (I5),
100% (I6), 75% (I7) pan evaporation replenishment and
surface irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE with 5 cm irrigation depth
(I8). The crop was sown on flat bed under drip irrigation
with a spacing of 80 cm × 15 cm. The recommended dose of
fertilizers i.e. 200-80-80 kg of N- P2O5- K2O ha-1, the entire
phosphorus was applied to soil as a basal dose in the form
of SSP. Nitrogen and potassium were applied in the form of
urea and potassium nitrate, respectively through fertigation
by using ventury system.
In soil based irrigation scheduling treatments from I1 to
I4 were scheduled by monitoring the soil moisture potential
threshold levels through installing water mark sensors in the
crop root zone depth (0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm depth) and
the irrigation was commenced whenever the soil moisture
potential reached in the upper sensor at 20 cm soil depth
to a pre-determined potential i.e. 20, 30, 40 and 50 cbars
critical soil moisture potential in treatments I1, I2, I3 and I4,
respectively. The amount of water applied was equal to 25%
depletion of available soil moisture during sensitive stages
and 50% depletion of available soil moisture during other
stages in that 20 cm depth through drip irrigation system.
Where as the irrigation scheduling treatments from I5 to I7
were scheduled by taking the pan evaporation data (USWB
open pan evaporimeter) obtained from the Agromet center,

122
ARI, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, the calculated quantity of
water given at 3 days interval under drip irrigation. While
in surface irrigation (I8) IW/CPE ratio of 1.0, the depth
of irrigation water applied was 50 mm and irrigation was
rescheduled whenever the cumulative pan evaporation
(CPE) reached to 50 mm. During rainy days the volume
of water applied to each treatment was adjusted for the
effective rainfall received. The recommended agronomic
practices and plant protection measures were adopted as and
when required.
Growth functions were calculated by using the following
formula
W2 - W1 1 height (241.50 cm) over rest of the irrigation schedules
CGR (g day m ) -1 -2
= ----------- × ----
t2 – t1 P At harvest, irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars soil moisture
LAI = Total leaf area (cm2)
Unit ground area (cm2)
LAI1 + LAI2
LAD (days) = ----------------- × (t2 – t1)
2
Where as
W2, W1 are dry weights of leaves in t2, t1 time intervals re-
spectively.
P = Unit ground area (m2)
LAI1 , LAI2 are leaf area index in t2, t1 time intervals respec-
tively.
Data on growth parameters (during 30DAS, 60DAS, 90DAS
and harvest) and grain yield were documented and statisti-
cally analyzed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Per cent seedling emergence
The initial plant stand of rabi maize (maize plant stand
after emergence) to the theoretical plant stand according
to spacing was non-significantly influenced by different
soil and climate based drip irrigation schedules. Persual of
data indicates that per cent seedling emergence in different
treatments ranges between 76.66 to 78.33 (Table 1).
Plant height
Perusal of data indicated that the plant height of maize
increased progressively with the advancement of crop age
up to harvest, irrespective of the treatments. The plant height
of maize was significantly influenced by soil and climate
based drip irrigation schedules at 60 DAS, 90 DAS and at
harvest except at 30 DAS (Table 1). The irrigation schedules
were not imposed up to 30 DAS as sufficient soil moisture
was maintained in the root zone depth as a result of rainfall
received. There by the treatmental influence on plant height
was not seen at 30 DAS. However, the plant height observed
under different treatments ranged between 98.04 to 98.93 cm
123
at 30 DAS.
At 60 DAS, irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars soil
moisture potential recorded significantly the highest plant
height (211.16 cm) over irrigation scheduled at 40 cbars and
50 cbars soil moisture potential. Whereas the plant height
observed with irrigation scheduled at 125% Epan (209.66
cm), 100% Epan (205.16 cm), 30 cbars soil moisture
potential (201.16 cm), 75% Epan (197.33 cm) and surface
irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio (193.33 cm), are in decreasing
order respectively and found at par with the plant height
observed at 20 cbars soil moisture potential.
At 90 DAS, irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars soil
moisture potential recorded significantly the highest plant
except with irrigation scheduled at 125% Epan (237.66 cm).
potential (244.66 cm) recorded significantly the highest
plant height over rest of the irrigation schedules and the next
best treatments with respect to plant height observed were
irrigation scheduled at 125% Epan (240.50 cm) and 100%
Epan (236.66 cm). However, the plant height observed with
drip irrigation at 75% Epan and surface irrigation at 1.0 IW/
CPE ratio were at par with each other and significantly the
lowest plant height was recorded with irrigation scheduled at
50 cbars soil moisture potential (190.50 cm).
The increased plant height observed at low soil
moisture potential was due to availability of optimum soil
moisture continuously in the root zone depth favoring higher
nutrient uptake, better crop growth resulting in taller plants
(Kumar et al., 2011; Bassava et al., 2012). While, the lowest
plant height observed with irrigation scheduled at high soil
moisture potential could be due to low availability of soil
moisture resulting in moisture stress, which reduced length
of internodes (Jurgens et al., 1978).
Leaf area
The leaf area progressively increased with maize
growth stages irrespective of the treatments up to 60 DAS
and then decreased at 90 DAS and at harvest. Similar to plant
height the leaf area was significantly affected by irrigation
scheduling at all the growth stages of observation except at
30 DAS (Table 2).
The leaf area realised at 60 DAS, 90 DAS and at
harvest was significantly higher at 20 cbars soil moisture
potential (5680, 5180 and 4335 cm2, respectively) as a result
of favorable soil moisture availability under high frequency
irrigation and superior to remaining irrigation scheduling
treatments. However, the leaf area observed at 60 DAS,
90 DAS and at harvest with 125% Epan (5601, 5121 and
4196 cm2, respectively), 100% Epan (5552, 5032 and 4176
cm2, respectively) irrigation scheduling treatments found
on par with irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars soil moisture
potential. The lowest leaf area was recorded at 50 cbars soil
moisture potential (4744, 4352 and 3472 cm2 at 60 DAS, 90
DAS and at harvest, respectively) because of low available
soil moisture under low frequency irrigation which caused
stress. The fundamental physiological processes involved
in the growth and development of leaves are cell division
and cells expansion. The moisture stress has marked effect
on leaf area because of the cell division and cell expansion
processes are very sensitive to low moisture stress (Sachan
and Gangawar, 1996) and both the number and volume of
cells were reduced in individual leaves as the soil matric
potential dropped (Alhedi et al., 1999).
Leaf area index (LAI)
The LAI was significantly affected by irrigation
scheduling at all the growth stages of observation except
at 30 DAS. The leaf area index of maize was progressively
increased with growth stages irrespective of the treatments
imposed up to 60 DAS and then decreased at 90 DAS and at
harvest (Table 2).
At 60 DAS, 90 DAS and harvest highest LAI (4.72,
4.28 and 3.61 respectively) was noticed with irrigation
scheduled at 20 cbars soil moisture potential and differed
significantly over rest of the irrigation scheduling treatments
except with irrigation scheduled at 125% Epan and 100%
Epan. The lowest LAI was recorded at 50 cbars soil moisture
potential (3.95, 3.62 and 2.81 at 60, 90 DAS and harvest
respectively) under the conditions of soil moisture stress as a
result of reduced turgidity leading to less expansion and less
multiplication of cells (Shinde et al., 2009). Wherein with
increased availability of moisture, LAI increases owing to
the beneficial effect of adequate soil moisture in maintaining
cell elongation and turgidity (Prasad and Prasad, 1989 and
Sanjeev et al., 2006).
Crop growth rate
CGR was initially slow up to 60 DAS and increased
progressively with advancement of growth irrespective
of the treatments imposed up to 90 DAS and then after
decreased between 90 DAS and harvest (Table 3). Maize
irrigated at 20 cbars soil moisture potential revealed the
highest CGR (0.49 and 1.65 g day-1 m-2) between 30-60
days and 60-90 days growth period due to favorable soil
moisture conditions and differed significantly with rest of
the irrigation schedules except with irrigation scheduled at
125% Epan replenishment.
During 90 days to harvest period, significantly the
highest (0.47 g day-1 m-2) CGR was observed with irrigation
scheduled at 20 cbars soil moisture potential and 125% Epan
replenishment over irrigation scheduled at 40 cbars and
50 cbars soil moisture potential. Whereas the lowest crop
growth rate was observed in irrigation scheduled at 50 cbars
soil moisture potential (0.27 g day-1 m-2). Crop growth rate
was decreased due to increase in the rate of photorespiration
because the relative water content of leaf decreases with
decrease in soil moisture content and results in an increase
in leaf temperature and consequently reduction in the sink
capacity, which results in decreased net photosynthesis
(Chetti et al., 1997).
Table 1. Effect of soil and climate based drip irrigation schedules on seedling emergence % and plant height (cm) of maize
during rabi, 2013-14
Seedling
Irrigation scheduling treatments emergence %
I1 - Drip Irrigation at 20 cbars threshold soil moisture
potential
124
Leaf area duration
The LAD of maize progressively decreased with the
age of the crop up to harvest irrespective of the treatment
(Table 3). The LAD observed between 30-60 DAS and
60-90 DAS were significantly highest at 20 cbars soil
moisture potential (72.28 and 69.05 days, respectively) due
to favorable soil moisture conditions and found superior
to rest of the irrigation schedulings except with irrigation
scheduling at 125% Epan and 100% Epan. The lowest
LAD was observed in irrigation scheduled at 50 cbars soil
moisture potential (61.94 and 58.43 days, respectively) as a
result of soil moisture stress.
At 90 DAS-harvest, the LAD was significantly highest
at 20 cbars soil moisture potential (58.47 days), which was
superior to remaining irrigation scheduling treatments.
Irrigation scheduled with 120% Epan replenishment (56.71
days) and 100% Epan replenishment (56.38 days) were on
par and closely followed by irrigation scheduled at 30 cbars
soil moisture potential (53.57 days), which was on par with
75% Epan replenishment (52.32 days) whereas the lowest
was recorded at 50 cbars soil moisture potential (47.02 days).
Grain yield
The maize grain yield realised with irrigation scheduled
at 20 cbars soil moisture potential was highest (9.062 t
ha-1) and differed significantly with rest of the irrigation
schedulings. Wherein, the grain yield realised at 125% Epan
and 100% Epan drip irrigation scheduling were found to
be at par with the yield obtained with irrigation scheduled
at 20 cbars soil moisture potential (Table 3). This might be
due to maintaining adequate soil moisture in the root zone
depth throughout the crop growth period which facilitated
in better uptake of water and nutrients having beneficial
effect on plant growth which favored more production and
translocation of photosynthates to the sink resulted in high
grain yield. (Payero et al., 2008).
While the lowest grain yield observed in irrigation
scheduled at 50 cbars soil moisture potential (4.312 t ha-1)
over rest of the treatments might be due to moisture stress.
The findings are also in consonance with the findings of
Edmeades et al. (2001) who ascribed water stress is the most
pervasive limitation of yield potential in maize. Whereas
the maize grain yield obtained in surface furrow irrigation
at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio was significantly lower (6.283 t ha-1)
compared to drip irrigation scheduling treatments but it was
on par with drip irrigation at 75% Epan.
From the present study it can be concluded that
drip irrigation scheduled at 20 cbars soil moisture potential
significantly showed increased maize growth and higher
grain yield over rest of the treatments and was on par with
125% Epan and 100% Epan replenishment.
Plant height
30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS Harvest
78.00 98.86 211.16 241.50 244.66
 I2 - Drip Irrigation at 30 cbars threshold soil moisture
77.33 98.38 201.16 226.66 228.33
potential
I3 - Drip Irrigation at 40 cbars threshold soil moisture
76.85 98.04 190.50 216.33 219.66
potential
I4 - Drip Irrigation at 50 cbars threshold soil moisture
76.66 98.33 156.00 187.33 190.50
potential
I5 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 125% pan evaporation
78.33 98.93 209.66 237.66 240.50
replenishment
I6 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 100% pan evaporation
77.51 98.60 205.16 232.83 236.66
replenishment
I7 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 75% pan evaporation
77.00 98.37 197.33 223.83 225.50
replenishment
I8 - Surface Furrow Irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE with 5 cm
76.78 98.33 193.33 219.66 222.83
irrigation depth
SE (m) ± 1.05 0.24 5.86 2.01 1.06
CD (P = 0.05) NS NS 17.94 6.18 3.25

Table 2. Effect of soil and climate based drip irrigation schedules on leaf area (cm2) and leaf area index of maize during
rabi, 2013-14

Irrigation scheduling treatments Leaf area (cm2) Leaf area index (LAI)

30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS Harvest 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS Harvest

I1 - Drip Irrigation at 20 cbars threshold soil
1744 5680 5180 4335 1.45 4.72 4.28 3.61
moisture potential
I2 - Drip Irrigation at 30 cbars threshold soil
1732 5384 4944 3956 1.44 4.48 4.12 3.29
moisture potential
I3 - Drip Irrigation at 40 cbars threshold soil
1736 5113 4760 3608 1.44 4.26 3.96 3.00
moisture potential
I4 - Drip Irrigation at 50 cbars threshold soil
1724 4744 4352 3472 1.43 3.95 3.62 2.89
moisture potential
I5 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 125% pan
1748 5601 5121 4196 1.45 4.66 4.26 3.49
evaporation replenishment
I6 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 100% pan
1740 5552 5032 4176 1.44 4.62 4.19 3.47
evaporation replenishment
I7 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 75% pan
1732 5248 4888 3860 1.44 4.37 4.07 3.21
evaporation replenishment
I8 - Surface Furrow Irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE
1728 5156 4840 3712 1.43 4.29 4.03 3.09
with 5 cm irrigation depth

SE (m) ± 18 76 58 27 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.02

CD (P = 0.05) NS 232 178 82 NS 0.18 0.14 0.06

Table 3. Effect of soil and climate based drip irrigation schedules on crop growth rate (g day-1m-2), leaf area duration
(days) and grain yield of maize during rabi, 2013-14
CGR (g day-1m-2) LAD (days) Grain
Irrigation scheduling treatments 30 – 60 90 DAS– 30 – 60 60 - 90 90 DAS – yield
60 - 90 DAS (t ha-1)
DAS harvest DAS DAS harvest
I1 - Drip Irrigation at 20 cbars threshold soil
0.49 1.65 0.47 72.28 69.05 58.47 9.062
moisture potential
I2 - Drip Irrigation at 30 cbars threshold soil
0.47 1.55 0.45 68.74 66.28 53.57 7.187
moisture potential

125
 I3 - Drip Irrigation at 40 cbars threshold soil
0.45 1.44 0.33 65.32 63.76 49.06 6.291
moisture potential
I4 - Drip Irrigation at 50 cbars threshold soil
0.45 1.37 0.27 61.94 58.43 47.02 4.312
moisture potential
I5 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 125% pan
0.48 1.64 0.47 71.46 68.67 56.71 8.985
evaporation replenishment
I6 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 100% pan
0.47 1.60 0.46 70.85 67.53 56.38 8.120
evaporation replenishment
I7 - Drip Irrigation equivalent to 75% pan
0.46 1.53 0.42 67.04 65.47 52.32 6.173
evaporation replenishment
I8 - Surface Furrow Irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE
0.45 1.49 0.40 65.88 64.79 50.43 6.283
with 5 cm irrigation depth
SE (m) ± 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.94 0.73 0.35 0.542
CD (P = 0.05) 0.01 0.04 0.11 2.90 2.24 1.08 1.662

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 127-130 (2015)

EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON SOYBEAN

D. SRIDEVI1, SYED AHMAD HUSSAIN2 and M.YAKADRI3
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030, PJTSAU, India.
1,2

AICRP on Weed Control, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad –500 030, PJTSAU, India.
3

E-mail: srimutluru@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:
An experiment was conducted during kharif season, 2010 at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Professor Jayashankar Telangana Ag-
ricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad to know the effect of Integrated nutrient management on Soybean (Glycine max). The ex-
periment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with 12 treatmental combinations which were replicated thrice. The results revealed
that integration of 100%, 75%, 50% and 25% of inorganic fertiliser with proportionate organic nitrogen forms (Vermicompost and FYM)
and supplemented with Rhizobium and micronutrient mixture spray recorded improved yield attributes and yield of soybean. Highest num-
ber of pods per plant (25.3), seeds per pod (2.80), 100 seed weight (12.32), grain yield (2238 kg ha-1), haulm yield (3250 kg ha-1) and harvest
index (40.7), was realized with 75% RDN (inorganic) + 25% RDN through FYM besides supplementing with Rhizobium and micronutrients.

Key words: Soybean, INM, yield attributes and yield

INTRODUCTION:
Soybean (Glycine max (L) Merill ) a grain legume is
considered as a wonder crop due to its dual qualities viz., high
protein (40-43%) and oil content (20%). It was introduced
in India during 1960s and is gaining rapid recognition as a
highly desirable pulse and oil seed crop. India stands next
only to China in the Asia - Pacific region, with respect to area
(9.6 million ha) with production of (9.9 million tonnes) and
productivity of (1027 kg/ha). Soybean occupies third position
in area and production of overall commercial oil seed crops,
contributes to 33 per cent of our commercial oil seeds and
21 per cent of total pulse production. This legume is making
straight way in Indian agriculture to meet protein and oil
requirement. It is outstanding in its nutritive value with
enhanced protein and oil content and is also rich in vitamins,
minerals, salts and other essential amino acids. Soybean
utilizes high quantities of nutrients from soil and imbalanced
fertilization leads to mining of soil nutrients. Therefore, it
is necessary to integrate various sources of both organic
and inorganics to maintain soil fertility apart for sustainable
production of soybean. Low productivity of soybean is
primarily because of uncontrollable climatic factors like
erratic rainfall, distribution pattern and controllable edaphic
factor of low organic matter status owing to imbalanced
use of both macro and micro nutrient through high analysis
inorganic fertilizers. Continuous use of inorganic fertilisers
has detrimental effect on soil health and it defies the concept
of sustainable agriculture. Integrated nutrient management
aims at maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient
supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop
productivity through optimization of the benefits from all
possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner.
The benefit Integrated nutrient management in crops like
Soybean has been realized and therefore it is felt essential to
study the effect of Integrated Nutrient Management practices
under Southern Telangana zone.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted during kharif season,
2010 at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Professor
Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The soil was sandy clay loam in
texture under study was slightly alkaline (7.9) in reaction,
and low in available nitrogen (230.7 kg N ha-1), medium
in available phosphorus (25.4 kg P2O5 ha-1) and potassium
(284.5 kg K2O ha-1). The experiment was laid out in a
randomized block design with 12 treatments and replicated
thrice. The treatments included, TI 100% RDN (inorganic),
T2 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through FYM), T3
50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through FYM, T4 25%
RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through Vermicompost, T5
50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through Vermicompost,
T6 100% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment, T7
75% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment, T8 100%
RDN (inorganic) + Micro nutrient mixture, T9 100% RDN
(inorganic) + Micro nutrients + Rhizobium, T10 75% RDN
(inorganic) + 25% RDN FYM + Micronutrients + Rhizobium,
T11 75% RDN (inorganic) + 25% RDN-VC + micronutrients
+ Rhizobium and T12 (Control (No fertiliser).The crop was
sown on 2nd August at a spacing of 30 x 7.5 cm. The variety JS-
335 was used @75 kg ha-1 of seed rate. Nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium were applied @ 40, 60 and 40 Kg ha‑1 in the
form of urea, single super phosphate and murate of potash,
as basal. Vermicompost and recommended dose of fertilizers
were incorporated one week before sowing. Inoculation of
Rhizobium japonicum was done as per treatments and seed
was sown immediately. Micronutrient mixture spray was
applied @ 500 Kg ha-1 as per the respective treatments at 20
days after sowing. A well distributed rainfall of 568.3 mm
was received 40.6 rainy days. The observations on yield
attributes were recorded at harvest on five randomly selected
plants from each treatment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of Pods Plant-1
The data on number of pods plant-1 influenced by
treatment combinations (Table 1) included that highest
number of pods per plant were recorded with 75% RDN
(inorganic) along with 25% RDN substituted with FYM
besides supplementing with Rhizobium and micronutrients

127
(25.3) and it was which was on par with the treatment acceleration in translocation of photosynthates from source
that received multiple application of micronutrients and to sink by micronutrients. These results can be supported
Rhizobium RDN 25% with vermicompost (24.0) and the from the findings of Suryawanshi et al. (2006), Alam et al.
lowest number of pods per plant were recorded in control (2009) and Chaturvedi et al. (2010).
(15.65). The increase in number of pods per plant in these
treatments could be attributed to the conjunctive effect of Haulm Yield (kg ha-1)
micronutrients (Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Mo and B) which play The Haulm yield was significantly significantly
role in translocation of photosynthatates and stimulation influenced by integrated nutrient management practices (Table
of physiological process by vermicompost and making 2). The highest haulm yield was recorded with the treatment
available of the nutrient ions slowly and steadily to the plant that received 75% RDN (inorganic) along with 25% RDN
so as to make its source to sink requirement. Similar views is substituted with FYM besides supplementing with
were recorded by Tomar et al. (2004), Ghosh, et al. (2005), Rhizobium and micronutrients (3250 kg ha-1) and was on
Mahesh babu et al. (2008), Imkongtoshi and Gohain (2009) par with the treatment that received multiple application of
micronutrients and Rhizobium RDN 25% with vermicompost
Number of Seeds Pod-1
(3193 kg ha-1) and the lowest haulm yield was recorded in
The highest number of seeds per pod were recorded control (2025 kg ha-1). This could be ascribed to the fact
with 75% RDN (inorganic) along with 25% RDN substituted that combined application of micronutrients, biological
with FYM besides supplementing with Rhizobium and nitrogen fertilizers, organic and inorganic nitrogen resulted
micronutrients (2.80) and it was on par with the treatment in lush vegetative growth. These results are supported by the
that received multiple application of micronutrients and findings of Alam et al. (2009), Chaturvedi et al. (2010) and
Rhizobium RDN 25% with vermicompost (2.65) while the Kaushal and Singh (2011).
lowest number of seeds per pod were recorded in control
(2.01) (Table 1) increased seeds per pod in above treatments Harvest Index (HI)
could be due to the increased nutrient availability through The highest harvest index was observed with the treatment
integrated nutrient management . Mahesh Babu et al. (2008), 75% RDN (inorganic) along with 25% RDN is substituted
Singh and Rai (2004), Mohan Kumar et al.(2005), Nagaraju with FYM besides supplementing with Rhizobium and
et al. (2009) and Uma Reddy et al. (2010) are of the similar micronutrients (40.7%) and was on par with the treatment
opinion that rapid mineralization of nitrogen from inorganic that received multiple application of micronutrients and
sources coupled with steady supply of N forms of organic Rhizobium RDN 25% with vermicompost (40.4%) and the
source (FYM and vermicompost) which might have met lowest haulm yield was recorded in control (33.5%) (Table
nitrogen requirement of crop at critical reproductive stage. 2). Similar views were expressed by Thakur et al. (2009).
100 Seed Weight (g) From the foregoing results, it can be concluded that
the application of 75% RDN (inorganic) + 25% RDN
The data revealed that 100 seed weight was not
through FYM besides supplementing with Rhizobium and
significantly influenced by different sources of nutrient
micronutrients recorded highest number of pods per plant
management treatments (Table 1). Generally test weight
(25.3), seeds per pod (2.8), 100 seed weight (12.32), grain
is a genetical character and hence it was not influenced by
yield (2238 kg ha-1), haulm yield (3250 kg ha-1) and harvest
different nutrient sources and proportions of RDN. Similar
index (40.7). Yield attributes and yield was influenced
results were reported by Thakur et al. (2009).
significantly by the RDN (sources and levels) and maximum
Grain Yield (kg ha-1) yield was with organic, inorganic, micronutrient and
Rhizobium combined application.
The highest grain yield was recorded in the crop
that received 75% RDN (inorganic) along with 25%
RDN substituted with FYM besides supplementing with
Rhizobium and micronutrients (2238 kg ha-1) which was on
par with the treatment that received multiple application of
micronutrients and Rhizobium RDN 25% with vermicompost
(2165 kg ha-1) The lowest grain yield was recorded in
control plot (1022 kg ha-1) (Table 2). Grain yield is mainly
dependent on source sink relation. As the reproductive
organs received more photosynthetic assimilate, and it had
resulted in higher grain yield. Increase in various plant
growth characters such as plant height, leaf area and the total
dry matter ultimately might had resulted in increased grain
yield of soybean. The results collaborate with the findings
of Suryawanshi et al. (2006) and Kaushal and Singh (2011).
Similarly this could be due to the rapid mineralization of
nitrogen and slow and steady available of nitrogen i.e., from
FYM, phytostimulant effect of vermicompost besides the

128
Table 1. Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield attributes of soybean

Treatment No. of Pods Plant-1 No .of Seeds pod-1 100 seed weight(g)

T1 100% RDN (inorganic) 20.43 2.15 11.36

T2 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through FYM. 17.89 2.10 11.19

T3 50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through FYM. 20.00 2.17 11.35

T4 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through Vermicompost 17.84 2.01 11.12

T5 50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through Vermicompost. 19.46 2.15 11.30

T6 100% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment. 20.56 2.30 11.59

T7 75% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment. 20.49 2.30 11.28

T8 100% RDN (inorganic) + Micro nutrient mixture. 20.53 2.20 11.43

T9 100% RDN (inorganic) + Micronutrients +Rhizobium. 21.00 2.40 11.50

75% RDN (inorganic) + 25% RDN FYM + Micronutrients +
25.30 2.80 12.32
T10 Rhizobium
75% RDN (inorganic) +25% RDN-VC+Micro nutrients +
T11 24.00 2.65 12.25
Rhizobium
T12 Control (No Fertiliser). 15.65 2.01 10.98

S.Em.± 1.397 0.103 0.821

CD ( P = 0.05) 4.125 0.305 N.S

RDN = 40 kg N/ ha
Table 2. Effect of integrated nutrient management on grain yield, haulm yield and harvest index of soybean
Treatment Grain yield (kg ha-1) Haulm yield (kg ha-1) Harvest index (%)
T1 100% RDN (inorganic) 1627 2778 36.9
T2 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through FYM. 1303 2400 35.1

T3 50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through FYM. 1542 2792 35.5

T4 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through Vermicompost 1196 2249 34.7

T5 50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through Vermicompost. 1466 2679 35.3

T6 100% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment. 1842 2874 39.0

T7 75% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment. 1717 2902 37.1

T8 100% RDN (inorganic) + Micro nutrient mixture. 1682 2778 37.7

T9 100% RDN (inorganic) + Micronutrients +Rhizobium. 1913 2960 39.2

75% RDN (inorganic) + 25% RDN FYM + Micronutrients +
T10 2238 3250 40.7
Rhizobium
75% RDN (inorganic) +25% RDN-VC+Micro nutrients +
T11 2165 3193 40.4
Rhizobium
T12 Control (No Fertiliser). 1022 2025 33.5
S.Em.± 65.84 92.07 1.22
CD ( P = 0.05) 194.36 271.7 3.61

RDN = 40 kg N/ ha

129
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Prodhan, M.Y. (2009) Nodulation, yield and
quality of soybean as influenced by integrated
nutrient management. Journal of Bangladesh
Agricultural University. 7(2): 229-234, ISSN
1810-3030.
Chaturvedi, S., Chandel, A. S., Dhyani, V.C. and Singh, A.
P. (2010) Productivity, profitability and quality
of soybean (Glycine max) and residual soil
fertility as influenced by integrated nutrient
management. Indian Journal of Agronomy
55(2): 133-137.
Deshmukh, K. K., Khatik, S. K. and Dubey, D. P. (2005)
Effect of integrated use of inorganic, organic
and biofertilizers on production, nutrient
availability and economic feasibility of soybean
grown on soil of Kaymore plateau and Satpura
Hills. Journal of Soils and Crops.15 (2): 21 –
25.
Ghosh, P. K., Bandyopadhyay, K. K and Singh A.B. 2005.
Effect of integrated nutrient management on
matter production, water use efficiency and
productivity of soybean, Glycine max (L.)
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Imkongtoshi and Gohain, T. (2009) Integrated nutrient
management in soybean (Glycine max L.)  under t
errace cultivation of Nagaland. Crop Research.
38 (1, 2 & 3): 39 – 42.
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fertilizer, FYM and biofertilizer on growth and
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Mahesh Babu, H.M., Hunje Ravi, Biradarpatil, N. K and
Babalad, H. B. (2008) Effect of organic
manures on plant growth, seed yield and quality
of soybean. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural
Sciences. 21(2):219-221.
Naga Raju, A. P., Chikkadevaiah and Mohan Kumar,H.
K. (2009) Effect of conjunctive use of
micronutrients and bio-inoculants on nutrients
uptake, Economics and yield of soybean
(Glycine max (L.) Merrill). Mysore Journal.
Agricultural Sciences. 43(4): 668-674.
Singh, Ranjit and Rai, R.K. (2004) Yield attributes, yield and
quality of soybean (Glycine max) as influenced
by integrated nutrient management. Indian
Journal of Agronomy 49(4): 271 – 274.
Suryawanshi, S.B., Lad, N.G., Suryawanshi, V.P., Shaikh,
A. K. and Adbul, P.B. (2006) Combined effect
of organic and inorganic fertilization on yield
attributes and yield of Soybean (Glycine
max (L) Merill). Journal of Soils and Crops.
16(1):145-147.
Thakur, H. S., Raghuwanshi, S.R.H and Raghuwanshi, O.
P. S. (2009) Integrated Nutrient Management in
Soybean (Glycine max (L) Merrill). Soybean
Research. 7:16-20.
Tomar, S. (2004) Response of phosphorus, sulphur and
rhizobium inoculation on growth, yield
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 131-134 (2015)

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF DIPTERAN AND HYMENOPTERAN FLOWER FEEDERS

IN CHILLI
D.ANITHA KUMARI, G.ANITHA* AND V.ANITHA1
Vegetable Research Station, SKLTS Horticultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad
*
AICRP on Biological Control of Crop Pests, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
1
Admn. Building, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.

ABSTRACT
Chilli crop is affected by insect pests in all stages of its growth. However the economic damage by insect pests during flowering and
fruiting stage causes serious crop losses. Gall midge is a serious pest causing severe damage to an extent of 10-40 per cent in Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Chhattisgarh. Galls are usually caused by Asphondylia capparis, but in addition to the midge,
chilly flowers were found to be infested with Goethella asculcata, Ceratoneura indi and Eurytoma. Infested flowers lost their shape,
became discolored, had an abnormal look and became hard. Since information on Hymenopteran flower feeders in Rajendranagar area
is scarce, a field experiment was conducted at Vegetable Research Station, Rajendranagar Hyderabad during kharif 2014 to know the
composition of flower feeders, their biology, seasonal incidence and the extent of their damage in the crop. Infested buds were collected
from experimental fields and brought to the laboratory to study the emerging pests and their biology. Results revealed that in addition to
Asphondylia capparis, three hymenopterans Goethella asculcata, Ceratoneura indi and Eurytoma attacked flowers and caused huge
loses to the chilli growers. Of them, C.indi was found to cause more damage to the crop. Observations on their seasonal incidence indi-
cated that they attacked flower buds from August and continued till harvest in December. Correlation and regression studies were carried
out to know the impact of weather parameters (temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed, sunshine hours) on pest population.

Keywords Chilli, Asphondylia capparis,, Goethella asculcata,, Ceratoneura indi , Eurytoma.

INTRODUCTION
Chilli is an important commercial crop grown in
Telangana State. Among different pests attacking the
flowers, blossom midge Asphondylia capsici Barnes
(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is a serious pest in Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh. Damage due to midge is estimated to be 10-40%
in Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh Orissa, and
Chhattisgarh. According to Nagaraju et al., (2002) and
Tewari et al., (1987) the infestation due to gall insects on
capsicum flowers ranged from 10-56 per cent depending
on the variety or hybrid, stage of the crop, location and
management practices, whereas on egg plant it ranged
between 2-44 per cent.
In recent years, there is an increased infestation of gall
midge in many parts of South and Central India especially on
hot peppers. Gall infested flowers either drop off or develop
into malformed fruits and sometimes pollen germination is
affected (Kumar et al., 2000; Nagaraju et al., 2002). Infested
flowers lose their shape, become discolored, have an abnormal
look and become hard. Further, infested fruits will have less
number of seeds with reduced seed germination, 34-53%
reduction in fruit size, 52-88% reduction in seed number and
60-88% reduction seed weight/fruit (Nagaraju et al.,(2002).
Maryanna et al. (2006) observed flower buds or very young
pods of chilli to be transformed into galls and opined that
when young pods were attacked, they did not grow normally
and remained smaller than normal pods. According to Kumar
et al., (2010) the gall formers infesting egg plant and bell
pepper belong to Diptera and Hymenoptera. Galls induced
by these insects were morphologically similar and can be
distinguished only after dissection of infested flowers.
Ceratoneura indi Girault was a hymenopteran pest
reported on both egg plant and sweet pepper (Narendran and
Kumar,1995). The damage is often similar to gall midge.
Sometimes more damage is inflicted by C. indi than the
gall midge. Other important gall inducing species including
Goethella asulcta and Eurytoma chaitra, were first report
from India by Nagaraju et al., (2002).
Basavaraj et al., (2011) reported the incidence of
chilli gall midge Asphondylia capparis to an extent of
14.41 and 8.17 per cent between October 2009 and January
2010 in chilli in Raichur district of Karnataka. Ukey et
al 1989 reported Eurytoma sp as a pest on chilli flowers.
Species composition of phytophagous Hymenopterans
(Goethella sp and Ceratoneura) on chilli in Rajendranagar
area was reported by Sireesha et al., (2013).However there
is no information on their biology and seasonal incidence in
Rajendranagar area. Hence the present work was planned to
study the population dynamics of these flower feeders and
impact of weather factors on them.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was laid out at Vegetable Research
Station, Rajendranagar in an area of 500 sqm. The crop
(variety LCA 334) was grown using the recommended
package of practices without any insecticidal sprays. Fifty
chilli flowers were collected daily from the field and placed
individually in glass vials containing water soaked cotton
swab to prevent desiccation of samples. The open end of the
vial was covered using muslin cloth held in place by a rubber
band. They were observed daily for emergence of the adult
stages. Some flowers were carefully dissected to observe
various life stages of the feeders. The number of adults and
their stages emerging from each flower were recorded daily.
Some emerged insects were collected and preserved in 70%
ethyl alcohol and were sent for identification to NBAIR,

131
Bangalore. Per cent incidence of each of the pest was calculated using the formula mentioned below.
Per cent incidence = malformed flowers /Total flowers X100
To study the impact of weather parameters on these pests, correlation and regression analysis was done.
Results and discussion
Results revealed that per cent damage by flower feeders started from 34 SWk (50.0 per cent) and continued till 51 SWk
(16.6) with a peak damage (88.6 – 89.1) in 40-41 SWks (Fig.1). Out of the four, C.indi was found to cause maximum damage
to the crop (30%) compared to the others. (Fig.2.).

Fig. 1. Total damage of chilli flowers by Dipteran and Hymenopteran flower feeders represented standard week-wise.

Fig.2. Damage of chilli flowers by different pests represented standard week-wise

A complex of Hymenopteran and Dipteran feeders
were recorded .Correlation and regression analysis of the
flower feeders with weather parameters was done to know
their impact on the pests.
1. Asphondylia capparis Rubsaamen (Diptera:
Cecidomyiidae)
Gall midge first appeared in August, started
causing damage to flowers to an extent of 0-1.9 per cent.
(Fig.2). Regression studies revealed that this pest was not
significantly influenced by weather parameters. However,
their numbers were less throughout the period. Kumar et al
(2010) observed gall midge to damage more than 90 percent
of the flowers in the early stage of the crop in Karnataka and
C.indi only a few. However as the season progressed they
observed C. indi to record more damage in chilli flowers.
However Basavaraj et al., (2011) reported its incidence from
October to January in Raichur district of Karnataka.
2. Goethella asulcata Girault (Hymenoptera:
Eulophidae)
This pest was first noticed in August and it damaged
flowers to an extent of 0.9 – 25.6 per cent. Its damage
persisted from August to December and peak incidence was
recorded in September (Fig.2).
Regression studies revealed that relative humidity
(morning and evening) (p<0.01), windspeed (p<0.01) and
minimum temperature (p<0.05) had a significant and positive
influence while sunshine hours had significant (p<0.05)

132
and negative effect. Other factors like rainfall, maximum negatively correlated with minimum temperature (p<0.001),
temperature and mean temperature had no impact on the pest mean temperature (p<0.001), morning relative humidity
population. (Table. 1). (p<0.01) and windspeed (p<0.05). Maximum temperature,
evening relative humidity, rainfall and sunshine hours had
Regression equation derived was as follows no significant influence. Out of all the weather factors, mean
Y = -72.7 + 893.62 Max temp. + 890.98 Min. Temp – temperature (R2 = 75.20) and minimum temperature (R2 =
1783 Mean Temp + 0.37 RH (morn.) + 0.23 RH (eve) – 0.70 83.90) were found to have more influence than other factors
Rainfall + 1.41 Sunshine + 1.48 Windspeed. (R2 = 88.54) and a variation in population could be attributed to mean
(p <0.01). Weather parameters had a profound influence temperature and minimum temperature to an extent of 75.20
in determining the population of G.asculcata as could be % and 83.90 % respectively.
understood from the high R2 value (88.54). Variation in
The regression equation derived was as below.
populations of this pest could be attributed to weather factors
to an extent of 88.54 %. Of all the factors, morning and Y= 59.93+811.58 max temp +809.23 min temp - 1623
evening relative humidity along with wind speed played a mean temp - 0.441 morning relative humidty + 0.442 evening
key role in determining the pest population. relative humidity - 0.078 rainfall + 2.51 sunshine hours
- 1.23 wind speed (R2 = 90.34) (p<0.01) Thus it could be
Table 1 . Correlation coefficient values of G.asulcata popu- understood that weather parameters had an intense influence
lation with weather parameters in determining its population as was evident from the high R2
Parameter r-value R2 value value (88.54) specifying that variation in populations could
be attributed to weather factors to an extent of 90.34 %. Of
Max temp -0.132 NS 1.76 all the factors, minimum temperature, mean temperature,
Min temp +0.504 * 25.43
morning relative humidity along with wind speed played a
key role in deciding its populations.
Mean temp +0.346 NS 12.00
4. Eurytoma sp. (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)
RH-I +0.615** 37.82
The extent of damage recorded by this pest was 1.3
RH-II +0.608 ** 36.96 – 15.4 per cent. It was first noticed in August and declined
Rainfall +0.158 NS 2.50 after November, but its damage was less throughout the crop
period (Fig.2).
Wind speed +0.595 ** 35.39
Table 3 . Correlation coefficient values of Eurytoma popu-
Sun shine -0.510 NS 26.03 lation with weather parameters
Parameter r- value R2 value
3. Ceratoneura indi Girault (Hymenoptera:
Max temp -0.325 NS 10.59
Eulophidae)
Min temp +0.273 NS 7.47
This was the most devastating pest causing damage
of 0 - 30 per cent and persisted throughout the flowering Mean temp +0.709 NS 0.89
season, though peak population was recorded in the first RH-I +0.283 NS 8.04
week of November. Kumar et al (2010) also reported more
RH-II +0.443 NS 19.71
damage on egg plant and sweet pepper by C.indi than gall
midge. Thereafter a decline was observed after the first week Rainfall 0.245 NS 8.32
of December. Ovaries and stamens were transformed into Wind speed +0.658 ** 5% 43.35
black mustard seed-like balls
Sun shine -0.326 NS 10.68
Table 2 . Correlation coefficient values of Ceratoneura indi
population with weather parameters The regression equation can be summed up as

Parameter r - value R2 value Y=37.89 - 177.6 Max temp - 176.4 Min temp + 354.06
Mean Temp - 0.198 RH (morn.) - 0.038 RH (evg.) - 0.526
Max temp -0.403 NS 16.24 rainfall + 0.84 sunshine + 0.23 wind speed (R2=82.15)
Min temp -0.916 *** 83.90 (p<0.05)
Mean temp -0.867 *** 75.20 This indicated that though all the weather factors
together had a good influence on its population with a high
RH-I -0.591 ** 34.94
R2 value (82.15), individual parameters could not influence
RH-II -0.447 NS 20.00 the pest population as was evident from the low R2 value
Rainfall -0.350 NS 12.25 for each parameter (Table 3.) .However Eurytoma was found
to be positively correlated with wind speed (p<0.05).All
Wind speed -0.502 * 25.22 the other factors such as minimum temperature, maximum
Sun shine +0.433 NS 18.80 temperature ,mean temperature, morning and evening
relative humidity, rainfall, sunshine hours had no influence
on the pest population.
Population of C.indi was found to be significantly and

133
 Nagaraju et al (2004) recorded C. indi and G. asulcata
as gall forming insects of Capscicum in Karnataka. The
incidence of these pests started in August and continued till
harvest. C. indi,
G. asulcata and Eurytoma could be some of the
very few phytophagous hymenopterans reported till date.
Information on biology and seasonal incidence of these
pests could help in planning crop sowings such that the crop
escapes the pests.
Thus, out of all the four flower feeders, C.indi
was found to be more affected by variations in weather
parameters, while A.capparis was least affected.. Probably
this explains why C.indi recorded more fluctuations in
population than the others and A.capparis population was
considerably steady though low (Fig.2.). Dearth of data on
influence of weather on these pests is a lacuna for comparing
our results with those of others. The present study is aimed
to study the dynamics in populations of these flower feeders
so that their management tactics involves an integrated
approach considering weather factors to manage them with
ease with limited chemical sprays.
Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Dr.
Poorani, Principal Scientist, Entomology and Dr.Ankita
Gupta, Senior Scientist (Entomology) NBAIR, Bangalore
for help in identification of insect specimens.
REFERENCES
Basavaraj, K., Sreenivas, A. G., Prabhuray ,A.,Bheemanna,
M., Hosmani ,A C. and Nargund ,V. B.,(2011)
Seasonal incidence of chilli gall midge
(Asphondylia capparis Rubsaaman) and its
parasitoids. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural
sciences 24: 555-557
Kumar, S. S., Kumar, N. K. K., Tejavathi, D. H. and Ganeshan,
S.,(2000) Studies on pollen viabilityfruit set and
seed viability in gall midge infested Solanum
melongena (L.) 5thInternational Solanaceae
Conference, july 2-4, 2000. University of
Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
134
Kumar, N. K. K., Nagaraju, D. K., Virakthamath, C. A.,
Ashokan, R., Ranganath, H. R., Chandrasekara
,K. N., Rebijith, K. B. and Singh,T, H., (2010).
Galls insects damaging eggplant and bell
peppers in South India. Advance s in genetics
and breeding of Capsicum and eggplant. 153-
170
Maryana, N., Anastasia, D. and Prima, R., (2006) Asphondylia
sp. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) infesting chilli
pods in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. Paper
presented In: 6th Int. Cong. of Dipterology,
Fukuoka, Japan. p. 157.
Nagaraju, D, K., Viraktaman, C. A. and Kumar, N. K. K.,
(2002) Screening of bell pepper accessions
against gall insects and their and their chemical
control. Pest management in Horticultural
Ecosystems 8: 12-19.
Narendran, T. C. and Kumar, N. K. K., (1995) Systematic
of Ceratoneura indi Girault (Hymenoptera:
Eulophidae) a pest on sweet pepper and
eggplant. Journal of Tropical Agriculture
33:47-49.
Sireesha, K., Ramamurty, V. V., Babu, J. D. and Reddy, R. V.
S. K., (2013) Phytophagous Hymenopterans
infecting chilli buds with chilli midge
(Asphondylia capparis Rubsaamen) in
Proceedings of International Insect Science
Congress held at GKVK, Bangalore Feb 14-17.
Pp 30.
Tewari, G. C., Moorthy, P. N. K. and Sardana, H. R., (1987)
Nature of damage and chemical control of gall
midge, Asphondylia sp., infesting egg plant.
Indian journal of Agriculture 57: 745-748.
Ukey, S.P., Randke, S. G., Gawande, R. B. and Thakare, H.
S., 1989. First record of bud borers, Eurytoma
sp., Goethella sp. and Ceratoneura indi Girault
on chilli in Vidarbha region of Maharashtra
state. P. K. V. Research Journal 13: 73-77.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 135-137 (2015)

FIELD EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT GROUP OF INSECTICIDES

AGAINST CITRUS PSYLLA AND LEAF MINER
D.P. SINGH, SAURABH VERMA AND N.K. SINGH

KVK PILKHI, MAU

N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad – 224229 (UP)

ABSTRACT
Among fruit trees, citrus is an important crop in the country. The yield of fruit is not very encouraging due to infestation of various insect
pests, in which citrus psylla and citrus leaf miner are of regular occurrence, which not only check the growth of plants but also reduce
the fruit production. In the light of heavy losses inflicted by them, an experiment was carried out at farmers’ field in Mau district during
2013-14 in randomized block design having three replications on Kagzi lime (Citrus aurantifolia) using Azadirachtin 1.00, Phosphamidon
0.03, Monocrotophos 0.04, Dimethoate 0.03, Endosulfan 0.07, Methyl-o-demeton 0.025 and Fenvalerate 0.005 per cent. It was concluded
from the observations that both the pests may be controlled successfully with two sprayings; first in mid February & another in mid March.
Dimethoate (0.03) followed by Monocrotophos (0.04) or Phosphamidon (0.03) or Fenvalerate (0.005 per cent) provided best results for
the control of citrus psylla (Diaphorina citri Kuwa.). To minimize the attack of citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella Stain.), Phospha-
midon (0.03) or Fenvalerate (0.005) or Methyl-o-demeton (0.025) or Monocrotophos (0.04 per cent) may be sprayed on citrus crop.

Key words: Citrus psylla, cirus leaf miner, insecticides, Dimethoate, Monocrotophos, Phosphamidon, Fenvalerate

INTRODUCTION
Citrus is native to a large area, which extends from
Himalayan foot hills of northeast India to north central
China, the Philippines in east and Burma, Thailand,
Indonesia and New Caledonia in Southeast. In India citrus
is cultivated over an area of near about 1042.0 thousand
hectares with an estimated production of 10090.0 thousand
metric tonnes having an average productivity of 9683.3 kg/
ha during the year 2012-13. The growing under citrus crop
is about 9.62 per cent of the total land under various fruit
crops and has about 8.21 per cent of the total production of
fruit in our country (Singh, 1997). In Uttar Pradesh citrus
crop occupies an area of 0.50 thousand hectare, producing
1.30 thousand metric tonnes of fruits. In India, in terms of
area under cultivation, citrus is the third largest fruit industry
after Banana and Mango. Over the last 30 years, the area and
production under citrus cultivation has increased at the rate
of 11 and 9%, respectively, which shows that the expansion
of citrus industry was quite sustainable. The average
yield of citrus fruits in India is alarmingly low (10.1 t/ha)
compared to other developed countries like Brazil, USA,
China, Mexico and Spain (30-40 t/ha). Citrus fruits have
many merits, which are easily available throughout the year.
Realizing the qualitative importance and uses of these fruits,
their domestic consumption by the large population of the
world is quickly increasing. The fruits are not only delicious
and refreshing to eat, but also provide vitamins, minerals and
many other essential substances required for human health.
Citrus cultivation in India is plagued with various
problems due to limiting growing conditions, limiting water
resources and high incidence of pests and diseases warranting
great care from planting till the plants come to bearing in
order to sustain a productive life of a minimum of 15-20
years. There is growing interest/awareness among the citrus
growers for adoption of latest technologies for commercial
cultivation of citrus. Citrus trees in India are infested by
more than 250 insect pests alone at all stage of growth right
from seedlings in nurseries till the plant exists. Roots, trunks,
stems, leaves, flowers as well as the fruits are attacked by
one or other species of insect pest. The major insect pest of
citrus are Citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton),
citrus psylla (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama), citrus caterpillar
(Papilio demoleus Linnaeus), fruit piercing moth (Ophideres
spp), citrus white fly (Dialeurodes citri Ashmead), citrus
red scale (Aonidiella aurantii Maskell), citrus mealybug
(Pseudococcus filamentosus Cockerell), citrus mite
(Paratetranychus citri Mc Gregor), citrus nematode
(Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb) and lance nematode
(Hoplolaimus indicus Sher). Among these, citrus psylla and
citrus leaf miner is the major insect pest of citrus in eastern
Uttar Pradesh.
Citrus psylla (D. citri) is the most destructive and
consequently the most important of all the insect pests of
citrus. Buds and soft young shoots are attacked by the pest,
leaves become distorted and curled; honeydew production
leads to sooty mould infestation. Badly damaged leaves die
and fall and defoliation of branches can occur. Although
there is a visible difference in the rise and fall of citrus
psylla population in various seasons, yet the ill effects of its
damage are so long-lasting that the trees may look sickly
even when the pest population is not high. Thus sooty and
sickly plants seen in the winter are the victims of this insect,
which had caused damage during the previous summer.
Citrus leaf miner is another important pest causing severe
damage to citrus plant. It is principally a pest on young citrus
and attacks the tender foliage, creating serpentine mines
generally in the lower epidermis, causing leaves to become
distorted and curled up. Larvae consume only the epidermal
cells of the leaf leaving behind the remaining leaf tissue quite
intact with the overlying cuticle of leaf tissue protecting the
larva. Injury caused by citrus leaf miner to citrus leaves
also exacerbates citrus canker disease that developed more
extensively on insect damaged area of the leaf than on the
unaffected area of the same leaf or on healthy leaves. During
summer and autumn the citrus leaf miner (CLM) completes

135
one generation in 14 to 17 days, whereas in late autumn, intensity of psylla and leaf miner was noted 7, 14 and 21 days
winter and early spring completion of one generation can after both the applications. To observe the attack of citrus
take up to three times longer (Beattie and Smith, 1993). psylla and leaf miner 10 leaves were selected at random from
each plant to count the number of individuals infesting them.
Keeping in view the great commercial importance
of citrus fruit, and for importance of this pest in the country, STATISTICAL ANALYSIS:
particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh, the present study was
conducted with the view to determine the efficacy of various The data generated from the insecticidal experiment
insecticides against citrus psylla and leaf miner. were subjected to the analysis of variance and results
obtained have been summarized in following table 1 & 2.
Significant difference of the treatments was tested by C.D.
METHODOLOGY values obtained.
Preparation and Application of Insecticides:
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The citrus plants were sprayed as per schedule with
Azadirachtin 1.0, Phosphamidon 0.03, Monocrotophos Citrus psylla:
0.04, Dimethoate 0.03, Endosulfan 0.07, Methyl-o-demeton The efficacy of all the insecticide was better having
0.025 and Fenvalerate 0.005 per cent including control with 3.00 to 6.33, 1.66 and 3.33 to 7.33 population to control being
water (untreated one tree in each). The required quantity 22.33, 27.33 and 32.66 population 7, 14 and 21 days after the
of insecticides for preparing the solution to spray was first spraying, respectively. Similarly 3.66 to 7.00, 2.00 to
measured by the pipette and mixed into required amount 5.33 and 1.00 to 3.66 nymphs were observed against control
of water in plastic container. The desirable strength of the providing 32.00, 27.66 and 17.00 nymphs 7, 14 and 21 days
diluted solution for spraying was prepared with the help of after the second spraying, which showed the superiority of
following formula: all the insecticide in comparison to untreated plants. From
Quantity of the appropriatary insecticide (in ml) = both spraying, it could be confirmed that Dimethoate,
Monocrotophos, Phosphamidon were most effective
Total quantity of solution required from Methyl-o-demeton, Endosulfan and Azadirachtin
× desired per cent of concentration of insecticide in reducing the population of nymphs of psylla on citrus
crop. The superiority of Dimethoate and Monocrotophos
--------------------------------------------------------- × 1000 in the present investigation confirm with the result of
Per cent of active ingredient of the appropriatary Shivankar et al. (2000), who concluded that Dimethoate and
insecticide Monocrotophos should be preferred because of its lower
cost lower dermal toxicity and systemic action. Dahiya et
Observations under insecticidal trial: al. (1994) also reported that Dimethoate, Monocrotophos,
Phosphamidon and Deltramethrin gave better control of the
For determining the relative efficacy of different pest citrus psylla than did Cypermethrin, Chlorpyriphos,
insecticides viz. Azadirachtin (1.0), Phosphamidon (0.03), Dichlorovos, Endosulfan, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl
Monocrotophos (0.04), Dimethoate (0.03), Endosulfan and Quinolphos and all of the tested insecticides resulted in
(0.07), Methyl-o-demeton (0.025) and Fenvalerate (0.005 90% reduction upto 7days after spraying. These findings are
per cent), observations on pest incidence were recorded at in accordance with results of present investigations.
specific interval. At the appearance of citrus psylla and leaf
miner first spraying was done on 15.02.2014 followed
by another 15.03.2014 after 30 days of first application and
Table 1: Effectiveness of insecticide on population of Citrus psylla (Diaphorina citri Kuwa.) after 1st and IInd spraying
Mean Population of Nymph per 10 leaves
After 1st spraying After IInd spraying
Treatment
14 Days 21 Days
07 Days After 14 Days After 21 Days After 07 Days After
After After
Azadirachtin 1.00% 6.33 6.00 7.33 7.00 5.33 3.66
Phosphamidon 0.03% 4.33 3.33 5.00 4.66 4.00 2.33
Monocrotophos 0.04% 4.00 2.66 4.33 4.66 3.66 2.33
Dimethoate 0.03% 3.00 1.66 3.33 3.66 2.00 1.00
Endosulfan 0.07% 5.66 5.00 6.66 6.00 4.66 3.33
Methyl-o-demeton 0.025% 5.00 4.66 6.00 5.66 4.33 3.00
Fenvalerate 0.005% 4.66 4.00 5.00 5.33 4.33 3.00
Control 22.33 27.33 32.66 32.00 27.66 17.00
S.E. (d) 0.899 0.701 1.149 0.535 1.106 0.676
CD at 5% 1.928 1.504 2.465 1.148 2.371 1.449

136
Citrus leaf miner:
After spraying the various insecticide on citrus
against citrus leaf miner, 1.00 to 0.66, 3.66 to 3.00 and
0.66 to 3.33 larvae were observed from the citrus pants
having the larval population of 5.66, 7.00 and 7.66 after
07, 14 & 21 days of the first spraying. Almost similar trend
of effectiveness was also observed in second spraying
from the observations recorded 07, 14 and 21 days after
application i.e. 0.66 to 3.33, 0.33 to 2.66 and 0.33 to 2.66
against 8.00, 8.33 and 7.66 larvae, respectively on untreated
plants. Observations revealed that the performance of
Phosphamidon, Fenvalerate, Methyl-o-demeton and
Monocrotophos reduced the population with success in
comparison to Dimethoate, Endosulfan and Azadirachtin.
The similar type of work was done by Shidharann et al.
(1989), who suggested the application of Phosphamidon
to control citrus leaf miner, which is according to present
result. Nagalingam and Savithri (1980) found effective
control of this pest with the spraying of Fenvalerate 0.02%,
Monocrotophos 0.05% or Methyl-o-demeton 0.05%. Radke
and Kandalkar (1990) achieved effective control by treatment
with Fenvalerate 0.01 %. According to them Monocrotophos
and Methyl-o-demeton also provided good control of this
pest. Fenvalerate 0.01 per cent provided effective control of
leaf miner according to Batra & Sandhu (1986) and Bhatia
and Joshi (1991). All these findings are in agreement with
the results of present study.

Table 2: Effectiveness of insecticide on population of Citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella Stan.) After Ist and IIndspray-
ing
Mean Population of Nymph per 10 leaves
After 1st spraying After IInd spraying
Treatment
14 Days 21 Days 07 Days 14 Days 21 Days
07 Days After
After After After After After
Azadirachtin 1.00% 3.66 3.00 3.33 3.33 2.66 2.66
Phosphamidon 0.03% 1.00 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.33 0.33
Monocrotophos 0.04% 2.00 2.00 2.33 1.66 1.66 1.33
Dimethoate 0.03% 2.66 2.33 2.66 2.66 2.00 1.66
Endosulfan 0.07% 3.00 2.66 2.66 2.60 2.00 1.66
Methyl-o-demeton 0.025% 2.00 1.66 2.00 2.00 1.33 1.00
Fenvalerate 0.005% 1.66 1.33 1.66 1.33 1.33 0.66
Control 5.66 7.00 7.66 8.00 8.33 7.66
S.E. (d) 0.559 0.663 0.713 0.617 0.753 0.563
CD at 5% 1.2009 1.424 1.529 1.324 1.616 1.209

REFERENCS: Nagalingam, B. and Savithri, P. (1980) Studies on

Batra, R.C. and Sandhu, G.S. (1986) Chemical control
of citrus leaf miner in nursery. Punjab
Horticulture Journal 26(1): 31-33
Beattie, G.A.C., and Smith D. (1993) Citrus leaf miner NSW
Agric. Ag fact H2. AE 4 NSW Agriculture and
Fisheries, Sydney, Australia 6p
Bhatia, K.N. and Joshi, R.K. (1991) Efficacy of insecticidal
treatments in the control of citrus leaf miner
on kinnow seedling in the nursery. Madras
Agricultural Journal 78(1-4): 106-108
Dahiya, K.K.; Lakra, R.K.; Dahiya, A.S. and Singh, S.P.
(1994) Bioefficacy of some insecticides against
citrus psylla, Diaphorina citri Kuw. (Psyllidae:
Homoptera). Journal Crop Research (Hisar),
8(1): 137-140
the chemical control of citrus leaf miner,
Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton. Pestology 4(7):
2-24
Radke, S.G. and Kandalkar, H.G. (1990) Chemical control
of citrus leaf miner, Phyllocnistis citrella
(Stainton). Indian Journal of Entomology
52(3): 397-400
Shidharan, S.; Dhandapani, N.; Nagarajan, N. and
Thamburaj, S. (1989) Seasonal incidence and
control of citrus leaf miner. Pestology 13(4):
15-16
Shivankar, V.J.; Rao, C.N. and Singh, Shyam (2000) Studies
on Citrus Psylla Diaphorina citri Kuwayama: A
review. Agric Review 21(3): 199-204
Singh, S.P. (1997) Citrus fruit for quality cultivars. The
Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture: 132-137

137
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 138-141 (2015)

STUDY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF TELEVISION VIEWERS IN WAZIRGANJ,

BLOCK OF GONDA, DISTRICT (U.P.)
DEVENDRA PRATAP SINGH, PRAKASH SINGH, RAHUL KUMAR SINGH, N. K. TIWARI
Department of Extension Education, College of Agricultural N.D.U.A. &T., Narendra Nagar
(Kumarganj), Faizabad (U.P.) - 224 229
Corresponding author E mail: rahulrrext91@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
There is a wide gap between knowledge, production and its utilization. This gap is more pronounced in farm sector. This gap needs
to be narrowed down so that the farmers can adopt the farm technologies. Television can play an important role to bridge these
gaps through dissemination of need based information. To consider the same a study was conducted in Wazirganj, block of Gon-
da, district of Uttar Pradesh to know the Socio-economic profile of television viewers during the agriculture year 2014. A sam-
ple of one hundred twenty farmers was selected randomly from the list of twelve purposively selected villages for collection of
primary data. A well structured and pretested interview schedule was use for data collection through personal interview meth-
od. The data was analyzed by using percentage, mean and standard deviation. The findings of the study are exposing in this paper.

Key words: Television viewers, Interview Schedule, Socio Economic Indicators, etc.

INTRODUCTION

Television is one of the most popular mass media. It
has the transmission and reproduction of a view or scene,
especially views of person or object in motion by a device
which converts light rays into electric waves and reconverts
those into visible light rays. Hence, in India the government
recognized the imperative role of television in bringing about
social change and a separate organization name Doordarshan
in April 15, 1982 was a land mark in the history of television
in India. Television began in India as an experimental service
in September, 1959 with a limited transmission of three days
a week. The regular service with a new bulletin began in
1965. In the year 1972, television transmission began in
Bombay. Krishi Darshan Programme began in January, 1967
with the help of the department of Atomic Energy, the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute. A daily programme (5 days
in a week) in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India under the scheme and Mass Media
Support to Agriculture Extension is being telecast at 6.30
PM. This field based programme covers various aspects of
agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy and rural
life of farmers.
The socio-economic status plays an important role in
human development. It includes both social and economical
characteristics of the respondents and basically depends on
the social and economical experiences and realities that help
mold one’s personality, attitudes and lifestyle.
The study stated that impact of television used by
youth influence attitude, values and behavior of the youth
which Aries to some extent across culture and to a far greater
extent across age, sex and social related status, within give
culture. (Murray and Kippax, 1996); The mass media, viz.,
posters, radio, television and group media, viz, meetings
and individual media, viz., Live stock development officer,
friends, relatives and progressive farmers, were the different
sources of technical information about breeding, feeding,
animal health care, management and fodder production, for
tribal dairy farmers. (Sawarkar et al., 2001); unfortunately
the services of extension workers were not very impressive.
Majority 85% of the farmers was unaware of the services of
the extension workers. Almost 88% of the farmers did not get
any benefit from extension workers, while only 12% farmers
got benefits like technical advice 8.75%, demonstration
3.75% and equipment 10%. (Ahmad et al., 2007); Majority
of the farmers who own radio and television belonged to
middle age group 62.50% with medium education level
75.83%, 89.16% of the respondents had big family size
and 93.33% had large land holding (Krishnamurthy et a.,
2008); the study concludes that there is only one dedicated
television channel (Soni Dharti) for agricultural channel
sector out of 82 channels. Indeed, a single agricultural
channel is inadequate for an agrarian country having 67% of
them connected to farming (Zia and Khan, 2012);
These findings, as reported by different researchers, led
to the foundation of curiosity to know the socio-economic
status of television viewers in Wazirganj, block of Gonda,
district (U.P.)”
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As per research problem, the study was confined to
Wazirganj block of Gonda district because the criteria of
nearness to researcher villages, its easy accessibility and
close familiarity of investigator with respect to area, people,
officials, etc. Out of 89 villages in community development
block Wazirganj, Gonda, district, 12 villages were selected
purposely for the study to see the limitations of time, money
and capacity etc. A complete list of all the television viewers
in each selected villages were prepared from the list. A total
number of 120 television viewers were selected through
proportionate random sampling technique. The researcher
himself had collected the data from the respondents with the
help of pre-tested interview schedule. Analysis were done
with the use of percentage as well as correlation coefficient
to see the relationship between different variables with farm
television viewing behavior, The study also highlighted
the problems and their solutions as perceived by television

138
viewers. The relevant variables were selected after area.
reviewing the literatures available and the works done in
the field prior to the present investigation. Age, Education, Table-3 Distribution of the respondents according to caste:
Caste, Type of family, Size of land holding, Experience in N=120
farming, Occupation, Housing pattern, Social participation, Number of
Annual income, Period of television ownership, Scientific S. No. Categories Percentage
respondents
orientation and Economic motivation taken as socio- 1. Scheduled caste 28 23.33
economic indicators.
Other backward
2. 58 48.33
caste
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3. General caste 34 28.34
The findings and inferences of the study based on the
selected socio economic indicators were analyzed using Total 120 100.00
percentage, mean and standard deviation and have been The Table-3: indicates that the little less than half of
discussed under the following heads: the respondent 48.33% belongs to other backward caste
followed by general caste 28.34% and the scheduled caste
Socio-economic profile of farmers having 23.33%, respectively.
television:
Table-4 Distribution of the respondents according to family
Table-1: Distribution of the respondents according to age:
type:
N=120
S. No. Categories (year) Number of respondents Percentage N=120
1. Young (up to 39) 29 24.17
S. No. Categories Number of Percentage
2. Middle (40-60) 73 60.83
respondents
3. Old (61and above) 18 15.00
1. Single 67 55.83
Total 120 100.00
2. Joint 53 44.17
Mean=49.47, S.D.=10.60, Min.=30, Max.=85.
Total 120 100.00
It reveals from the Table-1: that the maximum number
of respondents 60.83% was observed in middle age category The Table-4: Shows that single families are more
with age group of 40-60 year followed by 24.17% and 15%, than joint families system. In terms of 55.83% respondents
for low category up to 39 year and high 61 and above year belong to single families system, while remaining 44.17%
old ,respectively. respondents belong to joint families system, respectively.
Hence, it can be said that the middle age of the Table-5 Distribution of the respondents according to size of
respondents are more engaged in farming system of this land holding:
study. N=120
S. Number of
Table-2 Distribution of the respondents according to educa- Categories (acres) Percentage
No. respondents
tion:
1. Marginal farmers (below-2.5) 39 32.50
N=120 2. Small farmers (2.5-5) 33 27.50
Number of Medium farmers (5 above
S. No. Categories Percentage 3. 37 30.83
respondents -7.5)
A. Illiterate 04 3.33 Large farmers (7.5 and
4. 11 9.17
B. Literate 116 96.67 above)
Total 120 100.00 Total 120 100.00
Can read and The Table-5: Indicates that most of the respondents
I. 06 5.00
write 32.50% were finding in the land holding category as
II. Primary 07 5.84 marginal farmers (below 2.5 acre), followed by 30.83%,
III. Middle 25 20.83 in the category of medium farmers (5 above -7.5 acres),
27.50% in the category small farmers (2.5-5 acres) and
IV. High school 36 30.00 9.17% was finding the category of large farmers (above -7.5
V. Intermediate 20 16.67 acres), respectively.
VI. Graduate 18 15.00 The average land holding of the respondents were
VII. Post graduate 04 3.33 found to be 2.36 acres. Thus, it may be concluded that
Total 116 96.67 marginal farmers were prominent in the study area.

The Table-2: focuses that 96.67% of the respondents

were observed to be literate opposed to it only 3.33% of the
respondents were illiterate, which indicates high literacy rate
of the respondents better than whole population of the study

139
Table-6: Distribution of the respondents according to expe- The Table-8: indicates that 75.84% respondents were
rience in farming: finding Puckka type houses followed by 15.83% respondents
N=120 having mixed and 5% Kuchha type of houses, respectively.
Number of Table-9: Distribution of respondents according to social
S. No. Categories (years) Percentage
respondents participation: N=120
1. Low (up to 11) 29 24.17 Number of
2. Medium (12-29) 82 68.33 S. No. Categories Percentage
respondents
3. High (30 and above) 09 7.50 1. No participation 25 20.83
Total 120 100.00 Participation in one
2. 49 40.83
Mean=20.23, S.D.=8.93, Min.=5.00, Max.=55.00. organization
Participation in two
It is clear from the Table-6: that maximum number 3. 32 26.67
organization
of the respondents 68.33% were observed in the medium Participation in more than
category of experience in farming from 12 to 29 years 4. 14 11.67
two organization
followed by 24.17% who had experienced for up to 11 year Total 120 100.00
and 7.50% for 30 year and above, respectively.
The Table-9: indicates that the overwhelming
Table-7: Distribution of respondents according to main and majority i.e. 40.83% respondents take participation in one
subsidiary occupation: N=120 organization followed by participation in two organization
26.67% of the respondents, and 11.67% of the respondent’s
Respondents participation in more than two organization, respectively.
S. Subsidiary There were 20.83% respondents who did not participated in
Categories Main occupation any organization.
No. occupation
Number Percentage Number Percentage Table-10: Distribution of respondents according to annual
Agriculture income: N=120
1. (crop 79 65.83 61 50.83
Number of
production) S. No. Categories (Rs.) Percentage
2. Dairying 07 5.84 11 9.17 respondents
Agricultural 1. Up to 25000 11 9.17
3. 04 3.33 06 5.00 2. 25001-40000 97 80.83
enterprise
Agricultural 3. 40001-55000 09 7.50
4. 02 1.67 03 2.50
labor 4. 55001-70000 02 1.67
Caste based
5. 13 10.83 19 15.33
occupation 5. Above to 70000 01 0.83
6. Services 05 4.17 04 03.33
7. Business 10 8.33 17 14.17 Total 120 100.00
Total 120 100.00 120 100.00
The annual income of the respondents ranged from
Hence, it is clear from the Table-7: that the maximum Rs. 20,000-80,000. The Table-10: revealed that a maximum
number of respondents were emerged agriculture as main number of the respondents 80.83% belong to the annual
occupation 65.83% followed by caste based occupation income categories Rs. 25,001 to 40,000 where as 9.17%,
10.83%, business 8.33%, dairying 5.84%, services 4.17%, 7.5%, 1.67% and 0.83% respondents belong for income
agriculture enterprises 3.33% and agriculture labor 1.67% categories of Rs. up to 25,000, 40,000-55,000, 55,001-
as their main occupation. While, in case of subsidiary 70,000 and above 70,000, respectively.
occupation, the maximum 50.83% of the respondents
adopted agriculture, followed by caste based occupation Table-11: Distribution of the respondents according to pe-
15.83%, business 14.17%, and dairying 9.17%, agriculture riod of television ownership: N=120
enterprises 5.00%, services 3.33% and agriculture labour Categories Number of
2.50%, respectively. S. No.
(years) respondents
Percentage

Table-8: Distribution of respondents according to housing 1. Low (Up to 4) 55 45.83

pattern: N=120 2. Medium (5-10) 61 50.84
High (11 and
S. Number of 3.
above)
04 3.33
Categories Percentage
No. respondents Total 120 100.00
1. Kuchha 10 8.33
2. Puckka 91 75.84 Mean=6.87, S.D.=2.88, Min=1.00, Max=15.00.
3. Mixed 19 15.83 It is clear from the Table-11: that the maximum number
Total 120 100.00 of respondents 50.84% who had ownership of television for
5-10 years followed by the 45.83% respondents who had
owned television up to 4 year and 3.33% respondents had
owned the television for 11 and above years, respectively.

140
Table-12: Distribution of the respondents according to sci- reported agriculture as their main occupation, which is
entific orientation: N=120 almost same to the national level ratio. The participation of
S. Number of respondents in social organization was so good and 79.17%
Categories (score value) Percentage respondents participated in social organizations. The study
No. respondents
1. Low (up to 30) 13 10.83 revealed that maximum number of the respondents 80.83%
2. Medium (31-37) 72 60.00
belong to the annual income categories Rs. 25,001 to 40,000.
The television viewers were well experienced and 68.33%
3. High (37 and above) 35 29.17
was observed in the category of experience in farming
Total 120 100.00 12 to 29 years. Almost half of the respondents (50.84%)
Mean=33.47, S.D.=3.38, Min.=25.00, Max.=42.00. had ownership of television for 5-10 years. Contact of
It is apparent from the Table-12: that the maximum respondents with Kisan sahayak was maximum among
numbers of respondents 60.00% were finding medium the formal source followed by fertilizers/ seeds store I/C
level of scientific orientation, while 29.17% and 10.83% and VDOs, respectively which shows the awareness of
respondents were in the categories of high and low level of respondents. The maximum numbers of respondents 60.00%
scientific orientation, respectively. and 59.16% found medium level of scientific and economic
motivation, respectively.
Table-13: Distribution of respondents according to econom-
ic motivation: N=120 REFERENCES
Categories (score Number of Ahmad, M., Akram, M., Rouf, R., Khan, I.A. and Pervez,
S. No. Percentage
value) respondents U. (2007). Interaction of extension worker
with farmers and role of radio and television as
1. Low (up to 23) 05 4.17
sources of information in technology transfer.
Case study in Peshawar, district, Pakistan.
2. Medium (24-26) 44 36.67
Sarhad Journal of Agriculture,23 (2):515-518.
3. High (27 and above) 71 59.16 Krishnamurthy, A.T., Kumar, Y.S., Manjunatha, V.B.S.
and Ahamed, B.Z. (2008). Personal, socio-
Total 120 100.00 economics, psychological and communication
Mean=24.48, S.D.=1.64, Min.=18.00, Max.=28.00. characteristics with their radio listening and
televiewing behaviour of the farmers of
The Table-13: shows that the majority 59.16% of the Bangalore rural Karnataka, district in India.
respondents had high level of economic motivation followed Environment and Ecology, 26(3A):1240-1245.
by 36.67% medium and low 4.17% level of economic
motivation, respectively. Murray, J.P. and Kippax, S. (1996). Socio- economic and
psychological correlations of communication
CONCLUSION through television in Nagpur, district
Maharashtra state in India. Ph.D. Thesis,
It is evident that major television viewers of Wazirganj I.A.R.I. New Delhi.
block of Gonda district, 60.83% found in middle age group
i.e. 40-60 years. Study Indicates that the little less than half Sawarkar, S.W., Borkar, M.M., Upadhye, S.V. and Singh. B.
of the respondents 48.33% belong to other backward caste (2001). The sources of technical information
In which, most of the respondents were literate with respect for tribal dairy farmers. Indian Journal of Dairy
to total literacy rate of 96.67%. Result shows that single Science, 54(2):113-115.
families are leading once than joint families system; in terms
of percentage 55.83% followed by 44.17%, respectively. Zia, A. and Khan, A. (2012). Media coverage for development
The majority of the respondents 32.5% were observed in the of agriculture sector: an analytical study of
land holding category of below than one ha and regarded as television channels in Pakistan. Journal of
marginal farmers. The number of puckka houses increases Agricultural Research (Lahore), 50(4):555-
in recent past years with that the majority of respondents 564.
75.84% percent were residing in puckka houses. An over
whelming majority i.e. 65.83% respondents families was

141
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 142-145 (2015)

APPRAISAL, MAPPING & SUITABILITY OF WASTELAND LAND / DEGRADED LAND

USING GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY IN RAE BARELI, AMETHI AND AURAIYA
DISTRICT OF UTTAR PRADESH
K. SINGH, M. S. YADAV, ALOK MATHUR, RAJEEVA MOHAN, S. SHARMA, BHAWANI P. PANDEY & ANSU.
Remote Sensing Application Centre Uttar Pradesh Lucknow

ABSTRACT
Sizeable area in Uttar Pradesh especially in Central Eastern districts are affected by various kind of land degradation large area of
eastern Uttar Pradesh & central part of Uttar Pradesh affected by the problem of soil salinity alkalinity associated with water log-
ging. The extent and distribution of different categories of water land/degraded land in Rae Bareli, Auraiya and Amethi district of
U.P. was mapped through on screen interpretation of LISS IV data in the form of FCC on 1:50,000 scale for the period of 2012-13.
The wasteland categories mapped are Gullied/Ravines land, Scrub land, Waterlogged/ Marshy land and Salt affected land, it was ob-
served that out of total area of 24.10 mha area of the state, 9.9 mha area of in under different categories of waste land and out of
total 24.1 mha area of waste land in the state 0.46mha area is only under wasteland/degraded land categories in Rae bareli, Amethi
& Auraiya districts. It is also observed that 0.46 m ha area of wasteland/degraded land which is presently lying under unproductive
or marginal productive can be made profitable in accordance and with the help of information incorporated in land suitability map.

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture has played a vital role in the
economic development of the Uttar Pradesh. Soil is a basis
resource for food, fuel and fibre. But it is shrinking on
account of continued loss of potential agricultural land for
non agricultural uses and even increasing human and animal
pressure. The productivity of soil and land in indicative of
the development potential of and area. Large area in Uttar
Pradesh is suffering from undulating topography, soil
erosion, water logging, soil salinity and or/alkalinity etc.
These problematic areas are either barren or produce much
below their potential capacity if these areas reclaimed and
properly put to use with suitable crops/ under Afforestation,
can help in increasing agriculture production in the state.
In view of this, the mapping of waste land/degraded land
in severally affected Amethi, Rae Bareli & Auraiya districts
of Uttar Pradesh was under taken for thoughtful and action
oriented land use plan can be prepared to maintain the higher
production and to minimize the further deterioration of the
limited land resource. A soil resource inventory provides
an insight into the potentialities and limitations of soils
for its effective exploitation. It also provides adequate
information in terms of land form, terrain, vegetation as
well as characteristics of soils which can be utilized for land
resource management and development (Manchanda et al.
2002). Rational utilization of land resources can be achieved
by optimizing it use, which demands evaluation of land for
alternative land use, ensuring it wise use. Remote sensing
data provide multi spectral, multi temporal and multi sensor
information of the earth surface with greater accuracy and
economy and is more efficient in data collection and presire
mapping of land resource than the conventional method
(Kasturi ranagan et. al. 1996). Geographical information
system (GIS) has proved as a powerful tool for integrated
resource analysis and generatly map information combining
data from remotely sensed imagery existing topographic and
other maps and ground survey for more precise and timely
information for natural resources management (obi- Reddy
et al. 2001).
General description of area
The Uttar Pradesh is bounded by Nepal on the North,
Uttarakhand on the north-west, Haryana and Delhi on the
west, Rajasthan on the South-West, Madhya Pradesh on
the south Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand on the south-east.
The state is situated between 23052 N 31028 N latitude and
7705’E and 84039E longitude. Uttar Pradesh is the fifth larges
state in the country in the terms & area and first in the term
of population.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
IRS P6 LISS IV data in the form of FCC on 1:50,000
scale of multi season for the periods of Rabi(Feb to March
2012), Kharif (Sep to Oct. 2012) were used for mapping
of waste / degraded lands on screen visual interpretation
was under taken using ArcGis 10.1 software. The ground
truth survey was conducted in 2012. Various categories
of waste land were recognized based on the variations in
physiographic, tone, texture pattern of FCC. The soil and
water samples collected and analyses for validation of
ground truth data. Water sample collected for ponds and
permanent water logged areas and analyse to establish
the water suitability for fisheries cultivation. Soil samples
especially from salt affected soil up to 15cm depth collected
& Analyse for the establishment of severity waste land /
degraded land classes. Survey of India topographical maps
of 1:50,000 scales have been used for the identification of
natural and cultural features and for the planning of ground
truth data collection survey and final map on 1:50,000 scales
prepared.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Four categories of waste lands have been identified
and mapped in Rae Bareli, Amethi & Auraiya District of
Uttar Pradesh. This area has been given in table 1. The
district wise area of various categories was also estimated
and given table 2 with comparison of waste land mapping
data of 2008 Report of NRSC, Hyderabad.

142
Table 1: Area under different categories of waste land in Rae Bareli, Amethi and Auraiya district of Uttar Pradesh.
Districts (Area in ha.)
S.N. Categories
Amethi Auraiya Rae Bareli
1 Gullied and for Ravenous land NIL 2395.82 252.62
11859.70
2 Land affected by salinity/alkalinity 14268.48 10175.64

3 Scrub land 3145.17 255.49 1765.53

4 Waterlogged/marshy land 1546.77 339.91 294.18

Table 2: District wise area (ha) of various wastelands /degraded land categories mapped in 2012 and waste land mapped
by NRSC Hyderabad in 2008.

Gullied Gullied/ Salt Salt Water Water

Scrub Scrub
S.N. District / Ravine Ravines affected affected logging logging
(2008) (2012)
(2008 ) (2012) (2008) (2012) (2008) (2012)
1 Rae Bareli 877 252.62 21847 10175.64 3836 294.18 3802 1765.53
2 Amethi NIL NIL NIL 14268.48 NIL 1546.77 NIL 3145.17
11859.70
3 Auraiya 3020 2395.82 10086 330 339.91 NIL 255.49
Total area
3897 2648.44 31933 36303.82 4166 2180.86 3802 5166.19
(in ha.)

*in 2008 Amethi District was not separated from Sultanpur.

Table 3: Area and LISS IV satellite image characteristics of different categories Wasteland/ degraded land soils in Rae
Bareli, Amethi & Auraiya districts of U.P.
S.N. Category Image Characteristics Area (ha)
1 Salt affected soil Bright white to yellowish white 36303.82
(severely salt affected)
2 Water logged Dark Blue tone 2180.86
3 Gullied/Ravines land Greyish, texture, rough smoothers and fingre 2648.44
shape like cactus shape in Deep ravines
4 Scrub land Brownish tinge 5166.19

The study portrays that the salt affected soils are predominant waste land class in these districts and area distributed in low
lying pockets with bright to yellowish white image characteristics. Such patches are concentrated in Amethi, Singhpur, Tiloi,
Dih, Salon and Gouriganj blocks of Amethi, Erwakatra, Table 4: wasteland/degraded land suitability area (in ha.)
Bidhuna, Sahar, Achhalda, Bhagyanagar blocks of Auraiya
S.N. Suitability District (Area in ha)
and Unchahar, Bachrawan and Harchandpur blocks of Rae
bareli Districts. The water logged areas area either low lying Classes Amethi Auraiya Rae Bareli
area or areas in the proximity of canals / drains. Most of 1 S1 7338.07 659.85 2976.53
such patches are seen in Salon and Tiloi block of Amethi 2 S2 2573.17 205.60 1423.51
and Achalda block of Auraiya and in Khiron, unchahar 3 S3 NIL 972.57 203.61
and bachharawan block of Raebareli. The surface horizons 4 N 1220.88 141.86 90.47
of salt affected and/or water logged soils range in texture
from loamy sand to silt loam and in control section it ranges The waste land/degraded land of Amethi, Raebareli and
between loamy sands to silty clay loam depending upon Auraiya district have been evaluated suitable for Agriculture/
their position of land scape. Salt problem is only at the fishereis development/Afforestation/Pasture development.
surface in the control section, Ece were low but ESP were The criteria and rating for land suitability type (LST)
high indicate that these soil are generally sodic in nature in includes deterioration stages of land which randomly cross
Raebareli district but in Auraiya & Amethi district control checked with soil and water sample analysis. For suitable
section Ece were high in most of soil samples of different classes viz., highly suitable of Agriculture (S1), Medium
blocks and ESP were also in higher direction shows these suitable for Agriculture but suitable for Afforestation (S2),
districts having strongly saline-alkali nature of soils and also Marginal suitable for Agriculture but suitable for Pasture
existence of only alkaline soil with low Ece and high ESP in development/ scattered Afforestation (S3) and not suitable
these districts. for Agriculture / Afforestation/Pasture but suitable for
fisheries development (N) have been made.

143
 Fig. 1 Fig. 3

Fig. 2
Table 5(A): Result of soil sample analysis matrix of district Auraiya
Ca++ Mg++ CO3- - HCO3 -
ECe Na+ K+ Cl ⁻
Village Name pHe (Meq/ (Meq/ (Meq/ (Meq/
S.No. (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt)
Lt) Lt) Lt) Lt)
1 Baibaha 8.7 3.6 34.52 0.149 3.5 4 3 4 5
2 Sirsaraya 7.6 0.63 6.23 0.07 0.5 1 2 6.5 4
3 Ganupur 9.5 3.23 36.88 0.16 0.2 3.8 16 3.5 16
4 Gapakapur 10.3 11.89 142.82 0.13 6.2 2.7 95 - 155
5 Dharmangadpur 9.2 11.37 131.25 0.252 3.5 1.5 34 - 24.5
6 Amritpur 9.7 5.34 57.41 0.098 2.5 4.5 22 13 25
7 Nurpur Kharagpur 10.2 20.5 274.02 0.616 3.5 0.5 90 - -
8 Maodiyai 9.2 3.65 39.47 0.135 2 4 12 2.5 13.5
9 Patti Torana 10.0 7 80.06 0.2 3 2 19 11.5 11
10 Jalapur 10.1 8.66 102.23 0.28 3.5 0.5 36 18.5 54
11 Aneso 10.0 9.91 104.96 0.287 3 6 36 11 57
12 Pattighurna 10.4 25.54 319.56 0.226 3.5 0.5 208 - -
13 Chhachhoond 9.1 2.74 26.08 0.137 2.5 1.5 11 3 15
14 Aur/Chhachhoond 6.4 1.37 5.06 0.791 5.5 9.5 - 5 9.5
15 Sattipurwa 6.7 6.34 29.67 5.43 28.5 24.5 5 - 40
16 Thanaka Purwa 10.2 18.21 244.4 0.43 1.5 2.5 9 61 37
17 Bajhera 9.8 4.85 53.28 0.18 2.5 3.5 13 25 41
18 Mukhe Madeya 8.9 18.06 219.07 1.711 4 2 5 3.5 44
19 Sheupur 10.2 47.06 843.75 2.487 2 4 51 40.5 -
20 Tikampur 10.3 17.62 262.6 0.226 6 1 99 - -
21 Makhanpur 7 1.04 3.57 1.221 4 6 4 - 9.5
22 Fatehsingh Ka Purwa 10.0 15.08 212.55 0.325 3.5 0.5 162 - -
23 Mansukpur 9.3 3.84 39.36 0.156 5 2 8 18.5 25

144
 24 Jaswantpur 8.8 1.15 10.9 0.271 4 4 7 2 5.5
25 Sergarh 9.9 7.66 108.75 0.223 6 4 41 17 -

Table 5(B): Result of soil sample analysis matrix of district Amethi

pHe Na+ K+ Ca+ Mg CO3-- HCO3- Cl-
S.No. Village Name ECe
(Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/L) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt)
1 Tikari 10.26 17.56 212.33 0.52 3.5 2.5 59 - 65.5
2 Chakara 9.87 3.43 37.98 0.083 7 9 28 - 12
3 Chandoki 9.31 4.85 48.43 0.078 5 3 14 - 11
4 Koora 7.1 1.97 1.869 0.615 19 20 3 - 8.5
5 Nandmahar 10.25 1.05 100.41 0.423 3 8 52 7.5 79.5
6 Bhikhipur 7.9 0.85 2.55 2 4.5 5.5 5 - 8
7 Surpur 10.5 6.58 73.08 0.18 36.5 20.5 32 24 12.5
8 Dharmaut 9.22 5.41 50.53 0.142 5 10 - 9.5 28
9 Masfapur 8.35 1.08 3 4.006 4.5 5.5 - 7 7.5
10 Satyanagar 8.31 0.38 0.87 0.239 6.5 4.5 4 1.5 4.5

Table 5(C): Result of soil sample analysis matrix of Rae Bareli.

Cl-
pHe ECe Na+ K+ Ca+ Mg CO3-- HCO3-
Village Name (Meq/
S.No. (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) (Meq/Lt) Meq/L) (Meq/Lt)
( Lt)
1 Kundanganj 8.7 1.31 10.65 0.221 6 5 2 5 9
2 Binda Ka Purwa 8.15 4.78 1.47 0.756 10 16 - 3 5
3 Bachhrawa 8.4 3.14 27.83 0.541 4.5 7.5 3 3 14
4 Salethu 8.05 0.94 1.84 0.689 8.4 9.6 3 0.5 9
5 Gosaipur 8.35 0.37 1.21 0.282 4 3 3 - 5

CONCLUSION Kasturi rangan, K., Aravamundam, R, Deekshatulu, B.L.,

Above study reveals that accurate mapping and
monitoring of different classes of waste lands/degraded
lands using multi seasons temporal IRSP6 LISS IV data,
is possible & soil suitability map accordance with waste
land / degraded land class also can be generated for
implementations of multi-enterprise agriculture systems with
the use of geospatial technology which can also convince the
farmer’s about the off form profit with proper management
of wasteland/degraded land.
REFERENCES
Manchanda, M.L., Kudrat, M. and Tiwari, A.K. (2002) Soil
survey and mapping using remote sensing.
Tropical ecology 43, 61-74.
George Joseph and Chandra Shekhar, M.G.
(1996) Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS)-
IC- The beginning of new era current science
70, 495-500.
Obi-Reddy, G.P., Maji, A.K. Srinivas, C.V., Thayalan, S. and
Velayutham, M. (2001) Landscape ecological
planning in a basaltic terrain, central India, using
remote sensing and GIS techniques. Journals of
the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 29, 3-16.
Waste land atlas of India (2011). (Change Analysis based on
temporal Satellite data of 2005-06 and 2008-
09). Department of land resources Ministry of
Rural Development Govt. of India, New Delhi.

145
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 146-148 (2015)

ANTINUTRIENT CONTENT AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF SELECTED

MEDICINAL PLANTS
ELMUONZO, UMA MAHESWARI, K., SUSILA, T AND VAHINI, S
Department of Foods and Nutrition, Post Graduate and Research Centre, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030.

ABSTRACT
There has been an increasing interest by researchers in the use of naturally occurring biologically active compounds of medicinal value
(phytomedicines). The antioxidant activity of herbs and their constituent compounds has been their most widely researched aspect, along
with their antimicrobial activity. Antinutrient (tannin and phytate) content and antioxidant activity of four herbal crops viz., Basella
rubra, Centella asiatica, Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) and Leucas aspera was analyzed using standard methods. The antioxi-
dant activity was estimated by TBARS (Thio Barbuteric acid Reducing substance), method. It was observed that tannin content of the
samples varied from 260.15 to 1760.41 mg/100g, highest being Centella asiatica and lowest in Withania somnifera. Phytic acid content
ranged from 99.69 to 301.16 mg/100g with highest in Basella rubra and lowest in Leucas aspera among the herbal crops studied. It
was also observed that Withania somnifera had highest antioxidant activity among the four herbal crops. Thus the high in antioxidant
activity and antinutrient content like phytate (Inositol hexaphosphate) could contribute towards combating problems of free radicals.

Keywords: Antioxidant activity, tannin, phytate, herbal crops, TBARS method

INTRODUCTION
For past few decades compounds from natural
sources have been gaining importance because of the
vast chemical diversity that they offer. This had led to
phenomenal increase in the demand for herbal medicines in
the last two decades and need has been felt for ensuring the
quality, safety and efficacy of herbal drugs. The medicinal
value of these plants lies in some chemical substances that
produce a definite physiological action on human body. The
most important of these bioactive constituents of plants are
alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids and phenolic components
(Sermakkani and Thangapandian, 2010).
The health and other benefits of plant’s secondary
metabolites, also known as antinutritional factors are
reviewed. Examples of these natural compounds of plant
origin are
Email id:muoni19@gmail.com
saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, oxalates,
phytates, trypsin (protease) inhibitors, phytohaemagglutinins
(lectins), just to mention a few. In recent years, there has been
an increasing interest by researchers in the use of naturally
occurring biologically active compounds of medicinal value
(phytomedicines). The plant kingdom still contains many
species of plant-containing substances of pharmacological
and other benefits. Animal and lab research has found
that Phytic acid/phytate, scientific/medical name inositol-
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakisphosphate (IP6) was recently recognized
to possess multiple biological functions. It might be effective
in preventing tumors from forming and slowing tumor growth
(American Cancer Society). Inositol hexaphosphate (IP6)
is a naturally occurring polyphosphorylated carbohydrate
that is present in substantial amounts in almost all plant
and mammalian cells. Inositol is also a natural constituent
possessing moderate anticancer activity. A striking anticancer
effect of IP6 was demonstrated in different experimental
models (Vucenik and Shamsuddin, 2003). In the search for
new drugs to combat the problem of drug resistance, natural
products of plant origin play a vital role (Soetan, 2008). The
antioxidant activity of herbs and their constituent compounds
has been their most widely researched aspect, along with
their antimicrobial activity.
Antioxidative properties of essential oils and various
extracts from many plants are of great interest in both
academia and the food industry, since their possible use
as natural additives has emerged from a growing trend to
replace synthetic antioxidants by natural ones. Regarding
this trend, the study of medicinal plant species has attained
great importance, to find and test their bioactive compounds.
Herbs and their components have high antioxidant activity
and antimicrobial properties which in a food matrix can
delay spoilage through retarding the development of
rancidity in products such as oils. In this regard, total
phenolics are also often measured, as a large proportion of
antioxidant activity is attributable to the presence of phenolic
compounds. However, there is also relevance to human
health as antioxidant activity is believed to play a part in the
prevention of most major chronic diseases. However, very
few clinical studies in relation to the health effects of herbs
or their components were carried out (Hedges and Lister,
2007).
Materials and methods
The herbal samples were procured from Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants Research Station, Dr. Y. S. R. Horticulture
University, Hyderabad. The fresh leaves of Basella rubra,
Centella asiatica, Leucas aspera and root of Withania
somnifera were cleaned and dried in air drier, ground to
powder and subjected to various biochemical analyses.
Tannin was extracted in conical flask with
diethyl ether containing 1 per cent acetic acid and read
spectrophotometrically by using Folin-Ciocaltean’s method
(kaliza et al., 1980). Phytic acid was estimated according
to the procedure of Wheeler and Ferrel, (1971). Antioxidant
activity was estimated by TBARS (Thio Barbuteric acid
Reducing substance), using Malondialdehyde (MDA) as
standard by the of method Nikols et al. (1994).

146
 The data obtained was coded, tabulated and analyzed Antioxidant activity
by using one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (Snecdor
and Cochran, 1994). TBARS % of the samples varied from 283.29 %
to 445.94 % (Table 2 & fig. 2). TBARS % is inversely
proportional to antioxidant activity. Centella asiatica
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION possessed highest TBARS % and Withania somnifera had
Antinutrient content lowest TBARS % which shows highest antioxidant activity
among the samples. The samples showed significant
Many foods, particularly those of plant origin, contain
difference in the antioxidant activity (p< 0.05). Antioxidants
a wide range of antinutritional factors which interfere
protect cells against damage caused by molecules known
with the assimilation of nutrients contained in them. The
as free radicals. The antioxidant effects of plant extracts
important antinutritional factors are trypsin inhibitor,
are mainly due to presence of phenolic compounds such as
phytates, oxalates, tannins, lectins and goitrogens. They
flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins and phenolic diterpenes ,
interfere with the utilization of other nutrients like protein,
Polterait (1997). It was also reported that potent antioxidant
minerals like iron, zinc, calcium and iodine.
activity in herbs is due to high concentration of phenolic
Tannin content of the samples ranged from 260.15 to constituents, mainly the flavanoids present in the extract,
1760.41 mg/100g (Table1 & fig. 1) and it was observed that Pittella et al. (2009). Withania somnifera possess antioxidant
Centella asiatica had highest content (1760.41 mg/100g) property in vitro. Free radical scavenging activity of
which was lower compared to 4,689.06 mg/100g reported ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Withania somnifera leaf
for Melocia corchorifolia leaves by Hassan et al. (2007) can be attributed to the presence of flavanoids and tannins in
and Withania somnifera had lowest (260.15 mg/100g) the extracts (Panchawat, 2011).
tannin content among the four samples studied. Significant
difference (p < 0.05) in the tannin content among the CONCLUSION
samples was observed. Tannins bind with iron irreversibly It was observed that the anti nutrient (phytate and
and interfere with iron absorption. Tannins are also known tannin) contents of the selected herbal crops are high
to bind proteins and reduce their availability and may and also high in antioxidant activity, of which Withania
decrease protein quality by decreasing digestibility and somnifera shows highest antioxidant activity among the
palatability, Gopalan et al. (2007). Tannins are known to samples. Proponents call IP6 a “natural cancer fighter” and
inhibit the activities of digestive enzymes and nutritional claim it slows or reverses the growth of various forms of
effects of tannin are mainly related to their interaction with cancer, including breast, colon, and prostate cancers. It is
protein. Tannin in fruits imports an astringent taste that thought to be an antioxidant, a compound that blocks the
affects palatability, reduces food intake and consequently action of free radicals, activated oxygen molecules that can
body growth, Bello et al. (2008). At the same time tannins damage cells. Thus, it can be concluded that the analyses
are known to possess antioxidant activities, Rievere et al. herbal crops could contribute towards combating problems
(2009). of free radicals and believed to play a part in the prevention
The phytate content of the analyzed herbal crops was of many chronic diseases.
found to be in the range of 99.69 mg/100g - 301.16 mg/100g Table 1. Antinutrient content of herbal crops
(table 1). It was lowest in Leucas aspera and highest in
Basella rubra among the four samples studied. There was Sl. Tannin Phytate
Herbal crop
significant difference (p < 0.05) among the four samples in No. (mg/100g) (mg/100g)
phytate content. The phytate contents of all the samples are Withania
1 260.15 ± 0.36 120.65 ± 0.95
lower than phytate content of Basella alba (2030.8 mg/100g) somnifera
reported by Oboh et al. (2005). Phytate is hexaphosphate 2 Centella asiatica 1760.41 ± 1.76 160.74 ± 2.00
of inositol and binds iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium 3 Leucas aspera 1215.25 ± 1.41 99.69 ± 0.92
rendering those unavailable, Raghuvanashi et al. (2001). In 4 Basella rubra 1350.62 ± 2.29 301.16 ± 2.70
the presence of calcium and magnesium, it forms insoluble
complexes with iron and thus makes iron unavailable, CD 3.09* 3.46*
Gopalan et al. (2007). Phytate can also affect digestibility SE(m) 0.93 1.04
by binding with substrates or proteolytic enzymes. The
lower phytate content in Leucas aspera will provide a better * Significant at 5 % level
bioavailability of minerals. Values are represent in mean±SD
Inositol hexaphosphate (IP6) is also thought to be Table 2. Antioxidant activity of the herbal crops (%TBARS)
an antioxidant, a compound that blocks the action of free
radicals, activated oxygen molecules that can damage cells. Sl. No. Herbal crop Antioxidant activity (%TBARS)
It may help to prevent the abnormal signals that tell a cancer 1 Withania somnifera 283.29 ± 2.48
cell to keep growing from reaching the cell’s nucleus. One
2 Centella asiatica 445.94 ± 5.34
small study done in humans found that IP6 might help ease
the side effects of chemotherapy and improve quality of life 3 Leucas aspera 420.28 ± 1.52
in people with cancer. Still, more clinical trials are needed 4 Basella rubra 290.49 ± 0.74
to confirm these results and to find out if it might work in CD 5.85*
preventing or treating cancer in humans (American Cancer SE(m) 1.78
Society). * Significant at 5 % level Values are represent in
mean±SD

147
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 149-152 (2015)

CORRELATION STUDIES IN RICE (Oryza sativa L.) AMONG DIFFERENT

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITY TRAITS.
1*GIRISH, 1S. BHANDARKAR, 1A.K. SARAWAGI,2V. P. BHADANA1HARSH MISHRA
1
Department of GeneticsAnd Plant Breeding, College Of Agriculture, IGKV,Raipur, Chhattisgarh; 2ICAR-Indian Institute of
Rice Research, Hyderabad.

ABSTRACT
Twenty five landraces of rice (Oryza sativa L.) were evaluated during Kharif 2014 to Study the nature and extent of correla-
tion among yield and yield attributing characters and correlation of grain yield with some quality characters. Leaf length(cm),
leaf width(cm), days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height(cm), panicle length(cm), number of grains per panicle,1000-grain
weight(g), grain yield per plant(g),hulling percentage, milling percentage, head rice recovery%, kernel length(mm), kernel
breadth(mm), L/B ratio, elongation index etc .The results revealed that grain yield per plant to be positively and significantly cor-
related with plant height, panicle length, days to 50% flowering, hulling percentage, milling percentage,head rice recovery%, ker-
nel length ,cooked kernel length, and cooked kernel length breadth ratio indicating importance of these traits as selection cri-
teria in yield improvement programs.Since hulling%,milling%,head rice recovery%,kernel length(mm),kernel breadth(mm) are
important quality traits and significantly correlated with grain yield, so by improving grain yield quality of rice will be improve.

Keywords :Rice, yield ,yield components, correlation.

INTRODUCTION
To break the yield barriers in rice breeding strategies , IGKV, Raipur, Chhattisgarh during kharif 2014.
and also to improve quality of rice grain, attempts are being
made. The grain yield is a complex character dependant on The experimental trial was laid out in Augmented
many component characters and it responds poorly to the design (W.T. Federer et al.,1975)under irrigated conditions.
direct selection. For the improvement of grain yield, the Each plot comprised of 3 rows of 3.8 meter length spaced, 40
knowledge on the association between grain yield and its cm apart ,with plant to plant spacing of 20 cm. Data on the
component characters will be Helpful (M.Venkata Lakshmi basis of 5 randomly taken competitive plants were recorded
et al.,2012). The present study was, therefore, undertaken to on leaf length(cm),leaf width(cm), grain yield per plant (g),
understand the association among grain yield, kernel quality plant height (cm), panicle length (cm), number of grains per
and its component characters. panicle,number of filled grains per panicle,number of unfilled
grains per panicle,spikelet sterility percentage,1000-grain
weight (g),hulling percentage,milling percentage,head rice
MATERIAL AND METHODS recovery, kernel length (mm), kernel breadth (mm), kernal
The present study comprised of selected 25 genetically length-breadth ratio,cookedkernal length,cooked kernal
diverse genotypes (landraces) of rice (Oryza sativa L.) which breadth, cooked kernal length-breadth ratio elongation index
were collected from Northern Hill Region of Chhattisgarh and elongation ratio while days to 50 per cent flowering was
state with 5 standard checks. The experiment was carried out recorded on plot basis.
at Research cum Instructional Farm of College of Agriculture
Pearson Cor relation Matrix: SIMPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
LL LW DTF PH PL NGP NFG NUG SP TGW GYPP HRR HP MP KL KB KLBR,L/B CKL CKB CKLBR EI ER
LL 1.000 -0.683** -0.457* -0.623** -0.893** -0.081NS 0.044NS -0.308NS -0.268NS -0.130NS -0.852** -0.731** -0.830** -0.819** -0.851** 0.753** -0.859** -0.826** 0.618** -0.812** -0.038NS -0.362*
LW -0.683** 1.000 0.424* 0.565** 0.662** 0.285NS 0.179NS 0.186NS 0.095NS 0.170NS 0.648** 0.578** 0.560** 0.513** 0.598** -0.675 **
0.747** 0.485** -0.635** 0.618** -0.156NS -0.038NS
DTF -0.457* 0.424* 1.000 0.517** 0.550** 0.238NS 0.152NS 0.123NS 0.031NS -0.027NS 0.650** 0.470** 0.465** 0.481** 0.439* -0.441* 0.445* 0.421* -0.379* 0.447* 0.058NS 0.171NS
PH -0.623** 0.565** 0.517** 1.000 0.753** 0.079NS -0.010NS 0.198NS 0.165NS 0.106NS 0.672** 0.531** 0.627** 0.582** 0.713** -0.623** 0.630** 0.672** -0.577** 0.702** 0.244NS 0.239NS
PL -0.893** 0.662** 0.550** 0.753** 1.000 0.092NS -0.020NS 0.280NS 0.230NS 0.247NS 0.927** 0.805** 0.896** 0.889** 0.935** -0.799 **
0.864 **
0.913** -0.701** 0.911** 0.221NS 0.397*
NGP -0.081NS 0.285NS 0.238NS 0.079NS 0.092NS 1.000 0.941** -0.223NS -0.480** -0.563** 0.153NS -0.138NS -0.131NS -0.158NS 0.035NS -0.328NS 0.245NS -0.037NS -0.148NS 0.001NS -0.400* -0.220NS
NFG 0.044NS 0.179NS 0.152NS -0.010NS -0.020NS 0.941** 1.000 -0.531** -0.739** -0.588** 0.026NS -0.206NS -0.213NS -0.245NS -0.052NS -0.218NS 0.135NS -0.120NS -0.033NS -0.103NS -0.423* -0.239NS
-
NUG 0.186NS 0.123NS 0.198NS 0.280NS -0.223NS -0.531** 1.000 0.959** 0.255NS 0.294NS 0.253NS 0.271NS 0.307NS 0.210NS -0.166NS 0.199NS 0.236NS -0.225NS 0.267NS 0.201NS 0.153NS
0.308NS
SP -0.268NS 0.095NS 0.031NS 0.165NS 0.230NS -0.480** -0.739** 0.959** 1.000 0.376* 0.228NS 0.258NS 0.282NS 0.321NS 0.193NS -0.065NS 0.120NS 0.229NS -0.148NS 0.237NS 0.278NS 0.189NS
TGW -0.130NS 0.170NS -0.027NS 0.106NS 0.247NS -0.563** -0.588** 0.255NS 0.376* 1.000 0.198NS 0.399* 0.389* 0.372* 0.287NS -0.236NS 0.241NS 0.172NS -0.445* 0.328NS 0.187NS -0.130NS
GYPP -0.852** 0.648** 0.650** 0.672** 0.927** 0.153NS 0.026NS 0.294NS 0.228NS 0.198NS 1.000 0.804** 0.837** 0.889** 0.891** -0.800** 0.858** 0.830** -0.661** 0.838** 0.082NS 0.282NS
HRR -0.731** 0.578** 0.470** 0.531** 0.805** -0.138NS -0.206NS 0.253NS 0.258NS 0.399* 0.804** 1.000 0.899** 0.922** 0.682** -0.654** 0.701** 0.677** -0.640** 0.751** 0.169NS 0.324NS
HP -0.830** 0.560** 0.465** 0.627** 0.896** -0.131NS -0.213NS 0.271NS 0.282NS 0.389* 0.837** 0.899** 1.000 0.956** 0.852** -0.701** 0.777** 0.809** -0.675** 0.846** 0.223NS 0.316NS
MP -0.819** 0.513** 0.481** 0.582** 0.889** -0.158NS -0.245NS 0.307NS 0.321NS 0.372* 0.889** 0.922** 0.956** 1.000 0.828** -0.642** 0.730** 0.816** -0.594** 0.810** 0.246NS 0.390*
KL -0.851** 0.598** 0.439* 0.713** 0.935** 0.035NS -0.052NS 0.210NS 0.193NS 0.287NS 0.891** 0.682** 0.852** 0.828** 1.000 -0.809** 0.886** 0.921** -0.710** 0.919** 0.196NS 0.294NS
KB 0.753** -0.675** -0.441* -0.623** -0.799** -0.328NS -0.218NS -0.166NS -0.065NS -0.236NS -0.800** -0.654** -0.701** -0.642** -0.809** 1.000 -0.964** -0.661** 0.856** -0.793** 0.160NS -0.013NS
KLBR -0.859** 0.747** 0.445* 0.630** 0.864** 0.245NS 0.135NS 0.199NS 0.120NS 0.241NS 0.858** 0.701** 0.777** 0.730** 0.886** -0.964** 1.000 0.751** -0.822** 0.847** -0.133NS 0.087NS
CKL -0.826** 0.485** 0.421* 0.672** 0.913** -0.037NS -0.120NS 0.236NS 0.229NS 0.172NS 0.830** 0.677** 0.809** 0.816** 0.921** -0.661** 0.751** 1.000 -0.614** 0.933** 0.453* 0.640**
CKB 0.618** -0.635** -0.379* -0.577** -0.701** -0.148NS -0.033NS -0.225NS -0.148NS -0.445* -0.661** -0.640** -0.675** -0.594** -0.710** 0.856** -0.822** -0.614** 1.000 -0.846** -0.156NS -0.060NS
CKLBR -0.812** 0.618** 0.447* 0.702** 0.911** 0.001NS -0.103NS 0.267NS 0.237NS 0.328NS 0.838** 0.751** 0.846** 0.810** 0.919** -0.793** 0.847** 0.933** -0.846** 1.000 0.401* 0.455*
EI -0.038NS -0.156NS 0.058NS 0.244NS 0.221NS -0.400* -0.423* 0.201NS 0.278NS 0.187NS 0.082NS 0.169NS 0.223NS 0.246NS 0.196NS 0.160NS -0.133NS 0.453* -0.156NS 0.401* 1.000 0.704**
ER -0.362* -0.038NS 0.171NS 0.239NS 0.397* -0.220NS -0.239NS 0.153NS 0.189NS -0.130NS 0.282NS 0.324NS 0.316NS 0.390* 0.294NS -0.013NS 0.087NS 0.640** -0.060NS 0.455* 0.704** 1.000

149
 LL- leaf length(cm),LW-leaf width(cm),DTF- days to
50% flowering,PH-plant height(cm),NGP-no. of grains per
panicle,NFG-no. of filled grain per panicle,NUG- no. of
unfilled grain per panicle,SP-spikelet sterility
percentage%,TGW-thousand grain weight(g),GYPP-grain
yield per plant(g),HRR-head rice recovery%,HP-hulling
percentage%,MP-milling percentage%,KL-kernal
length(mm),KB- kernel breadth(mm),KLBR(L/B)- kernal
length bredth ratio or length breadth ratio,CKL-cooked
kernal length,CKB-cooked kernal breadth,CKLBR-cooked
kernal length bredthratio,EI-elongation index,ER-elongation
ratio.
Results and Discussion
Grain yield per plant-The simple correlation
coefficients were studied and the results revealed that grain
yield per plant is significantly positive correlated with leaf
width, days to 50% flowering, plant height, panicle length,
HP,MP,HRR,KL,KLBR,CKL,CKLBR and significantly
negative correlated with leaf length, kernel breadth and
cooked kernal breadth. While non significant positive
correlation was found with no. of grains per panicle ,no.
of filled grain per panicle, no. of unfilled grain per panicle,
spikelet sterility%, EI and ER. From the results it is clear
that if traits like days to 50% flowering and plant height will
selected then grain yield and quality traits will improve.
Days to 50 per cent flowering – It exhibited a positive
and significant associatiation with plant height (Sawantet
al., 1995), panicle length (Yolanda et al., 1995), GYPP
,indicating a scope for simultaneous improvement of the
traits. Similar results were reported by DeepaSankaret al.
(2006). It is also significantly positive correlated with leaf
width, quality traits like, HP,MP,HRRKL,CKL,CKLBR,
.It is significantly negative correlated with leaf length,
kernalbredth and cooked kernal breadth. and positive but
non significant result found with no.of grains per panicle, no.
of unfilled grain per panicle, no. of filled grain per panicle,
spikelet sterility%, EI and ER. So improvement in this trait is
beneficial for yield and quality characters of rice
Plant height- It registered positive and significant
association with panicle length (Mirzaet al., 1992; Chaubeyet
al., 1994; Nayaket al., 2001; Koleet al., 2008; Khan et al.,
2009; Sadeghi, 2011; RavindraBabuet al., 2012), grain yield
per plant (Akhtaret al., 2011; Yadav et al., 2011; Seyoumet
al., 2012),leaf width, days to 50% flowering,and with
quality traits like HP,MP,HRR,KL,KLBR,CKL, CKLBR,
It is significantly negative correlated with leaf length,kernal
breadth and cooked kernal breadth.A non significant but
positive correlation is found with no.of grain per panicle,
no. of unfilled grain per panicle,spikelet sterility%,EI and
ER.So improvement in this trait is beneficial for yield quality
characters of rice.
Number of grains per panicle-It represented
significant association only with no. of filled grain per
panicle and negative and significant association with
leaf length,SP, 1000-grain weight and EI. While it had
recorded non-significant but positive association with
GYPP,LW,PH,DTF,PL,KL,KLBR kernel length, kernel
breadth, L/B ratio and grain yield per plant. Similar non-
significant association of the trait with grain yield per plant
was reported earlier by Sureket al., (2003).It revealed that if
150
no. of grains per panicle is more then 1000 grain wt. is less.
1000 grain weight- Ithad significantly positive
correlated with HRR,HP, MP,SP. A negative significant
correlation is found with NGP,NFG, CKB and non significant
positively associated with GYPP.
Panicle length- It is significant and positive
associated with grain yield per plant (Sharma
e t a l . , 1 9 9 7 ) , D T F, P H , LW, G Y P P, H P, M P, H R R ,
KL,KLBR,CKL,CKLBR,ER.A negative significant
correlation is found with kernel breadth , cooked kernel
breadth, LL, and non significant positive relation with, NGP,
NUG, SP, TGW, and ER. It represents that selection for this
trait will improve grain yield and grain quality.
Kernel length- Itrepresented significant positive
correlation with KLBR (Nayaket al., 2005) and grain yield
per plant, LW,DTF,PH,PL,HP,MP,HRR,KL,CKL,KLBR,
CKLBR while negative and significant association was
recorded with kernel bre adth, similar to the findings of
Sadeghi (2011). Further, kernel breadth registered negative
significant association with KLBR ratio.It shows that
highgrain yield produces longkernel of rice.
Leaf length- It is significantly negative related with
grain yield per plant , PL,PH,HRR,HP,MP, so negative
selection for leaf length will be beneficial for improving
yield and quality traits..
Hulling percentage, Milling percentage and Head
Rice recovery- These traits are significantly positive
correlated with each other and with grain yield per plant
PH,DTF,PL,KL,KLBR,CKL,CKLBR and significantly
negative correlated with KB ,so by improving grain
yield,these quality traits will also be improve.
Kernal length breadth ratio and Cooked kernal
length breadth ratio- This trait is also highly significantly
positive correlated with GYPP,PH and DTF.So selection
made for GYPP will simultaneously improve KLBR and
CKLBR`
Conclusion from above results shows that, those traits
associated significantly positive with rice grain yield and quality
can be selected and improve.GYPP is significantly positive
correlated with PH,DTF,PL,HP,MP,HRR,KL,KLBR,CKL
and CKLBR.Among all these traits the yield and quality
traits are more desirable and they significantly positive
correlated with PH,PL and DTF, so selection for PH,DTF,PL
will improve yield and quality characters of rice .
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): page number (2015)

SCREENING OF INDIGENOUS AND EXOTIC AROMATIC RICE GENOTYPES FOR

GRAIN IRON AND ZINC CONTENT
1**
HARSH MISHRA, 1A K SARAWGI, 2D SANJEEVA RAO,2L V SUBBA RAO
1
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, IndiraGhandhiKrishiVishwavidyalaya, Raipur CG; 2ICAR-Indian Institute of
Rice Research, Hyderabad

ABSTRACT
Millions of people around the world and specially developing countries like India suffer from “hidden hunger” or micronutrient mal-
nutrition because of low affordability for diverse food items particularly in farmers’ family. As rice is main staple food of the India,
various bio-fortification projects have been initiated to identify or developrice varieties having high iron and zinc content. In the pres-
ent study 31 indigenous and exotic aromatic rice accessions were grown in research farm of IGKV Raipur in randomized complete-
ly block design. The harvested samples were brought to similar moisture content, de-husked, well cleaned and the brown rice sam-
ples of each genotype were screened through non destructive Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence spectrophotometer method (ED
– XRF). Promising lines for Zn alone were identified. Wide range of variation in zinc, 14.167 (Letimachi) to 40.60 ppm (Basmati 5876),as
well as iron,7.33(Letimachi) to 17.50 ppm (Kalikhase) concentrations was recorded with CV of 7.74% for zinc and 13.91%for iron.

Key words: Hidden Hunger, Bio-Fortification, Fluorescence.

INTRODUCTION:
Rice is the staple food crop of India and is a major
source of dietary energy intake formajority of the population.
Though rice is consumed in large quantity, the quality of
rice as a source of nutrients is very poor as it is consumed
as polished rice in most parts of the world and in India.
As dietary diversification is beyond reach of many people,
today, micronutrient malnutrition is a large and growing
problem in the developing world. Over three billion people
currently suffer from micronutrient malnutrition (Welch and
Graham, 2004). It is estimated that 49 per cent of the world’s
population is at risk for low zinc intake.These micronutrient
deficiencies are concentrated in the semi-arid tropics,
particularly in South and Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan
Africa (Reddy et al., 2005).Realizing the importance of
addressing micronutrient malnutrition, several international
and national research groups are actively engaged in
various studies related to nutritional fortification and bio-
fortification programmes.Plant breeding to enhance the
nutrient quality of staple food crops holds promise for a
low cost and sustainable approach to alleviate the problem
of micronutrient malnutrition among the poorest segments
of the population of developing countries. Ideally, once rice
is biofortified with vital nutrients, the farmer can grow the
variety indefinitely without any additional input to produce
nutrient packed rice grains in a sustainable way. Further,
seeds with increased micronutrients also perform better
in micronutrient deficient soils by producing longer roots
leading to better absorption and yield(Graham et al, 2001)
and improved disease resistence and stress tolerance(Welch,
1999).Current basal level of Zincinpopularricevarieties
is12-16ppm.Zinctargetlevelstobeachieved ismore
than12ppmfromthebasallevel. The range of iron and zinc
concentrations in brown rice is 6.3-24.4 ppm and 13.5 - 39.4
ppm respectively. There is approximately a fourfold difference
in iron and zinc concentration among the germplasm and
therefore, suggesting the availability of genetic potential to
increase the concentration of these micronutrients in rice
grains. Hence, in this study, various indigenous and exotic
aromatic rice genotypes were cultivated under the same
conditions. Subsequently, grain iron and zinc contents were
analyzed and the generated information will be useful for
selecting parents/donors for bio-fortification programme.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
31 aromatic rice genotypes along were grown in
three replication in research farm of IGKV in Kharif 2014
and seed harvested from these lines were used for the zinc
and iron estimation at IIRR, Hyderabad. Considering the
advantages of grain micronutrient content analysis through
non-destructive method, grain iron and zinc were analysed
with energy dispersive X ray fluorescence spectrophotometer
(ED-XRF). XRF is based on the principle that individual
atoms when excited by an external energy source, emit X
– ray photons of a characteristic energy or wavelength. By
counting the number of photons of emitted of each energy
emitted from a sample, the elements present is identified and
quantified simultaneously. 10 g paddy sample having similar
moisture contentfrom each genotypes was de-husked through
non metallic de-husker (Krishi international 810 dehusker)
having roller made up of polymer to avoid iron and zinc
contamination. De-husked brown rice sample was cleaned
by tissue paper. Thoughmanufacturer recommendedto fill
rice sample in ED – XRF sample cups upto the ¾ th volume
of a cup must be filled for the estimation of grain iron and
zinc, 5 g sample was used as reported bySanjeevaRaoet
al ., (2014) for the simultaneous estimation of grain iron
and zinc.Each sample was cleanedthoroughly following
the procedure ofRavindraBabu et al., (2014) and cleaning
plays very important role in controlling contamination of
microelements.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
Correlation between mean iron and zinc content in
grain among all the genotypes was 0.5132 which was positive
and significant at 0.005 level of significance. Graham et al
(1999) also reported positive correlation between iron and

152
zinc in rice, wheat and beans. Similarly Stangouslyet al witnessed in this regard. The main problem with iron is that
(2007) reported in double haploid rice population indicating it is mainly stored in aleuronic layer and embryo of seed
co-segregation of concerned factors.In contrast, Vijay et al. of rice, generally which is lost during polishing as well as
(2009) could not find significantcorrelation in recombinant more consumer acceptability for eating brown rice is nearly
inbred linepopulations of wheat except Xgwm473Xbarc29 not possible. In future any genetic engineering strategy
and also opined that correlation might be possible with some may develop which will enables accumulation of more iron
loci.Wide range of variation in iron and zinc concentrations content in endosperm.
in the brown rice sample was recordedwhich varied from
14.167 ppm (Letimachi) to 40.60 ppm (Basmati 5876) Table 1: Mean over three replication, zinc and iron content
and 7.33ppm (Letimachi) to 17.50 ppm (Kalikhase) and in brown rice grain of some basmati genotypes
7.74% and 13.91% for zinc and iron respectively (table 1). Mean Zn
Randomized completely block design analysis of variance SN Designation of Varieties Mean Fe (ppm)
(ppm)
shown that, at 0.05 level of significance, 66 error degree Adam Chini 16.850 12.000
of freedom, 1.993 ppm least significant difference, the Kalikhase 19.467 17.500
significant difference and highest mean grain zinc content Ayepyaung 19.967 14.300
was found in Basmati 5876(40.60 ppm); (table 2 and 3) while Kanak Jeer 22.733 14.600
the second highest 35.5 ppm mean grain zinc content was
Banspatri 17.267 13.567
recorded inBiniheren.Similarly, for iron content in grain, at
KanikaBhog 19.133 12.767
0.05 level of significance and, 66 error degree of freedom,
1.993 ppm least significance difference; Kalikhasewas Basmati 5876 40.60* 16.200
recorded to have 17.5 ppm iron content, highest among KapoorKanti 17.267 11.333
the screened genotypes. Harvest Plus- an International BhantaPhool 19.433 11.167
consortium of Institutes working on biofortification in key Laldhan 26.167 15.667
crops for amelioration of nutrient deficiencies joined hands Bindli 21.200 14.533
with the Indian Institutes working on rice biofortification. Letimachi 14.167 7.333
Harvest Plus has set 7 ppm for iron and 24 ppm in milled Biniheren 35.50 14.667
rice for zinc as minimum threshold values for improvement, LuaNhe De 20.033 11.000
based on average daily intake of rice by different age groups. Bong Cay 19.267 8.400
SanjeevaRaoet al, (2014) reported 20 – 40% and 60 – 80% Maauraphul 21.867 9.367
loss of zinc and iron after polishing. Gregorio (2002) also
Co ACC 167 27.833 11.700
observed more loss of iron and zinc during polishing. This
NiawHawm Mali 21.867 11.400
could be due to partial or complete loss of both embryo and
aleurone regions during polishing, more iron is distributed DawLeuang 18.667 10.800
in the embryo followed by aleurone layer and endosperm Popot 15.200 10.267
(Gregorio, 2002). The above mentioned facts reveal that Dhannaprasad 17.633 9.833
after polishing Basmati 5876 and Biniheren may contain RAU 3043 19.633 12.500
28.4 – 32.4 ppm and 24 – 28.1 ppmzinc respectively. Guinata 15.533 9.733
ThusBasmati 5876 and Biniherencan be considered as Sathi 22.167 11.500
potential donors for rice breeding programme for enhancing Hung-mi-hstain 19.400 14.133
zinc content. But none of the screened genotypes was found Improved Sarbati 21.533 13.333
to be a potential donor for iron.Through extensive evaluation Sugandhmati 18.933 12.833
of germplasm and breeding material over the last several Vishnubhog 21.500 9.667
years, it is now increasingly realized that iron content cannot
Indira Sugandhit-1 21.900 11.200
be increased beyond the threshold value (of 7 ppm) through
BadshahBhog 16.767 10.933
conventional or marker-assisted breeding. Fortunately, it is
indeed possible to enhance grain zinc content beyond 24 Dubraj 19.600 10.567
ppm through conventional breeding efforts. Several research Standard Devation (s) 5.4ppm 2.3 ppm
groups including DRR, IGKVV and UAS-Bangalore have Coefficient of Variation (cv)
developed improved breeding lines possessing higher 7.74 % 13.91%
concentrations of zinc in the endosperm. For enhancing iron,
the only promising approach is genetic engineering. Several
*ED-XRF reports 4 ppm lesser Zn content than Inductively
research groups have deployed ferritin genes to increase iron
Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-
content in polished rice and significant success has been
OES)
Table 2: Randomized Complete Block ANOVA Table for Data (Zn and Fe content in grain):
F Calculated
Source of Degree of freedom Total Sum of Square Mean Sum of Square
Varition
Zn Fe Zn Fe Zn Fe Zn Fe
Replication 2 2 23.63 32.859 11.8134 16.4295
Treatment 30 30 2695.17 497.612 89.8392 16.5871 33.96* 5.86*
Error 66 66 174.61 186.748 2.6457 2.8295
Total 98 98
*Significant differences among the genotypes for zinc and iron content

153
Table 3: Comparision of promising genotype Genotypes at Reddy, B.V.S., Ramesh, S. and Longvah, T. 2005. Prospects
0.05 alpha, 66 error degree of freedom, 1.997 least signifi- of breeding for micronutrients and carotene-
cance Difference dense- sorghums.Int. Sorghum Millets
Newsl.,46: 10-14
Zn content
Designation of Genotype in brown rice Rank SanjeevaRao, D., MadhuBabu, P. Swarnalatha, P. Kota,
sample S., Bhadana V.P., Varaprasad, G.S.Surekha,
Basmati 5874 40.600 A K. Neeraja C.N. andRavindraBabu V. (2014)
Biniheren 35.500 B Assessment of Grain Zinc and Iron Variability
in Rice Germplasm using EnergyDispersive
Co ACC 167 27.833* C
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrophotometer (ED -
Laldhan 26.167* C XRF). Journal of Rice Reseach7: 45-52
Stangoulis J.C.R., Huynh, B., Welch, R.M., Choi, E. and
*The difference between 27.833 and 26.167 is lesser than the Graham, R.D. (2007).Quantitative trait loci
1.997, so both have same potential for the grain zinc content for phytate in rice grain and their relationship
character inspite of difference in their Zn content. with grain micronutrient content.Euphytica154:
289–294.
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Graham R.D., Senadhira, D., Beebe, S., Iglesias, C. Gursharn, S.R., Harcharan, S.D., Beat, K. and
and Monasterio, I. (1999).Breeding for Kuldeep, S. (2009). Mapping of quantitative
micronutrient density in edible portions of trait loci for grain iron and zinc concentration
staple food crops: conventional approaches. in diploid a genome wheat. Journal of
Field CropsResearch60: 57-80. Heredity100(6): 771–776.
Gregorio G.B.(2002) Progress in Breeding for Trace Welch, R.M. and Graham, R.D. (2004) Breeding for
Minerals in Staple Crops. American Soceity micronutrients in staple food crops from
for nutritional Sceinces. In symposium: Plant a human nutrition perspective. Journal of
Breeding: A new tool for fighting micronutrient Experimental Botany55: 353–64.
malnutrition. American society for nutritional
sciences.The journal of nutrition. P-500S-502S
RavindraBabu V., Neeraja, C.N., SanjeevaRao, D.,
Sundaram, R.M., Longvah, T., Usharani, G.,
Padmavathi, G., Balachandran, S.M., Nirmala
Devi, G.,Bhadana, V.P., Suneetha, K., Rao,
K.V.,Surekha, K., Sarla, N., Brajendra, P.,
RaghuveerRao, P., Girish, C., Shashidhar,
H.E., Bijan, A. and Viraktamath, B.C. (2014).
Biofortificationin rice,Bulletin, Directorate of
RiceResearch, 1-98. ISBN: 978-81-9282495-6.

154
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 155-160 (2015)

INNOVATIVE E-LEARNING FOR INDIAN RICE FARMERS: USABILITY AND

LEARNABILITY
JYOTHI SSP*, MEERA SHAIK N*, ARUN KUMAR S*, MUTHURAMAN P**
ABSTRACT
The traditional approach of agriculture extension is linear that encourage the research and extension to act independently of one an-
other and of the farmers resulting in isolation of groups excluding the other stakeholders. There is a need for an integrated, innovative
and interactive approach to fuse the isolated groups. To accomplish the task of enhanced interaction, communication and cooperation
among the groups the ICTs appear ideal as they can inflate and motivate participatory communication and often are the key instruments
used to deliver services to a large number of rural people within the stipulated time frame. ICTs have eased the interactions among
people geographically isolated, knowledge sharing and multiple stakeholder involvement. E-learning is gaining importance in modern
ICT based extension services for its easiness and effective information transfer to and fro. In this context a study has been conducted
on the usability and learnability of the e-learning application MOODLE hosting 21 online courses on Rice at the Rice Knowledge
Management Portal (RKMP), an ICAR initiative. The study is conducted in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh at the RKMP lab, Directorate
of Rice Research comprising of 80 respondents. The profile of the respondents is a fusion of extension personnel both from the public
and private sector. The opinion of the respondents is recorded using a structured questionnaire and conducting pre and post tests on the
courses available online. 65% of the respondents opined it is easy to use, 87.5% agreed it provided for interactive learning and feed-
back, 50% agreed it is efficient in self-operation and 68.75% agreed to its unique feature of easy recovery from errors. On the whole
66.25% were satisfied with this mode of information delivery. These results suggest that E-learning has proved to be effective and has
an important role to play to bridge the gap existing in transfer of technology. Coming together is beginning, staying together is progress
and working together is success. Institutional, group and individual efforts are needed for boosted agricultural growth and development.

Keywords: E- Learning; E-readiness; Innovation; Information Literacy; ICT Skills; Distance Learning; Usability; Learn-
ability ; Rice

INTRODUCTION
Rice is the main staple crop of India with a vast
acreage of 44.6 million hectares under cultivation since
eons. A majority of the rural farming community is engaged
with rice cultivation as their main source of occupation and
livelihood. Rice cultivation in India has a significant share in
the national economy. In near future, land under rice is likely
to be reduced further and could stabilize at about 40 Mha. To
meet a production target of 125 Mt by 2025, all inclusive of
food requirement, seed for cultivation, storage in buffer stock
and a share for exports, productivity in irrigated area needs to
be enhanced by 1.5 tons/ha and in rainfed lowlands by about
1 ton/ha.( http://www.docstoc.com/docs/133910509/Making-
of-RKMP) A careful SWOT analysis presented in vision
2025 document of DRR revealed that there is an opportunity
for bridging the yield gap by improving the access to the
rice knowledge. Gargantuan knowledge has been developed
about this crop and there is a need to share this knowledge
with the farming community for an improved society. The
existing information sharing mechanisms appear to be quiet
inadequate to meet the mammoth task of enhancing the
production and productivity of rice amid all the odds of ever
increasing population, urbanization, industrialization and
crop diversification due to reduced profitability. The present
problems associated with the knowledge sharing in rice sector
are the rice workers themselves do not have a single window
of identifying commonalities between their work and that of
their colleagues in other rice research stations, within and
outside the country. Unfamiliar with the rice technologies,
data sets, usable form of rice information, awareness about
the availability of such information at local, national and
global level. There is no single gateway to cross-search all
the information available on rice, lack of data refinement and
standardization, lack of local and contextual content across
the states. Globalization, competitive market forces, need
for value added farming and more sustainable use of natural
resource base demand a drastic upheaval of agriculture across
the developing world. New agricultural archetype demands
the use of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs)
(Shaik N Meera: 2008). The main principle of agriculture
extension is self-help i.e. help the rural farmers to help
themselves. With the present agriculture extension systems
there is a need for more concerted and pluralistic network of
institutions and organizations, demand-driven and establish
closer linkages with the clients. ICTs are not really about
the computer, Internet and telephone lines but in a further
inclusive way it’s about information and communication.
The agricultural professionals play a critical role in linking
the technology sources to the technology users. But today’s
agricultural professionals do not have the knowledge and
skills to be effective in the current situation. To supplement
their knowledge levels the ICTs can be of abundant aid
as they help to gather, store, retrieve, adapt, localise and
disseminate a broad range of information needed by farmers,
thus transforming them from extension workers into
knowledge workers. Extension education is a non-formal
“out of school” system of education for the adult rural and
farming community. Farm Field Schools and trainings are a
method of imparting education to the farmers. The ratio of
extension workers to farmers in the present day context is
1:1000 depicting a very miserable and a fragile extension
system (Shaik N Meera: 2010). There is a need to reorient the
present day extension system to meet the current and future
demands of the agriculture community and the national
economy. Distance learning or online learning in the era of
ICTs has proved to be an effective tool to transfer knowledge
and technology to the farmers. In this backdrop with the
objective of increasing the production and productivity of rice
the Rice Knowledge Management Portal has been developed

155
as an ICT initiative by the Indian Council of Agricultural Neilson’s Heuristics:
Research and the National Agricultural Innovation Project
along with the Directorate of Rice Research. The Rice Jakob Nielsen’s heuristics are probably the most-used
Knowledge Management Portal has very aptly addressed usability heuristics for user interface design. Based on the
the issue on online training/learning through its elearning Neilson’s Heuristics for usability and interface design the
platform Learnrice built on MOODLE supported by Indian questionnaire was prepared for a set of points were asked and
local languages. The platform has hosted 20 courses on Rice respondents ranked on Likert’s five point scale as Strongly
Production Technologies in India. A study was conducted agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and Strongly disagree.
to assess the usability and learnability of this platform with Based on the responses the usability of the e-learning
a group of respondents (80) from different stakeholder platform from the learner’s point of view was observed. This
categories. has helped to improve the features of the platform and make
it more user-friendly and interactive.
Objective
The present research on the usability and learnability
of the e-learning platform Learnrice on RKMP has been
conducted to assess the practicality of e-learning strategies
for agricultural development in general and rice sector in
particular.
Methodology
The study was conducted during 2011-2012 at the
Rice Knowledge Management Portal (RKMP) Lab at the
Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
Information was collected from 80 respondents from the
public and private sector. Scientists, Extension officials and
private sector personnel constituted the learners for the study.
A structured questionnaire was used to collect the
data on the profile of the respondents, easiness to use the
e-learning platform, accessibility and interactivity, look and
feel features of the e-learning platform. The respondents
were asked about the design, ODL standards, error recovery
efficiency and user satisfaction. Pre and posttests available
at the completion of the course also were used to collect the
data. The data thus collected has been ranked on five-point
scale as excellent, good, fair, adequate and poor respectively
and correspondingly the usability and learnability factors
have been observed.
Assessment of Usability/Learnability
ISO 9241-11 Definition:  Usability is concerned with
“the extent to which a product can be used by specified users
to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and
satisfaction in a specified context of use” (Timo Jokela : ISO
9241-11, 1998).
ISO 9126-1 Definition of Learnability: A Sub
characteristic of usability. The ability of a software product
to enable users to learn its application.
Results and Discussions
i) Profile of the Respondents: Among the
respondents (Table 1) majority of the Extension
officials 53.47% rated the e-learning portal to be an
excellent while 22.5% ranked as fair. Among the
Scientists 42.5% rated as good while 22.5% ranked
the portal as excellent. Personnel from the private
sector and other stakeholder categories 45% ranked
the portal as fair in terms of knowledge delivery.

156
Table 1: Profile of the respondents

Indicator Excellent(5) Good(4) Fair(3) Adequate(2) Poor(1)

Matching to profile of learners (n=80) - Multiple answers allowed

Scientists 18 (22.5) 34 (42.5) 12 (15.0) 8 (10.0) 8 (10.0)

Extension Officials 43 (53.75) 11 (13.75) 18 (22.5) 5 (6.25) 3 (3.75)
Others 12 (15.0) 10 (12.5) 36 (45.0) 22 (27.5) 0

ii) Degree of easiness to use the e-learning platform:
Easiness to use the platform is very important for
the users to have a proper flow in a step-wise
manner throughout the e-learning portal. The
parameters included in assessing the easiness are
(Table 2A) register and login, find way through the
courses i.e. is the learner directed in a hierarchy
order and 36% of the respondents ranked as good
while 26.25% of them ranked as excellent. The
navigation of the user form the home page to the
courses was also assessed (Table 2B) for which
42.5% of the respondents ranked as good while
62.5% of them expressed as excellent. “Click
next” is an option provided in the platform for the
user to be directed to the next page or topic. 67.5%
of the respondents ranked the click next option
as excellent. Visual hierarchy is the arrangement
or presentation of elements in the order of their
importance. 57.5% & 28.75% of the respondents
ranked visual hierarchy as excellent and good
respectively. Fonts (Table 2 C)are very important
for a webpage as they stimulate interest in the
learner and keep them consistent and undistracted.
The font size, colour and consistency attract the
reader and at the same even hinder the readability
of the learner. 41.25% of the respondents ranked
the readability in terms of font colors as poor
stressing the scope to improve and maintain the
fonts throughout the platform. E-learning is noted
for its distinctiveness in developing learner centric
courses, making learning possible in synchronous
and asynchronous mode and blended learning with
exercises and activities included. 72.5% among
the respondents ranked the e-learning platform as
excellent in terms of learner centricity and 56.25%
as good and adequate each for synchronous-
asynchronous learning and blended learning
respectively. However the respondents felt that
blended learning and activity based learning
should have more role as the present resources
seems to be insufficient.

Table 2: Degree of Easiness to use the e-learning platform

Indicator Excellent(5) Good(4) Fair(3) Adequate(2) Poor(1)

A)How easy it is to use the e-learning platform (n=80)

Relative easiness to register and
21 (26.25) 31 (38.75) 20 (25.0) 6 (7.5) 2 (2.5)
login
Ability to find way through the
18 (22.5) 27 (33.75) 22 (27.5) 8 (10.0) 5 (6.25)
courses
B)Navigation
Primary Navigation
28 (35.0) 34 (42.5) 6 (7.5) 7 (8.75) 5 (6.25)
(Home to Courses) is easy
“Click next” is helpful? 54 (67.5) 17 (21.25) 8 (10.0) 1 (1.25) 0

Is the navigation intuitive/smooth 50 (62.5) 20 (25.0) 6 (7.5) 4 (5.0) 0

Visual hierarchy is maintained? 46 (57.5) 23 (28.75) 10 (12.5) 1 (1.25) 0

C) Fonts

Fonts are easy to read 38 (47.5) 33 (41.25) 5 (6.25) 2 (2.5) 2 (2.5)

157
 Font colours hinder readability 3 (3.75) 13 (16.25) 6 (7.5) 25 (31.25) 33 (41.25)
There is a consistency in font type
40 (50.0) 24 (16.25) 10 (12.5) 3 (3.75) 3 (3.75)
and size
D) Other factors

Courses are learner centric (open) 58 (72.5) 12 (15.0) 8 (10.0) 1 (1.25) 1 (1.25)

Synchronous/ asynchronous
24 (30.0) 45 (56.25) 2 (2.5) 9 (11.25) 0
learning possible

Exercises/ Blended learning

0 12 (15.0) 12 (15.0) 45 (56.25) 11 (13.75)
opportunities exist

iii) Accessibility, Interactivity
Affordance
Web Accessibility means different things
to different people. Accessibility in general
means easy access to people with visually
impaired disabilities. The parameters included
for assessing the accessibility are if the
information can be accessed in multiple ways
as ‘search’ or ‘jump to’ and if the sequence
of use if defined and logical. 46.75% of the
respondents ranked accessibility as good and
35% ranked as excellent. The logical sequence
in the courses has been ranked good by 48.75%
of the respondents (Table 3A). Pre and post
tests are included at the end of each course
and regular feedback option is provided for the
learner. Feedback is the missing component
in the agriculture extension system and the
Table 3: Accessibility, Interactivity and Affordance
Indicator Excellent(5)
and e-learning platform has tried to address this
issue. Video and audio files in support to the
textual resources are also included for the
learning to be interactive. The pre and post
tests have been ranked as 100% excellent
while 62.5% of the respondents ranked regular
feedback as excellent and 30% of them
expressed that learning activities provided are
adequate and have to still be fit in the courses
(Table 3B). Affordances are clues provided by
the objects in the e-learning platform to help the
learners guide themselves through the courses.
The learners are provided with a ‘click’ button
that would lead the learner to move ahead in
the course. 60% of the respondents ranked
the ‘click’ option as excellent. 51.25% of the
respondents felt that the written manuals for
learners were adequate.(Table 3C).
Good(4) Fair(3) Adequate(2) Poor(1)

A)Accessibility of Information
Can be accessed in multiple ways
28 (35.0) 37 (46.75) 7 (8.75) 8 (10.0) 0
(search, jump to etc.,)
Sequence of use defined & logical 33 (41.25) 39 (48.75) 2 (2.5) 4 (5.0) 2 (2.5)

B)Interactivity

Learning activities are included 18 (22.5) 10 (12.5) 24 (30.0) 20 (25.0) 8 (10.0)

Pre-test included 80 (100) 0 0 0 0
Regular Feedback 50 (62.5) 20 (25.0) 6 (7.5) 4 (5.0) 0
Post test included 80 (100) 0 0 0 0

Useful end features (summaries, 2 (2.5)

2 (2.5) 24 (30.0) 19 (23.75) 33 (41.25)
action plans etc.,)

C) Affordance

158
 Learners understand where to
48 (60.0) 23 (28.75) 7 (8.75) 2 (2.5) 0
‘click’?
Learners depend on written manuals 8 (10.0) 8 (10.0) 20 (25.0) 41 (51.25) 3 (3.75)

iv) Neilson’s Heuristics

Jacob Neilson during 1993 has developed usability heuristics to identify any problems associated with the
design user interfaces. The table 4 shows the indicators selected for evaluating the User interface design of the
e-learning platform. The respondents were asked to rate their preference for the heuristics for which majority
51.25% of the respondents agreed that the platform has minimal design, 37.5% of them agreed that there is a match
between the learner’s language and system language while 22.5% of them disagreed to it. 67.5% of the respondents
agreed that the ODL (Open Distance Learning) standards have been maintained. 55% of the respondents disagreed
that help is available at every stage and 31.25% agreed that the learner has control over the course.
Table 4: Neilson’s Heuristics (1993)
Indicator Strongly Agree(5) Agree(4) Undecided(3) Disagree(2) Strongly Disagree(1)

Minimalistic design 24 (30.0) 41 (51.25) 0 10 (12.5) 5 (6.25)

Learners language (match
12 (15.0) 30 (37.5) 15 (18.75) 18 (22.5) 5 (6.25)
between system and learner)
Cognitive load is high 44 (55.0) 24 (30.0) 8 (10.0) 4 (5.0) 0
ODL standards are maintained 12 (15.0) 54 (67.5) 0 8 (10.0) 6 (7.5)
Short cuts are available 18 (22.5) 44 (55.0) 12 (15.0) 6 (7.5) 0
Help is available at every stage 0 16 (20.0) 4 (5.0) 44 (55.0) 16 (20.0)
Learner’s control over the
12 (15.0) 25 (31.25) 23 (28.75) 6 (7.5) 14 (17.5)
course
v) Usability Components
The usability indicators that have been assessed are efficiency, memorability, errors and satisfaction of the user. The
respondents were asked to rate on a five-point scale and 35% of the m agreed that the learners were able to self-
operate through the platform while 27.5% were undecided about the indicator. 27.5% of the respondents felt that
single exposure is enough to memorize to use the platform while 31.25% of them were undecided. The possibility to
make too many errors was disagreed by 40% of the respondents while 50% of them agreed that it is easy to recover
from the errors. At the end of the study the respondents were assessed about their satisfaction in using the e-learning
platform for knowledge delivery and 43.75% of the respondents have agreed it as a good platform while 22.5% of
them ranked the usability of the platform as excellent.
Table V: Usability Components

Indicator Strongly Agree(5) Agree(4) Undecided(3) Disagree(2) Strongly Disagree(1)

Efficiency
Once learners go through the
platform with some support, it is 12 (15.0) 28 (35.0) 22 (27.5) 14 (7.5) 4 (5.0)
easy to self-operate
Memorability
Single exposure is enough to use
7 (8.75) 22 (27.5) 25 (31.25) 14 (17.5) 12 (15.0)
platform
Errors
There is a possibility of making
2 (2.5) 21 (26.5) 9 (11.25) 32 (40.0) 16 (20.0)
too many errors
Easy to recover from errors 15 (18.75) 40 (50.0) 2 (2.5) 20 (25.0) 3 (3.75)
Satisfaction
Learners are satisfied with the
18 (22.5) 35 (43.75) 8 (10.0) 11 (13.75) 8 (10.0)
courses

159
CONCLUSION:
The paper tries to reconnoiter the likelihoods of e-learning opportunities to rejuvenate the extension system, training
and support. Knowledge updating, skill enhancement and change in the behavior of the rural people the three major goals
of extension can be achieved through ICT based extension system (Shaik N Meera: 2011). The courses embedded in the

e-learning platform supported with relevant visual resources 3(2): 11-18.

will make an impact on the change on production and
productivity and will have a far reaching consequence in
information delivery and training support.
However there is further scope for improving the
present ICT based extension system depending on the
changing demands and situations of the Indian agricultural
community. Innovative extension approaches supporting a
real-time based knowledge and demand driven technology
is always accepted and is dynamic in nature. It is hoped that
this effort will make a difference in the problem-solving
approach on a real-time basis.
Meera N. Shaik (2011). e-Learning in extension systems. 
In: Dipak De, Basavaprabhu Jirli and Shaik
N. Meera (2011). ICTs: Digital Opportunities
in Agricultural Extension. Agrobios (India)
Jodhpur. Pp 516.
Timo Jokela, Netta Iivari, Vesa Tornberg. Using the ISO
9241-11 definition of usability in requirements
determination: case studies www.hitech-
projects.com/.../using_the_iso924111_
definition_sept2004....

References: Meera N. Shaik, Magor Noel and Shires David (2011).

Expert Usability evaluation and learning audit
Meera Shaik N. Making ICT Mediated Knowledge of ICT Extension Tools : A Case of rice doctor.
Management to work: A Case of Rice In: Dipak De, Basavaprabhu Jirli and Shaik
Knowledge Management Portal in India ( http:// N. Meera (2011). ICTs: Digital Opportunities
www.docstoc.com/docs/133910509/Making- in Agricultural Extension. Agrobios (India)
of-RKMP) Jodhpur. Pp 516.
Meera Shaik N (2008). Transforming extension through Jakob Nielson, (1995): How to Conduct a Heuristic
ICTS: Issues and Strategies for developing Evaluation http://www.nngroup.com/articles/
world, Journal of Global Communication, Vol how-to-conduct-a-heuristic-evaluation/
1, No. 1 January – June 2008, ISSN:0974-0600
(www.bhu.ac.in/journal/journal/JGCVol1No1.
pdf )
Meera Shaik N, Arun Kumar S , Amtul Waris, Vara Prasad C,
Muthuraman P, Mangal Sain and Viraktamath
BC (2010). E-Learning in Extension Systems:
Empirical Study in Agricultural Extension in
India. Indian Journal of Extension Education.
46 (3&4): 94-101.
Meera Shaik N, Mangal Sain, Muthuraman.P, Arun Kumar
S, Sailaja B. , Jyothi SSP and Viraktamath
BC, (2010). Critical Analysis of E-learning
opportunities and E-readiness in the Public
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Tamil Nadu. Journal of Global Communication,

160
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 161-163 (2015)

RESPONSE OF RICE (Oryza Sativa) VARIETIES ON NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY AND

YIELD UNDER DIFFERENT NITROGEN LEVELS
K RAJESH*, V. PADMA1, S.R VOLETI2, K. RADHIKA3 and A. SIVA SANKAR1
*,1
Department of Crop Physiology, 3Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Professor Jayashankar
Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad-30, Telangana, India. 2Department of Plant Physiology, Directorate of Rice
Research (DRR), Hyderabad-30, India.

ABSTRACT
Field experiment was conducted during 2011-12 to study the response of rice varieties on nitrogen use efficiency and yield under two
nitrogen levels (120 kg N ha-1 [N120], 60 kg N ha-1 [N60]) as main treatments and twenty six rice genotypes as sub treatments. Among the
interactions, the genotype MTU-1001 recorded highest NUE (83.68) in N 60 where as Varalu recorded lowest NUE (27.29) in N 120. Rice
varieties responded well to higher levels of nitrogen but nitrogen use efficiency was comparatively better in lower levels. However, grain
yield increased linearly with incremental dose of nitrogen. In the present investigation at 120 kg N ha-1 application rate MTU-1001 has re-
corded highest grain yield of 5364 kg ha-1 whereas lowest grain yield of 2548 kg ha-1 was recorded in Varalu with application of 60 Kg N ha-1.

Key words: Rice varieties, Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) and Yield.

INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen (N) is the indispensable nutrient to rice
production and its uptakes is affected by rice varieties,
environment, soil conditions, crop rotations etc. Managing
nitrogen fertilization in rice fields is a challenging task
for farmers because of various kinds of losses due to de
-nitrification, deep percolation and run-off in flooded soils
resulting in low nitrogen use efficiency. While excessive
nitrogen promotes lodging and diseases and results in low
nitrogen use efficiency, low application of nitrogen will
often reduce rice. Among the various factors contributing
for rice production, fertilizers play an important role. Use
of adequate nitrogen rate is important not only for obtaining
maximum economic returns, but also to reduce environmental
pollution. Excessive nitrogen application can result in
accumulation of large amounts of post-harvest residual soil
nitrogen. Residual soil nitrate (NO-3) may be available for
subsequent crops in the next season, but such nitrogen is
highly susceptible to leaching during non-crop periods. It is
important to achieve efficient use of nitrogen in chemical
fertilizers, not only through cultivation techniques, but also
by breeding varieties with high nitrogen use efficiency and
reducing nitrogen inputs from farming to the environment
(Sachiko et al., 2009).
spikelet formation. It is important to increase the efficiency
of soil and fertilizer N by using nutrient efficient varieties. It
is hypothesized that the N use efficiency of the rice plant can
be optimized by critical leaf, stem and grain N content of rice
varieties, which improves the efficiency of grain production.
The present investigation was to assess variability in grain
yield, and N use efficiency for grain production of rice
varieties under optimal and suboptimal nitrogen levels.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted during 2011-12 at
Collage Farm, College of Agriculture, Professor Jayashankar
Telangana State Agricultural University, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad. The farm is geographically situated at 78023’ E
longitude and 17019’ N latitude and at an altitude of 542.6
m above mean sea level. The climate of Hyderabad was
classified as dry tropical and semi arid. The soil is sandy
loam in texture with 79.4% sand content. The soil is neutral
(pH 7.49) in reaction with low electrical conductivity (0.24
dsm-1). The soil is medium in organic carbon content, low
in available nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and
potash.

Rice varieties may respond differently to N application.
Cultivars selected under high N fertilizer application may
not be suitable for soils with low N status. Even after the
application of high rates of fertilizer N to rice, expected
yield levels might not be obtained. If plant N status can be
increased without lodging or increasing the incidence of
disease, a significant increase in yield requires increased
sink capacity, maintenance of high leaf N content and a
longer grain filling duration. Rice varieties differ in their
ability to extract soil and fertilizer N and in its distribution
to different plant organs. Understanding N uptake and
assimilation is necessary in any attempt to optimize the
efficiency of absorbed N for grain production. Hassan et al.
(2007) showed that vigorous biomass accumulation could
lead to dilution of plant nitrogen content up to the panicle
initiation stage, which could lead to inefficient use of N for
The experiment was laid out in a split plot design
with two nitrogen levels i.e., Optimum of 120 kg N
ha-1 [N120], Sub optimal of 60 kg N ha-1 [N60] as main
treatments and twenty six rice genotypes as sub treatments
and the experiment was replicated thrice. The rice genotypes
were sown separately in raised bed nursery and thirty day
old seedlings were transplanted into 6 m2 (2m X 3m) plots
by adopting a spacing of 20 cm between rows and 15 cm
between plants with in a row. Nitrogen was applied as per
the treatments 60 Kg N ha-1 and 120 kg N ha-1 in three equal
splits in the form of urea. Phosphorus was applied at the rate
of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 in the form of single super phosphate and
potassium 40 kg K2O ha-1 in the form of muriate of potash
was applied as basal dose at the time of transplanting.
Depending on the nitrogen treatments one third dose

161
of nitrogen was applied as basal dose at the time of planting
of the crop. Remaining two equal splits of nitrogen was
broadcasted at maximum tillering and panicle initiation
stages. Irrigation and weed management was done in time
to time. The border rows were harvested first and then, the
net plot area was harvested and the produce was threshed by
beating on a threshing bench, cleaned and sun dried to 14
percent moisture level. Plants in one m2 area were tagged
separately. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is critical for plant
growth, biomass, crop yield and protein content, as well as
for optimal utilization of fertilizers. Nitrogen use efficiency
defined as the ratio of grain yield to applied fertilizer
nitrogen is a key parameter for evaluating a crop cultivar.
NUE is one which had produced favourable results showing
the effectiveness of this approach in selecting genotypes
positively contributing to high nitrogen efficiency. Grain
from net plot area was thoroughly sun dried, threshed, cleaned
and weight of grains was recorded and expressed in yield per
hectare. The data were analyzed statistically following the
method given by Panse and Sukhatme (1978) and wherever
the results were significant, the critical difference (CD) was
calculated at 5 per cent level of significance (P=0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)
Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) largely depends
on nutrient balance, water availability, light intensity and
cultivated variety. Nitrogen efficient genotype is considered
in two different terms: the ability to convert high nitrogen
input into yield comparatively better than other genotypes
or the ability to realize an above average yield at suboptimal
nitrogen level. Rice genotypes showed different nitrogen
uptake ability and NUE at different nitrogen level.
Significant difference was observed between the
treatments and increase in nitrogen level reduced the NUE
which ranged from 38.32 to 66.42 with a mean of 52.37.
Highest NUE was recorded in N 60 (66.42) and lowest
NUE was recorded in N 120 treatment (38.32) (Table 1 and
Fig.1). The results showed that the NUE did not increase
linearly with the amount of nitrogen application. Similar
observations were made by Kang et al. (2013) who reported
that higher nitrogen levels showed significantly lower NUE
values. Among the rice genotypes, NUE values ranged from
34.88 to 64.61 with a general mean of 52.37. The genotype
MTU-1001 recorded highest NUE (64.61) and Varalu
(34.88) recorded the lowest value.
Interaction between nitrogen and rice genotypes
significantly influenced the NUE values which ranged from
27.29 to 83.68. Among the interactions, the genotype MTU-
1001 recorded highest NUE (83.68) in N 60 where as Varalu
recorded lowest NUE (27.29) in N 120. Singh et al. (2010)
reported that improving synchrony between crop nitrogen
demand and the nitrogen supply from soil and/or the applied
nitrogen fertilizer is a promising strategy to enhance nitrogen
use efficiency. Excessive N rate, low nitrogen uptake and
irrational application timing were the key reasons for low N
use efficiency. (Peng et al., 2010).
Grain yield (kg ha-1)
Nitrogen is the most essential element that determines
the yield potential of intensified agricultural system.
Additional doses of nitrogen are usually applied to increase
grain yield. A perusal of the data on grain yield indicates that
with increased nitrogen levels there was significant increase
in the grain yield (Table 1 and Fig.2). Highest grain yield of
4591 kg ha-1 was recorded with 120 Kg N ha-1.While lowest
grains yield of 3985 kg ha-1 was recorded with 60 Kg N ha-1
treatment. There was significant difference in grain yield of
various rice genotypes studied. Among the genotypes MTU-
1001 has recorded maximum grain yield of 5192 kg ha-1,
while the lowest grain yield of 2912 kg ha-1was recorded in
Varalu.
The interaction between nitrogen levels and rice
genotypes was highly significant for grain yield. Among the
treatmental combinations, highest grain yield of 5364 kg ha-1
was recorded with 120 Kg N ha-1 in MTU-1001, whereas
lowest grain yield of 2548 kg ha-1 was recorded in Varalu
with application of 60 Kg N ha-1. The grain yield significantly
increased with increasing nitrogen levels up to 120 kg N
ha-1. Nitrogen contributes to carbohydrate accumulation in
culms and leaf sheaths during the pre-heading stage and in
the grain during the ripening stage of rice (Bahmanyar &
Ranjbar, 2007).

Table 1: The influence of Nitrogen on Grain yield (Kg ha-1) and Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) in rice genotypes
Grain yield (Kg ha-1) NUE
Genotypes
N 60 N 120 Mean N 60 N 120 Mean
WGL-14 3200 4423 3811 53.33 36.86 45.09
BPT-5204 4810 5036 4923 80.17 41.80 60.98
WGL-2395 4976 5175 5076 82.93 43.99 63.46
DIVYA 4740 4856 4798 78.99 40.47 59.73
JGL-11727 4741 4983 4862 79.02 41.53 60.27
POTHANA 4869 5046 4957 81.15 42.05 61.60
RNR-C-28 4219 4402 4310 70.31 36.68 53.50
RNR-2354 3148 4230 3689 52.47 35.25 43.86
RNR-2465 3072 4072 3572 51.21 33.93 42.57
JGL-3855 3750 4618 4184 62.51 38.49 50.50
NDLR-7 3073 3798 3436 51.22 31.65 41.43
SUREKHA 2636 3458 3047 43.94 28.81 36.38
RNR-2458 3847 4504 4175 64.11 37.53 50.82

162
 MTU-1001 5021 5364 5192 83.68 45.53 64.61
ERRAMALLELU 2923 3641 3282 48.72 30.34 39.53
BHADRAKALI 4821 5001 4911 80.36 41.68 61.02
JGL-1798 4918 5141 5030 81.97 42.84 62.41
GODAVARI ISUKALU 4130 4772 4451 68.83 39.77 54.30
KAVYA 4720 4873 4797 78.66 40.61 59.64
MTU-1010 5015 5338 5176 83.58 44.48 64.03
CHITTIMUTYALU 4144 4816 4480 69.06 40.13 54.60
WGL-32100 3445 4697 4071 57.42 39.14 48.28
VARALU 2549 3275 2912 42.48 27.29 34.88
JGL-1470 3649 4818 4233 60.81 40.15 50.48
JGL-3844 3111 4399 3755 51.85 36.66 44.26
JGL-3828 4094 4634 4364 68.24 38.62 53.43
Mean 3985 4591 4288 66.42 38.32 52.37
Treatments (T) 73.546 0.855
C.D
(5%) Genotypes (G) 108.665 1.446
TXG 163.049 2.132
Figure 1. The influence of Nitrogen on Grain yield (Kg ha )
-1
with application of 60 Kg N ha . The adequate quantity
-1

in rice genotypes of nitrogen at right time helped rice plants to promote the
yield and also accumulation of N elements in rice productive
organs and its distribution is an important process which
determines the grain yield.
REFERENCES
Bahmanyar, M. A., Ranjbar, G., A.2007. Response of
rice cultivar to rates of nitrogen and potassium
application in field and pot conditions. Pakistan
Journal of Biological Sceinces.10 (9):1430-1437.
Hassan, M.S., Abul Khair., Haque, M., M and Abdul Hamid.
2007. Photosynthetic characters, SPAD value and
nitrogen use efficiency of traditional AUS rice
(Oryza Sativa L.) cultivars. SAARC Jn. of Agri., 5
(2): 29-40.

Figure 2. The influence of Nitrogen on Nitrogen Use Effi-
ciency (NUE) in rice genotypes
CONCLUSION
In the present study rice varieties responded well to
higher levels of nitrogen but nitrogen use efficiency was
comparatively better in lower levels, the genotype MTU-
1001 recorded highest NUE in N 60 where as Varalu recorded
lowest NUE in N 120. Among the nitrogen levels 120 Kg
N ha-1 and rice genotypes MTU-1001 has recorded highest
grain yield and lowest grain yield was recorded in Varalu
Kang, S.G., Hassan, M. S., Sang, W.G., Min-Kyu Choi,
Young-Doo Kim, Hong-Kyu Park, Chowdhury, A
and Jeom-Ho Lee. 2013. Nitrogen Use Efficiency
of High Yielding Japonica Rice (Oryza Sativa L.)
Influenced by Variable Nitrogen Applications.
Korean journal of Crop Science. 58 (3): 213-219.
Panse, V., G and Sukhatme P V 1978 Statistical methods for
agricultural workers. Indian Council of Agrcultural
Research, New Delhi. pp145-150.
Peng, S., Buresh, R.J., Huang, X., Zou, Y., Yang, J., Wang, G.,
Liu, Hu, R., Tang, Q., Cui, K., Zhang and Doberman,
A. 2010. Improving nitrogen fertilization in rice by
site specific N management. A review. Agronomy for
Sustainable Development. 30: 649-656.
Sachiko, N., Kazunobu Toriyama and Yoshimichi Fukuta.
2009. Genetic variations in dry matter production
and physiological nitrogen use efficiency in rice
(Oryza sativa L.) varieties. Breeding Science. 59:
269-276.
Singh, V., Singh, B., Singh, Y., Thind, H.S and Gupta, R.K.
2010. Need based nitrogen management using the
chlorophyll meter and leaf colour chart in rice and
wheat in South Asia: a review. Nutrient Cycling in
Agroecosystem. 88: 361–380.

163
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 164-167 (2015)

EFFECT OF INTEGRATED USE OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC SOURCES OF

PHOSPHORUS ON INORGANIC P-FRACTIONS IN SOIL OF CHICKPEA
(Cicer arietinum L.)
K. CHANDRASHAKER1, V. SAILAJA AND P. CHANDRASEKHAR RAO
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyederabad, 500 030, Andhra
Pradesh

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during 2009-10 on sandy loam Alfisol at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hy-
derabad, A.P, India to study the response of phosphorus levels in combination with FYM @ 10 t ha-1 and phosphate solubilising bacteria
(PSB) @ 2 kg ha-1 on various inorganic P fractions in soil, P uptake by the crop at flowering and at harvest and seed yield of the crop.
Among the inorganic P fractions estimated, Al-P is the smallest pool and Ca-P is the largest pool accounting for 0.66 and 78.1 per cent re-
spectively of the total inorganic pool. Al-P at flowering was 3.28 ppm, which was smaller than that of 11.5 ppm at harvest. The mean Fe-P
content in the soil at flowering was 37.18 ppm which increased to 40.48 ppm at harvest. The Ca-P is the largest fraction of inorganic P and
accounted for 78.1 % of total inorganic at flowering that increased to 87.03 per cent at harvest. Occluded Fe-P fraction reduced to a great
extent from 47.1 ppm at flowering to 7.43 ppm at harvest. The mean occluded Al-P fraction was 22.0 ppm at flowering which reduced to
5.67 ppm at harvest. Inorganic P application increased the inorganic P fractions indicating the fixation of applied and native P. At both the
stages, PSB either alone or in combination with FYM showed a significant reduction in the size of fixed P pool or increased the available P.

INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus is an important nutrient especially
for pulses as a high phosphoru\s supply is needed for
nodulation. It also influences N availability through N
fixation. Phosphorus plays a pivotal role for the structure and
regulatory functions in photosynthesis, root development,
energy conservation and transformation, carbon metabolism,
redox reactions, enzyme activation and inactivation,
signaling and nucleic acid synthesis (Vance et al., 2003).
Organic matter additions were found to mobilize the fixed
phosphates in the soil thus increasing the available P to crops
(Venkateswarlu, 2000). The phosphate solubilising bacteria
(PSB) have the capacity to dissolve insoluble form of
inorganic phosphorus and make it available to crop. Organic
manures stimulate the phosphomonoesterase activity in the
crop rhizosphere. Production of phosphatase is reduced due
to the presence of inorganic phosphorus. Since culture of
PSB and organic manures are very cheap and prove to be
an effective low cost technology to farmers, it will cut down
the fertilizer expences (Tarafdar,2008). Hence, the present
work aimed at studying the different inorganic phosphorus
fractions release/fixation pattern in the rhizosphere soils of
chickpea at flowering and at harvest as influenced by the
integrated phosphorus management strategies.
MATERIAL AND METHODS mainly remaining in sparingly soluble orthophosphates of
Field experiment was conducted during post rainy
season 2009-10 on Alfisol at College Farm of College
of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Acharya N.G. Ranga
Agricultural University, Hyderabad. The soil was sandy
loam with slightly alkaline pH of 8.12 and normal in EC 0.12
dSm-1, low in organic carbon content (0.35 %)and available
nitrogen (188 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorus
(17.2 kg ha-1), high in available potassium (368 kg ha-1) and
sufficient in available sulphur (33.6 kg ha-1). The experiment
was laid out in Randomised Block Design in factorial concept
with three replications. Four levels of inorganic P (0, 25, 50
and 75 kg P2 O5 ha-1 viz., P0, P25, P50 and P75), two levels of
organic manure (0 and 10 t ha-1 of FYM) and two levels of
PSB (without inoculation and with inoculation @ 2 kg ha-
1
) were adopted, thus a total of 16 treatment combinations
were imposed. Chickpea cv KAK - 2 was used for the study.
All the cultural practices were followed as per the standard
recommended practices. Collected soils were sieved in a
1mm mesh removing root hair as much as possible. Fresh
soil was used for the experiment. The soil samples from
individual treatmental plot were collected at flowering and
at harvest and assayed for inorganic P-fractions (Fe-P, Al-
P, Ca-P, Occluded Fe-P and Occluded Al-P) in the soil as
described by Chang and Jackson, 1967.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Al-P
Among the inorganic P fractions estimated, Al-P is
the smallest pool and accounted for 0.66 per cent of the total
inorganic pool Al-P at flowering was 3.28 ppm, which was
smaller than that of 11.5 ppm at harvest. With increase in the
level of inorganic P application, Al-P increased significantly
to a mean value of 4.30 ppm due to 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 against
2.05 ppm with 0 kg P2O5 ha-1. Inorganic phosphate when
applied to soil gets transformed to various reaction products
Al, Fe and Ca.
Among the different components, a combination
of FYM and PSB with graded levels of P resulted in a
significantly lower Al-P fraction of 2.6 and 10.1 ppm
respectively at flowering and at harvest. This fraction
increased from flowering to harvest. When compared to
inorganic P alone, the combinations of FYM, PSB or both
resulted in a significant reduction in this fraction at both the
stages (Table 1).
Fe-P

164
 The mean Fe-P content in the soil at flowering
was 37.18 ppm which increased to 40.48 ppm at harvest.
Inorganic P application did not show any significant increase
in this fraction at flowering but at harvest. At both the stages,
PSB either alone or in combination with FYM showed a
significant reduction in the size of this pool. The highest
Fe-P of 47.6 ppm, at harvest was recorded with inorganic
P alone at 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 as against the lowest value of
37.7 ppm with FYM + PSB alone. Increase in the level of
P application, irrespective of the component, increased this
pool (Table 2).
Ca-P
It is the largest fraction of inorganic P and accounted
for 78.1 % of total inorganic at flowering that increased
to 87.03 per cent at harvest. Shanthi (1998) also reported
that the Ca-P accounted maximum to the extent of 62 % of
total inorganic P. At flowering significant reduction in Ca-P
content was realised by applying inorganic P at 50 and 75
kg P2O5 ha-1 with the respective values of 385.0 and 384.9
ppm as against 396.1 ppm at P0 level. At harvest however a
significant increase was observed in this fraction. This could
be due to the reason that increase in the inorganic P levels
might have resulted in increased root growth and biomass
production which increased the release of organic acids as
exudates and also release of CO2 through root respiration
that form H2CO3 which has solubilisation of Ca-P due to
rhizosphere acidification. Organic anions also might have
chelated Ca and released the fixed P; thus reducing this pool
(Lin et al., 2001). At harvest, the significant increase could
be due to the reason that the level of solubilisation could be
far low than the release of orthophosphates from inorganic P,
which might have formed Ca-P.
Combination of FYM and PSB with graded levels
of P was found to be significant in reducing this
fraction and releasing orthophosphates both at
flowering and at harvest (Table 3).
Occluded Fe-P
This inorganic fraction of P reduced to a great
extent from 47.1 ppm at flowering to 7.43 ppm at harvest.
Application of inorganic P at 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 showed a
significant increase in this fraction to 52.6 and 9.1 ppm
respectively at flowering and harvest with corresponding
values of 42.1 and 5.7 ppm at P0 level. Occluded Fe-P was
highest in the treatment receiving 75 kg P2O5 ha-1 alone and
at both the stages (Table 4).
Occluded Al-P
The occluded Al-P content was decreased from
22.0 ppm at flowering to 5.7 ppm at harvest. The level of P
application did not have any influence on this fraction. The
combinations containing either FYM or PSB or both were
significant in reducing this pool both at flowering and at
harvest (Table 5). At any level of P application the occluded
Al-P decreased significantly by including either FYM or
PSB or both in the phosphorus management.
Solubilisation of inorganic P is mostly mediated
by microbial activity in the soil which will be enhanced by
applying FYM and PSB in conjunction with inorganic P
due to secretion of organic acids and release of CO2 which
prevents fixation of both native and applied P.

Table 1: Al-P (ppm) in soil as influenced by integrated phosphorus management in chickpea

At flowering At harvest
Components Phosphorus levels Phosphorus levels
of P
P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean

Inorganic 2.3 3.4 4.8 6.1 4.1 9.7 13.2 15.6 15.9 13.6

FYM 2.1 3.1 3.9 4.1 3.3 9.7 10.8 12.8 11.7 11.3

PSB 2.1 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.1 9.4 10.3 12.3 12.0 11.0

FYM + PSB 1.7 2.8 2.83 3.2 2.6 8.4 9.8 12.0 10.3 10.1

Mean 2.05 3.1 3.6 4.3 9.3 11.0 13.2 12.5

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 0.2 C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 0.5
C.D. value for P components (F2) = 0.2 C.D. value for P components (F2) = 0.5
F1 x F2 = 0.4 F1 x F2 = 1.0
Table 2: Fe-P (ppm) in soil as influenced by integrated phosphorus management in chickpea
At flowering At harvest
Components Phosphorus levels Phosphorus levels
of P
P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean
Inorganic 41.1 40.56 41.41 41.26 41.08 41.5 42.3 42.1 47.6 43.4
FYM 38.37 37.91 39.31 39.25 38.71 38.0 39.5 41.9 45.2 41.1

165
 PSB 35.34 36.23 38.10 38.66 37.03 38.5 40.6 37.1 41.7 39.5
FYM + PSB 32.39 32.39 30.44 32.30 31.88 37.7 37.7 38.1 38.3 37.9
Mean 36.80 36.77 37.32 37.87 39.7 40.0 39.8 43.2

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 1.56 C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 1.6
C.D. value for P components (F2) = 1.56 C.D. value for P components (F2) = 1.6
F1 x F2 = 3.2 F1 x F2 = 3.12

Table 3: Ca-P (ppm) in soil as influenced by integrated phosphorus management in chickpea

At flowering At harvest
Components
of P Phosphorus levels Phosphorus levels

P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean

Inorganic 425.0 410.5 405.6 406.1 411.8 472.2 472.6 493.3 511.2 487.4

FYM 391.3 401.6 393.3 391.5 394.4 423.8 433.6 450.9 442.7 437.7

387.8 393.0 391.5 388.8 390.3 388.7 395.3 451.5 434.3 417.4
PSB
FYM + PSB 380.16 380.8 349.8 353.0 365.9 357.2 382.0 440.7 436.3 404.0

Mean 396.1 396.5 385.0 384.9 410.5 420.9 459.1 456.1

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 10.5

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 7.3 C.D. value for P components (F2) = 10.5
C.D. value for P components (F2) = 7.3 F1 x F2 = 21.0
F1 x F2 = 14.6

Table 4: Occluded Fe-P (ppm) in soil as influenced by integrated phosphorus management in chickpea
At flowering At harvest
Components
of P Phosphorus levels Phosphorus levels

P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean

Inorganic 44.2 48.1 52.9 60.3 51.4 7.1 8.6 9.7 11.2 9.2

FYM 42.5 42.6 52.5 56.4 48.5 6.1 8.0 7.3 9.6 7.7

PSB 41.2 40.0 51.6 49.5 45.6 4.7 7.8 7.2 8.0 6.9

FYM + PSB 40.4 38.3 48.6 44.3 42.9 4.8 6.2 5.1 7.5 5.9

Mean 42.1 42.3 51.4 52.6 5.7 7.6 7.3 9.1

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 0.5

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 1.3 C.D. value for P components (F2) = 0.5
C.D. value for P components (F2) =1.3 F1 x F2 = 1.0
F1 x F2 = 2.6
Table 5: Occluded Al-P (ppm) in soil as influenced by

166
integrated phosphorus management in chickpea

At flowering At harvest
Components
of P Phosphorus levels Phosphorus levels
P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean P0 P25 P50 P75 Mean

Inorganic 23.6 25.0 24.4 25.5 24.6 5.7 6.1 7.8 7.1 6.7

FYM 21.8 23.1 20.0 19.7 21.1 5.4 5.6 6.4 5.8 5.8

PSB 21.6 23.0 20.2 19.8 21.2 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.6 5.4

FYM + PSB 20.3 22.5 20.2 21.3 21.1 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.6 4.8

Mean 21.8 23.4 21.2 21.6 5.9 5.5 6.1 5.8

C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 1.8
C.D. value for P components (F2) = 1.8
F1 x F2 = 3.6
C.D. value for P levels (F1) = 0.36
C.D. value for P components (F2) = 0.36
F1 x F2 = 0.72
REFERENCES
Chang, S.C. and Jackson, M.L. (1957). Fractionation of soil
phosphorus, Soil Science 84: 133.
Lin, T.F., Huang, H.I., Shen, F.T. and Young, C.C. (2001).
The protons of gluconic acid are the major
factors responsible for the dissolution of
tricalcium phosphate by Bukholderia cepacia.
C C-A174, Bioresource Technology 97: 957.
Shanti, M. (1998). Studies on utilization and requirements
of phosphorus in Hybrid rice and sunflower
cropping sequence in Alfisols, M. Sc. thesis.
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University.
Hyderabad. India.
Vance, C.P., Uhde Stone, C. and Allan, D.L. (2003).
Phosphorus and Use: Critical adaptations by
plants securing a non renewable resource. New
Phytologist 157, 423-457.
Venkateswarlu, B. (2000). Land configurations and fertilizer
management for sustainable groundnut
production. Ph.D. thesis. Gujarat Agricultural
University, Sardar Krishinagar, Gujarat.

167
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 168-170 (2015)
EVALUATING RED RICE GERMPLASM FOR IRON AND ZINC CONCENTRATION IN
BROWN RICE USING ENERGY-DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE
1
*KAVITA GUPTA, 1A.K. SARAWGI, 2V. RAVINDRA BABU, 1HARSH MISHRA
Department Of Genetics And Plant Breeding, Indira Ghandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (CG) 2Indian Insitute of Rice
1

Research, Hyderabad

ABSTRACT
A monotonous diet composed of milled rice grains, common among poor people in developing countries with low affordability for di-
verse food items lead to malnutrition. Biofortification is one of the sustainable approaches, for improving the Fe and Zn content and
their bioavailability in rice grain. Screening germplasm for Fe and Zn content is the initial step of biofortification (Anuradha et al
2012).The objective of this study is to estimate iron and zinc in the brown rice of 38 germplasm lines and. Substantial variations among
40 lines existed for both iron and zinc content. Iron concentration ranged from 6.3 μg/g to 14.6 μg/g and zinc concentration from 12.9
μg/g to 24.9 μg/g in brown rice. Iron and zinc concentration were positively correlated implying the chance for concurrent selection for
both the micronutrients. Micronutrient-rich genotypes identified in this study opens up the possibilities for the identification of genomic
regions or QTLs responsible for mineral uptake and translocation that can be used as donor for developing nutrient enriched varieties.

Keywords: Biofortification, Germplasm, Iron, Micronutrient, Variability, Zinc

INTRODUCTION
Rice is a major food staple and energy source of more
than half the world population, being the major source of
carbohydrate and even protein. However, rice is a poor
source of essential micronutrients such as Fe and Zn (Bouis
et al., 2010). Micronutrient malnutrition, andparticularly Fe
and Zn deficiency affect over three billion peopleworldwide,
mostly in developing countries (Sperotto et al., 2010 and
Welchet al., 2004). Production of varieties containing high
amounts ofbioavailable Fe would improve Fe nutrition in
regions where irondeficiency is prevalent (Menget al., 2005).
It is necessary to improve both the net Fe& Zn concentration
and their bioavailability in rice grain for improvingthe Fe
& Zn intake in populations dependent on rice as a staple
food.Food fortification has been recommended as one of the
preferredapproaches for preventing and eradicating iron and
zinc deficiency(Mehansho, 2006). Scientists have coined
the term “bio fortified” for genotypes thatdeliver increased
levels of essential minerals or vitamins.Bio fortification,
when applied to staple crops, such as rice, is asustainable
approach, provided that access to the technology in theform
of seeds is unrestricted.Different types of X-ray spectrometry
are used for analysis of mineral elements. Laboratory bench
top Energy Dispersive X-ray Florescence (ED-XRF) is the
most commonly used technique because of its precision and
rapid and cost effective screening for the estimation of large
number of samples (Paltridge et al., 2012 and Rai et al.,
2012).Hence this study was proposed to estimate iron and
zinc content in a population panel of 38 lines using ED-XRF
method.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Site
A set of 38 genotypes were grown in Research
Cum Itructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Raipur
(C.G.). India during Kharif 2014. The experiment was
laid out in augmented design with a spacing of 15×10cm.
Normal cultural practices were followed as per standard
recommendation.
Plant Materials
Out of these 38 accessions of red rice germplasm two
lines are collected from Kerela state and rest of 38 lines are
from Chhattisgarh. The seeds harvested from these lines
were de-husked using Krishi international 810 de-husker
having roller made up of polymer to avoid iron and zinc
contamination. The list of 38 varieties with their iron and
zinc content is given in table no.1.
Iron and Zinc Content Estimation
Iron and zinc concentrations in rice samples
were estimated by colorimetric method or by Atomic
Absorption Spectrometry (AAS), X-ray Fluorescence
(XRF) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission
Spectrometry (ICP-OES). The only non destructive method
for the estimation of Iron and zinc concentrations is X-Ray
florescence spectrophotometer. In XRF, the pre-selected
wavelength of incident X-rays expel an electron from the
inner most orbit followed by the transfer of one of the
electrons from the outermost orbit to inner most orbit leading
to release of specific wave-length of X-rays. The energy
of the emitted radiation is specific for a particular atom.
Therefore, it is simultaneously identified and quantified
by the detector. Different types of X-ray spectrometry are
used for analysis of mineral elements. Laboratory bench
top Energy Dispersive X-ray Florescence (ED-XRF) is the
most commonly used technique because of its precision and
rapid and cost effective screening for the estimation of large
number of samples. Hence this study, ED-XRF (Oxford
Instruments X-supreme 8000 ) was used to estimate iron and
zinc content in a population of thirty eight aromatic short
grain accessions of rice usinin Directorate Rice Research,
Hyderabad using an Oxford Instruments X-supreme 8000
which has 10 place auto sampler. De-husked rice was
cleaned for broken and debris and 5g of each sample was
weighed and transferred to sample cups. The sample cups
were gently shaken for uniform distribution of samples and
kept for analysis. For each set of sample, it has taken 3.1
minutes which included 60s acquisition time for the separate

168
Zn and Fe conditions as well as 66s ‘dead time’ during which 16 LUCHAI 8.9 18.1
the XRF will establish each measurement condition. Scans
were conducted in sample cups assembled from 21 mm 17 BADE LUCHAI 7.5 21.2
diameter and the cup combined with polypropylene inner 18 LUGE 9 19.2
cups was sealed at one end with 4 μm Poly-4 XRF sample 19 MAHIPAL 8 21.1
film. Concentration was expressed in microgram per gram
(μg/g). 20 MAHIPAL 9.2 17.4
21 MAKADO 9.6 21.6

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 22 MOKDO 9.1 20.4

23 MALPA 8.5 22.6
38 red rice germplasm accessions were analyzed for
iron and zinc concentration in brown rice. Iron concentration 24 MATKO 8.1 21.1
ranged from 6.3 μg/g to 14.6μg/g and zinc concentration 25 BASANI MUDI 9.4 22
from 12.9 μg/g to 24.9μg/g (Table 1). The mean value of iron
in the germplasm lines is 9.1μg/g and Zinc, 13.5μg/g. The 26 PANDARI PAREWA 6.8 19.9
lowest concentration of iron was recorded in Luchai and the 27 PITTI KIRWA 8.7 17.2
lowest zinc in variety MO-13. Among these lines Dubraj had 28 SAFRI 7.8 19.4
highest iron content of 14.6μg/g and the line Gang Puriha
has higher zinc content of 24.9μg/g. The genotype Dubraj 29 DESHI SAFRI 9.7 20.7
has higher iron and zinc content (14.6 μg/g & 23μg/g). 30 BENISAR 9 22.1
Few other genotypes Durgeshwari, NagpuriGurmatiya
31 SAMUNDRA 9.2 19.2
and Makado have higher iron as well as zinc content. A
positive correlation (+.07) was observed between iron and 32 SARAITOLA 8.1 17.5
zinc contents of 38 genotypes indicated the possibility of 33 X-10 7.9 17
simultaneous effective selection for both the micronutrients.
34 SATHAKA BADE 9.6 17.6
Few of the commercially cultivated rice cultivars included in
this study are deficient in iron and zinc compared to the other 35 BAMLESHWARI 9.8 15.8
staple food crops such as wheat and maize. Based on the iron 36 BAMLESHWARI 10.6 13.7
and zinc content, these 38 genotypes can be classified into
three categories, low, moderate and high. For iron content, 20 37 DURGESHWARI 12.9 22
genotypes with the iron content of 0–9 μg/g was considered 38 DURGESHWARI 12.9 21.2
in low category, iron content from 9.1 to 12 μg/g were MEAN 9.3 13.5
groupedin moderate (15 genotypes) and more than 12 μg/g
STANDARRD DEVIATION 1.71 2.84
(3 genotypes) were placed in high category. The genotypes
with the zinc content of 12.1 to 20 μg/g (21 genotypes) was CORELATION 0.07
grouped in moderate category and the genotypes with more
than 20 μg/g to 32.4 μg/g (17 genotypes) was placed in high REFERENCES
category.
Anuradha, K.,Agarwal, S.,Batchu, A.K., Babu, A.P., Swamy,
Table no.1: List of varieties with iron and zinc content B.P.M., Longvah, T.,Sarla, N. (2012).Evaluating
present in them. rice germplasm for iron and zinc concentration
S.NO. Variety name IRON Zinc in brown rice and seed dimensions.Journal of
Phytology 4(1):19-25 ISSN: 2075-6240.
1 MO-13 9 12.9
Bouis, H.E. and R.M. Welch.(2010). Biofortification—a
2 M0-19 10.9 16.2 sustainable agricultural strategy for reducing
3 GANG PURIHA 8.3 24.9 micronutrient malnutrition in the global south.
4 GARRAKAT 7.5 24.4 Crop Sci. 50: S20–32.
Sperotto, R.A., T. Boffa, G.L. Duartea, L.S. Santosb, M.A.
5 CHINNOR 9 16.8
Grusakc and J.P. Fett.(2010). Identification
6 DUBRAJ 9.9 23.2 of putative target genes to manipulate Fe
7 DUBRAJ 14.6 23 and Zn concentrations in rice grains.J Plant
8 BAIHAGUDA 9.1 19.8 Physiol167:1500–1506.
Welch, R.M. and R.D. Graham. (2004). Breeding for
9 NAGPURI GURMATIYA 9.2 21.7
micronutrients in staple food crops from a human
10 HEMA MALINI 7.4 20.9 nutrition perspective. J Exp Bot55:353–64.
11 KALA MALI 6.7 17.6 Meng, F., Y. Wei and X. Yang.(2005). Iron content and
12 KHUDDI 11.6 16.7 bioavailability in rice.J Trace Elem Med
Biol18:333– 38.
13 LANJHI 8.6 18.4
Mehansho, H.,(2006). Iron Fortification Technology
14 LUCHAI 6.3 16 Development: New Approaches. J Nutr136:
15 LUCHAI 9.9 17.1 1059–1063.

169
Paltridge NG, Palmer LJ, Milham PJ, Guild GE, Stangoulis
JC(2012).Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
analysis ofzinc and iron concentration in rice and
pearl millet grain.Plant andsoil361(1-2):251–60.
Rai KN, Govindaraj M, Rao AS. Genetic enhancement
of grain iron and zinc content in pearl millet.
QualAssurSaf Crop Foods4(3):119–25.

170
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 171-174 (2015)
EFFECT OF PRECEDING CROPS ON SYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY AND SYSTEM
PROFITABILITY OF ZERO-TILL RABI CASTOR (RICINUS COMMUNIS L.) UNDER
DIFFERENT NITROGEN LEVELS.
M. MADHU1 AND M. VENKATA RAMANA2
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030
Corresponding author Email: madhumoguloju@gmail.com
1
Research Associate (Agronomy), Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad, Telangana. 500059
2
Principal Scientist (Agronomy) & Head, AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems, PJTSAU, Hyderabad, Telangana. 500030

ABSTRACT
Field experiment conducted at College Farm, Rajendranagar, ANGRAU, Hyderabad during kharif and rabi 2010-11 and 2011-
12. The experiment was laid out in split plot design, replicated thrice, with four preceding crops in main plots (green gram,
groundnut, bajra and maize) and five nitrogen levels to rabi castor in sub plots (0,40, 80, 120 and 160 kg N ha-1). To find out the
effect of preceding crops on system productivity and system profitability of zero-till rabi castor under different nitrogen levels.
Among different systems, maize-castor with application of 120 kg N ha-1 to castor gave greater system productivity in terms of CEY
(6685 and 5828 kg ha-1 year-1), higher system productivity day-1 (18.3 and 16 kg ha-1 day-1) and system profitability (342 and 360 `
ha-1 day-1). However, it did not differ statistically with green gram-castor at the same level of ‘N’ with comparable CEY (6356 and
5515 kg ha-1 year-1), system productivity per day (17.4 and 15.1 kg ha-1 day-1) and system profitability (336 and 351 ` ha-1 day-1).

Key words: System productivity, system profitability, zero-till, preceding crop

INTRODUCTION
Castor is a tropical plant and cultivated around the
world for its non-edible oil seed. India occupies an important
place in the world’s castor production, accounting for 71%
of the total castor production from about 57.7% of the global
castor area (FAO, 2012). In India three states viz., Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana account for 96%
of the total castor seed production (0.88 million tonnes) in
the country. Because of its unlimited industrial applications,
castor oil enjoys tremendous demand worldwide, estimated
at about 0.25 million tonnes per annum. The major importers
of castor oil in the world market are European Union, the
USA and Japan. The world demand for castor oil is estimated
to be growing at a rate of about 3 to 5% per annum. India
is the biggest exporter of castor oil holding about 70%
share of world’s castor oil and its derivatives requirement
in the international trade. India annually earns foreign
exchange of about `1000 crores through export of oil and
its derivatives (Shiva Lakshmi and Sambasiva Reddy, 2009).
Initial studies made at AICRP-IFS, Hyderabad have revealed
better performance of rabi castor under zero-till conditions
following different kharif crops. Hence, it is felt essential to
evaluate the performance of zero-till rabi castor under the
influence of different preceding crops.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during kharif
and rabi seasons of the years 2010-11 and 2011-12 at the
College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad. The farm is situated at an altitude of 542.6 m
and geographical bearing of 18’-50oN latitude and 77’-53oE
longitude. The total rainfall of 681.0 mm in 42 rainy days
was received during kharif and 251.6 mm (18 rainy days)
in rabi crop growth period during 2010-11 and 377.1 mm
(25 rainy days) during kharif and 121.5 mm in 9 rainy days
in rabi crop growth period during 2011-12. The soil of the
experimental site was sandy clay loam in texture with pH
of 7.2. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with
four preceding crops (green gram, groundnut, bajra and
maize) in main plots and five nitrogen levels in sub plots (0,
40, 80, 120 and 160 kg N ha-1) replicated thrice.
Castor equivalent yields (CEY), system
productivity and system profitability was
calculated using the following formula:
Kharif crop yield (kg.ha -1 ) X Its price
CEY (kg ha -1 )
Sale price of castor
System yield (kg ha-1year-1) = CEY of kharif crops + rabi
castor yield
CEY of kharif crop (kg ha-1) + Rabi castor yield (kg ha-1)
System productivity (kg ha-1day-1)=
365
System net returns (` ha-1)
System profitability (kg ha -1day-1 ) =
365
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Castor equivalent yield (Table. 1) of kharif crops
differed significantly due to differential yield potential of
crops as well as market price. The castor equivalent yield of
maize (3730 and 3161 kg ha-1) was higher over other kharif
crops tested viz., groundnut (2959 and 2347 kg ha-1), green
gram (2438 and 1906 kg ha-1) and bajra (1291 and 1068 kg
ha-1) during first and second year respectively.

171
Table 1. Castor equivalent yield (kg ha-1) of zero-till rabi castor as influenced by different preceding crops and nitrogen
levels

System productivity (kg ha-1)

Treatments
2010-11 2011-12
Mean
CEY of Kharif Rabi Total CEY of Kharif Rabi Total
Preceding crop
Greengram 2438 (1332) 3137 5575 1906 (1145) 2875 4781 5178
Groundnut 2959 (1666) 2630 5588 2347 (1496) 2373 4720 5154
Bajra 1291 (1925) 2949 4240 1068 (1840) 2714 3782 4011
Maize 3730 (6890) 2479 6208 3161 (6715) 2256 5417 5813
SEd ± 35 89 80 40 75 70
CD (P=0.05) 86 218 195 99 182 170
‘N’ levels (kg ha-1)
0 2635 (2986) 1598 4233 2057 (2727) 1566 3622 3928
40 2575 (2935) 2441 5016 2080 (2754) 2284 4364 4690
80 2604 (2948) 3019 5623 2103 (2783) 2735 4838 5231
120 2627 (2969) 3396 6023 2189 (2875) 3046 5236 5630
160 2581 (2930) 3539 6120 2173 (2856) 3144 5316 5718
SEd ± 41 76 67 38 78 58
CD (P=0.05) NS 155 137 78 158 119
Interaction NS Sig. Sig. NS Sig. Sig.
In parentheses values are actual yields of kharif crops (kg ha-1)
The system productivity in terms of CEY kg ha-1 year-1 of maize-castor (6208 and 5417) system was significantly
higher over other systems. It was followed by green gram- castor (5575 kg ha-1 and 4781), groundnut- castor (5588 and
4720) and bajra- castor (4240 and 3782) systems. Among nitrogen levels, highest system productivity was observed with the
supply of 160 kg N ha-1 (6120 and 5316) to castor over 120 kg N ha-1 (6023 and 5236) and other lower levels of nitrogen. The
probable reason for such a positive response due to addition of higher rate of nitrogen might be tended to put more vegetative
growth, better root development and resulted in efficient photosynthesis and finally produced more seed yield and system
productivity. The former two were at par. The magnitude of increase in castor equivalent yield under maize-castor system
was to the tune of 11.1, 11.4 and 46.4 per cent during first year and 13.3, 14.8 and 43.2 during second year, respectively over
groundnut-castor, green gram-castor and bajra-castor systems. Similarly, highest castor equivalent yield was observed in
maize-castor system at 120 kg N ha-1 by Patel et al. (2009) and Anonymous (2013). The system productivity per day due to
preceding crops and N levels to castor followed similar trend as that of system productivity year -1.
Table 2. System productivity per day (kg ha-1day-1) and system profitability (` ha-1day-1) of zero-till rabi castor as influ-
enced by different preceding crops and nitrogen levels
System productivity per day System profitability
Treatments (kg ha-1day-1) (` ha-1day-1)
2010-11 2011-12 Mean 2010-11 2011-12 Mean
Preceding crop
Greengram 15.3 13.1 14.2 286 294 290
Groundnut 15.3 12.9 14.1 273 276 275
Bajra 11.6 10.4 11.0 191 208 200
Maize 17.0 14.8 15.9 312 329 321
SEd ± 0.22 0.16 4.9 5
CD (P=0.05) 0.54 0.40 12.1 13
‘N’ levels (kg ha-1)
0 11.6 9.9 10.8 192 197 195
40 13.7 12.0 12.9 241 253 247
80 15.4 13.3 14.4 280 290 285
120 16.5 14.3 15.4 305 320 313
160 16.8 14.6 15.7 310 325 318
SEd ± 0.18 0.15 4.4 4
CD (P=0.05) 0.38 0.31 8.9 9
Interaction Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig.

172
Table 3a. System productivity per day (kg ha-1day-1) as influenced by preceding crops and nitrogen levels to zero-till rabi
castor during 2010-11
Preceding crop
‘N’ levels to Castor
Greengram Groundnut Bajra Maize Mean
0 kg/ha 11.4 12.5 8.1 14.4 11.6
40 kg/ha 14.2 14.2 10.3 16.3 13.7
80 kg/ha 15.7 16.0 12.3 17.5 15.4
120 kg/ha 17.4 16.8 13.5 18.3 16.5
160 kg/ha 17.6 17.1 13.8 18.6 16.8
Mean 15.3 15.3 11.6 17.0
Preceding crop N levels N at same PC PC at same or dft N
SEd± 0.22 0.18 0.37 0.47
CD (P= 0.05) 0.54 0.38 0.75 1.01

Table 3b. System productivity per day (kg ha-1day-1) as influenced by preceding crops and nitrogen levels to zero-till rabi
castor during 2011-12
Preceding crop
‘N’ levels to Castor
Greengram Groundnut Bajra Maize Mean
0 kg/ha 9.5 10.4 7.2 12.6 9.9
40 kg/ha 11.9 12.3 9.5 14.2 12.0
80 kg/ha 13.7 13.2 10.8 15.3 13.3
120 kg/ha 15.1 14.3 12.0 16.0 14.3
160 kg/ha 15.3 14.5 12.3 16.2 14.6
Mean 13.1 12.9 10.4 14.8
Preceding crop N levels N at same PC PC at same or dft N
SEd± 0.16 0.15 0.30 0.35
CD (P= 0.05) 0.40 0.31 0.61 0.75

The interaction between preceding crops and nitrogen levels on system productivity of rabi castor based systems
was found significant during both the years (Table 3a, 3b) of experimentation. Significantly higher system productivity was
recorded at 160 kg N ha-1 over lower nitrogen levels, irrespective of the preceding crop tested. However, it was statistically
on par with that of 120 kg N ha-1. Among different treatment combinations, greater values for system productivity were
observed with maize as preceding crop at 160 kg N ha-1 as well as at 120 kg N ha-1 and green gram at 160 kg N ha-1 during
first year; and maize with 160 and 120 kg N ha-1 during second year.
The system profitability in terms of ` ha-1 day-1, of different cropping systems showed that maize-castor (312 and 329)
gave higher profitability over all the other systems. The next best system was green gram- castor (286 and 294). Among
nitrogen levels, higher system profitability (` ha-1 day-1) values were noticed at 160 kg N ha-1 (310 and 325) followed by at
120 kg N ha-1 (305 and 320) compared to other lower levels of nitrogen. Application of 160 kg N ha-1 to castor significantly
increased the system profitability by 63.1, 28.7, 11.6 and 1.6 per cent over 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg N ha-1 (mean of 2 years)
respectively. The results corroborate the findings of Anonymous (2013) and Patel et al. (2009).
Table 4a. System profitability (` ha-1day-1) as influenced by preceding crops and nitrogen levels to zero-till rabi castor
during 2010-11
Preceding crop
‘N’ levels to Castor
Greengram Groundnut Bajra Maize Mean
0 kg/ha 197 210 110 252 192
40 kg/ha 262 246 162 295 241
80 kg/ha 297 291 208 324 280
120 kg/ha 336 307 234 342 305
160 kg/ha 338 312 241 348 310
Mean 286 273 191 312
Preceding crop N levels N at same PC PC at same or dft N
SEd± 4.9 4.4 8.7 10.6
CD (P= 0.05) 12.1 8.9 17.7 22.9

173
Table 4b. System profitability (` ha-1day-1) as influenced by preceding crops and nitrogen levels to zero-till rabi
castor during 2011-2012
‘N’ levels to Preceding crop
Castor Greengram Groundnut Bajra Maize Mean
0 kg/ha 193 208 121 267 197
40 kg/ha 260 258 183 311 253
80 kg/ha 313 283 221 341 290
120 kg/ha 351 315 254 360 320
160 kg/ha 354 319 261 367 325
Mean 294 276 208 329
Preceding crop N levels N at same PC PC at same or dft N
SEd± 5 4 9 11
CD (P= 0.05) 13 9 17 24
The interaction between preceding crops and nitrogen levels on system profitability per day was found significant

during both the years of study (Table 4a and 4b). Among the
treatment combinations tested, maize-castor system at 160
kg N ha-1 (348 and 367 Rs ha-1 day-1) and 120 kg N ha-1 (342
and 360) during first year; and green gram-castor system at
160 kg N ha-1 (338 and 354 Rs ha-1 day-1) and 120 kg N ha-1
(336 and 351 Rs ha-1 day-1) during second year were found
more profitable.
It can be concluded that for securing higher system
productivity and profitability, maize-castor/ green gram-
castor cropping system with the application of 120 kg N ha-1
to zero-till rabi castor may be the better option for enhancing
castor production in Southern Telangana Zone of Andhra
Pradesh.
REFERENCES
Anonymous., (2013) Response of rabi castor to nitrogen
after different preceding kharif crops. Annual
Progress Report, Directorate of Oilseeds
Research. (125-126), Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad.
FAO. (2012) Fppd and Agricuture Organisation of the United
Nations. Rome, Italy
Patel R. M., Patel, M. M., and Patel, G. N. (2009) Effect
of spacing and nitrogen levels on rabi castor,
Ricinus communis grown under different
cropping sequences in north Gujarat agro
climatic condition. Journal of Oilseeds
Research, 26 (2): 123-125.
Siva Lakshmi, Y., and Sambasiva Reddy, A. (2009) Effect
of plant density and cultivars on oil content and
nutrient content in irrigated rabi castor. Indian
Journal of Dryland Agricultural Research and
Development, 24 (2): 91-93.

174
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 175-177 (2015)
EFFECT OF ORGANIC MANURES ON YIELD AND ECONOMICS OF CHILLIES
P.MALATHI AND K.M.SELLAMUTHU
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 3
email : pmalathi1975@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Two field experiments were conducted during 2010-12 at Agricultural College & Research Institute, Killikulam, Tamil Nadu to study the re-
sponse of organic manures and their time of application on yield attributes and yield of chillies. The experiments were conducted in split plot
design with different sources (FYM, Vermicompost and FYM+Vermicompost) and time of application of organic manures (All basal, 2, 3 and
4 splits). The results revealed that application of organic manures in 4 splits and among the sources of organic manures, vermicompost
100% application registered the highest number of fruits/plant, 100 fruit weight, dry fruit yield and B:C ratio. Whereas, FYM 100%
application registered the highest B:C ratio. Hence, with on farm production of vermicompost, the treatment vermicompost 100% application
on N equivalent basis in four equal splits can be adopted to get higher yield as well as higher B:C ratio of chillies under organic farming.

Keyword Chillies, organic manures, time of application, yield, economics

INTRODUCTION
Growth in food production during green revolution
period is attributed to the use of improved crop varieties and
higher levels of fertilizers and pesticides. The productivity
of the soil declined because of loss of organic matter
in the soil. Micro nutrient deficiency started pressing
everywhere. Intensive crop cultivation typically involves a
high application rate of nutrients, and the excess amount of
fertilizer that leaches from the soil affects the quality of both
the environment and human health (Schroder and Neeteson,
2008). Organic agriculture is supportive of the environment.
It maximises the use of on farm resources and minimises the
use of off-farm resources. It is a farming system that seeks
to avoid the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The
area under organic farming in India is 4.43 million ha during
the year 2010-11. (http://www.indiastat.com/agriculure/2/
agriculturalarealanduse/152/stats.aspx). The demand for
organic food is steadily increasing both in the developed and
developing countries with an annual average growth rate of
20-25% (Ramesh et al., 2005).
Chillies (Capsicum annuum L.). belong to the family
Solanaceae are considered as one of the major commercial
crops of the world. In India, it is grown in an area of 805
thousand hectares with a production of 1276 thousand
tonnes during the year 2011-12 (Anonymous, 2013). Both
green and dried chillies are the important components of
our routine diet. It will give the required pungency, colour,
taste and flavour to our dishes. The presence of capsaicin in
chilli is responsible for its pungency and it has medicinal
value. There is lot of demand for chilli oleoresin in the world
market. Chilli also contains vitamin A, C and E. Because
of these reasons chilli is having lot of export potential.
Considering the potential environmental benefits and the
production of safe and hazard-free food for consumption
under organic farming, this study was conducted to evaluate
the effect of application of organic manures and their time of
application on yield attributes and yield of chillies in Alfisols.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two field experiments were conducted during the
season Sep-Oct of 2010-11 and 2011-12 at Agricultural
College &Research Institute, Killikulam, Tamil Nadu with
chillies var. KKM1 as test crop. The field experiments were
conducted in split plot design and replicated thrice. The
different sources of organic manures (FYM, Vermicompost
and FYM + Vermicompost ) was taken in main plot. Time
of application of organic manures (All basal, 2, 3 and 4
splits) was taken as sub- plot treatments. The second field
experiment was conducted in the same field and in the same
plots similar to continuous experiment.
The treatments Blanket recommendation (T13), STCR
- IPNS recommendation (T14) and absolute control (T15) were
raised in adjacent field of same soil type as the inorganic
treatments should not be mixed with organic plots. The soil of
the experimental field was sandy clay in texture with pH of
7.45, EC of 0.26 dSm-1 and organic carbon content of 0.52
%. The available N, P and K values of the initial soil are 247,
21.8 and 302 kg ha-1 respectively. For inorganic treatments, the
available N, P and K values of the initial soil are 242, 19.6 and
339 kg ha-1 respectively for field experiment I and 261, 21.7
and 347 kg ha-1 respectively for field experiment II.
Based on the initial soil test values, the manures
and fertilizers recommendation for STCR-IPNS treatment
for a yield target of 25 q ha-1 was calculated using the
following fertilizer prescription equations. The fertilizer
doses after adjusting the contributions through FYM@ 25
t ha-1 were 60:36:16 kg ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O and 60:30:15 kg
ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O respectively for the field experiments I and
II. The fertilizer prescription equations followed for STCR-
IPNS treatments in chillies (red soil) is as follows.
FN = 8.29 T – 0.32 SN ; FP2O5 = 7.13 T – 5.24 SP ; FK2O
= 5.86 T – 0.15 SK
Where, FN - Fertilizer N supplied in kg ha-1; F P2O5
- Fertilizer P2O5 supplied in kg ha-1;
FK2O - Fertilizer K2O supplied in kg ha-1;T - Yield
target in Q ha-1; SN – Soil available N in kg ha-1; SP – Soil
available P in kg ha-1; SK – Soil available K in kg ha-1
Being organic chilli, organic farming practices
were followed. The total N, P and K content of FYM and
Vermicompost were analysed (Table 1). The organic manures

175
were applied on N equivalent basis (120 kg N ha-1) as per
the treatment schedule. Number of fruits/plant, 100 fruit
weight (g) and dry fruit yield (q/ha) were recorded. Benefit
cost ratio was worked out. Pooled mean data of the two field
experiments were analysed statistically as per Gomez and
Gomez (1984). The treatments T13, T14 and T15 (inorganic
treatments) were not included in statistical analysis and
the values were used for comparison with organic manures
application.
Table 1. Nutrient content of organic manures used in the
experiments
Nutrient FYM Vermicompost
Total N % 0.50 1.20
Total P % 0.16 0.61
Total K % 0.32 0.74
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The pooled analysis of the data revealed that, among
the sources of organic manures, vermicompost (VC) 100%
application recorded the highest number of fruits/plant
(84) followed by FYM 50% + VC 50% and FYM 100%
application (Table 2). Vermicompost performed better than
FYM which may be due to the higher nutrient content
and also the presence of many plant growth hormones and
beneficial microorganisms in vermicompost (Barik and
Gulati, 2009). Application of organic manures in 4 splits
registered the highest no. of fruits/plant (84) which was on
par with 3 splits (82). This might be due to the reason that with
increasing number of splits, the nutrients are made available
throughout the crop growth period. The study conducted by
Ahmad et al. (2007) revealed that the rate of mineralization
(process by which nutrients are released from the manures)
of N enriched compost increases sharply up to 10 days of
incubation and then it becomes constant. Faranakranjbar
and Mohsenjalali (2012) reported that release pattern of
nutrients with time for all residues were similar in shape and
two regions could be distinguished: a first one during the
first 4 weeks of incubation, corresponding to faster release
of nutrients, and a second for longer incubation times (5-12
weeks), when the release of nutrients was slower. Inorganic
fertilizers application recorded higher no. of fruits/plant
(86 for the treatment STCR - IPNS recommendation) than
organic manures application (Table 4).
With respect to 100 fruit weight, though variation was
observed among the sources of organic manures and the time
of their application, it is not statistically significant (Table
2). Vermicompost 100% application registered the highest
100 fruit weight of 63.97 g. Barik et al.(2006) have reported
higher number of effective tillers m-2, panicle length and
filled grains panicle-1of kharif rice in all the vermicompost
treated plots alone or in combination with 75% or 50% of
Table 2. Yield attributes of chillies as influenced by sources and time of application of organic manures
Number of fruits /plant
Treatments
FYM VC FYM + VC
All basal 69 80 74
2 splits 75 82 78
3 splits 79 85 83
176
recommended dose of fertilizer than similar combinations
with FYM. Regarding time of application, 4 split application
recorded the highest 100 fruit weight of 63.50 g. However,
higher values were obtained with inorganic fertilizers (65.52
g) when compared to organic manures application (Table 4).
Among the sources of organic manures, the highest
dry fruit yield was observed with vermicompost 100 %
application (23.62 q ha-1) followed by vermicompost 50% +
FYM 50% application (Table 3). Sudha and Chandini (2002)
have reported that the effect of 5 t ha-1 vermicompost was
similar to that of 10 t ha-1 FYM with respect to grain yield
of rice. Four split application of organic manures recorded
the highest dry fruit yield of 23.7 q ha-1 followed by three
split application which were statistically on par. Higher dry
fruit yield was obtained with inorganic fertilizers application
(25.30 q ha-1 in STCR-IPNS treatment) when compared to
organic manures application (Table 4). However, application
of organics in different combination recorded equivalent
yield as that of FYM + recommended dose of fertilizer. This
may be due to the application of organics on N equivalent
basis as that of inorganics. The results confirm the findings
of Shashidhara et al. (2007).
Regarding B:C ratio, application of FYM 100%
recorded the highest B:C ratio (2.45) followed by FYM 50
% + Vermicompost 50% and Vermicompost 100% (Table
3). Though the treatment receiving vermicompost 100%
application performed better with respect to yield of chillies,
recorded lower B:C ratio than FYM 100% application. If
vermicompost is produced on farm, the cost of cultivation
can be minimized. With increasing number of splits, the B:C
ratio increased and the highest B:C ratio was recorded with 4
split application of organic manures (2.31). When compared
to inorganic fertilizer treatments, application of FYM 100%
and FYM 50 % + Vermicompost 50% recorded higher B:C
ratio (Table 4). Similar results were observed in soybean -
wheat cropping system by Shwetha et al. (2009). Though
the cost cultivation is high in organic production of chillies,
because of the premium price for the organic chillies, the
benefit out of organic chillies production is higher when
compared to inorganic fertilizer treatments.
Thus, it can be concluded that in nutrient management
system for chillies under organic farming, vermicompost
100% application on N equivalent basis recorded higher
yield. Whereas, application of FYM 100% on N equivalent
basis registered the highest B:C ratio. Regarding time of
application of organic manures, the highest yield and B:C
ratio were recorded with 4 split application. Hence, with on
farm production of vermicompost, the treatment vermicompost
100% application on N equivalent basis in four equal splits
(basal, 30, 60 and 90 days after planting) can be adopted to
get higher yield as well as higher B:C ratio of chillies under
organic farming.
100 fruit weight (g)
Mean FYM VC FYM + VC Mean
74 60.84 63.40 62.40 62.21
78 61.47 63.38 62.78 62.54
82 61.65 64.31 63.06 63.01
 4 splits 81 88 84 84 61.90 64.78 63.82 63.50
Mean 76 84 80 61.46 63.97 63.01
SEd CD(P=0.05) SEd CD(P=0.05)
M 2.22 NS 5.27 NS
S 2.47 5.20 5.09 NS
M at S 4.32 9.28
NS NS
S at M 4.28 NS 8.82 NS
Table 3. Dry fruit yield and benefit cost ratio for different sources and time of application of organic manures
Dry fruit yield of chillies (q ha-1) Benefit cost ratio
Treatments
FYM VC FYM + VC Mean FYM VC FYM + VC Mean
All basal 19.71 22.85 21.33 21.29 2.31 1.98 2.12 2.13
2 splits 21.46 23.37 22.08 22.30 2.43 2.01 2.16 2.20
3 splits 22.37 23.86 22.80 23.01 2.51 2.04 2.21 2.25
4 splits 22.99 24.41 23.70 23.70 2.56 2.08 2.29 2.31
Mean 21.63 23.62 22.48 2.45 2.02 2.19
SEd CD(P=0.05)
M 0.51 1.41
S 0.62 1.31 -
M at S 1.07
NS
S at M 1.08 NS

Table 4. Yield attributes, yield and economic parameters of chillies as influenced by inorganic fertilizers
Number of fruits / 100 fruit weight Dry fruit yield
Treatments Benefit cost ratio
plant (g) (q ha-1)
Blanket recommendation 85 64.51 24.65 2.04
STCR-IPNS recommendation 86 65.52 25.30 2.13
Absolute control 55 55.01 15.91 1.27

REFERENCES Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. (1984). Statistical

Ahmad, R., Arshad, M., Naveed, M., Zahir, Z. A., Sultan, T.
and Khalia, M. (2007). Carbon mineralization
rate of composted and raw organic wastes
and its implications on environment. Soil and
Environment. 26(1): 92-96.
Anonymous. (2013). State of Indian Agriculture 2012-13,
Government of India, Ministry of Agirculture,
Department of Agriculture and Co-operation,
New Delhi. pp. 200-206.
Barik, A. K., Das, A., Giri, A. K. and Chattopadhyay, G. N.
(2006). Effect of organic (vermicompost, farm
yard manure) and chemical sources of plant
nutrients on productivity and soil fertility of
kharif rice (Oryza sativa L.).  Crop research
31(3): 338-342.
Barik, T. and Gulati, J. M. L. (2009). Use of vermicompost
in field crops and cropping systems – A review.
Agriculture Reviews. 30(1): 48-55.
Faranakranjbar and Mohsenjalali. (2012). Calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium release
during decomposition of some organic residues.
Communications in Soil Science and Plant
analysis 43(4): 645-659.
procedures for agricultural research. Second
Edition. A Wiley Inter Science Publication (
John Wiley and Sons), New York. pp. 20-30.
Ramesh, P., Mohan Singh and Subba Rao, A. (2005). Organic
farming : Its relevance to the Indian context.
Current Science. 88(4): 561-568.
Schroder, J. J. and Neeteson, J. J. (2008). Nutrient
management regulations in the Netherlands.
Geoderma 144: 418–425.
Shashidhara, G. B., Thimma Naik, M., Bidari, B. I. and
Yenagi, B. S. (2007). Studies on the effect of
organic manures on growth, yield and quality of
chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) under black soils
of northern transition zone of Karnataka. Indian
Journal of Crop Science 2(2): 315-317.
Shwetha, B. N., Babalad, H. B. and Patil, R. K. (2009).
Effect of combined use of organics in soybean-
wheat cropping system. Journal of Soils and
Crops 19(1):8-13.
Sudha, B. and Chandini, S. (2002). Nutrient management
in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of Tropical
Agriculture. 40: 63-64.

177
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 178-182 (2015)
INFLUENCE OF ROOTSTOCKS ON PETIOLE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF TABLE
VARIETIES OF GRAPES.
B. MANJUVANI1*, B. SRINIVAS RAO2, D. VIJAYA3 AND K. MADHAVI4
1
College of Horticulture, Dr. Y.S.R.Horticultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030, Telangana, India
Grape Research Station, Dr. Y.S.R.Horticultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030, Telangana, India
2,3

4
College of Horticulture, Dr. Y.S.R.Horticultural University, Venkatarammanagudem-534101, West Godavari, Andhra Pradesh,
India.

ABSTRACT
An investigation was carried out at Grape Research Station, Dr. Y. S. R Horticultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during
April 2011 – March 2012 to determine the influence of three rootstocks (1103 P, SO 4 and Dog Ridge) and own roots on nutrient content
in petioles of three table varieties (Thompson Seedless, Flame Seedless and Kishmish Chorni) of grapes at bud differentiation and full
bloom stages in Factorial Randomized Block Design replicated four times. The results revealed that the scions grafted to rootstocks and
own roots had no significant influence on percent N content, while own rooted vines and scions on 1103 P recorded high P content, Dog
Ridge recorded high K content, SO 4 recorded high Ca content while low Na content was recorded with 1103 P and SO 4 at both the
stages of analysis. Among varieties Thompson Seedless recorded high N and P levels, while Kishmish Chorni recorded high Ca content
at bud differentiation and Flame Seedless registered high Ca at full bloom low Na content was recorded with Flame Seedless at bud dif-
ferentiation while Kishmish Chorni at full bloom. No differences among varieties were observed with regards to K content. The present
investigation demonstrates that rootstocks must be considered for nutritional status evaluation and fertilizer recommendation.

Key words: Petiole nutrient content, rootstocks, varieties, bud differentiation, full bloom
INTRODUCTION:
Rootstock is one of the many tools at the grower’s
disposal to produce high yields of good quality grapes. The
use of rootstocks is gaining importance in Indian viticulture
due to problems associated with abiotic stresses, such as
drought and salinity, and also to improve scion physiology or
morphology etc. (Satisha et al. 2010). The use of rootstocks
does have an important effect on the mineral nutrition of
the grafted variety. Consequently, it is possible to reduce
the application of nutrients by employing rootstocks that
have a high absorption capacity (Keller et al. 2001). Certain
studies have shown that rootstocks differ in their effect on
the level of nutrients in the grafted variety (Nikolaou et al.
2000, García et al. 2001, Bavaresco et al. 2003, Fisarakis et
al. 2004, Robinson, 2005). The use of rootstock can however
provide a different root system to the scion. The genetic
variability in rootstocks influences their ability to extract
plant nutrients from the growing medium and subsequent
translocation to the scion (Reddy et al. 1992).
Keeping in view the above facts, the present
investigation was postulated to study the influence of three
different rootstocks on petiole nutrient content of three
different table varieties of grapes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: 3.1 Nitrogen content:
The experiment was conducted in the existing 4 years
old orchard at Grape Research Station, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad, from 2011 to 2012. The soil type was red sandy
loam, with a pH of about 6.2 and electrical conductivity (EC)
of 0.16 dSm¯’. The study area is situated at 77º85’E longitude
and 18º45’N latitude and at an altitude of 542.6m above sea
level. The trial included three commercial grape varieties
Thompson Seedless (V1), Flame Seedless (V2) and Kishmish
Chorni (V3) grafted on three different rootstocks 1103 P (R1),
SO 4 (R2), Dog Ridge (R3) and varieties raised on their own
roots (R0) as control with 12 treatment combinations.
Own rooted vines and varieties grafted on rootstock
vines were planted during the month of April 2007 in a
factorial randomised block design, in eight rows at a spacing
of 10×6ft. (row × vine). Four vines of each stock:scion
combination were selected in each replication, and there
were four replications for each treatment.
Fully matured index leaf was collected from 5th node
45 days after foundation pruning i.e. bud differentiation
stage and petiole opposite to cluster was taken at full bloom
stage from each treatment. They were analyzed to determine
concentrations of total N, P and K. Determination of total N
was done using the Kjeldahl method (Nikolaou et al. 2000),
P by vanado-molybdate method, using spectrophotometer
(Piper, 1966) and K by flame photometer (Chapman and
Pratt, 1961).
Statistical analysis: The data was statistically
analyzed using OPSTAT computer package program and
critical difference (CD) was worked out at P=0.05 level of
probability.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Perusal of the results (Table 1) clearly established
the fact that the different rootstocks used for scions of the
different cultivars did not influenced the petiole nitrogen
content neither at bud differentiation nor at full bloom stage
of the crop growth.
The recorded data in the present investigation also
clearly proved that the petiole N content significantly varied
among the varieties under study. At bud differentiation
stage highest nitrogen content in petioles was reached in
Thompson Seedless (1.80 %). At full bloom stage Kishmish
Chorni (1.86 %) and Thompson Seedless (1.67 %) registered

178
N levels in the petioles that had statistically similar values.
The results are in consonance with the findings of Anna and
Lajos (2008) who reported that rootstocks had no proven
effect to enrich the nitrogen levels of the leaves, while the
scion varieties themselves individually had significant effect
on improving the N content of the leaves. The variation in
nutrient accumulation among the varieties can be attributed
to the characteristics of the individual cultivars. Besides, the
prevailing climatic conditions and soil temperature also had
an impact on nutrient absorption and accumulation. Similar
findings for the influence of climatic condition and the soil
temperature was also reported by Begoni et al. (1995).
3.2 Phosphorus content:
This study showed that rootstocks exercise an
important effect on P level in the studied varieties (Table 1).
At bud differentiation and full bloom stages there was an
increase in the buildup of the element P in the petioles of own
roots (0.63 %, 0.82 % respectively) and 1103 P (0.63 %, 0.82
% respectively) rootstock with statistically similar values.
The probable reason might be that the rootstock possessing
extensive proliferation of root system and the capacity to
translocate the absorbed nutrients from source to sink might
have made it possible for the nutrient enrichment of the
petiole. Similar variation in absorption and translocation
of the nutrients by rootstocks was reported by Grant and
Matthews (1996), Troncoso et al. (1999), Bavaresco et al.
(2003), Nikolaou et al. (2003) and Fisarakis et al. (2004)
where it was suggested that different rootstock absorb
different levels of P with concomitant effect on growth of
shoots and leaves.
The varieties under study also exhibited significant
variation for the P content of the petiole. Comparatively
a substantial increase in the petiole nutrient content was
recorded with the variety Thompson Seedless (0.64 % at
BDS, 0.80 % at FBS). Similar variation in the uptake of
nutrients between the varieties was also reported by Kocsis
et al. (2001).
3.3 Potassium content:
At bud differentiation (Table 1) Varieties grafted
on Dog Ridge rootstock recorded significantly highest
potassium (2.80 %). At full bloom potassium was higher in
the petioles of varieties grafted onto1103 P (2.78 %) and was
on par with Dog Ridge (2.76 %). These variations might be
due to differences in the absorption capacity of the roots and/
or differences in the incorporation of K ions into the xylem
and their translocation from the roots to shoots (Mpelasoka,
2003). Differences among rootstocks in the morphology and
density of the roots in the soil profile could also explain the
variations in the K absorption capacity of the roots. Those
rootstocks that provide low quantities of K to the variety
retain the majority of absorbed cations in the vacuole of root
cell (Rühl, 1993). Similar results were reported by Rühl et al.
(1989) that the Dog Ridge accumulated higher K content in
the scion petioles. Venugopal (2007) also recorded maximum
potassium contents in petioles of Thompson Seedless grafted
on Dogridge at bud differentiation stage. Cirami et al. (1984)
reported that higher potassium level was observed in grape
cv.Shiraz grafted onto Dog Ridge.
There was no significant variation in the uptake of K
in petiole among varieties at both the stages. Similar findings
179
were reported by Wooldridge et al. (2010) that the petiole
uptake of nutrients viz., N, P, K and Mg were unaffected by
scion cultivars.
3.4 Calcium content:
At bud differentiation (Table 2), the calcium content
was significantly enriched in varieties grafted on SO 4 (1.12
%) and those raised on own roots (1.04 %). However this
trend was not continued at full bloom with own roots while
SO 4 (1.55 %) continued to show high Ca content. Alberto et
al. (2009) also recorded higher petiole Ca content in Cabernet
Sauvignon grafted on SO 4 and 1103 P rootstocks at full
bloom. Prakash and Palaniyappan (1999) also reported lesser
mobilization of calcium in Dog Ridge and other rootstocks
grafted with Thompson Seedless. Highest calcium content in
SO 4 was also recorded by Saritha (2010) in her studies on
rootstocks of grapes. Venugopal (2007) at bud differentiation
recorded highest calcium content in petiole of own rooted
Thompson Seedless followed by Thompson Seedless grafted
on Dog Ridge.
Among the varieties studied Kishmish Chorni (1.09
%) accumulated high Ca content at bud differentiation stage
and Flame Seedless at full bloom (1.59 %). The variation
in accumulation of calcium is considered to be the varietal
character, where in the preference for the uptake of nutrients
varies between the varieties of the crop. Similar variation in
Ca content among the grape varieties was also reported by
Wooldridge et al. (2010)
3.5 Sodium content:
Varieties on their own roots (0.12 %) followed by
Dog Ridge (0.08 %) accumulated highest Na content in
petioles at bud differentiation (Table 2). Whereas at full
bloom Dog Ridge (0.29 %) recorded high Na content in
petioles followed by own rooted vines (0.20 %). This could
be because of several reasons, especially the Na level in soil
and competition with other cations like K, Ca, Cl etc. At both
the stages Na content was least in SO 4 (0.06 % at BD and
0.14 % at FB). This proves that SO 4 was more efficient
in absorption of divalent Ca rather than monovalent cations
like K and Na. Similar findings were reported by Reddy et
al. (1992) where own roots recorded higher sodium content
than the rootstocks viz. St. George and 1616 during June
while Teleki 5-A, 1616 and 1613 during December. There
have been reports of lower sodium content with rootstocks
Dog Ridge, 1613 and Salt Creek for Thompson Seedless
(Bernstein et al. 1969) and for Shiraz and Sultana vines
with various rootstocks (Downton, 1977) compared to own
rooted vines.
Among the varieties Flame Seedless (0.07 %) and
Kishmish Chorni (0.08 %) recorded slightly less sodium
content as compared to Thompson Seedless (0.09 %) at bud
differentiation stage. While at full bloom Flame Seedless
(0.25 %) recorded significantly more sodium content as
compared to Thompson Seedless (0.17%) and Kishmish
Chorni (0.15 %).
Table 1: Effect of different rootstocks on the petiole N,P,K
content of three table varieties of grapes at bud differentia-
tion stage (BDS) and full bloom stage (FBS).
 Treatment %N %P %K

BDS FBS BDS FBS BDS FBS

Rootstocks

R0:Own root 1.70 1.72 0.63a 0.82a 2.47b 2.67a

R1:1103 P 1.71 1.55 0.63a 0.82a 2.02c 2.78a

R2:SO 4 1.67 1.63 0.47b 0.72b 2.04c 2.40b

R3:Dog Ridge 1.73 1.72 0.50b 0.60c 2.80a 2.76a

SEm ± 0.06 0.077 0.03 0.02 0.11 0.08

CD at 5% N.S N.S 0.08 0.05 0.31 0.24

Varieties
V1:Thompson Seedless 1.80a 1.67a 0.64a 0.80a 2.20 2.72

V2:Flame Seedless 1.55b 1.44b 0.50b 0.75b 2.45 2.51

V3:Kishmish Chorni 1.75a 1.86a 0.53b 0.68c 2.34 2.73

SEm ± 0.05 0.067 0.03 0.01 0.09 0.07
CD at 5% 0.15 0.20 0.07 0.04 N.S N.S
Interactions
V1 R0 1.90 1.86 0.71 0.92 2.46 2.92
V1R1 1.81 1.45 0.76 0.84 1.59 2.84
V1R2 1.83 1.59 0.53 0.77 2.11 2.09
V1R3 1.68 1.78 0.55 0.66 2.65 3.02
V2 R0 1.51 1.30 0.51 0.78 2.42 2.36
V2R1 1.57 1.41 0.56 0.86 2.29 2.84
V2R2 1.60 1.52 0.46 0.74 2.16 2.57
V2R3 1.51 1.52 0.48 0.60 2.95 2.29
V3 R0 1.69 2.00 0.67 0.77 2.54 2.73
V3R1 1.76 1.78 0.57 0.75 2.18 2.68
V3R2 1.58 1.78 0.42 0.65 1.85 2.54
V3R3 2.00 1.86 0.47 0.55 2.80 2.98
CD 5% 0.10 0.13 0.05 0.03 0.19 0.14
SEm± N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S 0.41

Means followed by the same lower case letter in a column do not differ significantly at P= 0.05

Table 2: Effect of different rootstocks on the petiole Ca and Na content of three table varieties of grapes at bud differentia-
tion stage and full bloom stage.

Treatment % Ca % Na

BDS FBS BDS FBS

Root stocks

R0:Own root 1.04a 1.21b 0.12a 0.20b

R1:1103 P 0.90b 1.46a 0.06c 0.14c
R2:SO 4 1.12a 1.55a 0.06c 0.14c
R3:Dog Ridge 1.00b 1.34b 0.08b 0.29a

SEm ± 0.04 0.07 0.004 0.007

CD at 5% 0.11 0.19 0.01 0.02

Varieties

180
 V1:Thompson Seedless 0.93b 1.25b 0.09a 0.17b
V2:Flame Seedless 1.02a 1.59a 0.07c 0.25a
V3:Kishmish Chorni 1.09 a
1.32b
0.08b
0.15c
SEm ± 0.03 0.06 0.004 0.007
CD at 5% 0.09 0.17 0.01 0.02
Interactions
V1 R0 1.02 1.12 0.16a 0.19d
V1R1 0.75 1.47 0.05e 0.12e
V1R2 1.02 1.30 0.07d 0.09f
V1R3 0.92 1.13 0.09c 0.30b
V2 R0 1.10 1.49 0.10b 0.24c
V2R1 0.99 1.51 0.06d 0.19d
V2R2 1.06 1.73 0.06d 0.18d
V2R3 0.95 1.64 0.08c 0.37a
V3 R0 0.99 1.01 0.11b 0.16d
V3R1 0.96 1.39 0.06d 0.11e
V3R2 1.27 1.61 0.07d 0.14e
V3R3 1.14 1.26 0.07d 0.21c
CD 5% 0.06 0.11 0.008 0.011
SEm± N.S N.S 0.02 0.03

Means followed by the same lower case letter in a column do not differ significantly at P= 0.05

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 183-186 (2015)

GROWTH, YIELD AND ECONOMICS OF CHILLI (CAPSICUM FRUTESCENS L.) UNDER

EFFECTS OF PLASTIC MULCHES WITH LIQUID FERTILIZERS IN CHHATTISGARH
REGIONS
N.C. BANJARA, 1* G.D SAHU,2 PATRAM SINGH,3 HARIOM PRAKASH4, KOUSHAL PRADHAN5
Department of Horticulture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Raipur, (C.G.) 492012,
*Email:nanakbanjara14@gmail.com (Mo. 08518868746)

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted on the year 2013-14 in winter season at research field of Precision Farming Development Centre
(PFDC), Department of Horticulture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, (C.G.). to evaluate the growth, yield and eco-
nomic feasibility of chilli. The experiment was laid out in Split plot Design (SPD) with three replications and nine treatment combina-
tions allocating mulching with different fertigation levels viz. 100%, 80%, and 60% RDF through fertigation with black plastic mulch,
paddy straw and without mulch the effect of black plastic mulch on growth and yield of chilli under different level of fertigation and
to work out the cost economics of chilli. Results revealed that all the growth parameters and yield attributing characters like fruit
weight plant-1, fruit girth, fruit yield plot-1, and fruit yield ha-1 were recorded highest with black plastic mulch and 80%RDF.Which
ultimately gave the highest yield black plastic mulch (402.16q.ha-1) and was recorded 80%RDF (414.57q.ha-1).The benefit cost ra-
tio was found to be the highest Gross return and net return was obtained by black plastic mulch (Rs.804320), (Rs.522986.67) and
B:C ratio were (1.85) with fertigation levels 80% RDF (Rs.829140), (Rs.561146.67) and B:C ratio were (2.09) .

Key words: Chilli, mulching, liquid fertilizers, economic analysis, growth and yield.

INTRODUCTION
Presently in India 7.49 million ha area is cultivated
vegetable with an annual production of 116.03 million tonnes.
It is estimated that, by 2020 the vegetable demand of the
country would be around 135 million tonnes. To achieve this
target, attention must be focused on the vertical expansion,
strengthened with the boon of the technology instead of
horizontal expansion just by increasing the crop area (Rai
and Pandey, 2008). The working group on horticulture
constituted by the Planning Commission has recommended
the development of hi-tech horticulture and precision
farming for achieving vertical growth in horticulture. Hi-tech
interventions in horticultural crops proposed by National
Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture
(NCPAH), Govt. of India include drip irrigation and
greenhouse technology and the crops selected are capsicum,
chilli, tomato and flowers like rose, carnation and gerbera
(Samuel and Singh, 2004). Use of soil cover and mulching
is also known to be beneficial chiefly through their influence
on soil moisture conservation, solarization and control
of weeds. Beneficial response of plants to mulch includes
early production, more yield and reduced insect and disease
problems (Tiwari et al, 1998)
Chilli (Capsicum frutescens L.) is an important spice
and cash crop in many countries of the world. its native
of South or Central America and widely distributed in
all tropical and sub tropical countries including India.
Fertigation allows nutrient placement directly into root zone
around the plants through a pipe network with the help of
emitters near the consumptive use of plants during critical
periods of nutrient requirement. There by, losses of water
and nutrient can be minimized substantially as fertigation
is economically feasible, socially and environmentally
acceptable. (Kanwar, 2011). Mulching stimulates the
microbial activity in soil through improvement of soil agro-
physical properties (Strizaker et al., 1989). The advantages
of mulching in vegetable crop production have been well
documented. Various mulching materials are utilized and
these include weed or grass clippings, paddy straw, bark,
sawdust and plastic. In the U.S. and worldwide, polyethylene
plastic mulch is extensively used for crop production
because it controls weeds, conserves soil moisture, increases
soil temperature, increases crop yield and quality, is readily
available, and has a relatively low cost (Miles et al., 2012).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A Field experiment was carried out during the year
2013-14 in winter season at Horticulture Instructional cum
Research Farm, Precision Farming Development Centre,
(PFDC) Department of Horticulture, Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, (C.G.). The experiment was laid
out in a split plot design with nine treatments combinations
and three replications. The experimental plots were treated
with three fertigation levels 100, 80 and 60 % RDF and
different mulching materials consisting of black plastic,
paddy straw and without mulch. Thirty day old seedlings of
chilli variety Agnirekha were transplanted with two rows per
plot keeping row to row and plant to plant distance 60 and
45 cm, respectively. The drip system was laid out parallel
to the crop rows and each lateral with emitters distance 30
cm with the 2 liter water per hour discharge rate. Irrigation
and fertigation scheduled on alternate days in case of drip
irrigation. In our state fertigation with RDF (recommended
dose of fertilizers) as 12: 61: 00, 20:10:10 and19:19:19 was
given according to treatment combinations and fertigation
scheduled, at 3-4 days intervals. The observations were
recorded for growth and yield parameters like plant
height(cm), number of primary and secondary branches,
number of fruits plant-1, fruit weight plant-1(g), fruit girth(cm),
fruit yield plot-1 (kg), and fruit yield ha-1 (q./ha). was recorded
from randomly selected five plants in each plot.

183
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Benefit-Cost ratio and net profit were carried out to
determine the economic feasibility of the crop using surface
and drip irrigation as suggested by Tiwari et al., (1998a). The
seasonal cost of drip irrigation system included depreciation,
prevailing bank interest rate, and repair and maintenance cost
of the system. The fixed cost of drip irrigation system was
determined to be Rs 70000/ha. The useful life of drip system
was considered to be 10 years. The system cost was evaluated
by distributing the fixed cost of system over life period of
drip irrigation set. For calculating depreciation, the life of
the drip irrigation set and 10 % junk value was considered.
The interest was calculated on the average of investment of
the drip irrigation set taking into consideration the value of
the set in the first and last year @ 10 % per annum. Cost
of repairs and maintenance of set is @ 2 % of initial cost
of the drip irrigation set per year. The cost of cultivation
includes expenses incurred in land preparation, interculture
operation, fertilizer, crop protection measures, irrigation
water and harvesting with labour charges. Therefore, total
seasonal cost was worked as: depreciation, interest, repairs
and maintenance cost of set + cost of cultivation + cost
of mulch. The income from produce was calculated using
prevailing average market price of capsicum @ Rs 2000/ q.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
GROWTH AND YIELD ATTRIBUTES
The one year’s data of biometric parameters like plant
height, number of primary and secondary branches per
plant and average yield attributing characters such as fruit
girth, fruit weight plant-1, fruit yield plot-1, and fruit yield
ha-1 are presented in Table 1. The results revealed that, these
characters and yield are significantly superior in the treatment
combination of black plastic mulch and 80% fertigation
levels as compared to the rest of the treatments. The height
of plant under black plastic mulch treatment (74.51 cm),
(74.66cm) was found to be significantly highest among
all other treatments and lower yield was recorded without
mulch. However, all other growth parameter like primary,
secondary branches and fruit girth are also found in higher
yield as the combination of black plastic mulch. Kolhekar
(1999) reported of drip irrigation and black plastic mulch on
growth and yield of summer chilli (Capsicum frutescens L.)
and observed highest net return and benefit cost ratio with
drip irrigation (80% water) in combination with black plastic
mulch compared to other treatment and also chilli yield was
increased by 87.29% over the control.
Fertigation levels also exhibited a significant effect
on yield and yield attributing character (Table 1). Among
different fertigation levels, 80% of recommended through
fertigation produced the highest average fruit weight plant-
1
(2303.10g) and highest fruit weight plant-1 (138.18kg)
and yield ha-1(414.57q). Followed by 100%RDF whereas,
recorded the lowest average fruit weight (1765.97g) and fruit
yield plot-(105.95kg) fruit yield ha-1 (317.89q)The increased
yield under fertigation might be due to the efficient use of
nutrients at various stages of crop growth and no leaching
of nutrients in the form of runoff. The increased yield under
drip irrigation and fertigation might be due to the uniform
distribution and adequate availability of nutrients and
moisture in the root zone of the crop. These findings are
184
in accordance with the findings of Hatlge et al.,(2002) and
Veeranna et al., (2001). The results suggested that high yield
of capsicum fruits was obtained with substantial use of water
and fertilizer under drip irrigation and fertigation leading to
higher water and fertilizer use efficiencies in comparison to
normal practice of irrigation and fertilizer application.
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
Maximum net profit of Rs 522986.67/ha with B:C
ratio of 1.85 was recorded in treatment black plastic mulch
and minimum net profit of Rs 426106.67/ha with a B:C
ratio of 1.67 without mulch was recorded in (Table 2). It
is observed that, the mulched treatments black and paddy
straw gave better net return per ha than their corresponding
treatments without mulching. But higher B:C ratios were
recorded in treatments black plastic mulch than their
corresponding treatments of without mulch. The results are
in conformity with the findings of Singh (2007). And Paul et
al.,(2013). However, the net profit in fertigation treatments
was observed to be maximum (Rs 561146.67) in treatment
80%RDF followed by 100%RDF (Rs 468020), 60%RDF
(Rs 377753.34). and the B:C ratio (2.09), (1.68) and (1.46).
Similar trends have been reported in net profit, B.C. ratio
and net profit per mm of water used for okra by Tiwari et al.,
(1998a) and for tomato crop by Tiwari et al., (1998b) and
Singh (2007).
CONCLUSION
The present study indicated that plastic mulch with
fertigation 80% RDF resulted in significantly maximum
yield, water use efficiency and maximum benefit: cost
ratio in chilli. The drip system besides giving a saving of
39% water resulted in 55% higher fruit yield of chilli as
compared to without mulch with 60% RDF. it is possible
to achieve a higher yield and quality fruits with enhanced
water and fertilizer use efficiency over other fertigation
level with mulches. Efficiently increase to farmers economic
conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges An experiment
was conducted to evaluate the effect of mulch and fertigation
yield of chilli under drip irrigation system and to assess
the potential of deficit irrigation to improve the economic
efficiency of chilli production at during the year 2013-14
in winter season at Horticulture Instructional cum Research
Farm, (PFDC) IGKV, Raipur (Chhattisgarh). Heartly thanks
to this work. Also, he acknowledges especially Mr. Hemant,
Khamhan, and Pradeep for their unreserved technical
assistance in the entire period of the experiment, of which
without their assistance and hospitality this work may not
have been materialized.
Effect of different levels of fertigation with black plastic mulch on growth and yield of chilli
Number of Number of
Plant height Fruit girth Fruit yield Fruit yield
Treatments primary Secondary Yield q ha-1
(cm) (cm) plant-1 (gram) plot-1(kg)
branches branches
Mulches
Black plastic mulch 74.51 8.04 50.68 5.04 2234.73 134.08 402.16
Paddy Straw 71.96 7.83 47.03 5.03 2016.15 120.96 362.92
Without mulch 67.77 7.64 45.51 4.98 1890.94 113.45 340.38
SEm± 0.99 0.07 0.92 0.08 6.81 3.15 6.51
CD (P= 0.05) 3.91 0.27 3.62 NS 26.75 12.37 25.56
Fertigation levels
100 % RDF 72.94 7.68 48.19 5.10 2072.76 124.36 372.99
80% RDF 74.66 8.39 53.03 5.38 2303.10 138.18 414.57
60 % RDF 66.65 7.44 42.00 4.57 1765.97 105.95 317.89
SEm± 1.46 0.14 1.40 0.09 10.71 2.79 7.32
CD (P= 0.05) 4.51 0.43 4.34 0.29 33.01 8.61 22.56

Economics (Rs. ha-1) as influenced by fertigation levels and mulches at various growth stages of chilli

Treatments Cost of cultivation Gross income Net income Benefi :Cost ratio

Mulch

Black plastic 281333.33 804320 522986.67 1.85:1

Paddy straw 267993.33 725840 457846.67 1.70:1

Without 254653.33 680760 426106.67 1.67:67
Fertigation levels
100%RDF 277960.00 745980 468020 1.68:1
80%RDF 267993,33 829140 561146.67 2.09:1
60%RDF 258026.66 635780 377753.34 1.46:1

Economic analysis of various treatments for chilli

Sl. Treatments
Cost Economics
No.
M1F1 M2F1 M3F1 M1F2 M2F2 M3F2 M1F3 M2F3 M3F3
1. Fixed cost Rs./ ha 70000 70000 70000 70000 70000 70000 70000 70000 70000
2. Seasonal system cost, Rs./ha
Life (Years) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
a Depreciation 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000
b Interest (@ 10%) 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700
c Repair and maintenance 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700
d Total cost 8400 8400 8400 8400 8400 8400 8400 8400 8400
3. Cost of mulching 37250 7400 7350 37250 7400 7350 37250 7400 7350
4. Total cost + mulching cost 45650 15800 15750 45650 15800 15750 45650 15800 15750
5. Cost of cultivation 187700 187700 187700 187700 187700 187700 187700 187700 187700
6. Fertigation cost 67900 67900 67900 54560 54560 54560 41220 41220 41220
7. Total cost of cultivation 301250 271400 271350 287910 258060 258010 274570 244720 244670
8. Yield of produce, q /ha 416.74 368.72 333.53 443.93 404.37 395.43 345.81 315.69 292.18
9. Selling Price (Rs. Kg ) -1
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

185
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S. C. Patnaik, K. K. Mishra, J. N. Pradhan, P.
C. and Alim, M. A. (Eds.), Training Manual
on Precision Farming in Horticulture. PFDC,
OUAT, Bhubaneswar.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 187-189 (2015)
SCREENING OF TRADITIONAL RICE GERMPLASM OF CHHATTISGARH FOR IRON
AND ZINC CONTAIN IN BROWN AND POLISHED RICE
NEHA AGRAWAL1, NIRMALA BHARTI PATEL, YOGITA SHRIVAS , RAJEEV SHRIVASTAV AND V.
RAVINDRABABU*

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding

Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Raipur 492012 (C.G.)
*Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad -30 (Telangana)
E-mail-1 pnehaagrawal@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Presence of Fe and Zn in the staple food like rice can be better option to overcome the malnutrition problem in remote tribal areas of Ch-
hattisgarh and other states. Biofortification is one of the sustainable approaches, for improving the Fe and Zn content and their bioavail-
ability in rice grain. Screening of landraces for Fe and Zn content is the initial step of biofortification. In the present study 42 aromatic
landraces of Chhattisgarh were analyzed for Fe and Zn content in both brown and polished rice. In brown rice Iron content was ranged
from 6.18 ppm to 15.9 ppm. Zn concentration ranged from 16.1 ppm 37.62 ppm, whereas, polished rice showed Fe content range from
1.6 ppm to 10 ppm and Zn content range from 11 ppm to 23.9 ppm indicated the nutritive richness of brown rice over the polished rice.

Keywords: Iron, Zinc, landraces screening, brown rice, Polished rice.

INTRODUCTION
Chhattisgarh is rich in biodiversity of rice in all
aspects including nutritional value. Rice is a staple food of
Chhattisgarh and here it is also included in mid day meal
program in the schools of the state. Rice is the main source of
energy contains carbohydrate, protein, and other nutritional
compounds like minerals. The varieties with rice vitamins
and minerals can be better tool in fight against malnutrition.
Production of varieties rich with Fe would supplement iron
deficiency is tribal and undeveloped districts of state. Many
traditional rice varieties of Chhattisgarh rich with aroma
remains untouched for their nutritional values. In the studies
numbers of such rices are found rich with iron, zinc and
other minerals important for human body.
rice (Ghasemian,2010), Takahashi et al. (2009) revealed
that Zn is most abundant in the embryo and in the aleurone
layer using X-ray fluorescence imaging.
A distinction has to be made between content and
concentration. The content of iron and zinc in rice depends
on the grain size. Aromatic long grain basmati lines are
known to be high in iron content. The high or low content
of mineral elements in grain largely determine the nutrient
value of rice. The objectives of the present study were to (i)
screen aromatic rice landraces for iron and zinc concentration
in brown rice (ii) indentify lines with less loss of Fe and Zn
after polishing.

The Fe and Zn content varied in plant parts, leaves and
seed. In seed also the concentration of these mineral varied
in embryo and endosperm. In present study the study was
carried out for Fe and Zn contain in endosperm Anandan A.
(2011). Selecting genotypes with high efficiency of Fe and
Zn accumulation in the endosperm and their bioavailability
from existing germplasm collection may be an efficient and
reliable way to deliver Fe nutrition benefits to farmers and
local population. Germplasm has been screened for high Fe
and Zn in many crops including rice. Cheng et al. (2009)
reported that japonica rice had higher Fe than that of indica
rice variety. 11,400 rice samples of brown and milled rice
were evaluated for Fe and Zn during Martinez et al. (2006).
They found that brown rice had 10-11 ppm Fe and 20-25
ppm Zn while milled rice had 2-3 ppm Fe and 16-17 ppm
Zn. Banerjee et al. (2010) screened 46 rice lines including
cultivated and wild accessions and showed that wild rice
accessions have higher grain Fe and Zn concentration.
Accurate estimation of Fe and Zn concentration is
normally achieved through inductively coupled plasma-
optical emission spectrophotometry (ICPO ES) or atomic
absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Around 75% of total grain
Zn was reported to be present in the endosperm of brown
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Forty-two aromatic landraces of Chhattisgarh are used
for the present study are given in Table1. The experiment
was conducted at IGKV, Raipur, (C.G.) during Rabi 2014
and seed harvested from these lines was used for estimation
Zn and Fe concentration by using both Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS) (IGKV, Raipur) and by using
X-ray florescence spectrophotometer (XRF) (at DRR,
Hyderabad). Seeds from all landraces were de-husked using a
specially manufactured non-ferrous machine. Concentration
was expressed in parts per million (ppm). A minimum of two
replications from each of the landraces were analyzed for
the Fe and Zn, respectively. The Diacid method of digestion
was followed in Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(AAS). The variation in replications for each sample did not
exceed ± 4ppm for Fe and ± 2 ppm for Zn. The mean of the
two replicates is presented in results (Table 1).
RESULTS
Forty-two aromatic landraces of Chhattisgarh were
analyzed for Fe and Zn content in brown rice both by Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) and X-ray florescence
spectrophotometer (XRF) methods whereas, polished rice

187
was analyzed only by X-ray florescence spectrophotometer Chinnor 25.88 17.5 7.47 10.4 13.5 2.4
(XRF) method. In brown rice the analysis reveled that Fe
content was ranged from 8.1 ppm (Jawaphool and Mai Dubraj 23.34 17.6 11.94 8.6 11 1.4
Dubraj) to 15.9 ppm (Bisni-1) when analyzed through XRF Dubraj-1 27.45 17.8 9.58 9 13.2 2.6
and 6.18 ppm (Kharigilas) to 14.26 ppm (Badhsahbhog -1) Dubraj-2 28.19 19.6 6.41 11.9 13 1.8
through AAS. Mean Fe content through AAS is 9.46 ppm
and 11.84 ppm through XRF (Table 1). Dubraj-
29.68 21.2 12.05 11.6 13.9 2
Kisan
In Brown rice Zn concentration ranged from 16.1ppm Dubraj-sps 24 17.4 7.02 8.4 15 6.3
(Jaophool) to 27 ppm (Kharigilas). Through XRF and 20.66
ppm (Aatmasheetal) to 37.62 ppm (Kharigilas). Mean Zn Dujai 25.77 23.7 8.18 10.6 17.2 2.5
content obtained through AAS was 26.9 ppm and 20.3 ppm Elayachi 31.49 21 10.89 12.4 18.8 2.6
through XRF method (Table 1). Gangabaru 21.63 18.9 9.35 13.1 13.9 3.7
In polished rice Fe content was ranged from 1.6 ppm Gopalbhog 24.31 17.2 9.63 11.5 13.2 3.3
(Mai Dubraj) to 10 ppm (Shuklaphool) and Zn content was Jaigundi 26.84 18 9.47 13.5 12.1 4.4
ranged from 11 ppm (Dubraj) to 23.9 ppm (Kharigilas)
through XRF method, with a mean value of Fe 4.2 ppm and Jaophool 20.65 16.1 9.26 12 11.3 3.6
Zn 16 ppm (Table 1). Jawaphool 26.96 17.9 8.61 8.1 13.6 2.4
During polishing there is loss of Fe and Zn content Jeeradhan 27.34 17.6 10.53 8.6 13.5 2.9
through bran layer. Polished rice of landrace Tulsiprasad Jeeraphool 30.19 24.3 7.76 12.9 19.1 7.9
showed minimum loss of Zn content (0.1ppm) followed
Kalikamod 26.87 19 9.47 13.1 14.2 3
by Badhsahbhog (1.6 ppm), Kubrimohar (1.8 ppm) and
Tulsimanjari (1.9 ppm). Highest loss of Zn content was seen Kapoorsar 27.32 25.2 9.23 15.3 21.2 3.6
in Dubraj-V (7.3 ppm) followed by Lohndi and Vishnubhog Kharigilas 37.62 27 6.18 11.6 23.9 2.5
(7.1 ppm).
Kasturi 24.89 23.2 8.37 10.7 17.6 2.9
In polished rice loss of Fe content in grain was lowest Katarnibhog 26.94 15.6 10.01 9.7 12.2 4.7
in Dubraj-IV ( 2.1 ppm) followed by Aatmasheetal (3 ppm)
and Samudrafan (3.4 ppm). Highest loss of Fe was recorded Keragul 23.13 18 9.12 11.5 14.6 4.7
in Kapoorsar (11.7 ppm) followed by Bisni (11.1 ppm). Kubrimohar 26.09 20.8 8.07 12.3 19 3.7
Similar findings were reported by Banerjee et al. Lallu-14 28.7 25.5 8.36 11.4 21 2.5
(2010), Bhattacharjee et al. (2008), Chandel et al. (2010), Lohndi 30.23 24 11.28 14.5 16.9 4.3
Ghasemian et al. (2010), Sivaprakash et al. (2006), Choi et
Maidubraj 26.28 17.7 7.39 8.1 13.2 1.6
al. (2007), Prom-u-thai. et al. (2003) and Sellappan et al.
(2009) in local as well as improved rice varieties at different Samudrafan 24.36 22.8 10.68 14.6 20.3 7.8
parts of world and found that the brown rice contents higher Shuklaphool 21.36 18.6 7.23 13.4 13.5 10
quantities of minerals and vitamins than the polished rice and
the brown rice can be a better supplement of these minerals Shyamjeera 29.7 20.1 11.33 13 17.5 8.4
in daily diet. Srikamal 25.86 22.4 8.18 12.9 18.3 3.6
Table 1. Iron and Zinc concentration of brown and polished Tilkasturi 25.24 20.9 10.51 12.6 14.4 2.7
rice in 42 aromatic landraces of Chhattisgarh by Atomic Tulsimanjari 24.99 18.6 10.09 13.2 16.7 4.3
Absorption Spectroscopy( AAS) and X-rays fluorescence
Tulsiprasad 25.8 16.8 10.31 12.6 16.7 5.3
spectrometry(XRF)
Vishnubhog 25.45 22.2 10.48 13.3 15.1 3.2
Fe(
Zn(AAS) Zn(XRF) Fe(AAS) Zn(XRF) Fe(XRF)
Genotype XRF)
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Polished Polished
(ppm)
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 190-193 (2015)

ALLEVIATION OF THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SALINITY STRESS IN RICE VAR.

PMK 4 (ORYZA SATIVA L.) BY SEED BIOPRIMING WITH SALINITY TOLERANT
PSEUDOMONAS FLUORESCENS
N.NITHYA1*, R.GEETHA1 AND V. PRAKASAM2
1. Department of Seed Science and Technology, AC&RI, TNAU, Madurai.
2. Indian Institute of Rice research, Hyderabad-30

ABSTRACT
Studies were conducted to determine the effect of seed bio priming on germination of rice cv.PMK-4 under salinity stress condi-
tion. Seeds were separately soaked in water and bioprimed with liquid biocontrol agent Pseudomonas fluorescens with three dif-
ferent concentration viz.,10,15 and 20 % for 18 h. at 25oC and evaluated for per cent germination, vigour index, seedling length,
dry matter production, total phenol, chlorophyll and malondialdehyde content. The untreated dry seeds served as control. Re-
sults revealed that seeds bio primed with Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 20 % for 18 h performed better in all estimated parameters
and can be recommended as a seed enhancement technique for improving seed germination of rice under salinity stress condition.

Keywords :salinity, bio priming, vigour index, total phenol, Pseudomonas fluorescens.

INTERODUCTION
Salt stress is one of the major abiotic stresses limiting
crop growth and productivity. Poor soil health and polluted
environment is the major cause for lower productivity in
Indian Agriculture. High levels of soil salinity can inhibit
seed germination and seedling growth, due to the combined
effect of high osmotic potential and specific ion toxicity
(Almansouri et al., 2001) lower productivity (Yagmur and
Kaydan 2008).
Seed priming with bioagents can improve the
germination criteria and increase stress tolerance in
early seedling growth (Fallahi et al., 2011). Studies with
biopriming on salt stress for improving seed germination on
rice is very scanty hence this investigation was carried out
in rice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Rice seeds with 90% germination and 10.2% moisture
were used in this study. Experiments were carried out in the
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Agricultural
College and Research Institute, Madurai. Seeds were soaked
in water (Hydro priming) (T1); bioprimed with liquid
biocontrol agent Pseudomonas fluorescens three different
concentrations viz.,10% (T2), 15% (T3) and 20% (T4) for 18
hours with 250C and unprimed seeds as control (T0). The
treated seeds were evaluated for its germination potential
under salt stress by induced salt stress was employed by
using NaCl at different concentration of 0.25,0.50,0.75 and
1% expressing the electrical conductivity (EC) values of 2,
4, 6 and 8 dSm−1 respectively. The germination media was
pre moistened with NaCl for entire period of germination.
Seeds were considered as germinated when radicles
were 2mm long and germination was calculated percentage
(ISTA, 2009). Root length, shoot length were also measured
at the end of 14days. Vigour index was calculated using
the formula of Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973).Salt
tolerance index amongst treatments for salt stress tolerance
To allow comparison amongst treatments, a salt sensitive
treatment (Control) was chosen as susceptible standard
and the performance of other treatments was compared by
calculating a salt tolerance index (Zeng et al. 2003). The
control (untreated) as susceptible standard as it had highest
mean for MDA content and lower mean for other characters.

Mean of a treatment for a trait over salt stress treatments

Salt tolerance index = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mean of susceptible standard for the trait over salt stress treatments

Estimation of total chlorophyll content was done as
per the method described by Yoshida et al., (1971). Total
phenol content was estimated by the method suggested by
Thimmaiah (1999) using Folin – Ciocalteu reagent and the
absorbance was measured at 650 nm against each blank. The
content of phenol was obtained from different concentrations
of catechol and expressed as mg/100 g. Malondialdehyde
(MDA) content was determined by measuring the amount
of MDA produced by the thiobarbituric acid reaction as
described by Heath and Packer (1968).The data obtained
from different experiments were analysed by the ‘F’ test
of significance following the methods described by Panse
and Sukhatme (1985). Wherever necessary, the per cent
values were transformed to angular (arc-sine) values before
analysis. The critical differences (CD) were calculated at 5
per cent probability level.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Under normal conditions (0%), the maximum
germination (95%) was achieved in rice seeds bio primed
with 20% Pseudomonas fluorescens. Under saline conditions,

190
maximum germination (85) with salt tolerance index of 1.08 was observed in T4 than all other treatments. Minimum
germination percentage (mean at salt stress = 84) at all stress levels with salt tolerance index of 1.00 in each was observed in
unprimed seeds (control). Under normal conditions (0dSm−1), T4 generally had little effect on germination.

Figure.1.Effect of seed biopriming on germination percentage (%) in rice cv. PMK 4 - NaCl salt stress
Kalaivani (2010) who showed higher germination and
seedling vigour of maize seeds bioprimed with Pseudomonas
fluorescens 80% for 12h even under 1% NaCl salt stress
condition when compared to nonprimed seeds. Kaymak et
al. (2008) who reported in radish that biopriming with strains
(Agrobacterium rubi, Burkholderia gladii, Pseudomonas
putida, Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus megaterium)
significantly improved the percentage of germination under
saline conditions.
Many crops when exposed to osmotic stress expand
their underground organs and reduce their aerial organs.
Therefore, lowering of shoot to root ratios is thought to be
a fundamental strategy among plant species to promote root
exploration of soil and subsequent acquisition of water and
nutrients, reducing stress impacts (Fallahi et al. 2009).In the
present study, the shoot length and root length decreased as
salt stress increased. The shoot and root length reduced to
almost 25% from 8.6 cm and 15.0 cm, respectively at 0%
to 6.0 cm and 10 cm, respectively at 1% in untreated plants
(control). However, it could be noted that seedlings obtained
from 20% Pseudomonas fluorescens had significantly higher
shoot and root length than control (8.3 cm and 16.6 cm,
respectively at 1% NaCl).
By increasing salinity to 1% NaCl, fresh and dry weight
of seedlings decreased in all treatments. It is probably due to
decreasing in remobilization of reservoirs from cotyledons
to embryo axis. The factors that affect the growth rate of
embryo axis, also are affecting the mobility of reservoirs and
its remobilization from cotyledons to embryo axis (Akita
and Cabuslay, 1990). Mer et al. (2000), observed that by
increasing salinity, plumule length in wheat, barley, pea and
cabbage seeds decreased. They pointed out that decreasing
the growth of young seedlings by increasing salinity, was
because of the most decreasing of water absorption by
radicle, and subsequently by accumulation of soluble salts
in cells, water potential of root cells decreases and biological
processes occur in roots even in low water potentials. The T4
was recorded maximum vigour index than other treatments
both in normal (2942) and salt stress conditions (2112) than
other treatments.

Table.1. Effect of seed biopriming on root length (cm), shoot length (cm) and vigour index in rice var. PMK 4 – under salt
stress condition
Treatments/ Root Length (cm) Shoot Length(cm) Vigour index
Different
concentration
of NaCl(%) 0 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1% mean 0 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1% mean 0 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1% mean

T0 15.0 14.8 14.5 13.4 10.0 13.6 8.6 8.3 7.7 7.1 6.0 7.6 2085 1995 1850 1647 1253 1766
T1 17.2 16.2 16.0 15.0 11.3 15.1 10.1 8.6 7.8 7.4 6.4 8.1 2483 2189 2053 1887 1403 2003

T2 16.3 16.0 15.6 14.3 13.9 15.2 9.0 8.5 7.9 7.3 6.6 7.8 2227 1991 1995 1788 1694 1939

T3 18.7 18.1 17.5 16.5 15.1 17.2 10.4 9.5 8.6 7.6 7.1 8.6 2642 2380 2184 1908 1841 2191

T4 19.8 19.0 18.0 17.8 16.6 18.2 11.2 10.6 9.6 9.1 8.3 9.8 2942 2719 2458 2313 2112 2509

Mean 17.4 16.8 16.3 15.4 13.4 15.9 9.9 9.1 8.3 7.7 6.9 8.4 2476 2255 2108 1909 1661 2082

T C TXC T C TXC T C TXC

SE(d)
0.13 0.13 0.30 0.06 0.06 0.15 27.93 27.93 62.45
CD(0.05%) 0.26** 0.26** 0.59** 0.13** 0.13** 0.30** 55.64** 55.64** 124.42**

191
 The salt stress tolerance index for shoot and root length was highest in 20% Pseudomonas fluorescens (index 1.35 and
index 1.38, respectively).The minimum salt tolerance index for shoot and root length was observed in control (index 1.00
in each).

Figure.2.Salt tolerance index amongst treatments at mean value of salt stress condition

Plants exposed to saline environment generally have
the chlorophyll content reduced. NaCl stress decreased total
chlorophyll content of the plant by increasing the activity
of the chlorophyll degrading enzyme: chlorophyllase (Rao
and Rao 1981), inducing the destruction of the chloroplast
structure and the instability of pigment complexes. In the
present study, maximum total chlorophyll content was
recorded in T4 than other biopriming treatments, while
minimum in control (untreated) plants. The total chlorophyll
content of leaves averaged over treatments indicated that
it decreased (from 0.034μg/g at 0% to 0.015μg/g at 1%
NaCl) significantly with increase in salt concentrations. The
highest chlorophyll content under salt stress was recorded
in T4 treatment (0.024 μg/g) considering mean at salt stress.
However, the decrease in total chlorophyll content with
increased salinity was observed in all the treatments.
Production of MDA, which is an indicative of oxidative
stress, increases as salinity stress increases in plant, serves
as an index of lipid peroxidation. Peroxidation damage of
the plasma membrane leads to leakage of contents, rapid
desiccation and cell death (Scandalios, 1993). The MDA,
which is indicative of oxidative stress, increased as salinity
stress increased in plants. Our findings showed that the
degree of accumulation of MDA was higher in the untreated
plants as compared to treated plants. Degree of accumulation
of MDA content has been reported to be indicative of the rate
of lipid peroxidation due to salt stress (Meloni et al. 2003).
As lipid peroxidation is the symptom mostly ascribed to
oxidative damage, it is often used as an indicator of increased
damage (Khan and Panda 2008). Lowest MDA content
was recorded in 20% Pseudomonas fluorescens (mean at
salt stress = 2.368 μmol/g fr.wt), which might be due to
an increase in expression of stress related proteins such as,
glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione dependent
formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FALDH) and peroxidase. The
results on phenol content showed an increasing trend with
increase in salt stress.
The phenol content increased substantially with an
increase of salt stress level. Treatments differed significantly
both under normal (0 dSm−1) and salt stress conditions (8
dSm−1). A significantly higher level of phenol content was
found in T4 treatment as the salt stress increased from 0
dSm−1 to 8 dSm−1 in comparison to other bioprimed seeds.
Highest phenol content under salt stress was observed in T4
treatment (2.54 mg/100 g) with salt tolerance indices of 1.35.
Among all treatments, unprimed seeds (control) showed
minimum phenol content (mean at salt stress = 2.02 mg/100
g) with the lowest salt tolerance index of 1.00.

Table.2. Effect of seed biopriming on total chlorophyll content (µg g-1), total phenol content (mg/100 g) and MDA (μmol/g
fr.wt) in rice var. PMK 4 - NaCl salt stress condition
Treatments/
Different Total Chlorophyll content (µg g-1) Total phenol content (mg/100 g) MDA (μmol/g fr.wt)
conce-
ntration of 0 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1% mean 0 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1% mean 0 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1% mean
NaCl(%)
T0 0.020 0.016 0.011 0.006 0.005 0.011 1.50 1.63 1.94 2.22 2.81 2.02 1.952 2.720 4.600 6.000 6.521 4.359

T1 0.022 0.019 0.013 0.010 0.008 0.014 1.78 1.86 2.12 2.38 3.46 2.32 1.720 2.336 3.755 5.600 6.250 3.932
T2 0.024 0.020 0.018 0.014 0.010 0.017 1.78 1.86 2.13 2.52 3.50 2.36 1.294 1.705 2.316 2.624 3.413 2.270
T3 0.027 0.023 0.023 0.015 0.013 0.020 1.81 1.96 2.20 2.60 3.77 2.47 1.305 1.725 2.330 2.660 3.444 2.293
T4 0.034 0.029 0.025 0.019 0.015 0.024 1.87 2.03 2.24 2.72 3.85 2.54 1.335 1.742 2.363 2.863 3.540 2.368
Mean 0.025 0.021 0.018 0.013 0.010 0.017 1.75 1.87 2.13 2.49 3.48 2.34 1.521 2.045 3.073 3.949 4.634 3.044
T C TXC T C TXC T C TXC
SE(d)
0.006 0.006 0.001 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.06
CD (0.05%) 0.001** 0.001** 0.002** 0.02** 0.02** 0.06** 0.05** 0.05** 0.12**

192
 The study concluded the performance of bioprimed
seed in response to NaCl salt stress indicated that bioprimed
seed with Pseudomonas fluorescens 20% for 18h could
able to withstand NaCl salt stress at all concentrations
when compared to nonprimed seeds. The liquid biocontrol
agents considered best in providing salinity tolerance on
the basis of high salt tolerance index for all physiological
and biochemical traits studied except for MDA content, for
which it was the lowest, leaving open the possibility that
seed biopriming with liquid biocontrol agents might pre-
adapt plants to salinity stress. Finally, in future, these seed
biopriming treatments could be used for improving plant
growth and yield of this important crop in saline areas.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 194-196 (2015)

ZINC EFFECT ON SCMR, PHOTOSYNTHETIC RATE AND FLUORESCENCE OF

AROMATIC RICE CULTIVARS
PRANEETH KUMAR SUVARNA, S. NARENDER REDDY, A. SIVA SANKAR and Y.SHARATH KUMAR
REDDY
Department of Crop Physiology, College of Agriculture, Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030

ABSTRACT
An experiment was carried out with four genotypes of aromatic rice (Chittimutyalu, Sumathi, Sugandha Samba and RNR-2354) and three treat-
ments (0, 25, 50 kg ha-1) of zinc nutrient as basal application. To investigate the interactive effect of zinc on chlorophyll content, photosynthetic
rate and fluorescence aromatic rice conducted during Kharif 2012 at student farm, college of agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. Among
the treatments zinc at 50 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 has recorded positively influenced the SPAD chlorophyll meter readings, fluorescence and photosyn-
thetic rate. Highest SCMR values were recorded with Sugandha Samba supplied with 50 kg ZnSO4 ha-1, while the highest fluorescence (0.84
Fv/Fm) was recorded with RNR-2354 and photosynthetic rate (22.49 m mol CO2 m-2 s-1) was recorded with Chittimutyalu at 50 kg ZnSO4 ha-1.

Key words: Aromatic rice, Zinc, SCMR, Photosynthetic rate, fluorescence.

INTORDUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) belongs to the family Graminae and sub family Oryzoidea. As a cereal grain, it is the most
important staple food for a large part of the world’s human
population. It is the second-highest in worldwide production,
after maize. India is the world’s second largest producer of
white rice, accounting for 20% of world rice production.
The aromatic rice varieties occupy a prime position
in national and international markets due to their excellent
quality characters namely aroma, fineness and kernel length
for cooking. The aroma and taste are due to presence of
chemical compound 2-acetyl- 1-pyrolline. The majority of
scented rice are short grained, some are medium grained, and
only a very few are long grained. These varieties are highly
thermo photosensitive, they are mostly tall, long duration
types, low yielding and prone to lodging.
In Indian 50% of the soils are zinc deficient. Zinc
deficient soils lead to severe losses in yield and nutritional
value. Zinc application in rice increase crop productivity and
nutritional value.
Over the years traditional rice varieties were replaced
by modern high yielding varieties. Removals of large
quantities of zinc by these varieties continuously without
rotation and excessive phosphatic fertilizer use have resulted
in depletion of available Zn from the soil. More over it is
difficult for the farmer to identify Zn deficiency symptoms,
which are described as khaira in India (Nagarajan 1983).
Increased Zn concentration in rice grain due to
application of Zn is important from the point of view of
nutrition of humans, since rice is the staple food in developing
countries of Asia. Also, increased Zn concentration in rice
straw also improves cattle nutrition since rice straw is the
major feed for cattle in developing countries (Shivay et al.
2008).
Zinc is an essential micro nutrient for crop plants. Zn is
essential for several biochemical processes in rice plant, such
as cytochrome and nucleotide synthesis, auxin metabolism,
chlorophyll production, enzyme activation and membrane
integrity. Zn- enrichment leads to more root surface area and
the ability to change chemistry and biology of rhizosphere
by releasing phytosiderophores from roots which ultimately
increases Zn uptake by plants (Jat et al. 2008).
Realizing the importance of zinc in plant growth and
at the same time seriousness of its deficiency in soils and
plants, the current investigation has been made to study the
effect zinc concentrations on SCMR, Photosynthetic rate,
fluorescence.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The field experiment was conducted during kharif 2012-
2013 at students farm, College of Agriculture Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad. The experiment was laid out in a Factorial
Randomized Black Design with four aromatic rice genotypes
[Chittimuthyalu (V1),Sumathi(V2),Sugandhasamba
(V3),RNR-2354 (V4)] and three treatments [ZnSO4 0kg
(Zn0), ZnSO4 25 kg ha-1 (Zn25), ZnSO4 50 kg ha-1 (Zn50)]
were replicated thrice.
Measurement of chlorophyll content (SCMR
Values):
The SPAD-502(Soil plant analytical development)
meter was used for measuring the relative chlorophyll
content of leaves. The chlorophyll content was measured for
recent fully expanded leaves. Mean of the five values from
five hills was obtained. This meter enables obtaining instant
readings without destroying the plant tissue.
Fluorescence (Fv/Fm):
Fluorescence was measured by using chlorophyll
fluorometer from leaves that had fully expanded recently.
Mean of three values from three hills was obtained and
expressed as fluorescence (F0, Fm and ratio of F0/Fm) per hill.
Photosynthetic rate (µ mol CO2 m-2s-1):
The photosynthetic rate was measured by using

194
Infra Red Gas Analyser (Model TPS-1) from leaves that had V3Zn25 33.59 39.15 38.38
fully expanded recently. The net exchange of CO2 between V3Zn50 35.29 41.66 39.31
a leaf and the atmosphere is measured by enclosing the leaf
in closed chamber, and monitoring the rate at which the CO2 V4Zn0 31.31 40.65 38.39
concentration in chamber changes over a fairly short time V4Zn25 33.32 40.74 40.49
interval. V4Zn50 33.38 41.31 41.22
Mean of varieties
Statistical analysis V1 35.46 39.89 37.67
The data on the observations made were analyzed V2 37.52 38.91 37.40
statistically by applying the technique of factorial V3 33.97 39.37 38.02
randomized block design taken from Panse and Sukhatme V4 32.67 40.90 40.03
(1978). Critical difference for examining significance was
Mean of zinc levels
calculated at 5 per cent level of probability.
Zn0 33.38 38.30 36.68
Zn25 35.04 39.82 38.60
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Zn50 36.30 41.18 39.56
SPAD Chlorophyll meter reading (SCMR): Variety SEM+_ 0.28 0.32 0.09
Data on SPAD chlorophyll meter reading (SCMR) as (V) CD(.05) 0.81 0.95 0.27
influenced by zinc application in aromatic rice genotypes is SEM+_ 0.24 0.28 0.08
presented in table 1. There was significant increase in SCMR Zinc (Zn)
CD(.05) 0.70 0.82 0.23
values due to zinc application. The SCMR values increased
Interaction SEM+_ 0.48 0.56 0.16
gradually up to 65 DAT thereafter declined. Among the zinc
levels, zinc application at 50 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 has resulted in (Zn x V) CD(.05) NS 1.65 0.47
mean SCMR values of 41.18 at 65 days after transplanting
(DAT) which was reduced to 39.56 by 85 DAT. Plants which 65 days after transplanting (DAT) which has
were grown in control have recorded the lowest SPAD values reduced to 0.67 by 85 DAT. Where as in control lowest
throughout the crop growth followed by 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1. Fv/Fm values were recorded throughout the crop
growth period.
SCMR values differed significantly among the
aromatic rice genotypes supplied with different levels of Significant differences among the aromatic rice
Zinc. Among the genotypes RNR-2354 (V4) (40.90) has varieties for fluorescence were observed throughout the
recorded maximum SCMR values of 65 DAT, while the crop growth period. Genotype RNR-2354 (V4) (0.75) has
lowest values were recorded in Sumathi (V2). Similar results recorded highest fluorescence values at all growth stages
were also reported by (Kumar et al., 2005), Chandrapala et while lowest values were recorded with Sumathi (V2).
al, (2009) Interaction between aromatic rice varieties and Zn
Interaction between aromatic rice varieties Zn levels was found to be significant from 65 to 85 DAT. Highest
levels for SCMR were found to be significant from 65 DAT fluorescence values were found with RNR-2354 (V4) (0.84)
to 85 DAT. Highest SCMR values (41.66) were recorded at 50kg ZnSO4 ha-1 at 65 DAT where as lowest values were
with Sugandha Samba (V3) supplied with 50 kg ZnSO4. found with Sugandha Samba (V3) in control.

Zn being a co-factor in many enzymes might have Table 2: Fluorescence (Fv/Fm) in aromatic rice genotypes
helped in the synthesis of more chlorophyll pigment in as influenced by zinc supply
leaves. Treatments 45DAT 65DAT 85DAT
V1Zn0 0.50 0.64 0.62
2) Fluorescence (Fv/Fm):
V1Zn25 0.57 0.73 0.71
The data on fluorescence revealed that it has in- V1Zn50 0.62 0.79 0.73
creased up to 65 DAT and later reduced with the V2Zn0 0.42 0.58 0.55
zinc levels in the entire aromatic rice genotypes (ta- V2Zn25 0.47 0.68 0.61
ble 2). There was significant increase in Fv/Fm due to V2Zn50 0.49 0.72 0.64
Table 1: SPAD values in aromatic rice genotypes as influ- V3Zn0 0.45 0.65 0.56
enced by zinc supply V3Zn25 0.53 0.69 0.61
V3Zn50 0.55 0.71 0.63
Treatments 45DAT 65 DAT 85DAT
V4Zn0 0.50 0.65 0.59
V1Zn0 33.74 37.51 35.47 V4Zn25 0.54 0.77 0.67
V1Zn25 35.76 40.56 38.20 V4Zn50 0.57 0.84 0.84
V1Zn50 36.86 41.59 39.36 Mean of varieties
V2Zn0 35.42 37.72 36.49 V1 0.56 0.72 0.69
V2Zn25 37.47 38.85 37.34 V2 0.46 0.66 0.60
V2Zn50 39.66 40.17 38.37 V3 0.51 0.68 0.60
V3Zn0 33.05 37.31 36.37 V4 0.54 0.75 0.65

195
Mean of zinc levels Zn0 12.86 20.42 19.18
Zn0 0.47 0.63 0.58 Zn25 13.26 21.63 20.02
Zn25 0.53 0.72 0.65 Zn50 13.77 22.49 20.33
Zn50 0.56 0.77 0.67 SEM+_ 0.23 0.20 0.13
Variety (V)
SEM+_ 0.01 0.008 0.004 CD(.05) 0.68 0.57 0.39
Variety (V)
CD(.05) 0.02 0.023 0.01 SEM+_ 0.20 0.17 0.12
Zinc (Zn)
SEM+_ 0.01 0.007 0.003 CD(.05) 0.60 0.50 0.34
Zinc (Zn)
CD(.05) 0.02 0.019 0.009 Interaction SEM+_ 0.40 0.34 0.23
Interaction SEM+_ 0.01 0.013 0.006 (Zn x V) CD(.05) NS NS NS
(Zn x V) CD(.05) NS 0.039 0.018

3) Photosynthetic rate (m mol CO2 m-2 s-1): CONCLUSION:

Among the treatments zinc at 50 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 has
Perusal of the data on photosynthetic rate shows that recorded positively influenced the SPAD chlorophyll meter
there was an increase in the values up to 65 DAT later reduced readings, fluorescence and photosynthetic rate.
gradually (table3). There was significant increase in leaf
photosynthetic rate due to zinc application. Zinc application
at 50 kgZnSO4 ha-1 has resulted in mean leaf photosynthetic REFERENCES:
rate of 22.49 m mol CO2 m-2 s-1 at 65 DAT and reduced to Chandrapala,A.G. (2009). Productivity of rice-maize cropping
20.33 m mol CO2 m-2 s-1 by 85 DAT. Whereas lowest values system as influenced by crop establishment
for photosynthesis were observed in control. methods and nutrient management. M.Phill
thesis. Department of Agriculture, ANGRAU,
There was significant difference in leaf photosynthesis Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
at all growth stages in the genotypes studied. Genotype
Chittimuthyalu (V1) (23.67 m mol CO2 m-2 s-1) has recorded
maximum leaf photosynthetic rate throughout the crop
Chen, W., Yang ,X. He, Z., Feng, Y and Hu, F. (2008).
growth period, while the lowest values were recorded in
Differential changes in photosynthetic capacity,
Sugandha Samba (V3) (20.46 m mol CO2 m-2 s-1).
77 K chlorophyll fluorescence and chloroplast
The increase in the photosynthetic rate under Zn ultrastructure between Zn-efficient and
application may be due to more leaf area production, more Zninefficient rice genotypes (Oryza sativa)
Fluorescence values and adequate chlorophyll content. under low zinc stress. Physiologia plantarum.
132(1): 89-101.
Zn deficiency decreases leaf photosynthetic capacity
primarily by reducing the number of PSII units per unit leaf Jat, S. L., Shivay, Y.S and Parihar ,C. M. (2008). Zinc
area, and also reducing the photochemical capacity of the Fertilization for Improving Productivity and
remaining PSII units. Therefore, the maintenance of more Zinc Concentration in Aromatic Hybrid Rice
efficient photochemical capacity under low Zn stress is a key {Oryza sativa L.). Indian Journal of Agronomy. 55
factor for the high Zn efficiency in rice. Similar result was (3): 321-322.
also reported by Chen et al. (2008).
Kumar, R.M., Rao, P.R., Padmaja, K and Subbaiah, S.V.
Table 3: Photosynthetic rate (mmol CO2 m-2 s-1) in aromatic (2005). Correlation of chlorophyll meter
rice genotypes as influenced by zinc supply reading and leaf colour index of transplanted
rice varieties suitable for various states in India.
Treatments 45DAT 65DAT 85DAT
Journal of Research ANGRAU. 33 (1): 65-69.
V1Zn0 13.10 23.10 20.20
V1Zn25 13.62 23.60 21.30 Nagarajan, R. (1983). Ph.D.Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural
V1Zn50 13.67 24.30 21.70 University, Coimbatore.
V2Zn0 12.00 19.35 18.43 Shivay, Y.S., Kumar, D., Prasad, R and Ahlawat, I.P.S.
V2Zn25 12.37 21.60 19.83 (2008). Relative yield and zinc uptake by rice
V2Zn50 12.70 22.20 20.27 from zinc sulphate and zinc oxide coating onto
V3Zn0 12.60 19.53 19.27 urea. Nutrient cycling in Agroecosystem. 80:
V3Zn25 12.67 20.63 19.57 181-188.
V3Zn50 12.93 21.20 19.67
V4Zn0 13.73 19.70 18.80
V4Zn25 14.40 20.70 19.39
V4Zn50 15.77 22.27 19.70
Mean of varieties
V1 13.46 23.67 21.07
V2 12.36 21.05 19.51
V3 12.73 20.46 19.50
V4 14.63 20.89 19.30
Mean of zinc levels

196
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 197-199 (2015)

SCREENING FOR GRAIN ZINC AND IRON CONTENT IN AROMATIC SHORT GRAIN
ACCESSIONS OF RICE USING ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE
SPECTROPHOTOMETER (ED – XRF).
PRATIBHA CHANDRAKER1, BHAWANA SHARMA, A.K. SARAWGI, VIKAS KUMAR, D. SANJEEVA RAO*,
L.V. SUBBA RAO*
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur 492012 Chhattisgarh, India.
*Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

ABSTRACT
Micronutrient malnutrition is a major problem in more than half of the world’s population particularly in Women and children of develop-
ing countries, especially deficiency of iron and zinc. Malnutrition problems are prevalent among the rice eating population and particularly
poor people who are unable to afford nutrient rich supplementary food sources. Naturally crop like rice has lot of variability does exist for
micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Vitamin A, etc.) content and bioavailability. The present study was carried out in thirty eight aromatic short grain
accessions of rice to analyze Fe and Zn content in brown rice through energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometer (ED – XRF).
Iron concentration ranged from 8.3 μg/g to 16.3 μg/g with mean value of 10.47 μg/g and standard deviation of 1.40 μg/g. Zinc concentration
ranged from 12.7 μg/g to 26.8 μg/g with mean value of 17.50 μg/g and standard deviation of 2.77 μg/g. A positive correlation (+0.69) was ob-
served between iron and zinc contents of 38 genotypes indicated the possibility of simultaneous effective selection for both the micronutrients.

Keywords: ED-XRF, Iron, Zinc, biofortification, brown rice, short grain aromatic rice.

INTRODUCTION
Half of the global population consumes rice (Oryza
sativa L.) as staple food and poor people in developing
countries solely depend on rice and they are rarely
accessible to nutrient rich food sources to supplement rice.
Micronutrient malnutrition, and particularly Fe and Zn
deficiency affect over three billion people worldwide, mostly
in developing countries (Sperotto et al. 2010 and Welch et
al. 2004). Production of varieties containing high amounts
of bioavailable Fe would improve Fe nutrition in regions
where iron deficiency is prevalent (Meng et al. 2005).
However, rice is a poor source of essential micronutrients
such as Fe and Zn (Bouis et al. 2010). It is necessary to
improve both the net Fe & Zn concentration and their
bioavailability in rice grain for improving the Fe & Zn intake
in populations dependent on rice as a staple food. Food
fortification has been recommended as one of the preferred
approaches for preventing and eradicating iron and zinc
deficiency (Mehansho et al. 2006). Scientists have coined
the term “biofortified” for genotypes that deliver increased
levels of essential minerals or vitamins. Biofortification,
when applied to staple crops, such as rice, is a sustainable
approach, provided that access to the technology in the
form of seeds is unrestricted. In addition to agronomical
management, selecting genotypes with high efficiency
of Fe & Zn accumulation in the endosperm and their
bioavailability from existing germplasm collection may be
an efficient and reliable way to deliver Fe nutrition benefits to
farmers and local population (Prom-u-thai et al. 2006). Iron
and zinc concentrations in rice samples were estimated by
colorimetric method or by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
(AAS), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Inductively Coupled
Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). The
only non destructive method for the estimation of Iron and
zinc concentrations is X-Ray florescence spectrophotometer.
In XRF, the pre selected wavelength of incident X-rays
expel an electron from the inner most orbit followed by the
transfer of one of the electrons from the outermost orbit to
inner most orbit leading to release of specific wave-length of
X-rays. The energy of the emitted radiation is specific for
a particular atom. Therefore, it is simultaneously identified
and quantified by the detector. Different types of X-ray
spectrometry are used for analysis of mineral elements.
Laboratory bench top Energy Dispersive X-ray Florescence
(ED-XRF) is the most commonly used technique because of
its precision and rapid and cost effective screening for the
estimation of large number of samples . Hence this study was
proposed to estimate iron and zinc content in a population
of Thirty eight aromatic short grain accessions of rice using
ED-XRF method. The objectives of the present study were to
(i) screen aromatic short grain accessions of rice germplasm
for iron and zinc concentration in brown rice (ii) analyze the
correlation between Fe and Zn concentration.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Thirty eight aromatic short grain accessions of rice
(Oryza sativa L.) (Table 1) were grown in augmented
design at Research cum Instructional Farm, IGKV, Raipur
during Kharif 2014. Each entry was sown in three rows of
3m length at spacing of 20 cm between rows and 15 cm
between plants. Seed harvested from these lines were used
for estimation of zinc and iron at Indian Institute of Rice
Research (IIRR), Hyderabad using energy dispersive X ray
fluorescence spectrophotometer(ED-XRF). After harvesting,
all the samples were processed using non-iron and zinc
husker to avoid iron and zinc contamination (Ravndra Babu
et al. 2014). Dehusked brown rice sample was cleaned by
tissue paper. As per manufacturer recommendation filling
rice sample in ED - XRF sample cups to a mark which is
roughly 3/4th volume of the total space and around 20 g of
sample is required to fill up to this mark. As per the results

197
obtained, a minimum of 3 and 5 g sample is required for iron R-1462-243-100-7-1-1 9.5 18.1
and zinc respectively in all the samples tested and therefore,
5 g sample is necessary for simultaneous estimation of both TULSI MANJARI 9.6 15.7
iron and zinc. The determined minimum sample weight will SHRIKAMAL 10.8 19.3
enhance the life of specially designed sample processing RB 2816 11.2 21.3
noncontaminating machines as well as significantly reduces
KANAKJEER-B 10.5 18.3
the sample processing time (Sanjeeva Rao et al. 2014).
TULSI KANTHI 9.5 20.5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION TULSI GHANTI 9.7 16.8
Thirty eight aromatic short grain accessions of rice MAYUR KRANTHI 10.9 18.1
were analyzed for iron and zinc concentration in brown rice. KHASAKANI 9.1 14.4
Iron concentration ranged from 8.3 μg/g to 16.3 μg/g with
mean value of 10.47 μg/g and standard deviation of 1.40 MOHAN BHOG 9.8 17.3
μg/g. Zinc concentration ranged from 12.7 μg/g to 26.8 RANDHUNI PAGAL 10.9 17
μg/g with mean value of 17.50 μg/g and standard deviation DANAGURI 8.3 14.1
of 2.77 μg/g (Table 1). The lowest iron concentration
was recorded in danaguri (8.3 μg/g ) and highest in bisni KEDA GAURI 9.7 13.9
(16.3 μg/g ). The lowest zinc concentration was recorded CHATIANAKI 8.8 15.7
in jawaphul (12.7 μg/g ) and highest in bisni ( 26.8 μg/g) HEERAKANI 9.8 14.7
.the rice accession Nanu has higher iron and zinc content
SARAGA DHULLI 9 13.6
(12.2 μg/g & 22.4μg/g). Iron and zinc concentration were
positively correlated (+ 0.69) implying the chance for VISHNU BHOG 8.8 17.7
concurrent selection for both the micronutrients (Table 2). BISNI 16.3 26.8
Graham et al. (1999) reported positive correlation JAWAPHUL 12 12.7
between iron and zinc in rice, wheat and beans and Stangoulis BADSHAHBHOG 10 16.6
et al. (2007) reported significant positive correlation in Range 8.3-16.3 12.7-26.8
double haploid rice population indicating co-segregation
Mean 10.47 17.50
of concerned factors. In contrast, Vijay et al. (2009) could
not find significant correlation in recombinant inbred line S.D. 1.40 2.77
populations of wheat except Xgwm473Xbarc29 and also
opined that correlation might be possible with some loci. Table 2: Correlation between Iron and Zinc concentration
in aromatic short grain rice accessions
Table 1: Iron and Zinc concentration of brown rice in
thirty eight aromatic short grain accessions using Energy Iron brown Zinc brown
Dispersive X - Ray Fluorescence Spectrophotometer (ED- Iron brown 1
XRF).
Zinc brown 0.69* 1

Variety Name Iron (μg/g) Zinc (μg/g)

*significant at 95.0%
GANGABARU 10.5 17.6
KANAKJEER-A 11.1 18.2
DHNIA-B2 11.1 16.6 REFERENCES
RAU 3044 11.7 17.6 Bouis, H.E. and Welch, R.M. (2010) Biofortification—
NANU 12.2 22.4 asustainable agricultural strategy for reducing
micronutrient malnutrition in the global south.
GANGABALLI 9.5 15.6
Crop Science 50: S20–32.
DHOIABANKOI 9.6 17.5
ATHMA SHITAL 11.3 17
Graham R.D., Senadhira, D., Beebe, S., Iglesias, C.
and Monasterio, I. (1999). Breeding for
PARIJATAK 10.2 19.1 micronutrient density in edible portions of
TAKURABHOG 12.1 20.8 staple food crops: conventional approaches.
RAU 3056 9.8 18.1 Field Crops Research 60: 57-80.
KANIKABHOG 10.2 16.9 Mehansho, H. (2006). Iron Fortification Technology
HEERAKANI 12.4 21.9 Development:New Approaches. Journal of
Nutrition 136: 1059–1063.
BANSA PARIJAT 10.3 17.4
LECTIMANCHI-A 10.5 15.5 Meng, F., Y. Wei and Yang, X. (2005) Iron content and
bioavailability in rice. Journal of Trace
KHEERSAI 11.2 19.7
Elements in Medicine and Biology 18: 333–338.
GANJEKALLI 10.7 14.5
Prom-u-thai, C., Huang, L., Glahn, R.P., Welch, R.M.,
NEELABATI 9.4 16
Fukai, S. and Rerkasem, B. (2006). Iron (Fe)
bioavailability and the distribution of anti-

198
 Fe nutrition biochemicals in the unpolished,
polished grain and bran fraction of five rice
genotypes. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 86: 209–1215.
Ravindra Babu V., Neeraja, C.N., Sanjeeva Rao, D.,
Sundaram, R.M., Longvah, T., Usharani, G.,
Padmavathi, G., Balachandran, S.M., Nirmala
Devi, G.,Bhadana, V.P., Suneetha, K., Rao,
K.V.,Surekha, K., Sarla, N., Brajendra, P.,
Raghuveer Rao, P., Girish, C., Shashidhar,
H.E., Bijan, A. and Viraktamath, B.C. (2014).
Biofortificationin rice, Bulletin, Directorate of
RiceResearch, 1-98. ISBN: 978-81-9282495-6.
Sanjeeva Rao, D., Madhu Babu, P. Swarnalatha, P. Kota,
S., Bhadana V.P., Varaprasad, G.S. Surekha,
K. Neeraja C.N. and Ravindra Babu V. (2014)
Assessment of Grain Zinc and Iron Variability
in Rice Germplasm using Energy Dispersive
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrophotometer (ED -
XRF). Journal of Rice Reseach 7: 45-52
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Sperotto, R.A., Boffa T., Duartea G.L., Santosb L.S., Grusakc
M.A. and Fett, J.P. (2010) Identification of
putative target genes to manipulate Fe and Zn
concentrations in rice grains. Journal of plant
Physiology 167: 1500–1506.
Stangoulis J.C.R., Huynh, B., Welch, R.M., Choi, E. and
Graham, R.D. (2007). Quantitative trait loci for
phytate in rice grain and their relationship with
grain micronutrient content. Euphytica 154:
289–294.
Vijay K.T., Nidhi, R., Parveen, C., Kumari,N., Renuka, A.,
Gursharn, S.R., Harcharan, S.D., Beat, K. and
Kuldeep, S. (2009). Mapping of quantitative
trait loci for grain iron and zinc concentration
in diploid a genome wheat. Journal of Heredity
100(6): 771–776.
Welch, R.M. and Graham, R.D. (2004) Breeding for
micronutrients in staple food crops from
a human nutrition perspective. Journal of
Experimental Botanyt 55: 353–64.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 200-203 (2015)
IMPACT OF ZINC APPLICATION ON MICRONUTRIENT CONTENT IN EDIBLE PARTS
OF WHEAT CULTIVARS
RAJKISHORE KUMAR, ROSHAN KUMAR1, RAKESH KUMAR AND AMARENDRA KUMAR2*
Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur, Bihar-813210
1
Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand-263145
2
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar-813210
Corresponding author E-mail: kumaramar05@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
A pot experiment was conducted with different Zn treatment on Zn-efficient (GW190, LOK-1) and Zn in-efficient (GW399, GW403) va-
riety of wheat in rabi season. Three levels of Zn, i.e. 0, 10 and 20 mg Zn kg-1 and four wheat variety, Zn-efficient (GW190, LOK-1) and
Zn in-efficient wheat varieties (GW399, GW403) were laid out in factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) with three replication.
The Zn application @10 and 20 ppm improved average grain yield in efficient variety was 20.71 percent and in-efficient variety 19.79
percent, respectively. Fe and Mn content in grain of in-efficient variety was 29.14 and 5.61 per cent more accumulation compared to effi-
cient variety respectively, whereas efficient varieties have 12.50 per cent more Cu accumulation capacity in grain compared to in-efficient
variety. The application of Zn was found beneficial to increase grain yield and micronutrient content in grain of different wheat cultivars.
Thus Zn application could be a better way for Zn enrichment of micronutrient stress to increase crop yields of different wheat variety.

Keywords: Zn-efficient wheat, Zn in-efficient wheat, Micronutrient, Grain yield

INTRODUCTION
Zinc deficiency is one of the common problems in
wheat and other cereal crops. It is estimated that about 50%
of soils used for cereal production in the world have low
levels of plant available Zn (Graham and Welch, 1996).
Wheat shows substantial decreases in growth and grain yield
under Zn deficient field conditions (Graham et al., 1992;
Cakmak et al., 1996). Zinc deficiency in soils also reduces
Zn concentration in wheat grain and diminishes its nutritional
quality. Approximately, 40% of world’s population suffers
from micronutrient deficiencies (the so-called “hidden
hunger”), including Zn deficiency (Bouis, 1996; Graham and
Welch, 1996). High consumption of cereal based foods with
low Zn content is considered to be one of the major reasons
for the widespread occurrence of Zn deficiency in humans,
especially in developing countries.
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the leading
cereals, which rank first, both in acreage and production
in world (Anon., 1971). It is consumed by about one-
third of the world population. Over 40% of the world’s
population is currently micronutrient deficient, resulting in
numerous health problems, inflated economic costs borne
by society and learning disabilities for children (Sanchez
and Swaminathan, 2005). Zinc deficiency is a particularly
widespread micronutrient deficiency in wheat, leading to
severe depressions in wheat production and nutritional quality
of seeds (Graham et al., 1992; Cakmak et al., 1996; Graham
and Welch, 1996). Presence of genotypic variation can be
exploited in breeding programmes to produce genotypes
with higher zinc efficiency accomplished with higher yield.
There is another alternate approach to grow of Zn-efficient
varieties instead of the existing inefficient cultivars. Plant
cultivars vary in their resistance to zinc deficiency which
depends on their ability to mobilize and absorb zinc. In
certain plants, showed physiological reactions, such as an
increase in the capacity for reduction of chelated zinc ions at
the root surface (Chaney et al., 1972), the release of reducing
compounds into the environment (Brown and Ambler, 1973),
and acidification of the rhizoshpere by excretion of protons
(Romheld and Marschner, 1981), as well as morphological
changes, such as formation of rhizodermal transfer cells
(Kramer et al., 1980) can occur in response to Zn deficiency.
Considering the importance of wide deficiency of Zn in sandy
loam soil, with the help of Zn efficient and Zn in-efficient
wheat cultivars, an experiment was conducted to study the
effect of Zn on micronutrient content in grain to distinguish
efficient and inefficient varieties of different wheat cultivars
under middle Gujarat agro climatic condition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A pot house experiments was conducted at Anand
Agricultural University, Anand in rabi season 2011-12 on
“influence of Zn application on seed yield and micronutrient
content in grain of different wheat variety. Four wheat
variety was taken for study, out of which two Zn- efficient
(GW190, LOK-1) and two Zn in- efficient wheat varieties
(GW399, GW403). Mechanical analysis was done by
adopted standard procedure by International pipette method
having 5.12% clay and silt 10.47% as textural class, loamy
sand, locally known as Goradu soil under semi-arid condition
belongs to the soil order Inceptisols (Typic Ustochrepts). The
soil collected from micronutrient project farm, AAU was
analysed for available major and micronutrients status. A
pot House experiment conducted at Micronutrient Project,
AAU, Anand having Soils have pH 7.2 and EC (0.14 dSm-
1
) method adopted by Jackson (1967). The organic carbon
content (0.34%) determined by Walkey and Black method
(1953) and DTPA extractable micronutrient such as zinc
(0.43 mg kg-1) and iron (4.58 mg kg-1) estimated by Lindsay
and Norwell (1978). The treatment consisted of three levels
of Zn, i.e. 0, 10 and 20 mg Zn kg-1 and four wheat variety,

200
Zn- efficient (GW190, LOK-1) and Zn in- efficient wheat
varieties (GW399, GW403) and replicated thrice in factorial
completely randomized design (FCRD). The soil in each pot
was then irrigated with tap water and moisture levels of soil
in pots were maintained throughout the growth stage. Urea,
DAP and zinc sulphate (21% Zn) were used as nitrogen,
phosphorous and zinc source, respectively. Grain sample
were grinded and digested in di-acid mixture (HNO3:HNO4::
9:4) and estimated Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu content by using
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).
Analysis of variation (ANOVA) method was followed
to assess of Zn application in different wheat cultivars on
yield and micronutrient content in grain of in semi- arid
region for adopting factorial concept through completely
randomized design (Snedecor and Cochean, 1967).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Grain yield: Grain yield of different wheat varieties
as influenced by Zn application significant increase in
mean seed yield of wheat by 35 and 21 per cent in efficient
varieties and 33 and 19 per cent inefficient varieties with 10
and 20 mg Zn kg-1, respectively (Table:1). Further, results
indicated that the magnitude of response varied significantly
among the Zn treatments, and maximum was obtained at 10
mg Zn kg-1 soil. The agreement also corroborative on grain
yield of wheat crop by Marcar and Graham (1987) under Fe
stress condition. This may be due to genotypic variation for
Zn stress tolerance between the genotypes. Different level of
Zn application significantly increased grain yield of wheat
crop Zn deficient soil gave good response under Zn stress
condition. It is evident that efficient varieties were found
to be a highest seed producer over the inefficient genotypes
of wheat. This agreement was corroborative by Bansal and
Nayyar (1998) for screening of different wheat varieties
under Mn- deficient soil condition.
Effect of Zn application on micronutrient content
in grain of wheat variety
Zinc (Zn): The Zn treatment significantly improve the
grain Zinc content in different varieties of wheat (Table 2). The
significantly highest grain zinc content found in the GW190
variety (45.22 mg Zn kg-1) which was at par with GW399 and
minimum grain zinc content was noticed in LOK-1 (38.67 mg
Zn kg-1). In case of zinc levels, maximum grain zinc content
found at 20 mg Zn kg-1 Zn application (61 mg Zn kg-1 ) while
minimum was found at no Zn application (20 mg Zn kg-1). In
case of interaction effect, the grain zinc content ranged from
16.33 to 69.67 mg Zn kg-1. The highest grain zinc content
was found in GW399 variety (69.67 mg Zn kg-1.) at 20 mg
Zn kg-1 application, while the lowest was observed in the
LOK-1 variety (16.33 mg Zn kg-1) at no Zn application. The
varietal performance with respect of Zn content of seed was
observed as GW190>GW399>GW403>LOK-1. Further,
within the Zn treatments, the higher seed Zn content (69.67
mg kg-1) was registered due to 20 mg Zn kg-1 application
in case of GW399. The improvement due to 10 and 20 mg
Zn kg-1 was by 2.41 and 3.94 times higher over control,
respectively. In case of efficient varieties, increasing level of
Zn application increased content of seed Zn by 2.50 and 2.84
times over control due to 10 and 20 mg Zn kg-1 application
respectively. While, inefficient varieties registered increase
in seed Zn content by 1.97 and 3.25 times over control,
201
indicated that inefficient varieties required relatively
higher rate of Zn application as compared to efficient
varieties. It would be stated that a large variation found in
Zn concentrations or content among genotypes in major
germplasm banks is sufficient to justify the possibility of
developing micronutrient efficient and inefficient genotypes
(Khoshgoftarmanesh et al, 2007).
Iron (Fe): The data on seed Fe content and variety of
wheat seed as influenced by Zn application and varieties
of wheat are presented in table (2). The results indicated
that, Zn and interaction of Zn x Variety both was found non
significant of Fe content in seed except variety. Overall
result indicated that, seed Fe content in In-efficient variety
was 29.14 per cent more compared to efficient variety. It was
observed that plants grown from seed with high micronutrient
(Fe) content achieved higher seed yield and seed content as
also reported by Yilmaz et al. (1998). It would be stated
that a large variation found in Fe concentrations or content
among genotypes in major germplasm banks is sufficient to
justify the possibility of developing micronutrient efficient
and inefficient genotypes (Khoshgoftarmanesh et al, 2007).
Manganese (Mn): The data on seed Mn content of
wheat seed as influenced by Zn application are presented
in table (2). The results indicated that Zn application
significantly influence the manganese content in seed. Here,
interaction of Zn, Variety and Zn x V was found significant.
But overall result indicated that, In-efficient variety have 5.61
per cent more Mn accumulation capacity of Zn compared to
efficient varieties. Khoshgoftarmanesh et al. (2007) stated
that a large variation found in Mn concentrations or content
among genotypes in major germplasm banks is sufficient to
justify the possibility of developing micronutrient efficient
and inefficient genotypes. Bharti (2006) using electron spin
resonance spectroscopy showed that the Mn2+ content of
seeds show a direct linear relationship with the height of the
wheat cultivars, so, the Mn2+ content of the seeds may be
taken as a parameter to determine the height of the mature
plant.
Copper (Cu): The data on seed Cu content of wheat
seed as influenced by Zn application are presented in table
(2). The results indicated that Zn application not significantly
influence the copper content in seed. Here, interaction of Zn x
V variety and Variety was numerically non significant except
the Zn levels. But overall result indicated that, efficient
varieties have 12.50 per cent more Cu accumulation capacity
of Zn compared to in-efficient variety. It would be stated
that a large variation found in Cu concentrations or content
among genotypes in major germplasm banks is sufficient to
justify the possibility of developing micronutrient efficient
and inefficient genotypes.
Thus, it can be concluded from this study that higher
level of applied Zn in soil have strong negative effect on Fe
and Cu content But significant improvement of Mn content
in grain.
Table1: Influence of Zn application on grain yield (g pot-1) of different wheat cultivars
Grain yield (g pot-1)
Varieties Zn0 Zn10 Zn20 Mean
GW190 11.79 13.11 13.16 12.68
13.56
LOK-1 11.01 17.78 14.54 14.44
GW399 12.11 13.00 14.40 13.17
12.67
GW403 9.45 15.74 11.31 12.17
Mean 11.09 14.91 13.35  
Mean factors S.Em (±) CD (5%) CV (%)
Zn 0.47 1.37
Variety 0.54 1.59 12.43
Zn X V 0.94 2.75

Table 2: Influence of Zn application on Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu content in seed of different wheat cultivars
Zinc (mg kg-1) Manganese (mg kg-1) Iron (mg kg-1) Copper (mg kg-1)
Variety Zn0 Zn10 Zn20 Mean Zn0 Zn10 Zn20 Mean Zn0 Zn10 Zn20 Mean Zn0 Zn10 Zn20 Mean
GW190 23.33 52.00 60.33 45.22 13.67 11.67 10.33 11.56 78.00 73.53 70.33 74.00 3.50 2.00 4.83 3.44
LOK-1 19.33 47.33 52.33 38.66 12.67 11.10 9.33 10.67 45.87 66.90 70.67 61.11 3.83 2.33 3.67 3.28

GW399 17.67 42.67 69.67 43.34 10.67 10.67 12.00 11.11 89.63 96.00 97.08 94.67 3.67 2.67 4.67 3.67
GW403 18.67 40.00 61.67 40.45 11.33 12.00 12.00 12.44 102.13 94.83 90.38 96.00 4.00 2.38 3.67 3.33
Zn
19.75 45.5 61.0 12.08 11.36 10.91 78.90 82.815 82.11 3.75 2.34 4.21
Mean
S.Em. CD S.Em. CD S.Em. CD S.Em. CD
CV (%) CV (%) CV (%) CV (%)
(±) (5%) (±) (5%) (±) (5%) (±) (5%)

Zn 1.18 3.45 0.28 0.83 3.07 NS 0.16 0.47

V 1.37 3.99 9.8 0.33 0.96 8.62 3.55 10.35 13.06 0.19 NS
16.30

Zn X V 2.36 6.90 0.57 1.66 6.14 NS 0.32 NS

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manganese-deficiency stress. Indian Journal of
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in the response of cereals to zinc deficiency.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 204-207 (2015)
EFFICACY OF ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI AGAINST JASSIDS ON OKRA
RAVI PALTHIYA1, R.V. NAKAT2, N.D. TAMBOLI AND S.GAIKWAD
1,2,3&4
Department of Agricultural Entomology, M.P.K.V, Rahuri (413722), Maharashtra, India.
*E mail: ravipalthiya35@gmail.com.

ABSTRACT
The field experiment was conducted during Kharif season of 2013 to study the Efficacy of Entomopathogenic fungi against Jassids on
okra. During the course of present investigation, three entomopathogenic fungi were tested for their effect at various combinations
with each other at same concentrations and compared with chemical insecticide dimethoate 30EC, with a view to find out most effec-
tive treatment (s) on Jassids on okra. The experiment was conducted at P.G. Research Farm of Agril. Entomology Department, Ma-
hatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. The influence of different biopesticides and their combinations on Jassids was studied during
the investigation. Thus, the results indicated that combination of entomopathogenic fungi as V. lecanii 1.15 % WP + M. anisopliae
1.15 % WP was the most effective treatment as compared to standard check dimethoate for suppression of jassids population on okra.

Key words: Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii, Jassids, okra.

INTRODUCTION
Okra (Bhendi) Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench
is one of the most important vegetable grown throughout
the tropics and warmer parts of temperate zone. It is
widely cultivated as a summer season crop in North India
and Maharashtra. Okra is especially valued for its tender
delicious fruits in different parts of country. Though it
is mainly used as a fresh vegetable, it is also consumed
as canned, dehydrated and frozen forms. Dry okra seeds
contain 18 to 20 per cent oil, 20 to 23 per cent crude protein
and good source of iodine (Barry et al., 1988). It has good
export potential accounting for 60 per cent of fresh vegetable
(Sharman and Arora, 1993). Though okra finds its origin in
Central Africa, India stands top in area and production. It
is cultivated in an area of 5.8 lakh hectares with an annual
production 63.50 lakh tones with a productivity of 12.0 Mt/
ha (Anonymous, 2013). In Maharashtra, okra cultivated in
an aera of 0.22 lakh hectares with an annual production 3.28
lakh tones/ha with a productivity of 14.90 Mt/ha (Ann, 2012-
13). The major okra growing states include Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Assam (Anonymous, 2013).
One of the most important constraints
in production of okra is insect pests. As high as 72 species
of insects have been recorded on crop (Srinivasa Rao and
Rajendra, 2003) among which, the sucking pest complex
consisting of aphids (Aphis gossypii Glover), leafhopper
(Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida), whitefly (Bemisia
tabacii. Gennadius) and Thrips (Thrips tabaci Lindeman)
are major pest and causes 17.46 per cent yield loss in okra
(Sarkar et al., 1996). To tackle the pest menace, a number of
chemical insecticides are liberally sprayed on this vegetable
crop which leads to several problems like toxic residues,
elimination of natural enemies, environmental disharmony
and development of resistance. The demand is ever increasing
for organically produced agricultural commodities all round
the world and biological control agents have vital role to
reduce the pest damage.
Okra being a fresh vegetable that is harvested at
regular interval, it is critical to evaluate safer alternatives
like botanicals and mycopathogens which possess no
residual toxicity, is best suited for vegetables like okra,
where we use fresh vegetables for consumption. Earlier
workers tested bio-efficacy of some of the indigenous
materials against pests of okra (Jayakumar, 2002 and
Dhanalakshmi, 2006) and reported their effect in reducing
the pest population. Very meager information is available on
the effect of entomopathogenic fungi against okra Jassids.
In this background, the present studies were carried out to
evaluate the efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi against okra
Jassids.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field trial was carried out at the experimental farm
of Department of Agricultural Entomology, Post Graduate
Institute, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidhyapeeth, Rahuri, Dist.
Ahmednagar, Maharashtra during Kharif 2013-14 on variety
of okra Phule Utkarsha in a randomized block design with
three replications. Treatments of B. bassiana 1.15% WP @
5 gm/lit, M. anisopliae 1.15% WP @ 5 gm/lit and V. lecanii
1.15% WP @ 5 gm/lit and their combinations were tested in
comparison with Dimethoate 30 EC 1.5ml/lit and untreated
control (Table 1). Three sprays were imposed on need basis.
Observations on jassids was recorded one day before and
5, 10 and 15 days after spraying, on five randomly selected
plants covering three leaves, one each from top, middle and
bottom portion of the plant. The data were obtained and
analysed statistically suggested by Panse and Sukhatme
(1978).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data on the efficacy of various biopesticides
treatments on reducing Jassids population after first, second and
third spraying are furnished in table 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The
pretreatment counts were made a day before spraying indicated that
there was no significant difference among the treatments.
At average of first spray indicated that, all the treatments were
found superior in suppressing the jassids population as compared to
untreated control. The treatment dimethoate 30 EC was significantly
superior over other treatment recorded 1.73 jassids/leaves/plant.
The next promosing treatment was combinations of V. lecanii

204
1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP spray in controlling jassids
with survival population of 2.49 jassids/leaves/plant which were
at par with the treatment B. bassiana 1.15 % WP + M. anisopliae
1.15 % WP + V. lecanii 1.15 % WP recorded 2.91 jassids/leaves/
plant. It was followed by the treatment M. anisopliae 1.15 % WP
(3.27 jassids/leaves/plant). The next preformed treatments in order
to their merits were V. lecanii 1.15% WP (3.65 jassids/leaves/
plant), V. lecanii 1.15% WP + B. bassiana 1.15 % WP (3.95 jassids/
leaves/plant), B. bassiana 1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP
(4.07 jassids/leaves/plant). The least significant treatment was B.
bassiana 1.15% WP recorded (4.45 jassids/leaves).respectively
(Table 1)
At average second spray indicated that, all the treatments
were found superior in suppressing the jassids population as
compared to untreated control. The treatment dimethoate 30 EC was
significantly superior over other treatment recorded 1.74 jassids/
leaves/plant. The next promosing treatment was combination
of V. lecanii 1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP spray in
controlling jassids with survival population 3.78 jassids/leaves/
plant which were at par with the treatments B. bassiana 1.15%
WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP + V. lecanii 1.15 % WP recorded
4.05 jassids/leaves/plant. It was followed by the treatment of M.
anisopliae 1.15% WP 4.66 jassids/leaves/plant. The performing
treatments in order to their merit were V. lecanii 1.15% WP + B.
bassiana 1.15% WP (5.37 jassids/leaves/plant), B. bassiana 1.15%
WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP (5.51 jassids/leaves/plant). The
least significant treatment was B. bassiana 1.15 % WP recorded
5.68 jassids/leaves/plant. respectively (Table 2).
At average of third spray indicate that among
entomopathogens, V. lecanii 1.15 % WP + M. anisopliae 1.15%
WP recorded lowest population of jassids (2.71 jassids/ leaves/
plant) and which was at par with the treatment B. bassiana 1.15%
WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP + V. lecanii 1.15% WP recorded
(3.04 jassids/leaves/plant). It was followed by the treatment M.
anisopliae 1.15% WP (3.74 jassids/leaves/plant). The next best
treatments V. lecanii 1.15% WP (4.04 jassids/leaves/plant), V.
lecanii 1.15 % WP+B. bassiana 1.15% WP (4.43 jassids/leaves/
plant), B. bassiana 1.15% WP+M. anisopliae 1.15% WP (5.23
jassids/leaves/plant) and B. bassiana 1.15% WP (5.44 jassids/
leaves/plant), respectively (Table 3).The present findings are also
in agreement with Virakthamat et al. (1994), they reported that
the incidence of fungus, V. lecanii on the mango leaf hoppers I.
nitidulaus and I. nagpurensis for the first time from Karnataka. The
maximum number of dead leaf hoppers (35.3 + 9.94 leaf hoppers/
20 shoots) due to fungal infection were found at the base of shoots
and minimum number (12.7 + 5.99/20 leaves) on the leaves.
Similar results were obtained by Anita (2007) and Girish Kumar
(2000), who reported that although M. anisopliae, V. lecanii and
B. bassiana were effective in reducing the leaf hopper population.
CONCLUSIONS
Among the different entomopathogenic fungi
treatments, the treatment V. lecanii 1.15 % WP + M.
anisopliae 1.15 % WP was found to be the most effective
treatment for suppression of jassids on okra.

Table 1: Efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi against jassids after first spray

Number of jassid nymphs/leaves/plant
Tr. No. Treatments Dosage I Spray
Qty./lit. DBS 5 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS Average
5.99 4.92 3.93 4.81 4.55
T1 B. bassiana 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.55) (2.33) (2.10) (2.30) (2.25)
6.68 3.36 2.45 4.00 3.27
T2 M. anisopliae 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.68) (1.96) (1.71) (2.11) (1.94)
6.28 3.73 2.55 4.67 3.65
T3 V. lecanii 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.60) (2.04) (1.80) (2.27) (2.04)

5 gm/lit. 5.36 2.55 2.18 2.73 2.49

T4 V. lecanii + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP
each (2.41) (1.74) (1.61) (1.80) (1.73)
5 gm/lit. 5.42 4.43 3.30 4.47 4.07
T5 B. bassiana 1.15% WP +M. anisopliae 1.15 % WP
each (2.43) (2.22) (1.94) (2.22) (2.13)
5 gm/lit. 5.95 4.41 3.17 4.26 3.95
T6 V. lecanii 1.15% WP + B. bassiana 1.15% WP
each (2.54) (2.21) ( 1.91) ( 2.17) (2.11)
B. bassiana 1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP + V. 5 gm/lit. 6.35 3.05 2.48 3.19 2.91
T7
lecanii 1.15% WP each (2.61) (1.88) (1.73) (1.92) (1.84)
6.35 (1.72) 1.12 2.55 1.73
T8 Dimethoate 30EC 1.5 ml/lit
(2.62) (1.49) (1.27) (1.74) (1.49)
6.54 7.64 8.15 9.01 8.27
T9 Untreated control -
(2.65) (2.85) (2.94) (3.08) (2.96)
SE + - 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.10 0.07
CD at 5% - NS 0.24 0.18 0.30 0.20
CV % - 15.67 8.08 9.41 8.90 5.56

Figures in the parentheses are ( ) transformations, DBS-Day before spraying & DAS-Days after spray-
ing

205
Table 2: Efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi against jassids on okra after second spray

Number of jassid nymphs /leaves/plant

Tr. No. Treatments Dosage II Spray
Qty./lit. 5 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS Average
6.00 5.01 6.05 5.68
T1 B. bassiana 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.55) (2.34) (2.55) (2.48)
4.60 4.03 5.36 4.66
T2 M. anisopliae 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.26) (2.13) (2.43) (2.28)
4.40 5.66 5.66 5.24
T3 V. lecanii 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.19) (2.48) (2.48) (2.39)
3.92 3.30 4.12 3.78
T4 V. lecanii + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit. each
(2.09) (1.93) (2.14) (2.06)
4.99 5.62 5.99 5.51
T5 B. bassiana 1.15% WP +M. anisopliae 1.15 % WP 5 gm/lit. each
(2.33) (2.47) (2.54) (2.45)
5.48 4.98 5.67 5.37
T6 V. lecanii 1.15% WP + B. bassiana 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit. each
(2.44) (2.34) (2.48) (2.42)
B. bassiana 1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP + 4.10 3.53 4.50 4.05
T7 5 gm/lit. each
V. lecanii 1.15% WP (2.13) (2.00) (2.23) (2.12)
1.26 0.58 3.38 1.74
T8 Dimethoate 30EC 1.5 ml/lit
(1.32) (1.03) (1.97) (1.49)
10.43 10.30 10.41 10.38
T9 Untreated control -
(3.30) (3.28) (3.30) (3.30)
SE + - 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.07
CD at 5% - 0.35 0.33 0.29 0.21
CV % - 12.70 13.14 14.81 5.96

Figures in the parentheses are ( ) transformations, DBS-Day before spraying & DAS-Days after spray-
ing
Table 3: Efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi against jassids on okra after third spray
Number of jassid nymphs /leaves/plant
Tr. No. Treatments Dosage III Spray
Qty./ lit. 5 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS Average
5.12 4.94 5.73 5.44
T1 B. bassiana 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.38) (2.32) (2.50) (2.42)
3.77 3.10 4.36 3.74
T2 M. anisopliae 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.06) (1.90) (2.18) (2.07)
4.00 3.19 4.93 4.04
T3 V. lecanii 1.15% WP 5 gm/lit
(2.11) (1.91) (2.32) (2.13)
5 gm/lit. 3.01 2.29 2.71
T4 V. lecanii 1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP
each (1.87) (1.66) 2.89 (1.82) (1.80)
5 gm/lit.
T5 B. bassiana 1.15% WP +M. anisopliae 1.15 % WP 5.09 4.00 5.44 5.23
each
(2.37) (2.08) (2.44) (2.33)
5 gm/lit.
T6 V. lecanii 1.15% WP + B. bassiana 1.15% WP 4.75 3.80 4.81 4.43
each
(2.27) (2.06) (2.30) (2.22)
B. bassiana 1.15% WP + M. anisopliae 1.15% WP + V. lecanii 5 gm/lit. 3.63 2.57 3.04
T7
1.15% WP each (2.03) (1.74) 3.01 (1.86) (1.88)

T8 Dimethoate 30EC 1.5 ml/lit 0.90 0.27 1.35 0.84

(1.18) (0.87) (1.36) (1.16)
- 8.85 8.99 7.18 8.34
T9 Untreated control
(3.06) (3.07) (2.77) (2.97)
SE + - 0.10 0.14 0.12 0.06
CD at 5% - 0.30 0.38 0.36 0.24
CV % - 9.66 11.41 9.55 9.12
Figures in the parentheses are ( ) transformations, DBS-Day before spraying & DAS-Days after spray-
ing

206
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 208-211 (2015)

EFFECT NATURAL NITRIFICATION INHIBITORS ON CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT AND

SPAD VALUES OF AEROBIC AND PUDDLED RICE
RAVI, P1.,JAYASREE, G1., PRATHIBA2, G., BALAGURAVAIAH, D1., PRAVEEN RAO2, V AND SIVA
SANKAR,A3
1
Department of Soil science and Agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Hyderabad, Telangana state, India.
2
Principal scientist, Agronomy, CRIDA, Hyderabad.
3
Registrar and OSD, PJTSAU. Hyderabad.
4
Controller of exams, ANGRAU, Hyderabad.

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was carried out during karif 2013 at College Farm, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Tel-
angana state, India. The experiment was laid out in split plot design under two types of rice ecosystems i.e., puddled and aerobic with five
treatments viz., T1- control i.e., without N fertilizer; T2 – nitrogen in the form of prilled urea; T3- Neem coated urea (NCCU); T4-Karanjin
coated urea (KCU); T5 – Vitexnegundo leaf extract coated urea (VCU). Nitrogen @ 120 kg ha-1 was applied for all treatments except T1 and
phosphorus and potassium were applied @ 60 kg ha-1 in all treatments. Rice variety MTU-1010 was cultivated and recommended manage-
ment practices were followed. The chlorophyll content was analyzed by DMSO method and SPAD values were recorded by SPAD meter. Both
chlorophyll content and SPAD values affected by methods of cultivation and nitrification inhibitors application. Puddled rice showed more
chlorophyll content and more SPAD value than aerobic rice. An increase in chlorophyll content and SPAD values was observed with the appli-
cation on natural nitrification inhibitors. A significant positive correlation was observed between chlorophyll content and SPAD values at all
crop growth stages with correlation coefficient of 0.97, 0.78 and 0.81 at maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky stages, respectively.

Key words: SPAD, Chlorophyll content, Leaf N content, Rice

INTRODUCTION

Natural nitrification inhibitors are those
compounds originated from plants and inhibit the first step
of nitrification, resulting in a prepondence of ammonium
(NH4 +) over nitrate (NO3-) in soil. Their application results
in persistence of applied N in the soil as well as plant N
metabolism and N nutrition. Nitrification inhibitors also
affect nitrogen transformation other than nitrification in
soil such as ammonium fixation and release, mineralization
and immobilization, nitrous oxide production and ammonia
volatilization, which effect N persistence in the soil and
subsequently availability to the plants.
Chlorophyll meter is a light weight portable instrument
developed by the Soil- Plant Analysis Development
(SPAD) unit of Minolta Camera company can be used to
estimate chlorophyll levels in plants. Chlorophyll is agreen
pigment in plants, captures the sunlight that is used in
photosynthesis. Nitrogen is a key element in chlorophyll
molecules.Chlorophyll meter provides instantaneous on-
site information on crop N status as SPAD reading in a
nondestructive manner. Turner and Jund (1994) recognized
that SPAD values are influenced by plant growth stage,
cultivation, leaf thickness, plant population and soil or
climate factor. As several studies have shown a relationship
between chlorophyll and N contents in plants leaves (Penget
al., 1993; Balasubramanianet al., 1999) chlorophyll contents
can be used as an alternative measure of plant N status.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Filed experiment
A field experiment was carried out during karif
2013 at College Farm, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana state, India. The
experiment was laid out in split plot design under two types of
rice ecosystems i.e., puddled and aerobic with five treatments
viz., T1- control i.e., withoutN fertilizer; T2 - nitrogen in the
form of prilled urea; T3- Neemcake coated urea (NCCU); T4-
Karanjin coated urea (KCU); T5 -Vitexnegundo leaf extract
coated urea (VCU). Nitrogen @ 120 kg ha-1 was applied
for all treatments except T1 and phosphorus and potassium
were applied @ 60 kg ha-1 in all treatments. Rice variety
MTU-1010 was cultivated and recommended management
practices were followed.
Measurement of Chlorophyll Concentration
Total actual chlorophyll content was determined by
Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) method (Hiscox and Israels-
tam, 1979)
V
Total chlorophyll = 20.2 (A 645 ) + 8.02 (A 663 ) ×
1000 × W × A
Where,
A645 Absorbance of the extract at 645nm
A663 Absorbance of the extract at 663nm
W Fresh weight of the sample (g)
A Path length of cuvette (cm)

208
V Final volume of the chlorophyll extracts (ml).
SPAD observations
SPAD (Soil Plant Analytical Development)
Chlorophyll meter readings were recorded by SPAD 502;
Minolta company ltd measures the greenness or relative
chlorophyll content of the leaves. SCMR reading was taken
at maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky stage of
crop respectively.
The field data on the observations recorded were
analyzed statistically by following the for split plot
design(Panse and Sukhatme, 1985)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chlorophyll content of rice
The chlorophyll content was analyzed in all the
treatments at maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky
stage and was presented in Table 1.
Chlorophyll content of rice showed significant
variation due to methods of cultivation (except at maximum
tillering stage) nitrification inhibitors, but not effected by
their interaction. Chlorophyll content values in rice increased
with crop growth up to panicle initiation and then decreased
towards maturity, in both aerobic and puddled rice in the all
treatments. Among the methods of cultivation, puddled rice
registering highest chlorophyll content values (4.72, 5.15
and 2.73mg g-1) than aerobic rice (4.11, 4.52 and 2.41 mg
g-1) at maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky stage,
respectively. The chlorophyll content values were in the
range as reported by Krishnan et al. (1996) for rice.
At maximum tillering stage, prilled urea showed
higher chlorophyll content than all nitrification inhibitors.
Among the nitrification inhibitors, application of KCU
recorded significantly higher chlorophyll content values
(5.74 and 2.86 mg g-1) followed by application VCU (5.57
and 2.72 mg g-1) and NCCU (5.44 and 2.62 mg g-1) at panicle
initiation and milky stage, respectively. Prilled urea showed
higher chlorophyll content values at maximum tillering stage
than nitrification inhibitors applied plots. Interaction effect
was not significant at all crop growth stages. A close positive
relationship between chlorophyll content and crop N status
was reported by many workers(Jayasree, 1988and Sikukuet
al., 2010). A higher concentration of N was observed in
prilled urea applied plots at maximum tillering stage than in
all other treatments which was reflected by higher chlorophyll
content. Whereas nitrogen status in natural nitrification
inhibitors was more in later stages of crop growth because of
inhibition of nitrification which due to reduction of nitrogen
losses. These, chlorophyll content were more in nitrification
inhibitors applied plots than prilled urea applied plots.
Correlation coefficient was worked out between
plant N and chlorophyll content and results were presented
in Table 3.The plant N content showed a significant positive
correlation with chlorophyll contentwith r = 0.967**,
0.778** and 0.877** at maximum tillering, panicle initiation
and milky stage, respectively.However, the relationship was
more correlated at maximum tillering stage (r = 0.96) than
at panicle initiation and milky stage. These resultssuggest
that maximum tillering stage chlorophyll content is most
suitablefor estimation of plant N content.
209
SPAD VALUES
SPAD values were recorded atmaximum tillering,
panicle initiation and milky stage, respectively. SPAD
valuesfollowed similar trend as that of chlorophyll content.
The SPAD values showed significant variation due to
methods of cultivation and nitrification inhibitors. However,
interaction was found to be non significant (Table 2). SPAD
values in rice increased with from maximum tillering
stage to panicle initiation stage and then started decreased
towards maturity, in both aerobic and puddled rice of the all
treatments.
Among the cultivation methods, puddled rice
registering significantly higher SPAD values 40.02,
41.67 and 39.61 than aerobic rice 35.29, 36.30 and 30.59
at maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky stage
respectively.Nieet al. (2008)and Gupta (2013) also reported
more SPAD values in puddled rice than aerobic rice.
At maximum tillering stage, prilled urea showed
higherSPADvalue than all nitrification inhibitors. Among
the nitrification inhibitors, application of KCU recorded
significantly higher SPAD values (40.20 and 39.36)
followed by application of VCU (41.46 and 38.36) and
NCCU (33.44 and 3.15) at panicle initiation and milky
stage, respectively. The results were in corroboration with
Sarada (2006), Khuranaet al. (2007) and Gupta (2013).A
close positive relationship between SPAD value and crop N
status was reported by many workers(Francis and Piekielek,
1999;Miahet al., 1997;Mahajanet al., 2011 and Ghoshet al.,
2013). A higher concentration of N was observed in prilled
urea applied plots at maximum tillering stage than in all
other treatments which as reflected by higher SPAD value.
Whereas nitrogen status in natural nitrification inhibitors was
more in later stages of crop growth because of inhibition of
nitrification which resulted in reduction of nitrogen losses.
Hence, SPAD values were more in nitrification inhibitors
applied plots than prilled urea applied plots.
Correlation coefficient was worked out between
plant N and SPAD values and results were presented in
Table 3. The plant N content showed a significant positive
correlation with SPAD value in all stages of crop growth
with r = 0.943**, 0.892** and 0.794** at maximum tillering,
panicle initiation and milky stage, respectively. However,
the highest correlation coefficientwas more correlated at
maximum tillering stage (r = 0.94) than at panicle initiation
and milky stage as incase of chlorophyll content. Similar
results was observed by John et al. (2000) and Islam et al.
(2009) in rice.
Similarly significant positive correlation was
observed between chlorophyll content and SPAD values
with r = 0.971**, 0.783** and 0.813** at maximum tillering,
panicle initiation and milky stage, respectively (Table 4).
CONCLUSION
A significant positive correlation between N
content and chlorophyll content as well as N content and
SPAD values was obtained at all stages of crop growth i.e.,
maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky stage.
An increase in chlorophyll content and SPAD
values were observed with the application on natural
nitrification inhibitors, due to improvement in N status of the Chlorophyll content
crop because of reduction in N losses. 0.967** - -
(MT)
A strong correlation was observed between Chlorophyll content
- 0.778** -
chlorophyll content and SPAD values at all crop growth (PI)
stages with correlation coefficient of 0.97, 0.78 and 0.81 Chlorophyll content
- - 0.877**
at maximum tillering, panicle initiation and milky stages (MS)
respectively.
Table 4: Correlation coefficient worked out between SPAD
Table 1: Leaf chlorophyll content mg g-1 of rice as influ- and chlorophyll content values at different growth stages of
enced by methods of cultivation and natural nitrification rice
inhibitors at different crop growth stages
SPAD
Chlorophyll content mg g-1 SPAD (PI) SPAD (MS)
Methods of (MT)
Maximum Panicle Milky Chlorophyll content
cultivation 0.971** - -
tillering initiation stage (MT)
Aerobic rice 4.11 4.52 2.41 Chlorophyll content
Puddled rice 4.72 5.15 2.73 - 0.783** -
(PI)
SEm ± 0.12 0.06 0.04 Chlorophyll content
- - 0.813**
CD (0.05) NS 0.34 0.26 (MS)
Nitrification inhibitors  MT:Maximum tillering, PI: Panicle initiation, MS: Milky
Control 2.89 3.25 1.98 stage, (**at 5% leval)
Prilled urea 5.51 4.19 2.67
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 212-214 (2015)

SAP FEEDERS ASSOCIATED WITH CAULIFLOWER AND CORELATIONS WITH

ABIOTICE FACTORS IN EASTERN U. P.
RUDRA PRATAP SINGH1, NARENDRA PRATAP2 AND UMESH CHANDRA3
Assistant Professor, CCS P.G. College Saifai, Etawha; 2KVK, Varanasi; 3Dept. Entomology, Kumarganj, Faizabad; U.P.; India.
E-Mail: rudra.agento@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Esterase activity of various populations of sap feeders viz, Bagrada cruciferarum, Lipaphis erysimi and Nezara viridu-
la were active throughout the year. The maximum population of 0.91bug/10 plants at temperature range of 16.0-28.90C and
RH73.8% and 0.66 bug/ 10 plants at temperature range of 15.0-30.60C and RH 72.9% respectively, during 45th SW of 2010
and 2011. Incidence of aphid, observed during 2010 at maximum population was 25.91/10 plants and during 2011 29.75/10
plants was maximum population at temperature range of 5.2-22.10C and RH 57.4%. Presences of Green bug have maxi-
mum population 0.91/10 plants were recorded in 46th SW at temperature range of 16.4-29.20C and RH 78.3% during 2010.

KEYWORDS:- Cauliflower, incidence, sap feeder, SW (Standard Week).

INTRODUCTION
Cauliflower is an important winter vegetable grown
in India. It belongs to the family Cruciferae. India produces
about 4.694 MT of Cauliflower per year from 0.256 M ha
area with an average productivity of 18.3 MT/ha. Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Maharastra are major cauliflower growing
states. In Uttar Pradesh, the area under cauliflower is 8820 ha
with total production of 180900 MT and productivity 20.51
MT/ha. The major cauliflower producing states are Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Haryana and
Maharashtra. In the plains, it is available from September
to May (Anonymous, 2009-10). It also cultivated in non-
traditional areas of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
It is consumed as vegetable in curries, soups and pickles
and low in fat and rich source of dietary fibers. Off these,
insect pests are prime important as it cause serious economic
damage to this crop. A large number of insect–pests have
been found infesting cauliflower crop from its seedling to
harvest stages (Atwal & Dhaliwal, 2009; Abrol and Gupta,
2010).
Atwal and Dhaliwal (2009) listed seven major 14
minor insects associated with the cole crops. A total of 3sap
feeders during 2009-10 and 2010-11 have been observed
associated with different growth stages of cauliflower in
present studies. These sap feeders include viz, Bagrada
cruciferarum, Lipaphis erysimi and Nezara viridula.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at the 12 location, 3 each
from four villages viz., Dobhiara of Sultanpur district and Pithla,
Akma and Barwan of Faizabad district. Populations/infestations of
the sap feeders associated were recorded on 10 randomly selected
plants /field in the morning at weekly interval consecutively for two
years starting from 41st SWto 5th SW of 2009- 10 and 2010-
11. The data on each sap feeders was recordedseparately.
The methods of recording observations of Painted bug, Bagrada
cruciferarum Kir. and Green bug, Nezaraviridula (Linnaeus)
number of nymphs and adult bugs present on whole plant were
recorded and Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach) number of
nymphs and adults (winged and non-winged) both on 3 leaves,
one each from lower, middle and upper part of each plant were
recorded and different growth stages namely seedling stage, 4-6
leaves stage, 10-12 leaves stage, folding stage, curd development
stage and pre-harvest stage of cauliflower during observation
period of 2009-10 and 2010-11. Occurrence and period of activity
in relation to abiotic factors viz., temperature and humidity of each
arthropod (Appendix-1).
RESULTS AND DICUSSION
During 2009-10 and 2010-11 it was observed that 3 sap
feeder viz. B. cruciferarum, L. erysimi, N. viridula showed
association with different growth stage of cauliflower
(Table-1). A large number of insect pests have been infested
cauliflower crop from its seedling to harvesting stages;
reported by Atwal & Dhaliwal (2009); Abrol and Gupta
(2010).
Occurrence of sap feeder’s population in different standard
weeks (SW) during 2009-10 and 2010-11 at 12 different locations
on cauliflower were listed in table-2. Painted bug, B. hilaris could
bendobservedth
feeding on cauliflower crop in two phasesth
first from
42 - 47 SW (October-November) and next from nd
5 th
SW (last week
of January) during first year and only from 42 -47 SW (October-
November) during second year. Although Nayar et al. (1976) and
Atwal and Dhaliwal (2009) had listed it as pest of cauliflower.th
However, Lipaphis erysimi Kalt beganrd
to infest cauliflower from 50
SW and reached at its peak in 3 SW during both the years. Nayar
et al. (1976) and Atwal and Dhaliwal (2009) had also listed it as
pest of cauliflower. Mulik et al. (2000) reported that the incidence of
aphid on cauliflower after 19 days of sowing and reached at peak
(122.50 nymphs) when maximum and minimum temperatures and
0 0
morning and evening relative humidity were 30.5 C & 13.9 C and
82% and 47% respectively. Kulkarni and Patel (2001) reported
the incidence of aphid on cauliflower after 9 weeks of their sowing
i.e., in first week of January. The incidence increased steadily and
reached the peak level during first week of February and gradually
declined during the fourth week of February and Green bug, N.
viridula bug could bethobserved feeding on cauliflower crop in two
th nd rd
phases, first from 44 - 47 SW and next from 2 - 3 SW during th
firstth year and during second year first phase occurred from 45 –
th
46 SW and second in 4 SW. Khalafallah et al. (2005) reported

212
5 winter vegetable crops including cauliflower on which N. viridula  with L. erysimi population had negative and highly
passed winter from November to March in Egypt.
B. cruciferarum population had significant positive
correlation with maximum temperature during first year while
in second year it showed positive significant correlation with
min. and max. both temperatures (Table-3). It had only non-
significant positive correlation with minimum temperature
during first year. Relative humidity was negatively correlated
during first year and positively correlated during second
year. No significant correlations between weather factors
and its population buildup had been observed (Jat et al.,
2006). Sap feeders (L. erysimi) associated with cauliflower
and showed correlations with abiotic factors were commuted
significant correlation with maximum temperature during
first year and with both (min. and max.) temperatures during
second year. Chandra and Kushwaha (1986); Ahuja (1990);
Gera and Bhatnagar (1992) and Prasad (1993) had also
reported negative correlation with maximum and minimum
temperatures. Relative humidity had positive correlation
during both the years but was significant during first year.
(Chandra and Kushwaha, 1986; Ahuja, 1990 and Mulik et al.,
2000) had also found positive correlation with humidity and
confirm our findings. Population of N. virudula had positive
correlation with all the abiotic factors under study during
both the years except with maximum temperature during
2009-10 when it showed a negative (-0.155) correlation.

Table-1: List of sap feeders associated with cauliflower crop in eastern plain zone during 2009-10 and 2010-11
S. No. Common Name Scientific Name Family Order
Sap feeders
1 Painted bug Bagrada cruciferarum (Burmeister) Pentatomide Hemiptera
2 Aphid Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach) Aphididae Hemiptera
3 Green bug Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) Pentatomidae Hemiptera

Table-2: Population of various sap feeding insects on cauliflower crop in eastern plain zone during 2009-10 and 2010-11
Population/10plants (Mean of 120 plants)
SW Bagrada cruciferarum Lipaphis erysini Nezara viridula
2009-10 2010-11 2009-10 2010-11 2009-10 2010-11
41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
42 0.58 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
43 0.66 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
44 0.55 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00
45 0.91 0.66 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.55
46 0.33 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.91
47 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00
48 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
50 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.91 0.00 0.00
51 0.00 0.00 10.75 12.00 0.00 0.00
52 0.00 0.00 12.75 14.16 0.00 0.00
1 0.00 0.00 16.08 17.25 0.00 0.00
2 0.00 0.00 21.91 25.64 0.33 0.00
3 0.00 0.00 25.91 29.75 0.33 0.00
4 0.00 0.00 12.00 12.75 0.00 0.33
5 0.33 0.00 11.83 11.75 0.00 0.00
Range 0.33-0.91 0.33-0.66 0.33-25.91 0.91-29.75 0.33-0.41 0.33-0.91
Average 0.22±0.33 0.13±0.22 6.56±8.80 7.31±9.93 0.12±0.17 0.11±0.26

Table-3: Correlation co-efficient between population/infestation of arthropods and abiotic factors during 2009-10 and
2010-11
Temperature(0C)
Common name Year R.H. (%)
Min. Max.
2009-10 0.443 0.595* -0.350
Painted bug
Groups of arthropod 2010-11 0.568* 0.604* 0.162
(Sap feeders) 2009-10 -0.362 -0.915** 0.775**
Aphid
2010-11 -0.750** -0.787** 0.005
2009-10 0.263 -0.155 0.166
Green bug
2010-11 0.214 0.210 0.203

*P< 0.5 (significant) and **P<0.01 (highly significant)

213
Appendix- 1: Standard weekly meteorological parameters, during the study period (2009-10 and 2010-11)

2009-10 2010-11
Standard Week Temperature ( C)0
Temperature ( C)
0

(SW) Relative Humidity Relative Humidity

Min. Max. (%) Min. Max. (%)

41 20.0 32.3 75.1 22.0 33.0 70.6

42 16.0 31.2 64.2 23.1 31.3 82.2
43 11.6 30.9 63.9 16.3 31.1 71.7
44 14.3 30.9 64.7 13.7 29.5 74.3
45 16.3 28.9 73.8 15.0 30.6 72.9
46 13.9 26.4 68.6 16.4 29.2 78.3
47 8.0 25.9 57.6 14.6 25.4 72.9
48 8.0 26.1 63.7 10.2 26.2 71.7
49 7.1 25.9 62.4 10.2 26.3 64.1
50 11.0 25.9 64.4 7.3 24.0 68.9
51 4.8 23.4 66.8 5.0 23.6 68.8
52 4.9 19.9 78.0 4.9 24.1 72.3
1 7.6 17.1 81.1 3.5 15.3 84.9
2 9.2 13.7 85.1 2.5 14.3 85.7
3 12.1 14.3 82.6 5.2 22.1 57.4
4 12.8 21.3 75.7 4.6 19.5 77.8
5 7.1 24.9 64.7 6.0 23.7 70.5

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Abrol, D. P. and Anil Gupta (2010). Insect pests attacking Research, 83 (1):79-85.
cauliflower (Brassica oleracea  var.  botrytis  L.): 1.
Population dynamics in relation to weather factors. Kulkarni, A.V. and Patel, F.S. (2001). Seasonal abundance of
Green Farming, 1(2): 167-170. mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi and associated bio-
agents in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) crop.
Ahuja, D.B. (1990). Population dynamics of mustard aphid, Lipaphis Indian Journal of agricultural Sciences,71(10): 681-
erysimi (Kalt.) on Indian mustard, Brassica juncea. 682.
Indian Journal of Plant Protection,18: 233-235.
Mulik, A.P.; Borikar, P. S. and Waghmare, W.M. (2000). Population
Atwal, A.S. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (2009). Agricultural Pests dynamics of Brevicoryne brassicae L. and Plutella
of South Asia and Their Management. Kalyani xylostella L. on cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var.
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Chandra, S. and Kushwaha, K.S. (1986). Impact of Nayar, K.K.; Ananthakrishnan, T.N. and David, B.V. (1976).
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of cruciferous crops under the agroclimatic Graw-Hill Publ. Co. Ltd. New Delhi, Pp. 517.
conditions of Udaipur. Indian Journal of
Entomology,48: 495-524. Prasad, N.V.V.S.D. (1993). Seasonal prevalence of major
pests of mustard and their control. M.Sc. (Ag.)
Gera, S.S. and Bhatnagar, K.N. (1992). Seasonal incidence Thesis. Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University,
of pest complex of cabbage and their control in Hyderabad.
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Jat, D.S.; Jat, M.C. and Sharma, M.M. (2006).
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214
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 215-217 (2015)

YIELD, NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY INTO THE SOIL AND SUSTAINABILITY YIELD

INDEX OF RICE AS INFLUENCED BY CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS AND INM IN
INCEPTISOL
S.K. SINGH*, J.S. URKURKAR1, A. TIWARI AND G.K. JATAV
*1
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, I.G.K.V., Raipur, C.G. - 492006
2
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, I.G.K.V., Raipur, C.G. - 492006
*corresponding author’s email - rupanksha.231302@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
A field trial was conducted on medium duration rice (var. Mahamaya) at IGKV, Raipur during kharif season of 2006
– 2007 on Inceptisol consisting of 12 treatment combinations i.e. chemical fertilizer [T1 control (no chemical fertilizer
application), T2 {50% recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF50)} and T3 80:60:40 (RDF50), T4 {75% recommended dose of
fertilizer (RDF75)} and T5 {100% recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF100)}] and integrated nutrient management i.e. T6
[RDF50 + FYM50 (50% Farm yard manure)], T7 (RDF75 + FYM25), T8 [RDF50 + RR50 (50 % Rice residue)], T9 (RDF75 + RR25),
T10 [RDF50 + GM50 (50 % Green manure)], T11 (RDF75 + GM25)] and T12 (Farmers’ practices) were tested in randomized
block design with three replications. Among the chemical fertilizer and integrated nutrients management practices, T10
(RDF50 + GM50) increased grain yield (61.06), biomass yield (125.00 qha-1), available N in soil and sustainability yield index
(0.83) and significantly produced highest value for respective traits and closely followed by T5 and T6 of rice. However, the
maximum availability of Zn and S were observed with T6 during investigation.

KEYWORDS: Chemical fertilizer, INM, Grain yield, Nutrient availability and SYI.

INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa.L), is one of the most important
food crops in the world, forms the staple diet of 2.7 billion
people. It is grown in all the continents except Antarctica
occupying 150 million hectare; producing 573 million
tonnes paddy with an average productivity of 3.83 tonnes
ha-1 (Anonymous, 2008). In India is rice grown in 44.6 m ha
in four major ecosystem: irrigated (21 m ha), rainfed lowland
(14 m ha), rainfed upland (6 m ha) and flood prone (3 m ha).
In central part of India, the Chhattisgarh (the newly borne)
state is called rice bowl of country because it is a principal
crop, which covered 78% area during Kharif. Rice is grown
in 3.46 m ha area with its 5.2 m tonne production (Anonyms,
2007). More than 75 % farmers of the state are living in the
villages and cultivate paddy as main crop. In Chhattisgarh,
average yield of rice is only 1522 kg ha-1 which is far below
the national average 3007 kg ha-1 owing to number of biotic
and abiotic factors (Siddiq, 2000). The chemical fertilizer
is very costly input for crop cultivation. However, the most
of the Indian farmers are poor and they can’t afford high
amount of 3 fertilizers. When we harvest a tone (1,000 kg)
of rice grain, we remove from soil about 10-31 kg N, 1-5
kg P and 8-35 kg K and 1-3 kg S ha-1 (Dobermann et al.,
1998). Unbalanced fertilization has resulted in micronutrient
deficiencies. Therefore, there is an urgent need to look forward
to exploit other options of plant nutrient supply besides the
use of conventional chemical fertilizers. It is high time to
develop a sustainable production system with maximum
productivity and minimum environmental pollution and
health hazards. The FYM is very common source of plant
nutrients amongst the farmers of Chhattisgarh, which is
prepared easily and contains substantial amount of plant
nutrients. Ten tonne of FYM may supply about 40-50 kg N,
18-20 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O ha-1. The nutrient content of
the FYM depends on the nature of organic substrate used for
its preparation such as crop residues, type of biomass and
amount of cattle dung and urine. Rice residues also a good
source of organic manures, is sustaining soil productivity.
It is primary substrate for replenishment of soil organic
matter and can efficiently arrest the decline in soil organic
matter content. Upon mineralization, rice residues also
supply essential plant nutrients. Green manures are well
known of its role in improving soil fertility and significantly
ameliorate the physio-chemical properties of soil. Amongst
the various green manuring, Sunnhemp (Crotolaria juncea)
finds an important place in rice based cropping, as it contains
substantial quantities of N and micronutrient.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In present study of field trial was conducted on medium
duration rice (Var. Mahamaya) at IGKV, Raipur during
kharif season of 2007-08 on Inceptisol was considered from
long term experiment conducted under AICRP on Cropping
System Research. The soil was sandy loam, neutral in pH,
low in available N, medium in available P and exchangeable
K. The 12 treatments consisted of different nutrients
management practices were laid out in randomized block
design having 12 treatments in kharif i.e. T1 is control (no
fertilization application) T2 RDF50 (Recommended dose of
fertilizer), T3 RDF50, T4 RDF75 and T5 RDF100 (50%, 50%,
75% and 100% RDF as chemical fertilizers) and T6 RDF50
+ FYM50 (Farm yard manure), T7 RDF75 + FYM25, T8 RDF50
+ RR50 (Rice residue),T9 RDF75 + RR25, T10 RDF50 + GM50
(Green manure), T11 RDF75 + GM25 (as integrated nutrient
management) and T12 was the Farmers’ practices. A high
yielding rice variety “Mahamaya” was taken as a test crop
and transplanted at the spacing of 15 × 10 cm respectively
with 2 seedling hill-1. The sun hemp (Crotolaria juncea)
crop was taken as green manure and it was sown on June
5, 2007 in the same plot in which green manure was to be

215
incorporated 40 days after sowing. The seed rate of GM
used was @ 40 kg ha-1. 40 days old crop of sun hemp was
incorporated in situ. 6 days before transplanting. The data
of crop sequence from 1991-92 was obtained from AICRP
Cropping system records and long term effect of integrated
use of fertilizer was calculated in the form of sustainability
yield index by using the formula
Mean yield S.D
SY=
Maximum yield
Mean yield- Mean yield of treatment over the years
and
S.D. - Standard deviation of yield of treatment over
the years.
Maximum yield – Maximum yield of treatment
obtained in any of the year
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
Effect of chemical fertilizer and INM on yield and
nutrient availability into the soil
The different combination of chemical fertilizer and
integrated nutrient management had significant differences
on grain and biomass yield during the investigation.
The application of 50 per cent of FYM along with RDF50
produced grain yield similar to that of 100 per cent nutrient
added through respective sources i.e. CF or INM practices.
Similarly GM25 or RR50 combined with RDF75 or RDF50
produced comparable grain yield to that of RDF75 + FYM25
or RDF75 respectively. The increase in grain yield would
be mainly associated with the significant increase in yield
attributing characters. Moreover, under the treatment of
RDF50 + GM50 and RDF50 + FYM50 and RDF100 was benefited
due to proper nutrient supply and efficient utilization by
plants.
The organic manure provides regular supply of N by
releasing it slowly resulting in increased yield of rice. The
treatment of RDF75 + RR25 and RDF50 + RR50 treatments
had carry over effect of RR due to slow mineralization
on amount of wide C/N ratio might have resulted gradual
release of nutrient besides improve soil quality and thus
reflected in higher grain and biomass yields over inorganic
alone (RDF50 and RDF75). This ultimately led to increased
grain yield. The control was lowest in all the yield attributes
to rest of the treatments. In general, the harvest index was
mainly governed by grain yield. The similar findings have
been also reported by Tripathi (1996) and Jaiswal and Singh
(2000).
The different nutrient management practices of rice
significantly affected the available nutrient of soil at harvest
stage. Application of chemical fertilizer along with FYM
and GM significantly increased the available N content
over RDF100 alone treatment. Higher amount of available N
in soil were noted in RDF50 + GM50 (Table 1). The increase
in available N content with the incorporation of organic
manure along with CF may be attributed to N mineralization
from organic manure (Bhat et al., 1991) releasing it slowly
(Yoshiaki, 1982) resulting in increased NUE (Sharma 2002).
N availability from straw might also have been increased
216
by the addition of fertilizer N (Gaur et al. 1971 and Hazra,
1974). The N availability was lowest with the treatment of
control.
The long-term incorporation of FYM25 with RDF75
followed by RDF75 + GM25 significantly increased the
available S content of soil compared with RDF50 along
with the GM and FYM. The application of RDF50 + FYM50
resulted in maximum content of available S (kg ha-1) was on
par with RDF100 and RDF75 + GM25. Incorporation of GM or
FYM or RR significantly increased the available S content of
soil compared with removal of organic manure in the RDF50
alone treatment. The available S content in general increased
significantly in all the treatment over control. It may be
due to addition of P through single superphosphate which
contains about twelve per cent of sulphur. Addition of FYM
showed 5.67 per cent higher available S content compared
with RDF100 reported by Sharma et al., (2000). There are
various organic nitrogenous substances also carry sulphur
(e.g. cysteine, cystine etc). These organic substances break
down by the action of different micro-organisms through
the process of mineralization and convert those sulphur
bearing compounds into inorganic sulphur forms which are
easily available to the plants. The organisms involved obtain
energy by the transfer and bring the sulphur as sulphate
(S2O) reported by the Das (2004).
Available Zn contents in soil increased with the
application of FYM or GM as compared with 100 per cent
NPK, irrespective of chemical fertilizer and RR. Availability
of Zn significantly increased (1.20 to 1.45 mg kg-1) with
the application of FYM than GM as compared with 100
per cent and 75 per cent RDF (0.60 to 0.72 mg kg-1). Co-
incorporation of organic manure recorded significantly
higher DTPA extractable micronutrient Zn over their status
in non organic manure incorporated treatment (Table 1).
Effect of FYM on the availability of this micronutrient
cation was more pronounced when compared with GM and
RR of treated plots. Addition of organic material might have
released the organic acids which act as chelating agents and
prevented this micronutrient from precipitation, fixation,
oxidation and leaching in addition to build up of this nutrient
through organic sources Kumar et al. (2008) and Bellakki
and Badanur (1997).
Effect of INM on sustainability yield index (SYI) of
rice (based on 17 years data 1991-2007)
Sustainability yield index of rice (SYI) was highest
(0.83 and 0.80) with 50% + 50% GM-100% and 75%+25%
GM-75% which received GM as Sun hemp followed by
recommended dose of fertilizer application (0.78) and 75%
recommended fertilizer dose along with FYM (0.76). Mean
SYI over the treatments of inorganic (T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T12,
SYI=0.66) and inorganic + organic (T6 + T7 + T8 + T9 + T10 +
T11, SYI= 0.77) suggests that combined use of both inorganic
and organic manures brings more sustainability to them.
Table 1: Effect of INM on yield, nutrient availability into the soil and sustainability yield index of rice
Grain yield Biomass yield (q Available N Available Zn Available S
Treatments SYI (rice)
(q ha-1) ha-1) (Kg ha-1) (Kg ha-1) (Kg ha-1)
T1 16.50 34.51 180.00 0.50 11.80 0.28
T2 40.22 82.35 219.00 0.27 15.50 0.57
T3 46.43 94.63 236.00 0.50 16.40 0.60
T4 51.12 104.02 253.00 0.72 17.20 0.71
T5 60.42 123.01 261.33 0.62 20.00 0.78
T6 60.55 123.04 265.67 1.45 20.80 0.76
T7 57.05 116.10 258.23 1.14 21.20 0.76
T8 53.79 107.01 255.67 0.86 16.50 0.73
T9 55.24 112.99 253.79 0.83 17.20 0.74
T10 61.06 125.00 272.33 1.20 19.60 0.83
T11 58.55 119.24 268.00 1.10 20.80 0.80
T12 42.73 87.24 233.33 0.59 16.90 0.63
SEM± 2.21 1.73 5.42 0.10 3.04
CD(P= 0.05) 6.47 5.06 15.90 0.30 8.93
Remarks: - T1-control, T2-50% RDF(40:30:20), T3-50% RDF, T4-75% RDF, T5-100% RDF, T6-50% RDF + 50% FYM, T7-
75% RDF + 25% FYM, T8-50%RDF + 50% Rice residues, T9-75%RDF + 25% Rice residues, T10-50%RDF + 50% GM,
T11-75% RDF + 25% GM, T12-Farmers practices (50:30:20)
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2007). Annual report of C.G. Cropping System Accumulation and Nitrogen uptake pattern of
Research, Department of Agronomy, IGKV, rice (Oryza sativa) as influenced by planting
Raipur, C.G. method, source and levels of nitrogen. Oryza,.
37(2): 10-13.
Anonymous. (2008). Annual report for 2007. Indian
Economy (Pratiyogita Darpan). Kumar, Balwinder., Gupta, R.K. and Bhandari, A.L.
(2008). Soil fertility changes after Long-term
Bellaki, M.A., Badnur, V.P. (1997). Effect of long term application of organic manure and crop residues
integrated nutrient management on some under rice-wheat system. Journal of Indian
important properties of a Vertisols. Journal of Society of Soil Science, 56 (1), 80-85.
Indian Society of Soil Science 46: 176-180.
Sharma, S.N. (2002). Nitrogen management in
Bhat, A.K., Beri, V. and Sidhu, B.S. (1991). Effect of relation to wheat (Triticum aestivum)
long term recycling of crop residues on soil residue management in rice (Oryza
productivity. Journal of the Indian Society of sativa). Indian Journal of Agriculture
Soil Science. 39, 380-382. Science 72; 449-52.
Das, D. K. (2004). Introductory soil science. Kalyani Sharma, M.P., Bali, S.V. and Gupta, D.K. (2000).
publishers, Ludhiana, New Delhi, Noida, Crop yield and properties of Inceptisol
Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkatta, Cuttack, Second as influenced by residue management
revised and enlarged edition. under rice-wheat cropping sequence.
Dobermann, A., Cassman, K.G, Mamm, Aril.C.P. and Sheely, Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science. 48,
J.E. (1998). Management of phosphorus, 506-509.
potassium and sulphur in intensive irrigated Siddiq, E.A. (2000). Yawning productivity gaps.
lowland rice. Field Crops Research 56: 113-38. Survey of Indian Agriculture. The
Gaur A.C., Sadasivam, K.V., Vimal, O.P. and Mathur, Hindu. 39-43.
R.S. (1971). A study on the decomposition of Tripathi, B.N. and Choubey, C.N. (1996). Effect of organic
organic matter in an alluvial soil; CO2 evolution, fertilization on the plant nutrient in conjunction
microbial and chemical transformations. Plant with chemical fertilizers on the bulk density,
and Soil 35: 17-28. yield and uptake of nutrients by rice. Oryza. 33:
Hazra, J.N. (1974). Effect of added N on carbon mineralization 200-220.
of straw in relation to availability of nutrients. Yoshiaki, (1982). The significance of plant nutrient recycling
Indian Agriculturist 18: 225-30. in agriculture. (in) Extension Bulletin No. 176,
Jaiswal, V.P. and Singh, G.R. (2000). Dry matter Food and Fertiliser Technology Centre.

217
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 218-220 (2015)
STUDY OF PHYSICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES OF HYBRID RICE GROWN IN
EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH
SARITA DEVI GUPTA1, R. N. KEWAT1, PRATIBHA SINGH1 AND MANJRI2
1-
Department of Agriculture Biochemistry, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture& Technology, Kumarganj,
Faizabad-224229 (U.P.) India.
2-
Department of Crop Physiology, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture& Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229 (U.P.)
India.

ABSTRACT
The present experiment was conducted during Kharif season of 2011 in Completely Randomized Design (C.R.D.) with three
replications and Five varieties. Physical characteristics of hybrid rice analysis revealed that highest test weight (22.54 g)
and seed length (9.83 mm) was found in variety Arize Prima. Highest seed breadth was recorded (2.40 mm) in variety Arize
Dhani while highest kernel length (7.45 mm) and kernel length after cooking was found (10.25 mm) in Arize 6444. Arize 6129
showed maximum elongation ratio i.e.1.43mm. Variety Arize 6444 performed more efficient in terms of protein content (8.86
g/100g) and amino acid composition namely tryptophan (0.17 g/16 N), lysine (2.58g/16gN) and methionine 2.00(g/16gN).

Keywords- Rice, test weight, kernel length, elongation ratio, protein, tryptophan, lysine and methionine

INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the principle source of food
for more than a third of the world’s population. India ranked
first in area having 45.2 m ha, second in production 102 mt
globally. (Grain and Feed Annual Gain report, 2012). Uttar
Pradesh is important rice growing state in our country. In
U.P. its area is 5.63 m ha, and production is 11.94 mmt.
(Dwivedi, 2012). 80 per cent population of our country
man depends fully or partially on rice as their main cereals
food and staple diet. Hybrid rice possess an yield advantage
of 10- 20% over the best inbred varieties with same level
of fertilizer application as given to high yielding inbred
Five varieties of hybrid rice were selected as the
experimental material in this trial.1000 Seed from each
treatment were subjected to weight for test weight. Seed
size and kernel length were taken with the help of vernier
calipers.Kernel length after cooking were taken after cooking
at 820C for 45 minutes and it was calculated by dividing the
length of cooked rice by the length of original rice kernel and
Elongation ratio is calculated by
Kernel length after cooking
Elongation ratio= ___________________________

(Virmani et al., 2003). Increasing the percentage of protein
is considered important in providing a better balanced
staple food for rice eaters.Rice is one of the highest quality
proteins among the cereals due to its high content of lysine
(3.5-4.0 per cent), the first limiting amino acid. Extensive
studies by researchers have shown that there is an optimum
stage for harvesting paddy to obtain higher yield and proper
quality of paddy. Storage of paddy is done to make paddy
available over the period and storage brings about many
physico-chemical changes in paddy as well as rice. Good
cooking rice (Okazaki and Oki, 1961) contains considerable
amino acids, especially glutamic acid, aspartic acid and
alpha alanine. Rice is consumed throughout the world as
cooked whole kernel. Rice bran is rich source of the vitamin
B complex. Rice bran oil content tocotrienols a family of
dietary supplements related to vitamin E are considered to be
powerful antioxidants. Extensive studies by researchers have
shown that there is an optimum stage for harvesting paddy
to obtain higher yield and proper quality of paddy. Paddy
straw is used as cattle feed and is also utilized for thatching
the roofs and in cottage industry for preparation of mats, hats
and ropes. Consideration should be given to encourage the
utilization of rice husk as animal feed, soil amendment, fuel
source, hard board and paper making, building material, low
temperature carbonization, production of furfural, manure
gas generator, poultry house litter and abrasives.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Kernal length before cooking
Protein content in grain was determined by the
Lowery’s method, (1951). This method is based upon the
reaction of protein with Cu2+ ion in alkaline medium as
observed in biuret method of protein estimation. In addition to
this there is involvement of reduction of phosphomolybdate
and phosphotungstate by the tyrosine and tryptophan amino
acids present in protein.
One gram sample was taken and homogenized
in the presence of 10 ml of distilled water and centrifuged
at 4000 rpm for 15 minutes. The residue was discarded.
Thereafter, 1 ml supernatant was taken and mixed with 1
ml 10 per cent trichloric acid. It was kept for 30 minutes
and residue obtained wad dissolved in 5 ml 0.1 N NaOH.
0.5-1.0 ml sample extract was taken in test tube and volume
was made up to 1 ml with distilled water. Then 5 ml alkaline
copper reagent was added and it was mixed properly. After
10 minutes, 0.5 ml folin reagent was added and it was kept
at room temperature to 30 minutes. Finally, colour intensity
was recorded at 660 nm on spectronic-20 against blank
reagent.
Tryptophan content was estimated by the
method of Spies and Chamber (1949). 0.2 g of sample and
10 ml of 19 N H2SO4 was taken in 100 ml conical flask was
kept for 12 hours in dark place. After expiry of period 1 ml
distilled water, 1 ml p-dimethyl amino benzaldehyde (30
mg dissolved in 100 ml 2N H2SO4) and 0.1 ml of sodium
nitrite (0.045 per cent in distilled water) was added. This was

218
kept for 30 minutes for colour development. The intensity of rice seed. Maximum value of kernel length after cooking was
colour was measured on spectronic-20 at 620 nm. recorded as 10.25 mm in Arize 6444 which was significantly
higher over the rest varieties. Similar findings have also been
Lysine content was estimated by method of Felker et reported by Horiuchi (1966) and Hossain et al. (2009).
al. (1928). 0.5 g very fine grinded sample was taken in 250
ml volumetric flask. 50 ml of buffer solution (0.05 N tetra It exhibited that elongation ratio varied from 1.37-1.43
sodium phosphate HCl buffer, pH 9.4) was added with gently in various varieties of hybrid rice.Maximum elongation ratio
shaking and kept on platform shaker for 2 hours at room was found 1.43 in variety Arize 6444 which was better over
temperature. Then it was centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 the rest of the varieties. This result was supported by Ahuja
minutes. The supernatant was collected and absorbance was et al. (1995), and Hossain et al. (2009). The table highlights
taken at 420 nm. Then 1 ml colouring reagent trinitrobenzene that protein content varied from 7.62-8.86 (g/100g) in various
sulphuric acid (50m g / ml) aqueous solution was added varieties of hybrid rice. Maximum protein content was found
and again the solution was kept for gentle shaking. The 8.86 (g/100g) in Arize 6444 which was non- significantly
absorption was recorded on 420 nm on spectronic-20. The superior over the rest of varieties. These results are in close
difference in two reading was actual reading. with Liu et al. (2002) and Reddy and Pushpamma (1986).
Methionine content was analyzed as described The data showed that Tryptophan content varied from
by the Horn et al. (1946). 0.5 g sample was weighed and 0.14-0.17 (g/16g N) in various varieties of hybrid rice. The
transferred in receiving flask. The 20 ml 6 N HCl was added maximum tryptophan content was found 0.17 (g/16 N) in
to same flask. The material was refluxed for 20 hours. After Arize 6444.
refluxion, the content of flask was transferred into China
dish. It was evaporated on water bath with addition of one Varieties vary significantly among themselves. The
gram of activated charcoal. Evaporation was continued until variation of tryptophan content was found due to nitrogen in
the content of china dish becomes viscous. Warm distilled plant. Since nitrogen is a structural component of any amino
water was added and filtered through Whatmann filter paper. acid, therefore it may lead to increase in the synthesis of
The filterate was collected in 25 ml volumetric flask. The tryptophan. Thus higher the protein content, higher will be
China dish was washed with little amount of hot water amount of tryptophan. These results are in support by Reddy
for about 5-6 times and washing filtered. The filterate was et al. (1986) and Liu et al. (2002). Table highlights that lysine
collected in same volumetric flask and volume made upto content varied from 1.43-2.58 (g/16g N) in various varieties
25 ml. This hydrolysate was used for colometric estimation of hybrid rice. Maximum lysine content was found 2.58
of methionine. 10 ml of hydrolysate extract was transferred (g/16g N) in Arize 6444 variety. The lysine content may be
to 100 ml beaker with the addition of 4 ml of distilled water varies due to low prolamine and high glutelin content (Annual
and 2 ml of 5N NaOH. Further, 0.1 ml sodium nitroprusside report of, 1979). The results are in agreement to Singh et al.
(1 g dissolved in 100 ml distilled water) and 2 ml of glycine (2008), Reddy and Pushpamma (1986) and Liu et al. (2002).
solution was also added. Finally, 4 ml of Meta phosphoric The data showed that methionine content varied from 1.38 -
acid was added to develop colour. Intensity of colour was 2.00 (g/16g N) in various varieties of hybrid rice. Maximum
recorded with blank on Sectronic-20 at 450 nm. methionine content was found 2.00 (g/16g N) in Arize 6444.
The variation of methionine varied due to transmethylation
reaction which leads to formation of different amino acid. A
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: similar observation was also recorded by Singh et al.(2008)
The test weight in varieties ranged from 19.63- 22.54 and Liu et al. (2002).
g. Maximum test weight was found 22.54 g in Arize prima.
The variation among the varieties is non-significant. It may Table 1: Physical characteristics of different varieties of
caused due to environmental factor i.e. temperature effect hybrid rice seed.
seed weight. Variation in test weight is closely related with Test weight Seed size
Sarkar et al. (1994), Ahujaet al. (1995) and Sharma et al. Varieties (1000 seed) Seed length Seed breadth
(1990). (g) (mm) (mm)
Maximum seed length was recorded 9.83 mm in variety Arize 6444 22.53 9.52 2.10
Arize Prima which is higher as compared to rest varieties. Arize 6129 21.30 7.88 2.10
Varieties varied significantly with each other. In respect of Arize XL 21.81 8.82 2.12
seed breadth in different varieties was in ranged of 2.10-2.40 Arize Dhani 19.63 7.91 2.40
mm. Maximum seed breadth found 2.40 mm in variety Arize Arize Prima 22.54 9.83 2.15
Dhani which was non- significantly superior over the rest SEm+ 0.747 0.078 0.080
varieties. Seed size is governed by its genetic potential. The CD at 5% 2.356 0.244 0.254
results are quite supporting to Pandey and Gupta (2000) and
Srinivasula et al. (2000). The kernel length in varieties varied
Table 2: Physical characteristics of different varieties of
from 5.98 -7.45 mm. Maximum kernel length was found
hybrid rice seed.
7.45 mm in Arize 6444 which was significantly higher over
the rest varieties. Kernel length of variety is governed by its Kernel length
Kernel length
Elongation ratio
genetic potential. Hence, varieties differed significantly with Varieties after cooking
(mm)
each other in respect of kernel length. The results are close (mm)
favours with Hossain et al. (2009), Pandey and Gupta (2000) Arize 6444 7.45 10.25 1.37
and Srinivasula et al. (2000). Kernel length after cooking Arize 6129 5.98 8.59 1.43
varied from 8.59-10.25 mm in various varieties of hybrid Arize XL 7.01 9.70 1.38

219
Arize Dhani 6.08 8.59 1.41 Chen, L.Y.; Xiao, Y.H. and Tang, Y.B. (2002).
Arize Prima 7.30 10.11 1.39 Comparision of grain quality between main and
SEm+ 0.238 0.241 0.009 rationing crops of middle season rice. Hybrid
CD at 5% 0.751 0.760 0.028
rice17 (1): 45-47.
Lowery, O. H.; Rosebrough, N. J.; Farr, A. L. and Randal, R.
Table 3: Variability in Protein, Tryptophan, Lysine and J. (1951). Protein measurement with the folin
Methionine content of different varieties of hybrid rice. phenol reagent. J. Bio. Chem.,193: 265-275.
Protein Lysine Methionine Okazaki, S. And Oki, Y. (1961). Studies on free amino
Tryptophan
Varieties content content content acids contained in published rice. Nippan
(g/16gN) Nogeikagaku Kaishi. 35 (3): 194-195.
(%) (g/16gN) (g/16gN)
Arize 6444 8.86 0.17 2.58 2.00 Pandey, J.P. and Gupta (2000) Interaction of physical and
Arize 6129 8.63 0.16 2.00 1.38 milling characteristics of paddy J. Food Sci.
Arize XL 8.50 0.15 2.50 1.86 Tech. 37(2): 174-177.

Arize Dhani 7.65 0.14 1.96 Reddy, M.V. and Pushpamma, P. (1986). Effect of storage on
1.50
Arize prima 7.62 0.16 1.43 1.98 amino acid and biochemical quality of protein
in different varieties of rice and sorghum.
SEm+ 0.165 0.003 0.006 0.021
Nutrition reports Int. 33(5): 703.
CONCLUSION:
Sarkar, R.K., Nanda, B.B., Dash, A.B. and Lodh, S.B.
By looking the study of general and biochemical (1994). Grain characteristics and cooking
aspect the salient conclusions can be drawn as Arize 6444 quality of aromatic and non-aromatic, long and
and Arize 6129 placed most promising varieties in the light slender varieties of rice (oryza sativa L.) Ind. J.
of consisting higher protein content and amino acids content Agri. Sci. 20(2): 132-142.
while Arize prima and Arize 6444 are the superior variety
in relation to physical characters. The standardization of Sharma, K. K.; Ahmed, T. and Bauruah, D. K. (1990). Grain
hybrid rice varieties could be possible to cover urban society characteristics of some aromatic rice varieties
of masses and opening for new export area in the global of Assam, Int. Rice Res. Newsl., 15 (1): 13.
market. This will certainly constantly and long term basis
lead for augmenting in magnitude of national income. Singh, Arvinder and Matta, N.K. (2008). Variation in protein
fraction and their correlation studies in rice. Ind
J. Crop. Sci.,3(1) Print ISSN-0973-4880.
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Felker, C.; Libanauskas, C. K. and Wairner, G. (1928). manual. Los Bonos, Phillipines, IRRI 7-20.
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Horiuchi, H. (1966). Studies on cereals starch (part –v)
serological properties of the starch of rice. Agri.
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Hossain, M.S., Singh, A.K. and Fasih-uz –Zaman. (2009).
Cooking and eating characteristics of some
newly identified inter sub-specific (indica/
japonica) rice hybrids. Science Asia35:320-
325.
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Hui; Tang, Ying Bang; Liu, G.H.; Zheng, H.B.;

220
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 221-223 (2015)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION EXTENT ABOUT AGRO FORESTRY SYSTEM

SATYENDRA KUMAR SINGH1, R.K. DOHAREY2, PRAKASH SINGH3, A.K.SINGH4, SANDIP KUMAR SINGH5
1&4
Department of Extension,BHU, Varanasi (U.P)-221 005
2&3
Department of Extension Education, N.D.U.A.T, Kumarganj, Faizabad.(UP)-224 229
5
Department of Agronomy A.S.(PG) College Lakhabaoti, Bulandshahr. (UP)-20 3407
Email- Satye1985@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The majority of the respondents 66 percent were observed in the medium category adopters, 18 percent high level of adopters were found in
adopter’s categories and 16 percent respondents who had lower category of adopters. the majority of all agro forestry systems that in case of
adoption of 6 practices of agro forestry system, the 100 percent adoption was reported by the respondents regarding the practice like “agro forestry
system”because respondent were select only agro forestry farmers.Out of 20 variables with adoption the only one variable extension contact
was found to be moderately significant. The study showed that majority of agro forestry farmers had dominated in medium category of adoption.

Key ward: Agro Forestry, Farmers, Adoption, Agro forestrysystem.

INTRODUCTION

Agro forestry as a new term was coined in 1977. The
term “Agro forestry” encompasses a diverse set of integrated
land use system for a variety of purposes. Agro forestry also
takes inter disciplinary approach to land use requiring the
combination of social, ecological and economic factors.
Agro forestry trees have been raised on farm lands in India
since earliest times. At the dawn of civilization, when man
first took to settled cultivation, trees were cleared to have the
way for agriculture. In fact, patches of cultivated land were
surrounded by dense forests. Gradually, as the population of
human brings grow, more and more forest land was cleared.
Many centuries later, vast patches of forest land had been
cleared and were bring used to grow food crops. This was
the time when people began to feel the need for planting
trees on farm lands for meeting their requirements of fuel,
fodder, timber, fruit and fibers. With these developments, the
agro forestry practices occurred. These have been adopted
traditionally by the people on agricultural land which are
away from forests. At the National level, National Forestry
Action Plan (NFAP) has been formulated with the technical
co-operation of the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations which will facilitate full
implementation of the National Forestry Policy, 1988. The
same forestry and agro forestry principles were adopted at
the earth summit at ‘Rio-de-janerio’ in 1992. However, there
is immense scope for further integration of India’s forest
policy with sustainable management of the forest to meet
the environment of socio-economic and cultural need of the
present and future generation. Agro forestry is a source of
various cottage and village industries such as cultivation, bee
keeping, bide making, basket, rope making, sericulture etc.
It can be developed in villages which will provide gainful
employment for raising living standard of rural or local
people. Similarly, agro forest based cottage industries such
as lack; turpentine and resin (collected from chaperone trees)
have tremendous growth potential. Three products are also
used for varnish, printing scaling and gramophone records
etc. Genuine produced from cinchona trees, microbalance
(heretic) are also used in varies industries such as tanning,
rugs and textile etc. The molasses and today are prepared
from the juice of palm trees.
MATARIALS AND METHODS:
The study was conducted during 2011-2012 in order to
study extent of Adoption of agro forestry farmers regarding
improved agro forestry farming practices, at first selecting the
block out of (11) community development block in Faizabad
district. The Milkipur block was selected purposively for this
study because of the convenience and nearer to Narendra
Dev University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj.
Besides, there was having large Agro forestry area, and the
selection ofvillages, a list of all the villages in the block
was prepared and ten villages were selected, 1.Sarurpur,
2.Kaidhana khurd, 3.Sahulara, 4.Keenhupur, 5.Sidhauna,
6.Shivnathpur, 7.Balarmaw, 8.Kuchera, 9.Tendha khurd and
10.Sariyanwathrough random sampling techniques. At the
last stage of sampling, the list of respondents were prepared
separately for each sample village and thus, a total number
of 100 agro forestry famers from 10 sample villages were
selected through proportionate random sampling technique
on the basis of size of land holding. An interview schedule
was prepared in the light of decided objectives and variables
undertaken andadoption of recommended agricultural
technology concerning to the cultivation of agro forestry
system was measured by means of “Adoption Intensity
Index”. The procedure was followed for six (6) selected
practices under study (1) Improved various systems (2)
Time of plantation (3) Manures and fertilizers application (4)
Irrigation management (5) Weeding (6) Insects pest control.
The extent of adoption of improved agro forestry system was
worked out for individual respondents for all the six practices.
This procedure was applied for all the hundred respondents
to individual extent of adoption on the basis of “Adoption
Intensity Index”.After a pretesting of the questions, farmers
were individually interviewed. The questionnaire consisted
close questions, all of which were translated into the local
language. Appropriate statistics are used to draw inferences
accordingly.

221
Table-1 Distribution of respondents according to adoption 3 Caste 0.0560
extent of agro forestry system N=100 4 Family type 0.0184
Respondents 5 Family size 0.0246
S. No Categories 6 Housing pattern 0.0416
No. Percentage
7 Land holding -0.1740
1 Low (up to 49) 18 18.00 8 Annual income -0.0580
2 Medium (50-72) 66 66.00 9 Social participation 0.0439
10 Occupation -0.1600
3 High (73 and above ) 16 16.00
11 Form power 0.0761
Total 100 100.00 12 Form implements 0.0859
13 Household material -0.1150
Mean = 60.26, 14 Transportation material 0.0759
S.D. =11.568, 15 Communication media 0.1258
16 Economic motivation 0.0864
Min. =34.37, Max. = 95.74,
17 Scientific orientation -0.0720
18 Extension contact 0.1968*
The aboveTable-1 it is noticed that the majority of the 19 Knowledge extent 0.1230
respondents 66% were observed in the category of medium 20 Attitude 0.0340
adopters, while18% and 16% were found in low and high
adopter’s categories respectively. The mean of scores of the *Significant at 0.05 probability level = 0.195
extent of adoption was found to be 60.26 with the range of ** Significant at 0.01 probability level = 0.254
minimum 34.37 and maximum 95.74. Thus, maximum fall
On reveals from Table-3 it could be noticed that out of
of the respondents in the medium category indicated much
20 variables studied, the only one variable extension contact
difference in technology adoption.
was found to be moderately significant and positively
Table-2 Practice wise adoption extent of agro forestry correlated with adoption. The variables being non significant
system and positively correlated were education, caste, family type,
family size, housing pattern, social participation, farm power,
Adoption extent farm implements, transportation marital, communication
S. No Practice Rank
(percentage)
media, economic motivation, knowledge extant and attitude
1 Agro forestry systems 100.00 I whereas, the age, land holding, annual income, occupation,
2 Agro forestry covered area 42.32 V household materials and scientific orientation were
3 Time of planting 91.99 II negatively and insignificantly correlated with adoption of
4 Manures application 16.60 VI agro forestry system.
5 Fertilizer application 47.75 IV
6 Weeding 62.32 III CONCLUSION
Average 60.16 Themajority of respondents 66 percent were observed

in the medium category of adoption extent about agro forestry
It is clear from the data presented in the Table-2 that system. The mean of scores of adoption was found to be
in case of adoption of 6 practices of agro forestry system, 60.26 and among the 6 agricultural practices of agro forestry
the 100 percent adoption was reported by the respondents systems, the highest adoption was observed regarding the
regarding the practice like agro forestry system I, followed practice like “agro forestry system” 100 percent, followed
by time of planting 91.99 percent II, Weeding 62.32 percent by time of planting 91.99 percent. The practices viz. manures
III, Fertilizers application 47.75 percent IV, agro forestry applications were found very low 16.60 percent extent of
covered area 42.32 percent V, Manures application 16.60 adoption. The overall extent of adoption was calculated to
percent VI respectively. The average of overall extent of be 60.26 percent. Out of 20 variables, only one variable
adoption was calculated to be 68.46 per cent. In some of (‘Extension contact’ moderately significant) influenced the
the practices, the extent of knowledge was higher than the extent of adoption.
extent of adoption passed by the respondents at the time of
interview. This might be happened due to the reasons that REFERENCES:
the respondents were not able to respond to correct answers Akinnifesi, F. K.; Chirwa, P. W.; Ajayi, O. C.; Sileshi, G.;
of the asked questions, but when they were asked regarding Matakala, P.; Kwesiga, F. R.; Harawa, H. and
adoption of practices in their fields, they were found Makumba, W. (2008). Taking stock of the
corrects with regards use of practice or they were using the adaptation, adoption and impact of fertilizer
recommended amount of inputs. tree options. Agricultural Journal. 3 (1): 58-75.
Table-3 Correlation coefficient (r) between different vari- Bellow, J. G.; Hudson, R. F. and Nair, P. K. R.
ables and extent of adoption about agro forestry system (2008).Adoption  potential of fruit-tree-
Correlation basedagroforestry  on small farms in the
S. No Variables subtropical highlands.agro forestrySystems. 73
coefficient (r)
1 Age -0.0580 (1): 23-36.
2 Education 0.1470 Chauhan, S. K.; Nanda, R. K.and Brar, M. S.(2009).

222
 Adoption of poplar-based agroforestry as an
approach for diversified agriculture in Punjab.
Indian Forester Dehra Dun. 135 (5): 671-677.
Chitakira, M. and Torquebiau, E. (2010). Barriers and coping
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Pompeu, G.; Do, S. S.; Rosa, L. S.; Santos, M. M.; Modesto,
Langenberger, G.; Prigge, V.; Martin, K.; Belonias, B.
and Sauerborn, J. (2009). Ethno botanical
knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and
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Sood, K. K. and Mitchell, C. P. (2011). Household level
Palsaniya, D. R.; Tewari, R. K.;Yadav, R. S. and Dhyani,
S. K. (2010). Farmer - agroforestry land use
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Pompeu, G. ; Do, S. S. ; Dos, S. ; Rosa, L. ; Dos, S. ; Araujo,
S. L. F.  ; Araujo, A. B. B.  ; Silveira, E.  and
De, L. (2011).Influence of socioeconomic
characteristics of small farmers on theadoptionof
agroforestry  systems. [Portuguese]Revista
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33-41.
R. S. and Vieira, T. A. (2012).Adoptionof
agroforestry  systems by smallholders in
Brazilian Amazon.TropicalSubtropical
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Bioenergy. 35 (1): 337-345.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 224-226 (2015)
CONSTRAINT ANALYSIS OF MAIZE FARMERS IN MAHBUBNAGAR DISTRICT
SHAKUNTALA DEVI I1 AND K SUHASINI 2
Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU
Rajendranagar Hyderabad – 500 030

ABSTRACT
This paper has been drawn from part of work done by the authors to assist Varsha NGO, Hyderabad in project on the value chain anal-
ysis of maize with an objective to study an attempt has been made to study the constraints faced by the maize farmers in Mahbubnagar
district. Garrett’s Ranking Technique was employed in deciding the most important constraints faced by the respondents in the order of
priority. Garrett’s Ranking Technique was used to rank the choice of factors or reasons. According to this, the respondents were asked to
assign ranks to major constraints faced by them and the results showed small farm holdings and limited resource availability with farmers,
drought climatic conditions resulting in the district with increased pressure of diseases/pests and cultivation of maize in kharif mainly under
rain-fed conditions on marginal lands and lack of irrigation were found to be major constraints faced by farmers in Mahbubnagar district.

Key words: constraints, Garrett ranking, maize.

INTRODUCTION:
Maize (Zea  mays  L) is one of the most versatile
emerging crops having wider adaptability, a cereal crop
which is cultivated widely throughout the world and has the
highest production among all the cereals. The worldwide
production of maize was more than 960 MnMT in 2013-14.
It is an important food staple in many countries and is also
used in animal feed and many industrial applications. The
crop has tremendous genetic variability, which enables it to
thrive in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates. Maize
is grown throughout the year in India. It is predominantly
a kharif crop with 85 per cent of the area under cultivation
in the season. Maize is the third most important cereal crop
in India after rice and wheat. It accounts for ~9 per cent of
total food grain production in the country. Maize production
is dominated by Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, producing
~38 per cent of India’s maize in 2010-11. Nine states
viz. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat account for 85 per cent of India’s maize production
and 80 per cent of area under cultivation.
Most of the maize in India is used in the poultry feed
industry. Poultry industry is heavily dependent on maize as
it forms 50-60 per cent of the input required for broiler feed
and 25-35 per cent of the input required for layer feed. Maize
is the preferred source of energy in feed when compared
with other substitutes due to availability, higher energy and
price economics. Poultry feed’s share has remained around
45-50 per cent of the total demand for maize in the country
over the past 4-5 years. Maize has emerged as important crop
in the non-traditional regions i.e. peninsular India as the state
like Andhra Pradesh which ranks 5th in area (0.79 m ha) has
recorded the highest production (4.14 m t) and productivity
(5.26 t ha-1) in the country although the productivity in some
of the districts of Andhra Pradesh is more or equal to the
USA
In Andhra Pradesh, maize is sown normally from June
15th to July 15th in kharif in all the maize growing districts and
October to November in rabi in Rayalaseema and Telangana
regions and October to January in coastal region. Kharif
harvest is from September to November and in rabi from
February to May. Peak arrivals hit from October to December
and March to April, medium in January to February and the
arrivals are lean during June to August. Maize price mainly
depends upon demand for poultry feed, rainfall factors,
production and export demand. In Mahbubnagar district,
dependence on tanks and wells for irrigation has increased,
to substitute the nil rainfall situations. Almost 2 lakh acres
of land is being cultivated under tanks and wells. Area under
hybrid seeds in 2010-11 is estimated to be 60 per cent of the
total area under maize cultivation. In addition to staple food
for human being and quality feed for animals, maize serves
as a basic raw material as an ingredient to thousands of
industrial products that includes starch, oil, protein, alcoholic
beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, film,
textile, gum, package and paper industries etc. Farmers in
the area are growing Rice, maize, Redgram, Groundnut,
Cotton and Castor despite of severe power shut down and
erratic rainfall. The study focused on the objective to study
the socio economic parameters and analyse the constraints of
maize farmers in the study area
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Mahbubnagar district is purposively selected for
the study considering the area expansion under maize and
the crop being used by poultry feed manufacturers in and
around Hyderabad. Maddigatla village of Bhoothpur mandal
is selected for the present study as suggested by officials
of Community Based Tank Management Project where the
farmers grow maize under Gunta cheruvu tank which has an
ayacut area of 121.7 acres. In this study area sample farmers
from the identified list of maize growers are selected by
following simple random sampling technique. The required
primary data is obtained from 60 sample farmers from the
village by interview method and their constraints in maize
production were analysed using Garrette Ranking technique.
Garrett’s Ranking Technique
In the Garrett’s scoring technique, the respondents
were asked to rank the factors or problems and these ranks
were converted into percent position by using the formula

224

100 X (R ij - 0.5)
Percent position =
Nj
Where,
Rij = Ranking given to the ith attribute by the jth individual
Nj = Number of attributes ranked by the jth individual.
By referring to the Garrett’s table, the percent
positions estimated were converted into scores. Thus, for
each factor the scores of the various respondents were added
and the mean values were estimated. The mean values
thus obtained for each of the attributes were arranged in
descending order. The attributes with the highest mean value
was considered as the most important one and the others
followed in that order.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The socio- economic characteristics of the respondents
include family size, category of the farmers as per the size
of the holdings, educational status and social status; Socio-
economic analysis is basically required to have a clear-cut
comprehensive idea about composition of the respondents
which will be useful to derive valid conclusions. Further
socio-economic analysis also helps the researcher to suggest
better location specific feasible logistics for the improvement
of the crop in the study area
Educational status of the respondents
Particulars regarding the educational status of the
respondents are presented in the Table 2. It is observed from
the figures that only 15 per cent of the respondents were
illiterates. The number of respondents having education up to
fifth standard was 20 per cent. 60 per cent of the respondents
were having higher education. This shows that the farmers
in Maddigatla village were well known with the importance
of education
Age group of the respondents
The age wise classification of respondents is presented
in Table 3 that the farmers in the age group of 36-45 years
constituted to 50 per cent followed by the age group 25-
35 years, who constituted to 45 per cent. The percentage
of respondents in the age group 46-55 years was only 10
per cent; This shows that 90 per cent of the respondents in
the sample are between the age group of 25- 45 years and
relatively young.
Social status of the respondents
It is observed from the Table 4 that most of the
respondents i.e., 60 per cent belong to backward caste and 20
per cent belong to forward caste as well as scheduled castes
or scheduled tribes with 20 per cent.
Family size
The data with respect to the family size is presented in
Table 5. Majority of the respondents i.e., 75 per cent owned
a family size 1 to 6 followed by 15 per cent in the family
size of 7 to 9. The family size for 10 and above was only
10 per cent. It was thus evident the dominance of nuclear
225
family size is perpetual in the study area which can play a
vital role in the decision making process and adoption of
new technology.
Details of hybrids grown by sample respondents in
the study area
Maize hybrids were grown in the study area. The
farmers go for change in the seed hybrid depending on the
neighbours suggestions they always go on group decisions
i.e., if the majority are going for a specific hybrid the rest
of the farmers follow the lead. This shows they do not have
individual decision making capacity. Farmers obtain seed
from private seed dealers mostly. It is observed from the
Table 6 the hybrids that are used in Mahabubnagar district
are Kaveri, Pioneer, siri, tulasi and AP seeds. Among which
Kaveri and pioneer are preferred by majority of the sample
farmers. Seed is generally available in 5 Kg packs. Farmers
go for a seed rate of 17.5 kg to 20 kg per hectare. Majority
of the farmers go for kaveri due to its cost friendliness and
colourful seed type. A very few farmers go for siri and tulasi
seeds.
Constraints faced by farmers in the study area
The maize farmers in Mahbubnagar district said that
the first major constraint they faced small farm holdings and
limited resource availability with farmers. it was also found
any unit increase in the quantity of any of the resources
used for maize production will increase maize output (Abu
et al, 2011). The second major constraint the farmers faced
was drought climatic conditions resulting in associated
with increased pressure of diseases/pests and lack of water
availability at the peak period. The third major constraint
ranked by the farmers was cultivation of maize in kharif
mainly under rain-fed conditions on marginal lands and lack
of irrigation. The fourth major constraint was the limited
adoption of improved production-protection technology
(Tahirou et al, 2009). The fifth constraint faced by them was
deficiencies in the production and distribution system of
quality seed and due to high cost of seed the farmers were
unable to bear the high seed cost and many of the farmers opt
for low cost hybrid seed. Even though a number of hybrid
seeds are available in market, cost of seed is the notable
constraint the farmers are facing in the study area
Conclusion
Maize which is expanding its area in the study area, has
high potential, because of the hybrid seeds available from
private sector and also the entrepreneurs may opt to establish
poultry units in Mahbubnagar district. There is lot of demand
for maize as more poultry units and snack processing units
are located in and around Hyderabad. If the farmers were
provided with sufficient irrigation facilities and seed at low
cost, the maize farmers can increase the production which
may meet the huge demand from poultry industry and other
maize processing units which inturn increases the producers
share in the consumers rupee.
Table 1 : Area, Production and Yield of Maize 1 Kaveri 80 17.5 33
Area, Production and Yield of Maize (2001-02 to 2011-2012) 2 Pioneer 140 18.75 15
Area(Million Production Yield(Kg./ 3 Siri 100 20 6
Year Hectare) (Million Tonne) Hectare) 4 Tulasi 76 17.5 6
2001-02 6.58 13.16 2000
2002-03 6.64 11.15 1681 Table 7 Constraints faced by the farmers
2003-04 7.34 14.98 2041 Garrett
S. No Particulars Rank
2004-05 7.43 14.17 1907 Mean Score
2005-06 7.59 14.71 1938 Drought climatic conditions
2006-07 7.89 15.09 1912 1 and associated with increased 64.56 II
2007-08 8.12 18.96 2335 pressure of diseases/pests
2008-09 8.17 19.73 2414 Cultivation in kharif is mainly
under rain-fed conditions on
2009-10 8.26 16.72 2024 2 57.12 III
marginal lands and lack of
2010-11 8.49 21.28 2507
irrigation
2011-12 7.27 15.86 2181
Limited adoption of improved
Source : Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. (13153) & 3 production-protection 48.83 IV
(ON116) technology (storage facility)
Deficiencies in the production
Table 2 Educational status of the respondents 4 and distribution system of 47.32 V
quality seed
S.No Educational Status No of Respondents Per cent Small farm holdings and
1 Illiterates 9 15 5 limited resource availability 78.59 I
2 1st to 5th 15 25 with farmers
3 5th to 10th 24 40
4 Inter 12 20
5 Degree 0 0 REFERENCES
Total 60 100 Abu, G. A., Raoul Fani Djomo-Choumbou and Stephen
Adogwu Okpachu (2011) Evaluating the
Table 3 Age group of the respondents constraints and opportunities of maize
S.No Age Group(Yrs) No of Respondents Per cent production in the west Region of cameroon
for sustainable development. Journal of
1 25-35 24 40 Sustainable Development in Africa. 13 (4):
2 36-45 30 50 189-196
3 46-55 6 10
4 56 and above 0 0 Tahirou, Abdoulaye, Diakalia Sanogo, Augustine
Total 60 100 Langyintuo, Simeon A. Bamire, and Adetunji
Olanrewaju. (2009) Assessing the constraints
affecting production and deployment of maize
Table 4 Social status of the respondents seed in DTMA countries of West Africa. IITA,
S.No Social Status No of Respondents Per cent Ibadan, Nigeria. 40 pp
1 OC 12 20
2 BC 36 60
3 SC/ST 12 20
Total 60 100

Table 5 Family size of the respondents

S.No Family Size No of Respondents Per cent

1 Less than 4 12 20
2 4 to 6 33 55
3 7 to 9 9 15
4 10 & above 6 10
Total 60 100

Table 6 Comparison of cost of seed for maize hybrids

Cost (Rs per Seed rate No of
S. No Hybrid kg) (Kg per ha) respondents

226
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 227-229 (2015)

EXTENT OF VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION COEFFICIENT AMONG VARIOUS

CHARACTERS IN WHEAT GERMPLASMS
SHASHANK SHEKHAR, B.N SINGH, S.R VISHWAKARMA, KALPANA SRIVASTAVA AND R PANDEY
Department Of Genetics and Plant Breeding
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology Kumarganj Faizabad (U.P) 224229

ABSTRACT
In the present investigation, simple correlation coefficients were computed among 11 quantitative characters. The grain
yield/plant showed positive and highly significant correlation with harvest index, biological yield/plant, days to maturity,
tillers/plant and plant height showed positive and significant correlation with ear length and days to 50% flowering. The
grain yield/plant is negatively and non significantly correlated with 1000 grain weight. Thus, harvest index, biological yield/
plant, days to maturity, tillers/plant, plant height, ear length and days to 50% flowering emerged as closely correlated yield
attributes.

KEY WORDS: Variability, Correlation, Characters, Wheat, Germplasms

INTRODUCTION
Yield being a complex character is a function of several
component characters and their interaction with environment.
Probing of structure of yield involves assessment of
mutual relationship among various characters contributing
to the yield. In this regard genotypic and phenotypic
correlation reveals the degree of association between
different characters and thus aid in selection to improve
the yield and yield attributing characters simultaneously.
Further, path coefficient analysis helps in partitioning of
correlation coefficients into direct and indirect effects and
in the assessment of relative contribution of each component
character to the yield. Genetic diversity plays an important
role in plant breeding either to exploit heterosis or to generate
productive recombinants. Precise information on the nature
and degree of genetic diversity present in wheat collections
from its principal areas of cultivation would help to select
parents for evolving superior varieties. In the present study,
a number of geographically diverse genotypes (including
exotic and indigenous) were used for assessing the genetic
diversity considering yield as one of the important selection
criterion.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation entitled “Variability,
character association and genetic diversity in indigenous and
exotic lines of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em. Thell)” was
carried out during rabi 2011-12 at main experiment station
research farm of Narendra Deva University of Agriculture
and Technology, Narendra Nagar, Kumarganj, Faizabad
(U.P.). The experimental material consists of 210 exotic
and indigenous germplasm lines and 3 checks varieties
viz., DBW-17, DBW-39 and GW-322. These germplasm
lines were procured from collection of genetic stock
available in wheat section, Department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture
and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad. The above cited
wheat genotype including exotic and indigenous lines
constituted the experimental material for this study. These
genotypes exhibited wide spectrum of variation for various
agronomical and morphological characters. The checks used
in experiment are well adopted varieties of the region. The
experiment was conducted to evaluate 210 germplasm lines
with three checks under reclaimed salt affected soil and
irrigated condition, following Augmented Block Design.
The experimental data collected in respect of 11 characters
on 160 wheat genotypes and 3 checks were compiled by
taking the mean values of selected plants in each plot
and subjected for statistical analyses. The assessment of
existing variability in the exotic collections was done by
computing means, range and least significant differences.
The nature of association among different characters was
studied by using simple correlations (Searle, 1961) and path-
coefficient analysis (Wright, 1921; Dewey and Lu, 1959).
Nonhierarchical Euclidean cluster analysis (Beale, 1969;
Spark, 1973) was used to study genetic divergence among
the exotic and endogenous varieties/lines.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of variance:
Analysis of variance for augmented design was
carried out for eleven characters to test the significance
of differences among various treatments (checks) and
is presented in Table 1.The variation due to blocs was
significant for flag leaf area and tillers/plant and highly
significant for plant height (cm) however the differences
among the block were not significant for remaining eight
character. The differences among the three check varieties
were found to be significant for the flag leaf area(cm),ear
length(cm),and peduncle length(cm) and highly significant
for plant height and remaining seven characters were not
significant. The estimates of simple correlation coefficients
computed between eleven characters of indigenous and
exotic lines of wheat under study are presented in Table 1.
The grain yield per plant exhibited highly significant and
positive correlation with biological yield per plant (0.862),
harvest index(0.459), days to maturity(0.338),tillers/
plant(0.272),plant height(0.207) besides having significant
and positive correlation with ear length(0.143)&days to
50% flowering(0.142) the grain yield/plant is non significant
and negatively correlated with biological yield/plant(-0.045)
. The grain yield/plant is non significant and positively

227
correlated with peduncle length & flag leaf area respectively positively correlated with flag leaf area cm2. ear length is
(0.070&0.029).Harvest index showed highly significant and positively correlated with flag leaf area cm2. ear length and
positive correlation with days to maturity (0.299) and days flag leaf area cm2 is negatively correlation with days to 50%
to 50% flowering (0.183) and remaining character showed flowering.
non significant and negative correlation. Highly significant
and positive correlation coefficient of biological yield/plant The above discussion revealed that all the
with tiller/plant(0.302),plant height(cm)-(0.263)and ear highly significant estimates of correlation coefficient
length(0.201) and positive and significant correlation with observed among the important yield components such as
days to maturity(0.170). The 1000grain weight showed biological yield/plant, harvest index, days to maturity, plant
highly significant and negative correlation with days to height and tillers/plant, ear length and days to 50% flowering
maturity (-0.186).Days to maturity showed highly significant is significant, were positive in nature. Remaining estimates
and positive correlation with ear length (cm)-(0.218). were, non significant, and mostly positive in nature excluding
Peduncle length showed positive and highly significant the1000 grain weight. Thus, selection practiced for improving
correlation coefficient with plant height (0.336) and days these traits individually or simultaneously is likely to bring
to 50% flowering (0.202) and positive and significant improvement in others due to correlated response. This
correlation with tillers/plant (0.143).Tillers/plant showed the suggests that selection would be quite efficient in improving
positive and positive correlation coefficient with days to 50% yield and these five yield components in wheat, especially in
flowering (0.145) and negative and significant correlation context of the varieties/lines collections evaluated.
with flag leaf area (-0.148).Plant height showed the highly Out of 55 estimates of correlation coefficients,
significant and positive correlation with ear length (0.233) only 22 correlations were significant while 33 character pairs
and positive and significant correlation with flag leaf area were non-significant nature in positive or negative direction
(0.150). The grain yield/plant showed positive and highly the existence of non significant correlations between most of
significant correlation with harvest index, biological yield/ the characters may be attributed presence of high diversity
plant, days to maturity, tillers/plant and plant height showed in germplasm collection. It appears that different types of
positive and significant correlation with ear length and days contrasting character associations possessed by diverse
to 50% flowering. The grain yield/plant is negatively and genotypes mighty led to reduction of overtall value of
non significantly correlated with 1000 grain weight. Thus, correlation estimates.
harvest index, biological yield/plant, days to maturity, tillers/
plant, plant height, ear length and days to 50% flowering Table 1: Analysis of variance of augmented design for 11
emerged as closely correlated yield attributes. The strong characters in wheat genotypes
positive association of grain yield with one or more of the Sources of variation
Characters
above traits has also been observed by previous workers
Blocks Checks Error
(Rizwana maqbool.2010; Singh et al. 2010;Deepti bist
d.f. (6) (2) (12)
2009; khan et al.2002; Sharma and Singh, 2009;Khokhar et
al,2010; Anwar et al, 2009; Vivek Sharma, 2006; Singh et Days to 50% flowering 4.05 2.05 1.38
al. 2010; Singh et al. 2012;) Flag leaf area (cm²) 43.59* 57.15* 9.30
Ear length (cm) 2.99 5.35* 1.05
Harvest index had the strong positive and highly
significant correlation with days to 50% flowering and days Plant height (cm) 198.65** 32.34
827.92**
to maturity. Biological yield/plant showed highly significant Tillers/ plant 6.65* 2.71 1.27
and positive correlation with ear length, plant height, and
Peduncle length (cm) 9.85 103.97* 5.72
tillers/plant and significant association with days to maturity.
Days to maturity 3.19 2.71 1.38
1000 grain weight had highly significant and negative
correlation with days to maturity. Days to maturity showed 1000 grain weight (g) 5.61 11.72 9.45
highly significant and positive correlation with ear length Biological yield (g) 43.30 71.29 39.40
and plant height. Peduncle length had highly significant and Grain yield (g) 9.04 14.56 13.07
positive correlation with days to 50% flowering and plant Harvest index (%) 10.71 10.54 37.29
height while significant with tillers/plant. Tillers/plant was
Significant-(*)
significantly and positively correlated with days to 50%
flowering while significantly and negatively correlated with Highly significant-(**)
flag leaf area cm2. Plant height show highly significant and
positive correlation with ear length and significantly and
Table 2: Estimates of simple correlation coefficients between 11 characters in wheat
1000
Flag Ear Plant Peduncle Harvest
Tillers/ Days to grain Biological Grain
Characters leaf area length height length Index
plant maturity weight yield (g) Yield (g)
(cm²) (cm) (cm) (cm) (%)
(g)
Days to 50% flowering -0.127 -0.011 0.073 0.145* 0.202** 0.000 -0.117 0.088 0.183** 0.142*
Flag leaf area (cm²) 0.092 0.150* -0.148* -0.060 -0.038 -0.031 0.079 -0.09 0.029
Ear length (cm) 0.233** -0.051 0.058 0.371** 0.111 0.201** -0.116 0.143*
Plant height (cm) -0.008 0.336** 0.218** -0.054 0.263** -0.066 0.207**
Tillers/ plant 0.143* 0.005 0.114 0.302** 0.065 0.272**

228
 Peduncle length (cm)
Days to maturity
1000 grain weight (g)
Biological yield (g)
Harvest Index (%)
*, ** Significant at 5% and 1% probability levels, respectively.
REFERENCES:
Beale, E.M.L. (1969). Euclidean cluster analysis. A paper
contribution to 37th Session of the International
Statistical Institute.
Deepti Bisht and Gahalain,S.S (2009). Interrelationships and
path coefficient analysis in wheat germplasm of
Kumaun Himalayas. Vegetos. 22 (2): 19-26.
Dewey, S.R. and Lu, K.H. (1959). Correlation and path
coefficient analysis of crested wheat gross seed
production. Agron. J., 51 : 515-518.
Khokhar, M.I.;   Hussain, M.; Javed Anwar.;  Zulkiffal,
M.;   Iqbal, M. M.;   Khan, S. B.;   Khan, M.
A.; Abdul Qayyum.; Sabir, W. and   Shahid
Mehmood. (2010). Correlation and path analysis
for yield and yield contributing characters in
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).Acta Agriculturae
Serbica. 15 (29): 19-24.
Rizwana Maqbool.;   Muhammad Sajjad.;   Ihsan Khaliq
.; Aziz-ur-Rehman.;   Khan, A. S.; and   Khan,
S. H. (2010). Morphological diversity and traits
association in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum
L.) American-Eurasian Journal ofAgricultural
and Environmental Science. 8 (2): 216-224.
Searle, S.R. (1961). Phenotypic, genotypic and environmental
correlation. Biometrics, 17 : 474-480.
Sharma, A. and Singh, H. (2009). Studies on correlation
and path coefficient analysis in bread wheat
229
-0.085 0.005 0.124 -0.075 0.070
-0.186** 0.170* 0.299** 0.338**
0.020 -0.109 -0.045
-0.029 0.862**
0.459**
[Triticum aestivum (L.) em. Thell]. National
Journal of Plant Improvement. 5 (2): 106-109
Singh, B. N.; Soni, S. K.; Archana Srivastava and Yadav, V.
K (2012). Multivariate analysis to architecture
model plant type for saline soil in bread wheat
(Triticum aestivum L. em Thell.). Environment
and Ecology. 30 (1): 179-182
Singh, B. N.; Vishwakarma, S. R. and Singh, V. K.; (2010).
Character association and path analysis in elite
lines of wheat(Triticum aestivum L.). Plant
Archives 10 (2): 845-847.
Singh, D.; Singh, S. K. and Singh, K. N. (2009). Diversity of
salt resistance in a large germplasm collection
of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Crop
Improvement. 36 (1): 9-12.
Singh, S. K.; Singh, B. N.; Singh, P. K.; Sharma, C. L.
(2008). Correlation and path analysis in some
exotic lines in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).
New Botanist. 35 (¼): 89-94
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Yadav, D. K.; Pawar, I. S.; Sharma, G. R. and Lamba, R. A.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 230-232 (2015)

EXTENT OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECT OF YIELD COMPONENTS IN WHEAT

GERMPLASMS BY PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS
SHASHANK SHEKHAR, B.N SINGH, S.R VISHWAKARMA AND KALPANA SRIVASTAVA
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology Kumarganj Faizabad (U.P) 224229

ABSTRACT
In the present investigation, simple correlation coefficients were computed among 11 quantitative characters. The grain yield/
plant showed positive and highly significant correlation with harvest index, biological yield/plant, days to maturity, tillers/
plant and plant height showed positive and significant correlation with ear length and days to 50% flowering. The grain yield/
plant is negatively and non significantly correlated with 1000 grain weight. Thus, harvest index, biological yield/plant, days
to maturity, tillers/plant, plant height, ear length and days to 50% flowering emerged as closely correlated yield attributes.

Key words: Yield, PATH COEFFICIENT ANALYSIS, Characters, Wheat, Germplasms

INTRODUCTION
Sewall Wright (1921) developed the concept of
path-coefficient analysis as a tool to partition the observed
correlation coefficients in to direct and indirect effects
of independent variables on the dependent variable. Path
analysis differs from simple correlation in that it points
out the causes and their relative importance, whereas the
later measures simply the mutual association ignoring the
causation. Path analysis has emerged as a powerful and
widely used technique for understanding the direct and
indirect contributions of different characters to economic
yield in crop plants so that the relative importance of various
yield contributing characters can be assessed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation entitled “Variability,
character association and genetic diversity in indigenous and
exotic lines of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em. Thell)” was
carried out during rabi 2011-12 at main experiment station
research farm of Narendra Deva University of Agriculture
and Technology, Narendra Nagar, Kumarganj, Faizabad
(U.P.). The experimental material consists of 210 exotic
and indigenous germplasm lines and 3 checks varieties viz.,
DBW-17, DBW-39 and GW-322. These germplasm lines
were procured from collection of genetic stock available in
wheat section, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kumarganj, Faizabad. The above cited wheat genotype
including exotic and indigenous lines constituted the
experimental material for this study. Path coefficient analysis
was carried out according to Dewey and Lu (1959). Grain
yield was assumed to be dependent variable (effect) which
is influenced by all. The ten characters, the independent
variables (causes), directly as well as indirectly through
other characters. The variation in grain yield. unexplained
by the ten causes was presumed to be contributed by a
residual factor (x) which is uncorrelated with other factors.
Path coefficients were estimated by solving the following
simultaneous equation indicating the basic relationship
between correlation and path coefficient.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The direct and indirect effects of 11 characters on
grain yield per plant estimated by path coefficient analysis
using simple correlations are given in Table 1.
The highest positive direct effect on grain yield per plant
was exerted by biological yield per plant (0.876) followed
by harvest-index (0.476) in contrast Tillers/plant and days
to 50% flowering (-0.021) followed by days to maturity
(-0.003) and plant height (-0.006) contributed negative
direct effect of grain yield/plant. the highest positive indirect
effect on grain yield was exerted by biological yield/plant
(0.008) followed by (0.003) in flag leaf area in contrast 1000
grain weight (-0.009)followed by tillers/plant & peduncle
length(-0.003) contributed negative indirect effect on grain
yield. The very low estimates of direct and indirect effects
recorded in case of remaining characters’ indicated that their
direct & indirect contribution to grain yield was too low to
be considered of any consequence. The estimate of residual
factors (0.137) was also low.The results of path-coefficient
analysis done using simple correlation coefficients among
11 quantitative characters are given in Table 1. biological
yield/plant exerted very high positive direct effects on
grain yield/plant, while harvest index were other characters
having considerable positive direct contribution towards
grain yield/plant. Thus, biological yield/plant followed by
harvest index emerged as most important direct contributors
towards grain yield/plant. Vivek sharma 2006; Singh, et al
2008; Singh and Sharma, 2007; Khan, et al 2008; Anwar,
et al 2009; have also identified biological yield/plant as a
character making substantial direct positive contribution
towards manifestation of grain yield in wheat.
Days to 50% flowering, plant height and tillers/
plant, 1000 grain weight showed considerable negative direct
effects on grain yield/plant. The direct effects of remaining
characters were found to be too low to be considered of any
consequence. The indirect effects of biological yield/plant,
flag leaf area cm2, 1000 grain weight, tillers/plant were
high order positive on grain yield/plant via biological yield/
plant. Thus, above mentioned characters emerged as most
important indirect yield contributing characters because they
showed substantial positive indirect effects towards grain
yield/plant via biological yield/plant, which also made high

230
direct contribution to grain yield.
The remaining estimates of indirect effects in
this analysis were very low indicating their negligible indirect
contribution towards grain yield/plant. Peduncle length
exerted substantial negative direct effects on grain yield/plant
but this trait showed considerable positive indirect effects
via biological yield/plant on grain yield. Thus, the characters
like peduncle length need special attention at the time of
formulation of selection strategy due to their contrasting
direct and indirect effects. The existence of negative as well
as positive direct and indirect effects by same character on
grain yield/plant via one or other character simultaneously,
presents a complex situation where a compromise is needed
to attain proper balance of different yield components in
determining ideotype for high grain yield in wheat.
In contrary to most of the previous reports
in wheat, comparatively smaller proportion of direct and
indirect effects of different characters attained high order
values in the present study. Majority of the estimates of direct
and indirect effects were too low to be considered of any
consequence. This may be attributed to presence of very high
genetic variability and diversity in the fairly large number
of exotic and indigenous varieties/lines. The existence of
different character combinations in diverse varieties/lines
might have led to different types of character associations
in different lines. Thus, presence of several contrasting types
of character associations and inter-relationships might have
resulted into cancellation of contrasting associations by each
other ultimately leading to lowering of the net impact or
effect.
In the present study, path analysis identified
biological yield/plant, harvest index and spike weight/plant
as important direct yield contributing characters. Productive
tillers/plant, grains/spike, spike weight/plant, 1000-grain
weight, spike length, harvest index and plant height emerged
as most important indirect yield components. The characters
mentioned above, merit due to consideration at the time of
devising selection strategy aimed at developing high yielding
varieties in wheat.

Table 1 : Direct and indirect effects of 11 characters on grain yield per plant in wheat
Flag 1000
Days Ear Plant Peduncle Harvest Correlation
Leaf Tillers/ Days to grain Biological
Character to 50% length height length Index with grain
area plant maturity weight yield (g)
flowering (cm) (cm) (cm) (%) yield (g)
(cm²) (g)
Days to 50% flowering -0.021 0.003 0.000 -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 0.000 0.002 -0.002 -0.004 0.142
Flag leaf area (cm²) 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.029
Ear length (cm) 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.143
Plant height (cm) 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.006 0.000 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 -0.002 0.000 0.207
Tillers/ plant -0.003 0.003 0.001 0.000 -0.021 -0.003 0.000 -0.002 -0.006 -0.001 0.272
Peduncle length (cm) 0.002 -0.001 0.001 0.004 0.001 0.010 -0.001 0.000 0.001 -0.001 0.070
Days to maturity 0.000 -0.002 0.018 0.010 0.000 -0.004 0.047 -0.009 0.008 0.014 0.338
1000 Grain weight (g) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.003 0.000 0.000 -0.045
Biological yield (g) 0.077 0.069 0.176 0.230 0.264 0.109 0.149 0.017 0.876 -0.026 0.862
Harvest Index (%) 0.087 -0.047 -0.055 -0.032 0.031 -0.036 0.142 -0.052 -0.014 0.476 0.459
Residual factor = 0.137,

Bold figures indicate direct effects.

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L.(2008). Correlation and path analysis in some
exotic lines in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).
New Botanist. 35 (1/4): 89-94.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 233-237 (2015)

CORRELATION AND PATH COEFFICIENTANALYSIS FOR YIELD AND ITS

ATTRIBUTING TRAITS UNDER DIFFERENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN AEROBIC
RICE
SHWETA TRIPATHI1, P.K. SINGH1, J.L. DWIVEDI1, D.K. DWIVEDI2 AND ANANDKAR TRIPATHI1
1
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, N.D.U.A.T., Kumarganj,Faizabad(Uttar Pradesh) - 224001
2
Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, N.D.U.A.T., Kumarganj, Faizabad (Uttar Pradesh) - 224001

ABSTRACT
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) production largely depends on traditional flooded rice systems whose sustainability is threatened by a progressive
decrease in water availability and a constant increase in rice demand due to strong demographic boom in world population. Newly devel-
oped water saving rice system is aerobic rice in which rice grows in non-flooded and unsaturated soil.This experiment was conducted at
farm of Crop Research Station, Masodha of N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad during
Kharif, 2011. The study of phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficients reports on the results of cultivating identified Aerobic rice
germplasms inthree different water conditions. This experiment involved evaluation of 33 aerobic rice genotypes for eleven characters un-
der aerobic, upland and transplanting conditions in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications during Kharif, 2011. The
study of phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficients resulted that Grain yield per plant showed significant and positive phenotypic
correlation and high order positive genotypic correlation with biological yield per plant, harvest-index, panicle bearing tillers per plant,
panicle length and plant height in aerobic condition; biological yield per plant, 1000-grain weight and days to 50 % flowering in upland
condition and biological yield per plant, spikelet fertility, panicle bearing tillers per plant and plant height in transplanting condition. Path
analysis identified biological yield per plant followed by harvest-index as most important direct as well as indirect yield contributing traits
in all the three environments. Therefore, these traits can be used as selection indices for indirect selection for the improvement of Rice.

Keywords: Rice, Aerobic Rice, Correlation coefficients, Path coefficients

INTRODUCTION
Rice is the staple food for more than three billion
people, over half the world’s population. It provides 27% of
dietary energy and 20% of dietary protein in the developing
world, and is the primary source of income and employment
for more than 100 million household in Asia and Africa
(Anonymous, 2005). Rice production had continuously
increased in the past three decades beginning with the Green
Revolution, but has stagnated since 1999. Rice demand is
projected to increase by 25% from 2001 to 2025 to keep
pace with population growth. However, land for agriculture
is decreasing because of urbanization and industrialization,
especially in the rice-producing nations (Anonymous,1992);
water availability is declining resulting from population
growth, over-consumption and pollution (Duda and El-
Ashry, 2000). With such constraints, producing more rice in
the future to feed additional population is a great challenge.
To fulfill the increased rice demand with shrinking resources,
it will be necessary to increase yield in a unit area with
less water. Rice, as a submerged crop, is a prime target for
water conservation because it is the most widely grown
of all crops under irrigation. Irrigated ecosystems are the
primary type found in East Asia and provide 75% of global
rice production.In India, the total area under irrigated rice is
about 22.00 million hectares, which accounts about 49.5%
of the total area under rice crop in the country.
Cultivation of aerobic rice appears one of the potential
approaches for meeting the challenge of sustaining rice
production under water scarcity. Aerobic rice is the new
concept to further decrease water requirements in rice
production in water short areas. Aerobic rice is defined as
high yielding rice grown in non-puddled and non-flooded
aerobic soil (Bouman and Toung, 2001). Because of its
low water use, aerobic rice can be produced in areas where
lowland rice cannot be grown. Since aerobic rice is targeted
at water-short areas, socio-economic comparisons must
include water-short lowland rice and other upland crops.
The development of high-yielding aerobic rice is still in
its infancy and germplasm still needs to be improved and
appropriate management technologies developed. Ways
must be found to decrease water use in rice production.
Therefore, an attempt was made to evaluate a
germplasm collection of aerobic rice and examine the level
of genetic variability to work out an efficient selection
criterion. The knowledge of factors responsible for high
yields has been rendered difficult since yield is a complex
character that manifests through multiplicative interactions
of other characters known as yield components (Grafius,
1959). For rational approach in breeding for higher yield,
several workers emphasized use of component approach
for successful breeding programme (Moll et al., 1962,
Bhatt, 1970). Therefore, the identification of important
yield contributing characters out of numerous plant traits is
necessary because it would be impossible and impractical
to concentrate and work on improving many characters at a
time. The correlation and path coefficient analysis helps us
in identification of important yield contributing characters.
The coefficient of correlation expresses association between
two variables, but tells us nothing about the causal relations
of variables, i.e., which variable is dependent and which
is independent. Therefore, the study of path-coefficients
is necessary. Path analysis clearly indicates the relative
importance of different yield components so that one may
identify the most important yield components.

233
MATERIALS& METHODS
The present study was based on correlation and path
coefficients were computed on 11 characters of 33 germplasm
lines for Aerobic, Upland and Transplanted conditions. The
experiment was conducted at farm of Crop Research Station,
Masodha of N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology,
Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad. The germplasm
lines and check varieties were evaluated during Kharif, 2011.
The evaluation experiment involved evaluation of 33 aerobic
rice genotypes for eleven characters under aerobic, upland
and transplanting conditions in Randomized Complete Block
Design with three replications during Kharif, 2011. Eleven
economic important quantitative charactersi.e. Days to 50 %
flowering,Days to maturity, Plant height (cm), Panicle length
(cm), Panicle bearing tillers per plant,Spikelets per panicle,
Spikelet fertility (%), 1000-grain weight (g), Biological yield
per plant (g), Grain yield per plant (g) and Harvest-index
(%).Data was subjected to analysis of variance, phenotypic
and genotypic correlation coefficients. The correlations (r)
coefficient between different characters at phenotypic (p)
and genotypic (g) levels were worked out as suggested by
Searle (1961). Path coefficient analysis was carried out
according to Dewey and Lu (1959).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The phenotypic correlationcoefficients analysiswere
computed between 11 characters of 33 rice genotypes in
aerobic, upland and transplanting conditions.
In the aerobic condition (Table 1.1), grain yield per
plant exhibited highly significant and positive phenotypic
correlation with biological yield per plant (0.725), harvest-
index (0.624) and panicle bearing tillers per plant (0.470)
and significant and positive phenotypic correlation with
plant height (0.431) and panicle length (0.365). Plant height
recorded significant and negative phenotypic correlation
with days to maturity (-0.424) and days to 50% flowering
(-0.391). Positive and significant association at phenotypic
level was also observed between harvest-index and panicle
bearing tillers per plant (0.350). Days to maturity exhibited
highly significant and positive correlation with days to
50% flowering (0.596). Remaining estimates of phenotypic
correlations in aerobic condition were non-significant.
In upland condition (Table 1.2), grain yield per plant
emerged with positive phenotypic correlation of highly
significant level with biological yield per plant (0.614)
and that of significant level with days to 50% flowering
(0.431) and 1000- grain weight (0.414). Harvest-index
showed positive and significant phenotypic correlation with
1000-grain weight (0.432) but its association with biological
yield per plant was highly significant and negative (-0.628).
Negative and significant phenotypic correlation was also
observed between spikelet fertility and plant height (-0.355).
Days to maturity possessed highly significant and positive
phenotypic correlation with days to 50% flowering (0.678).
The remaining 48 estimates of phenotypic correlations were
non-significant in this condition.
In transplanting condition (Table 1.3), grain yield
per plant showed positive phenotypic correlations of highly
significant level with biological yield per plant (0.850) and
that of significant level with spikelet fertility (0.430), panicle
bearing tillers per plant (0.354) and plant height (0.349).
234
Highly significant and positive association was also observed
between days to 50% flowering and days to maturity (0.821).
The estimates phenotypic correlation coefficients between
remaining 50 character pairs were found to be non-significant
in this condition.
Grain yield per plant showed significant and positive
phenotypic correlation and high order positive genotypic
coefficient with biological yield per plant, harvest-index,
panicle bearing tillers per plant, panicle length and plant
height in aerobic condition; biological yield per plant,
1000-grain weight and days to 50 % flowering in upland
condition and biological yield per plant, spikelet fertility,
panicle bearing tillers per plant and plant height in
transplanting condition. Therefore, these characters emerged
as most important associates of grain yield in rice in the
respective environmental conditions, in which they showed
significant positive association with grain yield.
The path coefficient analysis was carried out at
phenotypic as well as genotypic level to assess direct and
indirect effects of 10 independent characters on dependent
character grain yield per plant in aerobic, upland as well as
transplanting conditions.
The direct and indirect effects of different characters on
grain yield per plant computed using phenotypic correlation
coefficients in aerobic condition are given in Table 2.1.
Biological yield per plant (0.753) followed by harvest-index
(0.652) exerted high order positive direct effects on grain
yield per plant. Biological yield per plant exerted substantial
positive indirect effects on grain yield per plant via plant
height (0.246), panicle length (0.215), panicle bearing tillers
per plant (0.216), spikelets per panicle (0.142) and spikelet
fertility (0.210) while its indirect effects via days to 50%
flowering (-0.174)were considerable in negative direction.
Substantial positive indirect effects on grain yield per plant
were also contributed by harvest-index via panicle bearing
tillers per plant (0.228), panicle length (0.174), plant height
(0.189) and days to 50% flowering (0.106). The estimates of
direct and indirect effects not mentioned above were too low
to be considered important. The estimate of residual factors
was also low (0.196) in this analysis.
The direct and indirect effects of different characters
on grain yield per plant at phenotypic level under upland
condition are presented in Table 2.2. Biological yield per
plant (1.167), followed by harvest-index (0.848) exerted
very high order positive direct effects on grain yield per
plant while direct effects of remaining eight characters were
negligible at phenotypic level. Biological yield per plant
recorded high order positive indirect effects on grain yield
per plant via plant height (0.354), days to 50% flowering
(0.316), panicle bearing tillers per plant (0.285) and days to
maturity (0.182), but it exerted high order negative indirect
effects on grain yield per plant via harvest-index (-0.733)
and spikelets per panicle (-0.122). The remaining estimates
of indirect effects were too low to be considered important.
The estimate of residual factor in this analysis was 0.217.
The results of path coefficient analysis conducted on
the basis of phenotypic correlation coefficients obtained
between different characters under transplanting condition
are presented in Table 2.3. In this environment, biological
yield per plant (0.962)followed by harvest-index (0.512)
exhibited very high order positive direct effects on grain considerable negative indirect effects via biological yield
yield per plant at phenotypic level. Biological yield per plant per plant (-0.137) and days to 50 % flowering (-0.124) on
exerted high order positive indirect effects on grain yield per grain yield per plant. The estimate of residual factors was
plant via panicle bearing tillers per plant (0.358), spikelet low (0.112).
fertility (0.322), plant height (0.296),days to 50% flowering
(0.267), 1000-grain weight (0.261), spikelets per panicle In the present study, path analysis identified biological
(0.145) and days to maturity (0.103). However, indirect effect yield per plant followed by harvest-index as most important
of biological yield per plant via harvest-index (-0.257) was direct as well as indirect yield contributing traits or
high order negative. Harvest-index recorded considerable components in all the three environments which merit due
positive indirect effect via spikelets per panicle (0.135) and consideration at time of devising selection strategy aimed at
developing high yielding variety in rice.
Table 1 : Estimates of Correlation coefficients
(Table 1.1) Condition: Estimates of phenotypic correlation coefficients between different characters of rice genotypes under aerobic
1000
Plant Panicle Panicle Spikelet Biological Harvest- Grain
Days to Spikelets/ -grain
Characters height length bearing fertility yield/ plant index yield /
maturity panicle weight
(cm) (cm) tillers/ plant (%) (g) (%) plant (g)
(g)
Days to 50% flowering 0.596 -0.391 0.085 -0.257 0.114 0.201 -0.032 -0.231 0.163 -0.073
Days to maturity -0.424 -0.006 -0.261 0.105 0.219 -0.12 -0.116 0 -0.089
Plant height (cm) 0.204 0.069 0.105 0.007 0.084 0.326 0.289 0.431
Panicle length (cm) 0.129 0.271 -0.045 -0.011 0.286 0.266 0.365
Panicle bearing tillers/
-0.033 0.063 -0.218 0.287 0.35 0.47
plant
Spikelets/ panicle -0.041 -0.174 0.189 0.002 0.133
Spikelet fertility (%) 0.055 0.278 -0.081 0.168
1000-grain weight (g) 0.013 0.075 0.071
Biological yield/ plant
-0.047 0.725
(g)
Harvest-index (%) 0.624
*, ** significant at 5 per cent and 1 per cent probability levels, respectively.

(Table 1.2) Condition: Estimates of Phenotypic correlation coefficients between different characters of rice genotypes
under upland
1000-
Plant Panicle Panicle Spik- Spikelet Biological Harvest- Grain
Days to grain
Characters height length bearing elets/ fertility yield/ plant index yield /
maturity weight
(cm) (cm) tillers/ plant panicle (%) (g) (%) plant (g)
(g)
Days to 50% flowering 0.678 0.024 0.086 -0.1 0.069 0.072 0.06 0.271 0.088 0.431
Days to maturity -0.04 0.189 -0.079 0.233 -0.073 -0.052 0.156 0.066 0.288
Plant height (cm) 0.015 0.073 0.03 -0.355 -0.262 0.304 -0.227 0.186
Panicle length (cm) -0.245 -0.041 -0.202 -0.111 -0.078 0.033 -0.08
Panicle bearing tillers/
-0.137 0.088 0.003 0.244 -0.094 0.234
plant
Spikelets/ panicle 0.241 -0.263 -0.105 0.115 -0.005
Spikelet fertility (%) 0.047 0.047 0.045 0.051
1000-grain weight (g) -0.014 0.432 0.414
Biological yield/ plant
-0.628 0.654
(g)
Harvest-index (%) 0.149
*, ** significant at 5 per cent and 1 per cent probability levels, respectively.

( Table 1.3) Condition: Phenotypic correlation coefficients between different characters of rice genotypes under transplanting
Grain
Plant Panicle Panicle Spikelet Harvest-
Days to Spikelets/ 1000-grain Biological yield /
Characters height length bearing fertility index
maturity panicle weight (g) yield/ plant plant
(cm) (cm) tillers/ plant (%) (%)
(g)
Days to 50% flowering 0.821 -0.072 0.181 0.264 -0.069 0.307 0.274 0.278 -0.242 0.139
Days to maturity -0.131 -0.027 0.185 -0.239 0.229 0.327 0.107 -0.134 0.026
Plant height (cm) 0.101 -0.09 0.19 0.138 -0.08 0.307 0.037 0.349
Panicle length (cm) 0.02 0.063 0.248 -0.003 0.101 0.052 0.127

235
 Panicle bearing tillers/ plant 0.046 0.215 0.182 0.372 -0.013 0.354
Spikelets/ panicle 0.116 -0.037 0.151 0.263 0.305
Spikelet fertility (%) 0.086 0.335 0.136 0.43
1000-grain weight (g) 0.271 -0.083 0.242
Biological yield/ plant (g) -0.267 0.85
Harvest-index (%) 0.266
*, ** significant at 5 per cent and 1 per cent probability levels, respectively.

Table 2 : Estimates of Path coefficients

Table 2.1: Direct and indirect effects of different characters on grain yield per plant at phenotypic level in the rice genotypes under
aerobic condition
Days Plant Panicle Panicle Spikelet Biological
Days to Spikelets/ 1000-grain Harvest-
Characters to 50% height length bearing fertility yield/ plant
maturity panicle weight (g) index (%)
flowering (cm) (cm) tillers/ plant (%) (g)
Days to 50%
0.001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
flowering
Days to maturity 0.006 0.01 -0.004 0 -0.003 0.001 0.002 -0.001 -0.001 0
Plant height (cm) -0.001 -0.001 0.003 0.001 0 0 0 0 0.001 0.001
Panicle length (cm) -0.002 0 -0.006 -0.029 -0.004 -0.008 0.001 0 -0.008 -0.008
Panicle bearing
-0.009 -0.009 0.002 0.005 0.036 -0.001 0.002 -0.008 0.01 0.012
tillers/ plant
Spikelets/ panicle 0 0 0 0 0 0.002 0 0 0 0
Spikelet fertility
0.001 0.001 0 0 0 0 0.005 0 0.001 0
(%)
1000-grain weight
-0.001 -0.002 0.002 0 -0.004 -0.004 0.001 0.02 0 0.002
(g)
Biological yield/
-0.174 -0.087 0.245 0.215 0.216 0.142 0.21 0.01 0.753 -0.036
plant (g)
Harvest-index (%) 0.106 0 0.189 0.173 0.228 0.001 -0.053 0.049 -0.031 0.652
Residual factor = 0.1957 Bold diagonal figures indicate the direct effect

Table 2.2: Direct and indirect effects of different characters on grain yield per plant at phenotypic level in the rice genotypes under
upland condition
Days Plant Panicle Panicle Spik- Spikelet Biological Harvest-
Days to 1000-grain
Characters to 50% height length bearing tillers/ elets/ fertility yield/ plant index
maturity weight (g)
flowering (cm) (cm) plant panicle (%) (g) (%)
Days to 50%
0.016 0.011 0 0.001 -0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.004 0.001
flowering
Days to maturity 0.024 0.035 -0.001 0.007 -0.003 0.008 -0.003 -0.002 0.005 0.002
Plant height (cm) 0.001 -0.001 0.024 0 0.002 0.001 -0.008 -0.006 0.007 -0.005
Panicle length
-0.001 -0.003 0 -0.016 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.002 0.001 -0.001
(cm)
Panicle bearing
-0.004 -0.003 0.003 -0.009 0.039 -0.005 0.003 0 0.009 -0.004
tillers/ plant
Spikelets/ panicle 0.004 0.012 0.002 -0.002 -0.007 0.051 0.012 -0.013 -0.005 0.006
Spikelet fertility
-0.004 0.004 0.019 0.011 -0.005 -0.013 -0.054 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002
(%)
1000-grain weight
0.005 -0.004 -0.022 -0.009 0 -0.022 0.004 0.085 -0.001 0.037
(g)
Biological yield/
0.316 0.182 0.354 -0.091 0.285 -0.122 0.054 -0.016 1.167 -0.733
plant (g)
Harvest-index (%) 0.075 0.056 -0.193 0.028 -0.08 0.097 0.038 0.366 -0.532 0.848
Residual factor = 0.2169 Bold diagonal figures indicate the direct effect

236
Table 2.3: Direct and indirect effects of different characters on grain yield per plant at phenotypic level in the rice geno-
types under transplanting condition
Days Plant Panicle Panicle Spikelet Biological
Days to Spikelets/ 1000-grain Harvest-
Characters to 50% height length bearing tillers/ fertility yield/ plant
maturity panicle weight (g) index (%)
flowering (cm) (cm) plant (%) (g)
Days to 50%
-0.011 -0.009 0.001 -0.002 -0.003 0.001 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 0.003
flowering
Days to
-0.008 -0.01 0.001 0 -0.002 0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.001 0.001
maturity
Plant height
-0.002 -0.004 0.027 0.003 -0.002 0.005 0.004 -0.002 0.008 0.001
(cm)
Panicle length
-0.001 0 -0.001 -0.008 0 0 -0.002 0 -0.001 0
(cm)
Panicle
bearing tillers/ -0.001 -0.001 0 0 -0.004 0 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 0
plant
Spikelets/
-0.001 -0.004 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.015 0.002 -0.001 0.002 0.004
panicle
Spikelet
0.012 0.009 0.005 0.01 0.008 0.004 0.039 0.003 0.013 0.005
fertility (%)
1000-grain
0.008 0.01 -0.002 0 0.005 -0.001 0.003 0.03 0.008 -0.002
weight (g)
Biological
yield/ plant 0.267 0.103 0.296 0.097 0.358 0.145 0.322 0.261 0.962 -0.257
(g)
Harvest-index
-0.124 -0.068 0.019 0.027 -0.007 0.135 0.069 -0.042 -0.137 0.512
(%)
Residual factor = 0.1117 Bold diagonal figures indicate the direct effect

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237
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 238-240 (2015)

INFLUENCE OF TIME OF PRUNING ON FRUIT YIELD AND QUALITY OF GUAVA

PLANTED AT DIFFERENT SPACING
V. SRI SATYA, S. G. BHARAD AND J. V. PATIL
Department of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (M.S.) 444104

ABSTRACT
A study was conducted in Akola; Maharashtra during 2011-2012 on young guava plants of cv. L-49 to evaluate the effect of different times of
pruning (1st February, 1st March, 1st April, 1st May, 1st June and no pruning (control)) on the physico-chemical characters of the guava at different
spacings (3m X 1.5m and 4m X 2m). Maximum fruit yield per plant with superior fruit quality was recorded in wider spacing of 4 x 2 m. Yield with
respect to fruits per plant and yield per plant were better in plants pruned on 1st April and superior quality fruits were associated with trees pruned
on 1st April. The effect of interaction between planting density and time of pruning on fruit yield and fruit quality was found to be non-significant.

Keywords: Guava, time of pruning, plant spacing, yield, fruit quality

INTRODUCTION Vidyapeeth, Akola during the year 2011-12. The treatments

The guava (Psidium guajava L.), an apple
of tropics, is the fourth most important fruit crop of India
and is equally popular with both the rich and poor in the
country. Guava bears on current season’s growth and flowers
appear in the axils of new leaves, therefore, it responds well
to pruning. Pruning is a practice which helps in improving
the quality and yield of guava fruits. (Gadgil and Gadgil,
1933). Guava trees produce heavy crop in rainy season and
light crop in winter season. The rainy season crop is poor in
quality and also attacked by many pests and diseases. On
the other hand winter season crop is superior in quality, free
from diseases and pests. Regulation of rainy season crop has
been done by de-blossoming, flower thinning, withholding
irrigation and foliar application of plant growth regulators in
the past. Recently, pruning has emerged as a commercial and
alternative method for regulating the crop in guava (Lal et
al., 1996). Crop regulation depends on the time of pruning.
Pruning at proper time helps in crop regulation considering
market demand. Pruning time mainly regulates the flowering
and fruit behavior of plants and also is helpful in reducing
the tree size and improving the fruit quality. The increasing
importance of guava as a commercial tropical fruit crop,
both for table purpose and processing demand its widespread
cultivation ensuring higher production. In general, guava is
cultivated mainly through traditional system, under which it
is difficult to achieve desired levels of production because
large trees provide low production per unit area and needs
high labour inputs and also large trees take several years to
come into bearing (Mohammed et al., 1984; Araujo et al.,
1999; Singh et al., 2003). Certain important strategies have
been identified for enhancing guava production in India
which involves adoption of modern, innovative and hitech
methods like high-density planting.
Hence an experiment was initiated to find out the
effect of different times of pruning on young guava plants at
different spacing on the fruit yield and quality.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two year old guava plants of cultivar ‘L- 49’, spaced
at 3m X 1.5m and 4m X 2m were selected in an orchard
of College of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi
consist of six dates of pruning namely 1st February, 1st March,
1st April, 1st May, 1st June and No pruning (as control). The
experiment was carried out under a Factorial Randomized
Block Design with twelve treatments and each treatment was
replicated 3 times. All trees were maintained under uniform
cultural practices. The observations were recorded on various
aspects viz., yield and fruit quality. Fully ripened fruits were
harvested in the last week of November. Yield per hectare
was estimated on the basis of number of trees and yield per
tree. For recording fruit quality observations, five mature
fruits were randomly selected from each observational plant
and same fruits were used for recording the various physico-
chemical properties of guava.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fruit Yield
The results presented in Table 1 indicated that,
maximum yield with respect to number of fruits per plant
(76.5) and yield per plant (12.72 kg) was recorded in wider
spacing of 4 x 2 m. Similar findings were also reported by
Lal et al. (1996) and Kundu (2007). The effect of planting
density was found to be non-significant in case of fruit
yield per hectare. With respect to time of pruning maximum
number of fruits per plant (83), highest yield per plant (14.84
kg) and per hectare (23.3 t) was recorded in plants pruned
on 1st April. The above findings are in conformity with those
of Zora Singh and Sandhu (1984) and Ravishankar et al.
(2008). The effect of interaction between planting density
and time of pruning on all the yield and yield attributing
characters was found to be non-significant.
Table 1. Influence of Planting Density and Time of Pruning
on Yield
Yield/ Yield/ hectare
Treatment Fruits/ plant plant (kg) (tonnes)
A. Spacing
3 x 1.5 m 45.77 7.45 16.56
4x2m 76.50 12.72 15.90
SE (m) ± 6.122 0.987 1.342

238
 CD at 5% 17.955 2.896 - The results regarding the fruit physical quality were
B. Time of Pruning presented in Table 2 revealed that maximum fruit weight
(165.17g), fruit size (length (6.55cm) and diameter (6.49cm))
1st February 81.00 12.95 21.17
and fruit volume (170.61cc) was found in plants of the wider
1 March
st
77.50 12.77 20.87 spacing (4 x 2 m). The above observations are in agreement
1st April 83.00 14.84 23.30 with Kundu (2007). Minimum number of seeds per 100 g
1st May 29.83 4.84 7.40 of pulp (239) was found to be recorded in wider spacing (4
1st June 64.16 10.16 17.03 x 2 m) whereas the effect of planting density on weight of
Control 31.33 4.96 7.62 100 seeds was found to be non-significant. Time of pruning
SE (m) ± 10.603 1.71 2.324 significantly affected the fruit physical parameters like fruit
CD at 5% 31.099 5.015 6.815 weight, fruit size and fruit volume. Maximum fruit weight
C. Interaction (178.16 g), fruit size (7.15 cm and 6.94 cm) and fruit volume
SE (m) ± 14.995 2.418 3.286 (189 cc) was recorded in the fruits of plants pruned on 1st
CD at 5% - - - April. Similar findings were also reported by Dhaliwal and
Rajwant Kaur (2003). Effect of time of pruning on number
of seeds/ 100g of pulp and weight of 100 seeds was found to
Fruit Quality be non-significant.

Table 2. Influence of Planting Density and Time of Pruning on Fruit Physical Quality
Fruit weight Fruit size Seeds/ 100g of Weight of 100
Treatment Fruit volume (cc)
(g) Length (cm) Diameter (cm) pulp seeds
A. Spacing
3 x 1.5 m 162.05 6.39 6.38 167.27 248.50 1.49
4x2m 165.17 6.55 6.49 170.61 239.00 1.53
SE (m) ± 0.888 0.044 0.034 0.814 2.256 0.025
CD at 5% 2.603 0.128 0.101 2.387 6.616 -
B. Time of Pruning
1st February 160.08 6.37 6.31 164.50 246.50 1.50
1st March 164.73 6.57 6.48 171.33 241.50 1.47
1st April 178.16 7.15 6.94 189.00 234.50 1.41
1st May 161.86 6.41 6.38 166.83 243.00 1.51
1st June 158.65 6.27 6.33 163.00 251.50 1.57
Control 158.20 6.05 6.17 159.00 245.50 1.60
SE (m) ± 1.537 0.076 0.06 1.41 3.907 0.043
CD at 5% 4.509 0.221 0.175 4.135 - -
C. Interaction
SE (m) ± 2.174 0.107 0.084 1.994 5.525 0.061
CD at 5% - - - Table 3. Influence
- of Planting- Density and Time of
- Pruning
The data regarding the fruit chemical quality as on Fruit Chemical Quality
influenced by planting density and time of pruning was T.S.S Ascorbic acid Total
presented in Table 3 revealed that maximum T.S.S (11.60 Treatment
(ºBrix) (mg/ 100 g) sugars (%)
ºBrix), ascorbic acid (170.41mg/ 100g pulp) and total
sugars (9.71%) were recorded in fruits of the plants grown A. Spacing
under wider spacing of 4 x 2 m. The above findings are in 3 x 1.5 m 10.48 149.47 9.51
agreement with Singh et al., (2007). With respect to time of 4x2m 11.61 170.40 9.79
pruning highest T.S.S (12.25 ºBrix), ascorbic acid (202.45 SE (m) ± 0.133 1.909 0.069
mg/ 100g pulp) and total sugars (11.74 %) were observed CD at 5% 0.39 5.598 0.203
in the fruits of plants pruned on 1st April. Similar findings B. Time of Pruning
were also reported by Dhaliwal and Rajwant Kaur (2003). 1st February 11.05 134.34 8.70
The influence of interaction effect between planting density 1st March 11.20 153.78 9.44
and time of pruning on both physical and chemical quality 1st April 12.25 202.45 11.74
parameters of the fruit was found to be non-significant. 1st May 11.36 183.37 10.48
Irrespective of the planting density, it was observed 1st June 10.38 158.16 9.54
that, plants pruned on 1st April produced fruits of superior Control 10.05 127.48 7.99
quality. SE (m) ± 0.23 3.306 0.12
CD at 5% 0.675 9.696 0.352
C. Interaction
SE (m) ± 0.325 4.675 0.17
CD at 5% - - -

239
REFERENCES
Araujo, F. J., T. Urdaneta, N. Salazar and R. Simancas,
1999. Effect of planting density on guava
(Psidium guajava L.) yield in Maracaibo Plain,
Venezuela. Revista dela Faculfad de Ayronomia,
Zulia. 16(1): 13-16.
Dhaliwal, G. S. and Rajwant Kaur, 2003. Effect of time and
pruning intensity on the age of bearing shoot
and fruit quality of ‘Sardar’ guava. Haryana J.
Hort. Sci. 32(1-2): 21-24.
Gadgil, D. R. and V. R. Gadgil, 1933. A survey of the
marketing of fruit in Poona. Gokhale Inst.
Politics and Economics Publi. : 3.
Kundu, S., 2007. Effect of high density planting on growth,
flowering and fruiting of guava (Psidium
guajava L.). Acta Horticulturae. 735: 267-270.
Lal, S., J. P. Tiwari and K. K. Misra, 1996. Effect of plant
spacing and pruning intensity on flowering
and fruiting of guava. Ann. Agric. Res. 17:
83-89.
Mohammed, S., L. A. Wilson and N. Prendergast, 1984.
Guava meadow orchard : effect of ultra-high
density planting and growth regulators on
growth, flowering and fruiting. Trop. Agri.
61 (4): 297-301.
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Panse, V. G. and P. V. Sukhatme, 1967. Statistical methods
for agril. Workers 2nd enlarge edition. ICAR.
New Delhi.
Ravishankar, H., T. N. Shivananda and A. G. Purohit,
2008. Effect of planting density on growth
parameters and fruit yield in guava
‘Allahabad Safeda’ cultivated in mid humid
conditions of Coorg. J. Hort. Sci. 3: 123-126.
Singh, Gorakh, S. Ranjan and A. K. Singh, 2003.
Approaches and strategies for precision
farming in guava. In: Precision Farming in
Horticulture, Singh, H.P., Singh, Gorakh,
Samual, J.C and Pathak, R.K. (eds). NCPAH,
DAC, MoA, PFDC, CISH. 92-113.
Singh, G., A. K. Singh, and D. Mishra. (2007). High Density
Planting in Guava. Acta Horticulturae. 735:
2235 – 2241.
Zora Singh and A. S. Sandhu, 1984. Effect of time of pruning
on growth, flowering, fruit set and maturity in
“Umran” jujube. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 54: 688-
689.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 241-244 (2015)

NUTRIENT UPTAKE, QUALITY AND ECONOMICS OF GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata L.)
AS INFLUENCED BY PHOSPHORUS MANAGEMENT
SWATHI KONENI1, SUNANDA MOKA2, V.S. SHINDE3, G.M. KOTE4
Department of Agronomy,
Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani-431 402 (M.S.) India

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at experimental farm of Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani, Maharashtra, in Kharif 2011 to
study the effect of soil and foliar application of phosphorus on nutrient uptake, quality and economics of greengram. The experiment
was laid out in Randomized Block Design with 0, 25, 50 Kg P2O5 ha-1 with foliar applications at 30 and 45 DAS. The results revealed
that greengram responded significantly to the soil and foliar application of phosphorus. The highest N and P uptake in plant and pro-
tein content(%) in seed were observed with the application of 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 along with foliar application of BOOST-52 (0:52:34)
at 30 and 45 DAS, which was at par with 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 along with foliar application of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at 45 DAS and found
significantly superior over rest of the treatments. The highest and significant N and P uptake in seed was observed with 50 kg P2O5 ha-1
along with foliar application of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at 30 and 45 DAS. The highest Gross monetary returns, Net monetary returns and
B:C ratio were observed with the application of 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 along with foliar application of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) 30 and 45 DAS.

Keywords: green gram, BOOST-52, foliar application, phosphorus, quality

INTRODUCTION
Green gram (Vigna radiata L.) attained its commercial
importance in Indian agriculture and also in Maharashtra.
Green gram ranks third among all the pulses in India after
chickpea and pigeonpea. It is grown in about 34.4 lakh
hectares in India with total production of 14.00 lakh tonnes,
with the productivity of 407 kg ha-1. Punjab is the leading
state in productivity. In Maharashtra, it occupies an area of
6.71 lakh hectares with total production of 3.71 lakh tonnes
and with the productivity of 553 Kg ha-1 (2011-12). (Source
: http ://agropedia.iitk.ac.in).
Fertilizer is one of the most important inputs for
increasing green gram yield. In legumes nitrogen requirement
is less as compared to phosphorus because major portion of
nitrogen is supplied through biological nitrogen fixation.
Therefore phosphorus is the key nutrient for increasing
productivity of pulses in general and green gram in particular.
Phosphorus stimulates early root development, enhances the
availability of Rhizobia and increases the formation of root
nodules thereby fixing more atmospheric nitrogen leading
to increased yield. Legumes as such have a relatively high
phosphorus requirement being utilized by plant and bacteria.
Phosphorus can be applied either as soil application or foliar
application.
Therefore, keeping the above facts in view, a field
experiment was conducted to estimate the optimum level of
soil and foliar application of phosphorus for better nutrient
uptake which further increases the yields, protein content in
seed and net returns.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted during kharif season
of 2011 at experimental farm of Department of Agronomy,
Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani on typic haplustert
soil with soil pH 7.20, 235.00 kg ha-1 available N, 15.00 kg
ha-1 available P2O5 and 408.60 kg ha-1 available K2O. The
experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with
four replications. The treatments were T1 - 50 kg P2O5 ha-1
as basal application, T2 - 25 kg P2O5 ha-1 as basal application
+ foliar application of BOOST-52(0:52:34) at 30 DAS, T3
- 25 kg P2O5 ha-1 as basal application + foliar application of
BOOST-52(0:52:34) at 45 DAS, T4 - 25 kg P2O5 ha-1 as basal
application + foliar application of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at
30 and 45 DAS, T5 - 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 as basal application
+ foliar application of BOOST-52(0:52:34) at 30 DAS, T6
-50 kg P2O5 ha-1 as basal application + foliar application of
BOOST-52(0:52:34) at 45 DAS, T7 - 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 as basal
application + foliar application of BOOST -52(0:52:34) at
30 and 45 DAS, T8 – Control (No Phosphorus). 25 kg N ha-1
as basal application and 1.25 kg K2O ha-1 as foliar application
at 30 and 45 DAS were common for all the treatments. Gross
and net plot sizes were, 5.4m x 4.5m and 4.2m x 4.1m,
respectively.
The total rainfall received during the crop life period
(27th MW – 36th MW) was 511.8 mm. The minimum and
maximum temperature ranged between 21.5 0C to 23.6 0C
and 29.0 0C to 32.8 0C, respectively. The observed relative
humidity was 55 to 94 per cent during crop period.
For the determination of nutrient contents in plant
samples, the samples were drawn at harvest stage. Samples
were thoroughly washed, dried, powdered and these were
used for uptake studies. The plant and grain nitrogen content
was determined by Microkjeldahl’s method as described
in AOAC (1975). The plant and grain phosphorus was
estimated by Vanadophosphomolybdate yellow colour
method spectrophotometrically as given by Piper (1966).
The nutrient uptake was calculated as below.
Nutrient content (%) x Grain/dry matter yield (kg ha-1)
Nutrient uptake (kg ha-1) =
100
For estimation of protein, the nitrogen content from
the grain samples was estimated by Microkjeldahl’s method
(AOAC, 1975) and N was multiplied by 6.25 to get percent

241
crude protein.
Economics of different treatments were worked out as
per prevailing market prices of economic produce and the
data was subjected to “F” test and inferences were drawn.
The B:C ratio was calculated by dividing gross monetary
returns with cost of cultivation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
N and P uptake (kg ha-1) in plant, seed and protein
content in seed were significantly influenced by various
treatments (Table 1).
N and P uptake in plant and Protein content in seed
were significantly highest with the application of 50 kg P2O5
ha-1 in combination with foliar spray of BOOST-52 (0:52:34)
at 30 & 45 DAS (T7), which was at par with 50 kg P2O5 ha-1
in combination with foliar spray of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at
45 DAS (T6) and found significantly superior over the rest
of the treatments. Control (T8) recorded significantly lowest
N and P uptake in plant and protein content in seed.
The protein content (%) in seed was increased with
the increase in the level of soil application of phosphorus.
The similar results were reported by Reddy et al (1990),
Ram and Dixit (2001), Deepsingh Sasode (2006). Foliar
application of phosphorus increased protein content (%) in
seed. The results are in conformity with Shinde and Bhilare
(2003).
The highest N and P uptake in seed was recorded
from the treatment with the application of 50 kg P2O5 ha-1
in combination with foliar spray of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at
30 & 45 DAS (T7), which was significantly superior over all
the treatments.
With increase in level of phosphorus, the nutrient
uptake (Nitrogen and Phosphorus) in plant was increased.
Similar results were reported by Sapatnekar etal (2001),
Thakur et al (1996), Subhendu Mandal et al (2005), Ajay
Gupta et al (2006), Amit Kumar Jain et al (2007). With the
increase in level of phosphorus the nutrient uptake (Nitrogen
and Phosphorus) in seed was increased. The results are in
conformity with the findings of Chesti and Tahir Ali (2008).
Economic analysis of different treatments revealed
that the highest cost of cultivation was for 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 in
combination with foliar spray of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at 30
Table 1 : Nitrogen, phosphorus uptake (kg ha-1) and protein content (%) in seed as influenced by various treatments .
Nitrogen
(kg ha-1)
Tr. No. Treatment
Plant
T1 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 22.20
25 kg P2O5 ha + BOOST-52 at 30
-1
T2 19.04
DAS.
25 kg P2O5 ha-1 + BOOST-52 at 45
T3 18.68
DAS.
25 kg P2O5 ha-1 + BOOST-52 at 30
T4 19.44
and 45 DAS.
242
& 45 DAS (T7), and lowest was for control (T8) (Table 2).
The highest gross monetary returns were recorded
for 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 in combination with foliar spray of
BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at 30 & 45 DAS (T7), which was
significantly superior over all other treatments. The highest
net monetary returns were recorded from the treatment of 50
kg P2O5 ha-1 in combination with foliar spray of BOOST-52
(0:52:34) at 30 & 45 DAS (T7), which was at par with T5 and
T6 and significantly superior over other treatments.
Among all the treatments, 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 in
combination with foliar spray of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at
30 & 45 DAS (T7) recorded the highest B:C ratio. Control
(T8) recorded lowest gross monetary returns, Net monitory
returns and B:C ratio among all the treatments under study.
Increase in phosphorus level through soil
application increased the Gross and Net monetary returns.
The findings are in conformity with the Shubendu Mandal et
al (2005), Tomer et al (1995), Sharma and Rajendra Prasad
(2009). With the foliar application of phosphorus, the gross
monetary returns, net monetary returns and B:C ratio were
increased. The similar findings were reported by Akhilesh
Kumar Jaiswal and Elamathi (2006) and Nigamananda
Behera and Elamathi (2007).
CONCLUSIONS
1. The highest nutrient uptake and protein content
(%) was recorded by 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 than 0 and
25 kg P2O5 ha-1. The uptake and protein content
(%) was increased with increase in phosphorus
level.
2. Foliar application of phosphorus increased the
nutrient uptake and protein content (%) of green
gram over without foliar application at same
levels of soil application of phosphorus.
3. The treatment with 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 with foliar
application of BOOST-52 (0:52:34) at 30 and 45
DAS recorded highest gross monetary returns, net
monetary returns and B: C ratio.
Phosphorus
(kg ha-1) Protein content
(%)
Seed Plant Seed
37.09 6.98 7.51 23.45
35.30 6.17 7.13 22.87
35.66 6.40 7.29 22.24
37.81 6.65 7.85 22.47
 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 + BOOST-52 at 30
T5 23.03 40.90 7.60 7.90 23.46
DAS.
50 kg P2O5 ha-1 + BOOST-52 at 45
T6 28.27 43.93 7.70 8.17 24.49
DAS.
50 kg P2O5 ha-1 + BOOST-52 at 30
T7 28.82 50.10 8.33 8.80 25.75
and 45 DAS.
T8 Control (No Phosphorus) 15.32 32.37 5.50 6.22 20.50
S.E. + 0.87 1.00 0.23 0.13 0.43
C.D. at 5% 2.56 2.93 0.67 0.39 1.26
G. Mean 21.85 39.14 6.92 7.61 23.16

Table 2: Economics of various treatments in phosphorus management in green gram.

Cost of Gross returns
Tr. No. Treatment Net returns (Rs) B:C ratio
cultivation(Rs) (Rs)
T1 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 17,365 49,463 32,098 2.84
25 kg P2O5 ha-1 + foliar application of BOOST-52
T2 16,834 48,488 31,904 2.88
(0:52:34) at 30 DAS.
25 kg P2O5 ha-1 + foliar application of BOOST-52
T3 16,834 47,788 30,954 2.84
(0:52:34) at 45 DAS.
25 kg P2O5 ha-1 + foliar application of BOOST- 52
T4 17,454 49,513 32,059 2.83
(0:52:34) at 30 & 45 DAS.
50 kg P2O5 ha-1 + foliar application of BOOST-52
T5 17,678 49,900 32,222 2.82
(0:52:34) at 30 DAS.
50 kg P2O5 ha-1 + foliar application of BOOST-52
T6 17,678 50,013 32,335 2.83
(0:52:34) at 45 DAS.
50 kg P2O5 ha-1 + foliar application of BOOST-52
T7 18,298 53,463 35,165 2.92
(0:52:34) at 30 & 45 DAS.
T8 Control (No Phosphorus) 15,370 42,188 26,818 2.74
S.E. + 1044 1033
C.D. at 5% 3071 3039
G. Mean 17,189 48,852 31,694 2.84
REFERENCES
Ajay Gupta, Vinod Kumar Sharma, G . D. Sharma and Deep Singh Sasode (2006). Effect of fertility levels and
Pankaj Chopra (2006). Effect of biofertilizer sulphur sources on yield and seed quality of
and phosphorus levels on Yield attributes, yield mungbean (Vigna radiata) and fertility of
and quality of urdbean (Vigna mungo). Indian J. alluvial soil. Legume Res., 29 (3) : 221-224.
Agron. 51(2) : 142-144.
Http :// agropedia.iitk.ac.in //
Akhilesh Kumar Jaiswal and S . Elamathi (2007 ).
Effect of nitrogen levels and foliar spray of Nigamananda Behera and S.Elamathi (2007). Studies on the
diammonium phosphate on growth and yield of time of nitrogen, application of foliar spray of
black gram (Vigna mungo). Agronomy Digest 6 DAP, and growth regulator on yield attributes,
& 7 : 24 -25. yield and economics of green gram (Vigna
radiata L.). Internat. J. agric. Sci., 3(1) : 168-
Amit Kumar Jain, Sudhir Kumar, JDS Panwar (2007). 169.
Response of mung bean (Vigna radiata) to
phosphorus and micronutrients on N and P Piper, C.S. (1966). Determination of organic carbon Walkely
uptake and seed quality. Legume Res., 30 (3) : and Blacks rapid titration method soil and plant
201-204. analysis. Hans. Publishers, Bombay pp : 223-
227.
A.O.A.C. (1975). Official Methods of Analysis, (Ed.12).
Association of Official Analytical Chemist, Ram, S.N. and Dixit, R.S.(2001). Growth, yield attributing
Washington, D.C. parameters and quality of summer green gram as
influenced by dates of sowing and phosphorus.
Chesti, M.H. and Tahir Ali (2008). Influence of organic and Indian J. Agric. Res., 35 (4) : 275-277.
inorganic phosphorus source On growth and
nutrient content of green gram (Vigna radiata Reddy, S.N., Singh, B.G. and I.V.S. Rao (1990). An analysis
L.) in Alfisol. Journal of Research, SKUAST-J, of dry matter production, growth and yield in
7(2), 225-231. green gram and black gram with phosphate
fertilization. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 15

243
 (2) : 189-191.
Sapatnekar, H.G., Rasal, P.H., Patil, P.L. (2001). Effects of
super phosphate and phosphate solubilizers
on yield of green gram. J. Maharashtra agric.
Univ., 26 (1) : 120-121.
Sharma, S. N. and Rajendra Prasad (2009). Effect of different
sources of phosphorus on summer mungbean
(Vigna radiata) in alkaline soil of Delhi. Indian
J. of Agril. Sci., 79 (10) : 782-789.
Shinde, S.H. and Bhilare, R.L. (2003). Response of chickpea
to soil and foliar application of DAP. Madras
Agric. J. 90 (4-6) : 352-354.
Subhendu Mandal, K.C., Biswal and P.K. Jana (2005). Yield,
244
economics, nutrient uptake and consumptive use
of water by summer, green gram as influenced
by irrigation and phosphorus application.
Legume Res., 28 (2) : 131-133.
Thakur, V.R., Giri, D.G. and J.P. Deshmukh (1996). Influence
of different sources and levels of phosphorus on
yield and uptake of green gram (Vigna radiata
L.). Annals Pl. Phy., 10 (2) : 145-147.
Tomar, S.S., Shrivastava, U.K. and R.K. Sharma (1995).
Effect of seed rates, moisture regimes and
phosphorus doses on growth and yield of
summer green gram. Legume Res., 19 (4) : 133-
135.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 245-249 (2015)

WEED DYNAMICS, NUTRIENT REMOVAL AND YIELD OF URDBEAN (VIGNA MUNGO

L. HEPPER) AS INFLUENCED BY WEED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES UNDER TARAI
CONDITIONS OF UTTARAKHAND
TANUMAY MANDAL*, V. K. SINGH, CHANDRA BHUSHAN AND AMRENDRA KUMAR
Department of Agronomy,
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Tech., Pantnagar, Uttarakhand 263145.
*Corresponding author: tanumaymandal@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during kharif season of 2011 at N. E. Bourlag Crop Research Centre of GovindBallabh Pant Univer-
sity of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) to evaluate the effect of various weed management treatments on weeds and
growth, yield and quality of urdbean. Twelve treatments (viz; alachlor @ 2.0 kg/ha-PE, pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha-PE, quizalofop-ethyl
@ 37.5 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 50 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), pendimethalin 30 EC + imazethapyr 2 EC @ 0.75 kg/ha-PE,
pendimethalin 30 EC + imazethapyr 2 EC @ 1.0 kg/ha imazethapyr @ 25 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), imazethapyr @ 40 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS),
imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), hand weeding twice at 20 and 40 DAS, weed free and weedy check) were set out in Randomized
Block Design with three replications.Echinochloa colona and Cyperus rotundus were the pre-dominant weed species in the experiment field
contributing 30.7 and 26.6 per cent of total weed density. Effective control of weeds (in terms of weed population, dry weight of weeds, weed
control efficiency and N, P, K removal by weed) was achieved in weed free condition followed by hand weeding twice done at 20 and
40 DAS and post-emergence application of imazethapyr @55 g/ha. Higher grain yield per hectare was obtained under weed free treat-
ment followed by hand weeding twice done at 20 and 40 DAS and imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha. Weed free followed by hand weedings twice
done at 20 and 40 DAS and imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha recorded higher nutrients (N, P and K) uptake by crop than remaining treatments.

Key words:Urdbean, herbicides, weed density, weed dry matter, nutrient uptake

INTRODUCTION
Urdbean or black gram (Vigna mungo L.) is one of weeding during critical period of crop-weed interference in
the importantpulse crops grown in India with the average urdbean under Pantnagar conditions.
productivity is only 440 kg/ha (Anonymous, 2010-11)
which is quite low against its potential yield.No or untimely MATERIALS AND METHODS
management of weeds is one of the major factors affecting
A field experiment was conducted during kharif
urdbean yield adversely. The degree of reduction in yield
season of 2011 at N. E. Bourlag Crop Research Centre of
depends upon the density and dry matter of weed species
GovindBallabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,
and fertility status of soil. The yield loss in urdbean due
Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) to evaluate the effect of various
to weeds varies from 30 to 50 per cent (Mishra, 1997).In
weed management treatments on weeds and growth, yield
order to achieve yield potential of urdbean, timely weed
and quality of urdbean. Geographically, Pantnagar is situated
management is very important. Manual weeding is common
at 290 N latitude, 79.30 E longitude at an altitude of 243.84 m
in the state but it is expensive, labour-intensive and often
above the mean sea level in thetarai belt of Shivalik range of
not performed at critical stage because of adverse soil
Himalayan foot hills.The soil of the experiment site was silty
and weather conditions. Furthermore, manual weeding is
clay loam in texture having medium organic carbon (0.71%),
possible only when the weeds have attained certain height
available nitrogen (286.8 kg/ha) and available potassium (235.4
in order to have proper grip, but by that time the weeds must
kg/ha) but high available phosphorus (31.8 kg/ha) contents with
have already damaged the crop to some extent. Further, the
neutral soil reaction (pH 7.2). Twelve treatments (viz; alachlor
operation has to be repeated and the paucity of labours,
@ 2.0 kg/ha-PE, pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha-PE, quizalofop-
particularly during peak period, makes it further difficult.
ethyl @ 37.5 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 50
A limited number of herbicides have been tested against
g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), pendimethalin 30 EC + imazethapyr 2
the weeds in urdbean. These herbicides are applied as pre-
EC @ 0.75 kg/ha-PE, pendimethalin 30 EC + imazethapyr
emergence and can control weeds up to a limited period.
2 EC @ 1.0 kg/ha imazethapyr @ 25 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS),
The activity of these herbicides is either reduced or they
imazethapyr @ 40 g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), imazethapyr @ 55
become ineffective for second flush of weeds owing to
g/ha-PoE (15 DAS), hand weeding twice at 20 and 40 DAS,
very heavy rainfall. Introduction of post emergence applied
weed free and weedy check) were set out in Randomized
herbicides may prove a boon for effective weed control in
Block Design with three replications with the plot size of
growing stage of urdbean crop. During recent past a number
6.0m x 3.6m.Furrows were opened manually 30 cm apart,
of broad spectrum herbicides have been launched which are
with the help of furrow opener up to a depth of 3 to 4 cm.
capable of reducing competition for a longer period of time.
The seeds of urdbean variety ‘Pant U-31’ were sown. After
The efficacy and selectivity of these herbicides are yet to
sowing of seeds, furrows were covered with a thin layer of
be explored in pulses. Keeping in view these facts, present
soil.Before sowing, seeds were treated with thiram @ 2 g +
investigation were undertaken to test the performance of
carbendazim @ 1 g/kg seed.A uniform dose of 20 kg N and
various post-emergence along with pre-emergence and hand

245
52 kg P2O5 and 52 kg K2O/ha was applied as basal through
NPK mixture (10:26:26) at the time of sowing.Data on major
weed flora, their per cent contribution, weed density and
dry biomass, growth and yield attributes as well as yield of
urdbean were recorded following standard practices.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Weed flora
The experimental field was infested with 14 weed species
(5 grassy, 7 broad-leaved and 2 sedges) namely Echinochloa
colona L., Digitariasanguinalis L., Eleusineindica L.,
Cynodondactylon L., Dactylocteniumaegypticum L, Celosia
argentea L., Tianthemamonogyna L., Digeraarvensis L.,
Partheniumhysterophorus L.,Ageratum conyzoidesL.,
Commelinabenghalensis L., Cleome viscosaL., Cyperus
rotundus L. and CyperusiriaL. Dominance of these weeds in
urdbean field has also been reported by Chand et al. (2004)
from Pantnagar.
Weed density
The total weed population recorded at different stages
in weedy check plot revealed that crop was severely infested
with weeds throughout the growth period (Table 1). The
total weed population was the highest at 30 days stage and
thereafter decreased with increasing crop age. The lowest
density was observed at harvest in all the treatments. This
revealed that majority of weeds emerged before the 30th day
stage. Weedy treatment recorded significantly higher weed
population, than remaining treatments at all the stages. Hand
weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS caused significant reduction
in total weed population over remaining treatments, except
weed free, at all the stages of crop growth. All herbicidal
treatments reduced the weed population significantly
over weedy check at all the stages of crop growth.Many
researchers have reported that lower weed densities in urdbean
and similar crops are observed with the use of herbicides
like alachlor(Reddy et al., 1998), pendimethalin (Mishra
and Singh, 1993), (Kumar and Tewari, 2004), quizalofop-
ethyl (Meenaet al., 2011) fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (Rao, 2008),
imazethapyr (Dhakeret al., 2010).
Post-emergence application of imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha
proved to be superior over other herbicidal treatments used
in the experiment. Imazethapyr is an imidazole compound
used as selective herbicide in a variety of crops. Compound
has residual effect extending from a week to several months
depending on herbicide dose. Generally high doses have
more residual effect than low doses. This compound controls
weeds by reducing the levels of three branched-chain
aliphatic amino acids, isoleucine, leucine and valine synthesis
through the inhibition of aceto-hydroxyacid synthase (ALS),
an enzyme common to the biosynthetic pathway for these
amino acids. This inhibition causes a disruption in protein
synthesis, in turn leads to interference in DNA synthesis and
cell growth. Imazethapyr is readily absorbed by roots and
leaves, translocated by both symplast (phloem) and apoplast
(xylem), and accumulated in mersistematic tissues. Reports
show that it is a broad-spectrum herbicide which kills both
grasses and broad-leaved weeds very effectively.
Total dry matter of weeds
Total dry matter of weeds per unit area increased
246
consistently with the advancement in crop age upto 60
DAS and then decreased consistently upto harvest stage in
weedy check treatment (Table 2). Significant differences
in total dry matter of weeds were recorded due to different
weed management practices at all the stages of crop
growth. Dry matter production by weeds under weedy
check wassignificantly higher than other weed management
treatments at all the stages of crop growth. The treatment
hand weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS caused significant
reduction in total weed dry matter over remaining herbicidal
treatments at all the stages of crop growth. All herbicidal
treatments reduced weed population significantly over
weedy check at all the stages of crop growth.Bhanmurthy
and Subramanian (1989) opined that weed dry matter is a
better parameter to measure the competition than weed
number since, it precisely measures the quantum of growth
related factors utilized by the weeds. The total dry matter
production in weedy check increased upto 60 days stage
though the highest population was observed at 30 day stage.
This indicated that crop-weed competition would have been
intensified after 30th day stage to reduce weed population,
but the increase in dry matter of weeds upto 60 DAS might
be due to accumulation of higher dry matter by individual
weed plant.
Weed Control Efficiency
Weed control efficiency (WCE) at maximum weed dry
matter stage (60 DAS) differed significantly under various
treatments (Table 3). All weed management treatments
resulted in increased weed control efficiency significantly
over weedy check. The highest weed control efficiency was
obtained in weed free treatment which was significantly
higher than all other treatments except hand weeding twice
at 20 and 40 DAS. Hand weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS
had significantly higher weed control efficiency over all
the herbicidal treatments. Among the herbicidal treatments,
imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha being at par with all the herbicidal
treatments except imazethapyr @25 g/ha and pendimethalin
30 EC+ imazethapyr 2 EC @ 0.75 kg/ha computed
significantly higher weed control efficiency. The lowest
weed control efficiency was caused by pendimethalin 30
EC+ imazethapyr 2 EC @ 0.75 kg/ha after weedy check.
Yield of urdbean
The effect of weed management treatments on the
grain yield per hectare was significant (Table 3).The highest
grain yield per hectare was obtained under weed free
treatment, which being at par withhand weeding twice at 20
and 40 DAS and imazethapyr @55 g/ha, but significantly
higher than remaining treatments.Weed free treatment gave
80.7, 12.2 and 15.9 per cent more grain yield over weedy
check, hand weedings twice done at 20 and 40 DAS and
post emergence application of imazethapyr @55 g/ha
respectively. Hand weedings twice done at 20 and 40 DAS
and post emergence application of imazethapyr @55 g/ha,
were next to weed free treatment and yielded 61.6 and 55.9
per cent higher grain yield over weedy check respectively.A
weed free environment at initial stage of crop growth till
the critical period of the crop-weed competition facilitated
good growth of crop by offering least competition for water,
nutrients, light and space with weeds which ultimately
reflected on yield. These results are in close conformity with
those of Kumar et al. (2010).
Nutrients (N, P, K) uptake by crop
Weed management treatments differed significantly
for the uptake of nutrients (N, P and K) by the crop. In
weedy plot uptake of nutrients was 51.64, 8.79 and 33.39
kg of N, P and K/ha as against 83.23, 14.85 and 48.71 kg/
ha, respectively in weed free condition. Hand weeding twice
done at 20 and 40 DAS and post-emergence application of
imazethapyr @55 g/ha ranked second and third for uptake
of nutrients next to weed free condition (Table 4). Since
nutrient uptake is a numerical product of nutrient content
and dry matter accumulation which were higher under above
treatments. Higher nutrient uptake under these treatments
might also be attributed to more proliferation of root system
and high dry matter accumulation by individual plant which
in turn yielded higher in comparison to other treatments.
The higher uptake of nutrients under these treatments might
also be due to less or no contribution of these in removal of
nutrients by weeds.
Nutrients (N, P, K) removal by weeds
The total nutrient uptake by weeds is a function of total
dry matter production and nutrient concentration present
in the weeds. The higher the weeds dry matter, the higher
was the nutrient removal by weeds. Generally, all the weed
management treatments caused significant reduction in the
nutrient uptake by weeds. Weeds in weedy plots removed
16.72 kg N, 4.21 kg P and 13.78 kg K/ha (Table 4) at 60 day
stage. The highest uptake of N, P and K due to weeds in weedy
plots was because of higher amount of dry matter produced
by weeds in unit area. There was significant reduction
in the uptake of these nutrients by the weeds due to hand
weeding and herbicidal treatments. These were attributed to
the reduction in total density and dry matter production of
weeds caused by herbicide and manual treatments. The N,
P and K removal by weeds in treated plots varied from 0.00
to 8.32, 0.00 to 2.13 and 0.00 to 6.90 kg /ha respectively.
Two hand weedings done at 20 and 40 DAS followed by
imazethapyr @55 g/ha resulted in lowest nutrient uptake by
weeds after weed free. It might be due to complete removal
of undesirable vegetation at critical period (20 to 40 DAS).
On the basis of the experimental findings, it may be
concluded that the post-emergence (15 DAS) application
of imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha, may be an alternative to hand
weedings for effective control of weed population and its
dry weight and achieving more grain yield of urdbean during
kharif season under Pantnagar conditions.

Table 1:Density of total weeds as influenced by different weed management practices at various stages of crop growth
Total weeds density (plants/m2)
Treatment
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS 75 DAS Harvest
Alachlor @ 2.0 kg/ha-PE 4.87*1(129.33)*2 4.47 (86.67) 4.17 (64.00) 3.97 (52.00) 3.27 (25.33)
Pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha-PE 4.83 (124.00) 4.41 (81.33) 4.11 (60.00) 3.94 (50.67) 3.18 (24.00)
Quizalofop-ethyl @ 37.5 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.78 (118.67) 4.34 (76.00) 4.08 (58.67) 3.88 (48.00) 3.15 (22.67)
Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 50 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.62 (101.33) 4.27 (70.67) 4.15 (62.67) 3.97 (52.00) 3.15 (22.67)
Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready
4.92 (136.00) 4.57 (96.00) 4.29 (72.00) 4.15 (62.67) 3.49 (32.00)
mix) @ 0.75 kg /ha-PE
Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready
4.88 (130.67) 4.50 (89.33) 4.23 (68.00) 4.04 (56.00) 3.40(29.33)
mix) @ 1.0 kg /ha-PE
Imazethapyr @ 25 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.64 (102.67) 4.34 (76.00) 4.21 (66.67) 4.02 (54.67) 3.36 (28.00)
Imazethapyr @ 40 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.59 (97.33) 4.19 (65.33) 4.09 (58.67) 3.86 (46.67) 2.94 (18.67)
Imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.56 (96.00) 4.17 (64.00) 4.06 (57.33) 3.82 (45.33) 2.92 (18.67)
Hand weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS 3.41 (29.33) 2.97 (18.67) 3.27 (25.33) 2.74 (14.67) 2.00 (6.67)
Weed free 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)
Weedy check 5.37 (214.67) 5.09 (162.67) 5.00 (148.00) 4.68 (106.67) 4.25 (69.33)
 S.Em ± 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.14
 C.D. at 5% 0.18 0.16 0.18 0.22 0.42

*1Log transformed values

*2 Original values in parentheses

Table 2:Total dry matter of weeds as influenced by different weed management practices at various stages of crop growth
Total weeds dry matter (g/m2)
Treatment
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS 75 DAS Harvest
Alachlor @ 2.0 kg/ha-PE 4.02*1(54.63)*2 4.11 (60.47) 4.01(54.13) 3.93(50.05) 3.38(28.40)
Pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha-PE 3.78 (42.77) 3.88 (47.87) 3.92(49.52) 3.87(47.15) 3.28(26.31)
Quizalofop-ethyl @ 37.5 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.75 (41.76) 3.86 (46.52) 3.91(49.00) 3.87(47.15) 3.25(24.93)
Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 50 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.78 (43.12) 3.99 (53.49) 3.98(52.63) 3.94(50.60) 3.28(26.01)
Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready mix)
4.07 (58.03) 4.19 (65.28) 4.18(64.48) 4.12(60.60) 3.63(36.81)
@ 0.75 kg /ha-PE
Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready mix)
3.94 (48.53) 3.99 (53.03) 3.98(52.80) 3.94(50.67) 3.51(32.89)
@ 1.0 kg /ha-PE
Imazethapyr @ 25 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.79 (43.52) 3.95 (51.19) 4.05(56.85) 3.98(52.72) 3.46(31.15)

247
 Imazethapyr @ 40 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.77 (42.29) 3.84 (45.76) 3.85(46.23) 3.81(44.61) 3.08(21.71)
Imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.73 (41.07) 3.81 (44.09) 3.82(45.19) 3.74(41.95) 3.07(21.74)
Hand weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS 2.32 (9.19) 1.31 (2.75) 2.33(9.39) 2.12(7.35) 2.14(7.84)
Weed free 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00(0.00) 0.00(0.00) 0.00(0.00)
Weedy check 4.56 (94.96) 4.74 (114.44) 4.85(127.63) 4.64(102.47) 4.37(78.65)
 S.Em ± 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.13
 C.D. at 5% 0.14 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.39

*1Log transformed values *2 Original values in parentheses

Table 3:Weed control efficiency (60 DAS)and yield of urdbean as influenced by different weed management practices
Treatment Weed control efficiency (%) Grain yield (kg/ha)
Alachlor @ 2.0 kg/ha-PE 3.92* (56.76)*
1 2
1107
Pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha-PE 3.98 (59.46) 1111
Quizalofop-ethyl @ 37.5 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.03 (60.31) 1200
Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 50 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.94 (57.66) 1226

Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready mix) @ 0.75 kg /ha-PE 3.78 (51.35) 1007

Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready mix) @ 1.0 kg /ha-PE 3.84 (54.05) 1096
Imazethapyr @ 25 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 3.89 (54.95) 1204
Imazethapyr @ 40 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.04 (60.36) 1315
Imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 4.09 (61.26) 1352

Hand weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS 4.54 (82.89) 1396

Weed free 4.62 (100.00) 1567
Weedy check 0.00 (0.00) 867
 S.Em ± 0.07 80
 C.D. at 5% 0.20 235

*1Log transformed values *2 Original values in parentheses

Table 4:NPK uptake by crop at harvest and weed at 60DAS as influenced by different weed management practices
NPK uptake (kg/ha) by crop NPK uptake (kg/ha) by weed
Treatment
N P K N P K
Alachlor @ 2.0 kg/ha-PE 60.69 10.81 37.97 2.04*1(6.93)*2 0.93 (1.67) 1.82 (5.74)
Pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha-PE 60.88 10.30 37.39 1.93 (6.19) 0.89 (1.54) 1.81 (5.10)
Quizalofop-ethyl @ 37.5 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 67.07 11.85 42.21 1.92 (6.08) 0.89 (1.52) 1.79 (5.00)
Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl @ 50 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 71.71 12.71 45.05 2.00 (6.68) 0.96 (1.63) 1.82 (5.47)
Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready mix) @ 0.75
57.36 9.69 37.89 2.17 (8.32) 1.08 (2.13) 2.00 (6.90)
kg /ha-PE
Pendimethalin 30 EC +imazethapyr 2 EC (ready mix) @ 1.0
60.66 10.24 38.66 2.01 (6.76) 0.95 (1.69) 1.85 (5.60)
kg /ha-PE
Imazethapyr @ 25 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 70.43 12.13 44.84 2.08 (7.11) 0.95 (1.71) 1.83 (5.86)
Imazethapyr @ 40 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 72.54 13.12 44.29 1.89 (5.82) 0.85 (1.43) 1.69 (4.76)
Imazethapyr @ 55 g/ha PoE, 15 DAS 74.76 13.58 45.92 1.83 (5.74) 0.83 (1.36) 1.69 (4.70)
Hand weeding twice, 20 and 40 DAS 77.46 13.99 47.17 0.66 (1.16) 0.18 (0.29) 0.55 (0.98)
Weed free 83.23 14.85 48.71 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)
2.51
Weedy check 51.64 8.79 33.39 2.66 (16.72) 1.48 (4.21)
(13.78)
 S.Em ± 3.19 0.65 2.50 0.06 0.06 0.04
 C.D. at 5% 9.36 1.89 7.34 0.19 0.17 0.13
*1Log transformed values *2 Original values in parentheses

248
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new parameters, gram dry competition for weed
control study.Indian Journal of Agricultural
Science, 59 :800-801.
Chand, R., Singh, N.P. and Singh, V.K. (2004). Effect of
weed control treatments on weeds and grain
yield of late sown urdbean (Vigna mungo L.)
during kharif season. Indian Journal of Weed
Science, 36 (1 & 2): 127-128.
Dhaker, S. C.,Mundra, S. L. M. and Nepalia, V. (2010).Effect
of weed management and sulphur nutrition
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& 4): 232-234.
Kumar, A. and Tewari, A.N. (2004).Efficacy of pre and post-
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(Vignamungo L.).Indian Journal of Weed
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Kumar, S., Singh, R. and Kumar, N. (2010).Performance of
different herbicide in weed growth of chickpea
(Cicerarietinum L.).International Journal
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in urdbean (Vigna mungo L.). In: integrated
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 250-254 (2015)

GENETIC ANALYSIS FOR YIELD COMPONENTS AND OIL CONTENT IN INDIAN

MUSTARD [BRASSICA JUNCEA (L.) CZERN & COSS]
UMESH BABU1, N. PRATAP2, RAJ SHEKHAR3, R.P. SINGH4 AND L.K. GANGWAR1
1
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, S. V. B. P. University of Agriculture & Technology Meerut – 250 110; 2 SMS-GPB,
KVK Varanasi-221307; 3Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj,
Faizabad-224229, Dept. Entomology CCS PG College Saifai Etawha, U.P.; India.

ABSTRACT
Genetic analysis for yield and its contributing characters in mustard were studies on 11 parents and 24 hybrids derived from lines x tester mat-
ting design; were evaluated in a RBD with three replication. Among lines, higher significant differences was recorded for all the characters
except days to maturity, whereas in testers; highly significant differences were also observed for all the characters except biological yield per
plant, which indicated the existence of genetic diversity in the parental materials. EC-39902, EC-401467 and EC-599298 genotypes were
the best general combiner for early flowering and dwarfness among line. Among the testers, Kanti was good general combiner for most of the
yield contributing traits. Therefore, it is suggested that these parents could be used in hybridization programme for developing high yielding
varieties. Cross EC – 386781 x Kanti was the superior specific combiners for high seed yield per plant. Seed yield and major yield components
showed the significance of both additive and non-additive type of gene action in different cross combination for different characters. The pres-
ence of additive gene action suggested that a part of heterosis can be fixed in subsequent generations to take advantage in further selection.

KEY WORDS: GCA, Gene action, Heterosis, Indian mustard, SCA, Variance.

INTRODUCTION
Oilseed Brassicas are the most important rabi oilseed
crops of the country. India also enjoys a distinct position in
terms of rich diversity. The country blessed with the agro-
ecological conditions favourable for growing nine oilseeds
which include seven edible oilseeds. Indian mustard
[Brassica juncea(L.) Czern & Coss] is the amphidiploid, self
compatible and self-pollinated species in nature but about
30% cross pollination may occur by wind and insect under
field condition. The quantum jump in production of rapeseed-
mustard crops is commonly known as Yellow revolution;
this is to be attributed to the development of improved
technologies. However, this increased average yield was
also quite low as compared to the major rapeseed producing
countries. The average yield of India is 1057 kg/ha against
world’s average 1730 kg/ha and world’s best 2650 kg/ha
(FAO, 2007). The development of high yielding varieties
having early maturity and high oil content is possible only
if wide genetic diversity exists in the material and also good
combiners are identified and may be used for hybridization
programme for developing high yielding varieties (HYVs).
The increase in productivity through breeding efforts
has not been adequate because of traditional selection
methods following hybridization. Heterosis breeding could
be potential alternative for achieving quantum jumps in
production and productivity. Since, commercial exploitation
of heterosis in several crop plants has caused major
breakthrough in yield levels. The magnitude of heterosis
particularly for yield is of paramount importance and if
the heterosis is practically and economically feasible it can
help to reach high yield levels and thereby output of oil in
mustard. The heterosis component is largely dependent on
diverse parents with good general combining ability (gca).
In practical heterosis breeding, it is necessary to select good
specific cross combinations with high degree of specific
combining ability (sca) as well as parents with high general
combining ability (gca).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental material comprised of eight
diverse lines and three testers along with their 24 F1’s cross
combinations developed through line x tester mating design.
Parental lines and 24 F1’s were sown and evaluated in a
Completely Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three
replications during Rabi2007-2008. The investigation was
carried out at Crop Research Centre of SVBP University
of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut. The thirteen
observations, recorded on ten randomly selected plants from
each entry viz., Days to 50 per cent flowering, Plant height,
Primary branches per plant, Secondary branches per plant,
Siliquae on main shoot, Siliquae per plant, Seeds per siliqua,
Days to maturity, Biological yield per plant, Seed yield per
plant, 1000- seed weight, Harvest index, Oil content. Each
genotypes was sown in two rows of 3 meter length spaced
30 cm apart with plant-to-plant distance of 10-15 cm, was
maintained by proper thinning. The border rows were also
planted to neutralize the border effects. All the recommended
agronomic practices and plant protection measures were
followed to raise the good crop successfully.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of variance: The analysis of variance (Table 1)
revealed significant differences for all the characters studied
except days to maturity in case of line which indicated, the
existence of genetic diversity in the parental materials. On the
other hand, among testers highly significant differences were
also observed for all the characters except biological yield
per plant. Variations among line x tester interactions were
also significant for most of the characters studies except days
to maturity, seed yield per plant and 1000 seed weight. This
indicated the manifestation of parental genetic variability in
these crosses and presence of uniformity among the hybrids.
Similar, findings have been reported by Ghosh et.al. , (2002),
Monpara and Dobariya (2007) and Meena et.al., (2013)

250
also reported significant differences among line x tester
interaction for length of siliqua, number of seeds per siliqua,
Seed yield per plant, 1000-seed weight and oil content.
Variance components of combining ability: The
analysis of combining ability effects provides guidelines for
early assessment of breeding potential of parental material,
which may be categorized for further use in generating
hybrids or for creating fixable gene combination depending
upon the nature of gene action. Variance due to gca and
sca revealed that both additive and non-additive genetic
variance as well as additive and non-additive gene action
accomplished and play important role in the expression of
various characters. The variance due to sca was found to
be considerably higher than that of gca for all characters
except primary branches per plant and seed yield per plant,
indicating greater importance of non-additive gene action for
exploitation of heterosis (Table 2). Similar findings have also
been reported by Ghosh et.al., (2002), Singh e.al., (1973)
and Bhateria et.al., (1995) in Indian mustard. Whereas the
variance due to gca was greater than sca for primary branches
per plant and seed yield per plant indicating that additive
gene action was pre-dominant for these characters. Similar
to present study additive gene action for primary branches
per plant, siliquae per plant, days to maturity and days to 50
per cent flowering has been reported by Yadav et.al., (1992)
and Singh and Sachan (2003). Almost equal magnitude of
gca and sca variance appeared in case of primary branches
per plant, seed yield per plant, 1000-seed weight and harvest
index, it indicated that both additive and non-additive gene
action were important for these character. Ghosh et.al.,
(2002) and Singh et.al., (2003) also reported non-additive
gene action for secondary branches plant, seeds per siliqua,
1000-seed weight, oil content and seed yield per plant in
Indian mustard. The results suggested that for exploitation
of heterosis both additive and non-additive type of gene
actions important. It would be worthwhile to resort breeding
methodologies such as biparental mating, recurrent selection
or reciprocal recurrent selection which would accumulate
favourable genes in homozygous state or help in breaking
linkage blocks thereby generating maximum variability for
further selection.
General combining ability: The results of general
combining ability of all the lines and testers are presented
in Table 3. For most of the yield contributing characters the
lines appeared as best general combiners were EC-599298,
EC-385604 and EC-401467 which could be used to develop
high yielding varieties. However the genotype EC-39902,
EC-401467 and EC-599298 were the best general combiner
for early flowering and dwarfness. In the present study it was
also noticed that among the testers, Kanti was good general
combiner for most of the yield contributing traits viz., days
to 50 per cent flowering, siliquae on main shoot, seeds per
siliqua and harvest index. However, it was average combiner
for secondary branches per plant. Varuna was appeared as
good general combiner for primary and secondary branches
per plant, harvest index and oil content whereas Urvashi was
identified as a good general combiner for plant height, seeds
per siliqua and biological yield. Therefore, it is suggested
that these parents could be used in hybridization programme
for developing high yielding varieties. The higher mean
performance of such important parents may be mainly due
to the preponderance of non-additive effects. Therefore,
251
the higher mean performance of the parents could not be
transferred into hybrids uniformly in such cases. Similarly,
Monpara and Dobariya (2007), Ghosh et.al., (2002), Singh
et.al.,(1973), Bhateriaet.al., (1995), Verma and Kushwaha
(1999), Yadav et.al., (1981), Govilet.al.,(1983), Yadav
et.al.,(1992), Singh and Sachan (2003), Meena et.al., (2013)
and Raj Shekhar et.al., (2014) has been reported results in
according to this study.
Specific combining ability effects: Specific combining
ability effects of all the lines and testers are presented
in Table 4. Specific combining ability effects estimates
revealed a very wide range of variation for all the characters.
The crosses showing high sca did not always involved good
general combiners revealing the importance of non-additive
genetic variance in hybrids for such characters. The crosses
exhibiting best specific combination and high heterosis did
not involve both parents of good general combining ability
indicating that genetic diversity of parents played an important
role in expression of such characters in hybrid combination.
The crosses having maximum mean performance did not
always have high sca but expressed high per cent of heterosis
in desired direction for most of the character. Similarly,
crosses exhibiting high extent of heterosis did not recorded
high sca estimate in some crosses. This may be due to poor
performance of hybrids in comparison to their parents.
Crosses viz., EC – 401467 x Varuna, EC – 389298 x
Urvashi, EC – 386781 x Kanti, EC – 39930 x Kanti, EC
– 39930 x Urvashi, EC – 401467 x Kanti, EC - 399298 x
Varuna, EC – 3829298 x Varuna, EC – 367881 x Urvashi and
EC – 39902 x Kanti performed as the best specific combiners
for several yield contributing traits such as seed per siliqua,
biological yield per plant, seeds yield per plant, 1000-seed
weight, harvest index and oil content. For the character
days to maturity, not a single cross showed significant sca
effect. Cross EC – 386781 x Kanti was the superior specific
combiners for high seed yield per plant. Similar results
were also reported earlier by Rawatet.al.,(1987), Bhateria
et.al.,(1995), Monpara and Dobariya (2007) and Meena et.al.,
(2013). Oil content is an important economic component of
seed yield. Ten crosses showed highly significant sca effect
for oil content. Crosses viz., EC – 367881 x Urvashi, EC
– 39902 x Kanti and EC – 599298 x Kanti had significant
sca as well as one of the parents of these crosses had
significant gca effects, suggesting operation of non-additive
gene action. Similar observations were also made by Ghosh
et.al.,(2002), Yadav et.al.,(1981), Govil et.al.,(1983),
Wang et.al.,(1986), Bhateria et.al.,(1995), Monpara and
Dobariya (2007) and Meena et.al., (2013). Seed yield and
major yield components showed the significance of both
additive and non-additive type of gene action in different
cross combination for different characters. The presence of
additive gene action suggested that a part of the heterosis
can be fixed in subsequent generations to take advantage in
further selection. The predominance of non-additive gene
action, however brought out that heterosis component could
be exploited in hybrid development in Indian mustard.
Per cent contribution of different components of
variance due to crosses: The percentage of lines contribution
was appeared highest for primary branches per plant, harvest
index, seed yield per plant whereas, the per cent contribution
of tester was highest for siliquae per plant, secondary
branches per plant, days to maturity and seed per siliqua.
The line x tester interaction was highest for oil content, days
to maturity, siliquae on main shoot, seed per siliqua, days to
50 per cent flowering, primary branch per plant, secondary
branches per plant and siliquae per plant was also higher
than the lines and testers separately, it indicated existence of
genetic diversity for these characters was mainly due to line
x tester interactionsSimilar findings have also been reported
by Ghose et.al.,(2002), Singh et.al.,(2003), Joshi and Patil
(2003), Monpara and Dobariya (2007), Meena et.al.,(2013)
and Raj Shekhar et.al., (2014).
Heterosis: The heterosis component is largely
dependent on diverse parents with good general combining
ability (gca). Heterosis breeding is necessary to select
combinations with high degree of specific combining
ability (sca) as well as parents with high gca. The extent
of heterosis varied considerably for seed yield and its
components. Heterosis over mid and better parent indicated
that for seed yield per plant cross EC-386781 x Kanti
expressed maximum heterosis of 37.09 per cent over mid-
parent and heterobeltiosis of 17.60 per cent in desired
direction. Therefore, this cross has potential for commercial
exploitation of heterosis if stable restorer is available.
Similar to the present study, heterosis for seed yield and it
components was reported by Malviya et.al.,(2012), Duhoon
and Basu (1981), Kumar et.al.,(1990), Pradhan et.al.,(1993)
Ghosh et.al.,(2002), Prajapatiet.al.,(2007), Monpara and
Dobariya (2007) and Meena et.al.,(2013).
The expression of relative heterosis for days to flower
was in positive direction (late). For the early maturity cross
EC-39902 x Varuna was found superior over the others. This
cross also exhibited heterosis over mid parent for days to
maturity. Similar findings were recorded by Bhusun (1983),
Singh and Singh (1983), Singh et.al.,(2003), Joshi and Patil
(2003) and Manpara and Dobariya (2007). Heterosis for
plant height in general was in negative direction (dwarfness).
Cross combination EC-39902 x Urvashi was the superior
specific combination for dwarfness. The negative significant
relative heterosis and heterobeltiosis for height indicating that
for this trait the genes with negative effect were dominant.
These findings of present study are in accordance with the
earlier reports of Prajapati et.al.,(2007), Rai and Singh
(1994), Verma et.al.,(1989), Katiyar et.al.,(2004), Singh
et.al.,(2003), Joshi and Patil (2003), Monpara and Dobariya
(2007) and Meena et.al.,(2013). For yield contributing traits
crosses viz., EC-599298 x Kanti, EC-367881 x Kanti, EC-
39930 x Kanti, and EC-39902 x Kanti exhibited higher
heterosis in positive direction. Highest heterobeltiosis for
oil content was expressed by EC-599298 x Kanti followed
by EC-39902 x Kanti and EC-39930 x Kanti. Oil content
is an important economic component of seed yield. These
above mentioned crossed showed highly significant better
parent heterosis for this character. Earlier Malviya et.al.,
(2012), Verma et.al., (1999) and Meena et.al., (2013) also
reported high heterosis for oil content. Five crosses exhibited
significant positive relative heterosis and heterobeltiosis
were involved Kanti as a parent.

Table 1: Analysis of variance for Line x Tester

Days Primary Secondary Siliquae Seeds 1000-

Source of Plant Siliquae per Days to Biological Seed yield/ Harvest Oil
d.f. to 50% branches branches on main per seed
variance height plant maturity yield plant index content
flowering per plant per plant shoot siliquae weight

Replication 2 0.98 2.16** 0.14** 0.76*** 0.31* 4.36 0.14 147.42 0.25 0.12 0.00 0.18* 00.00
Treatment 34 66.99** 450.19** 0.97** 13.85** 15.96** 4778.20** 2.71** 198.67 92.66** 5.09** 0.44** 17.01** 7.32**
Parent 10 94.60** 566.66** 0.98** 26.91** 13.62** 5559.87** 2.52** 448.74** 166.67** 5.64** 0.37** 26.68** 8.65**
Parent(Line) 7 110.27** 690.44** 1.23** 31.31** 15.17** 4445.91** 3.15** 51.36 193.94** 3.32* 0.44** 25.46** 9.45**
Parent(Tester) 2 41.76*** 283.50** 0.10** 3.87*** 11.68** 5813.28** 0.88** 1594.11** 77.37 8.90** 0.13* 7.55** 4.20**
Parent(LvsT) 1 90.59** 166.50** 1.05** 42.22** 6.66** 12850.78** 1.36** 939.62* 154.37** 15.31** 0.41** 73.50** 11.95**
Parent vs
1 12.11** 0.23 0.31** 21.74** 0.78** 2985.23** 4.77* 534.23 106.21** 2.61 1.03** 0.41** 1.08**
Crosses
Crosses 23 57.37** 423.46** 1.00** 7.83** 17.64** 4516.30 2.70* 75.35 59.90** 4.96** 0.44** 13.52** 7.02**
Line Effect 7 79.81* 722.66 2.69** 9.36 25.01 6061.69 2.89 68.53 74.31 11.76** 0.89* 34.23** 4.15
Tester Effect 2 45.29 444.74 0.44 15.39 8.03 8986.85 4.40 128.1 93.48 1.06 0.04 7.62 4.99
Line x Tester
14 47.85** 270.81** 0.23*** 5.99** 15.33** 3104.96** 2.36** 71.21 47.90** 2.12 0.27** 4.02 8.74**
Effect
Error 68 0.36 0.15 0.02 0.05 0.04 2.64 0.06 161.70 0.35 1.21 0.03 0.04 0.13
**Significant at 1% * Significant at 5%
Table 2: Estimation of genetic components its ratio (σ2 A/ σ2 D) average degree of dominance (σ2 A/ σ2 D).05
Characters σ2 gca σ 2 sca σ2 gca/ σ2 sca σ 2A σ2 D σ2 A/ σ2 D
Days to 50% flowering 3.76 15.83** 0.23 15.07 63.34 0.23
Plant height (cm) 35.36** 90.22 0.39 141.46 360.89 0.39
Primary branches per plant 0.09** 0.07** 1.28 0.37 0.32 1.22
Secondary branches per plant 0.74* 1.98** 0.37 2.98 7.92 0.37
Siliquae on main shoot 0.99 5.08** 0.19 3.98 20.32 0.19
Siliquae per plant 455.85** 1034.10** 0.44 1823.42 4136.42 0.44
Seeds per siliqua 0.21* 0.76** 0.27 0.86 3.06 0.28

252
 Days to maturity -3.83 -30.16 0.01 -7.67 -30.16 0.12
Biological yield (g) 5.06* 15.84** 0.31 63.39 0.31 1.76
Seed yield per plant (g) 0.31** 0..30 1.03 1.21 1.04 1.04
1000-seed weight (g) 0.02* 0.08** 0.25 0.10 0.32 1.74
Harvest index (%) 1.26** 1.32** 0.95 5.06 5.30 0.95
Oil content (%) 0.26 2.87** 0.09 1.07 11.48 0.09
**Significant at 1% * Significant at 5%

Table 3: Estimation of general combining ability effects of parents for different characters in Indian mustard
Days Primary Secondary Siliquae Seeds Biol- Seed 1000-
Plant Days to Harvest Oil
Parents to 50% branches branches on main Siliquae per ogical yield per seed
height maturity index Content
flowering per plant per plant shoot per plant siliquae yield plant weight
Line
E
1.24** 9.21** 8.89** 0.26** 2.62** -1.52 0.17* -2.20 -2.34** 1.00** 0.08 2.17** -0.00
C-385604
E
-3.41** -9.93** -0.52** -0.63** 0.96** -11.29 -1.01** 3.47 -2.47** 0.48 -0.48** -0.74** 0.91**
C-401467
E
-1.42** -11.97** -0.38** -0.89** -2.33** 7.73 -0.25* 0.20 0.15 0.75* -0.25** 1.79** -0.73**
C-39902
E
1.12** 5.65** -0.11* -0.56** -1.65** -14.57 -0.06 -1.82 -0.53** -2.09** 0.50** -2.80** -1.21**
C-386781
E
-3.46** 10.54** -0.35** -1.33** 0.26* -25.45 -0.20* -0.58 -0.08 -0.96* 0.24** -1.47** 0.46*
C-367881
E
0.63** -3.21** 0.56** 0.45** 1.51** -27.12 -0.05 1.79 -2.96** 1.23** -0.19** 2.39** -0.00
C-599298
E
5.74** -6.52** -0.49** -1.19** -0.41** 22.53 1.03** 3.83 2.91** 0.69 -0.08 0.17* 0.31*
C-389298
E
-0.44* 6.25** 0.40** 1.51** -0.96** 49.70 -0.22 -4.24 5.34** -0.14 0.18** -1.51** 0.27*
C-39930
Testers
Kanti -1.35** 0.13 0.01 -0.44** 0.64** -8.99 0.35** -2.20 -0.11 0.21 -0.03 0.34** -0.06
Urvashi -3.03 -4.37** -0.14** -0.48** -0.16** 21.93 0.12* 2.40 2.02** -0.20 -0.01 -0.65** -0.41**
Varuna 1.39** 4.23** 0.12** 0.92** -0.47** -12.99 -0.47** -1.97 -1.91** -0.00 0.04 0.30** 0.48**
Gi-Gj
0.28 0.18 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.76 0.12 5.99 0.28 0.52 0.08 0.09 0.17
(Line)
Gi-Gj
0.17 0.31 0.11 0.04 0.06 0.46 0.07 3.67 0.18 0.31 0.05 0.05 0.10
(Tester)

Table 4: Per cent contribution of different components of Seed yield per plant
hybrid sum of square 10 72.06 1.87 26.05
(g)
Due to Due to Due to line x 11 1000-seed weight 61.64 0.80 37.55
S.N. Characters
line tester tester
12 Harvest index (%) 76.99 4.90 18.09
Days to 50%
1 42.34 6.86 50.79
flowering 13 Oil content (%) 18.00 6.18 75.81
2 Plant height (cm) 51.93 9.13 38.92
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 255-257(2015)

CROPPING INTENSITY AND CROPPING PATTERN IN TRIBAL AGRICULTURE (ITDA

AREA) IN ANDRAPRADESH
V.PAVANKALYAN AND N.VASUDEV
Department of Economics, College of Agriculture,
PJTSAU, Rajendranagar Hyderabad.

ABSTRACT
Agriculture is a backbone of Indian economy.  The Govt. of India Established 4 ITDAs in Telangana region of Andhrapradesh. Wa-
rangal district has considerable tribal population of about 7.99 lakhs distributed over 783 villages and Khammam district too has
considerable tribal population of about 11.44 lakhs distributed over 734 villages. Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)
has been operating in both the districts for more than 30 years and implemented several developmental programmes. The evalua-
tion of these programmes is useful for taking appropriate decisions regarding the extent of additional benefits occurred for tribals.
The cropping pattern in Khammam districts, cotton was the predominant crop followed by maize, paddy and ground
nut crop. Where as in Warangal district paddy was the predominant crop followed by maize, cotton and ground nut crop.
The gross cropped area (32.41, 37.36) in Khammam and Warangal district and cropping intensity was increasing trend with
farm size.
INTRODUCTION

India is one of the countries having the largest
concentration of tribal population in the world. According
to 2011 census the population of the scheduled tribes in the
country was 8.43 crores, constituting about 8.2 per cent of
the total population indicating approximately one tribesman
for every fourteen Indians. Majority of tribal population
is concentrated in nine states i.e. Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Orissa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Assam, Maharashtra, West
Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Though 80 per cent of tribals
depend on agriculture as the main source of livelihood,
they still remain below the poverty line. Each tribal group
possesses its own strong socio- economic and cultural ethos.
There are some tribal groups which are, even now, at food-
gathering stage, while others practice shifting or ‘Jhum’
cultivation. Some tribal areas are not easily accessible while
in some others small scale industrialization has brought a
change in their way of life.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Sahu (1970) reported that tribal agriculture was rightly
classified as subsistence sector of the tribal economy and
according to him primitive method of farming, low cropping
intensity, high labor intensive farming and static cropping
pattern were the key characteristics of tribal agriculture in
India.
Lai et al. (2012) found that the tribal villages within
the district of Kendujhar, Odisha State, India struggle with
farming on marginal lands with an increasing detrimental
effect on agricultural productivity. Research has been focused
on the implementation of conservation agriculture (CA)
practices, specifically: minimum tillage and intercropping
in such villages. Results provide a comparative economic
and gender labor analyses of selected CA practices, future
implications, and insight for agribusiness, farmers and
policymakers.
participation of small holding agriculture, productivity
performance of small holders, linking small holders with
markets including value chains, role of small holders in
enhancing food security and employment generation,
differential policies and institutional support for small
holders and, challenges and future options for small holding
agriculture including information needs.
SCHEMES IMPLEMENTED BY THE
INTEGRATED TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT
AGENCIES
To cater the diversified needs of the tribal population
in the notified villages, the Integrated Tribal Development
Agency is devise and implement different schemes.
However, a closer look, at the various schemes devised
for tribal’s reveal that most of the schemes are agricultural
oriented. This thrust is justifiable because the main
occupation of all tribal’s in the country is agriculture and
allied activities. The important schemes usually undertaken
by the Integrated Tribal Development Agencies include land
reclamation and development, supply of short and long term
agricultural inputs, provision of new types of High Yielding
Variety seeds, supply of livestock, training in new methods
of agriculture and introduction of horticulture in the tribal
areas.
TOOLS OF ANALYSIS
The data thus collected was subjected to both
conventional and functional analysis. The tabular analysis
was used to deal with costs and returns, family labour
employment and farm incomes on different size groups
of farms. Simple averages and percentages were used to
explain the situations of tribal farming.
Size of holding

S.Mahendra Dev (2012) examined that the roles The tribal farmers were classified into three
and challenges of small holding agriculture in India. It
covers trends in agricultural growth, cultivation patterns, size groups based on their operational holding viz.,

255
Small : 0-1 ha. Wet land or 0-2.5 ha. dry Cropping intensity
Medium : 1-2 ha. Wet land or 2.5-5 ha. dry The particulars of copped area, area cultivated
more than once, gross cropped area and cropping intensity
Large : 2 ha. above wet or 5 ha. dry
are presented in table 1
Cropping pattern It can be observed from the table, that I.T.D.A
It denotes the area under which different Badrachalam, Khammam and I.T.D.A Eturnagaram,
Warangal districts, in I.T.D.A Badrachalam, Khammam,
crops are grown. the net cropped area of the tribal farms ranged from 11.64
hectares on small farms to 43.10 hectares for large farms with
Cropping intensity an average net cropped area of 26.18 as a whole. It was 23.79
It is the gross cropped area divided by net hectares on medium farms. The cropping intensity was the
highest on medium farms (125.72%) and the lowest on small
cropped area multiplied by 100. farms (118.21%). The same was noticed for large and pooled
farms are 124.26 percent and 123.79 percent respectively.
Gross cropped area
C.I. × 100
Net area sown
Table 1: Pattern of cropped area and cropping intensities on sampled farms (in ha)
Khammam Warangal
Small Medium Small Medium
Particulars Large farms Pooled farms Large farms Pooled farms
farms farms farms farms
Net cropped area 11.64 23.79 43.10 26.18 11.84 27.57 44.10 27.84
Area cultivated more than
2.12 6.12 10.45 6.23 3.57 10.76 14.23 9.52
once
Gross cropped area 13.76 29.91 53.56 32.41 15.41 38.33 59.33 37.36

Cropping intensity 118.21 125.72 124.26 123.79 130.15 139.02 134.53 134.19

In I.T.D.A Eturnagaram, Warangal district, the net The important crops grown on the sampled farms were
cropped area of the tribal farms ranged from 11.84 hectares cotton, maize, paddy and ground nut. From the figures shown
on small farms to 44.10 hectares for large farms with an in the table, that in I.T.D.A Badrachalam, Khammam, it can
average net cropped area of 27.84 as a whole. It was 27.57 be observed that the area allocated for important crops such
hectares on medium farms. Cropping intensity is a good as cotton, maize, paddy and ground nut constitute 36.75
yard stick for land use planning. Through this measure, percent, 15.39 percent, 42.73 percent and 5.13 per cent total
the production on the farm can also be assessed easily. cropped area on the small farms. The tribals have increased
The cropping intensity was the highest on medium farms the area under paddy but it requires higher investment for
(139.02%) and the lowest on small farms (130.15%). The cultivation but at the same time yields high gross returns
same was observed for a large and pooled farm was 134.53 too. In case of medium farms, the area allocated for cotton,
percent and 134.19 percent respectively. By and large, it was maize, paddy and ground nut constituted 49.22 percent, 16.92
more than 100 implying that all the available area was made percent, 29.20 percent and 4.66 per cent total cropped area
use of. respectively. It was observed that the area under cotton for
Medium farms was more as cotton is high income yielding
Cropping pattern compare to other crops. It is seen that large farms allocated
Cropping pattern assumes significant place in 56.14 percent, 20.14 percent, 19.18 percent, and 4.54 per cent
the economic analysis as it has direct influence on the respectively to the total area under cotton, maize, paddy and
employment, expenditure, gross and net returns from groundnut crops. It can be further observed from the analysis
agriculture. An analysis of existing cropping pattern on the that, on the sample as a whole, cotton is the predominant crop
sampled farms is presented in table 2 followed by other crops each accounting for 51.00 percent,
18.70 percent, 25.72 percent, and 4.58 percent respectively.
Table 2: Existing cropping pattern on the sampled farms (ha)
Khammam Warangal
Particulars Medium Pooled
Small farms Medium farms Large farms Pooled farms Small farms Large farms
farms farms
Cotton 1.29 3.17 6.91 3.79 1.75 3.87 5.12 3.58
(36.75) (49.22) (56.14) (51.00) (32.71) (32.74) (28.51) (30.60)
Maize 0.54 1.09 2.48 1.39 1.02 1.53 2.67 1.74
(15.39) (16.92) (20.14) (18.70) (19.07) (12.94) (14.87) (14.87)

256
 Paddy 1.50 1.88 2.36 1.91 1.46 3.86 6.25 3.85
(42.73) (29.20) (19.18) (25.72) (27.29) (32.66) (34.80) (32.91)
Ground nut 0.18 0.30 0.56 0.34 1.12 2.56 3.92 2.53
(5.13) (4.66) (4.54) (4.58) (20.93) (21.66) (21.82) (21.62)
3.51 6.44 12.31 7.43 5.35 11.82 17.96 11.7
Total
(100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)

The important crops grown on the sampled farms are cotton, REFERENCES
maize, paddy and ground nut. From the figures shows in the Bhubaneswar Sabar. 2010. Tribal Agriculture: The Chuktia
table, and I.T.D.A Eturnagaram, Warangal districts, it can Bhunjias in Central India Economic and
observed that the area allocated for important crops such Political Weekly. 45 (12).
as cotton, maize, paddy and ground nut constitute 32.71
percent, 19.07 percent, 27.29 percent and 20.93 percent Kamta Prasad; Rajendra Gupta; Brajendra; R. P. Verma
total cropped area on the small farms. The tribals have 2012Indigenous Farm Tools Used by
increased the area under paddy requires higher investment the  Tribal  Farmers  of  Mizoram in Zhum
for cultivation but at the same time yields gross returns Cultivation. Agricultural Engineering
too. In case of medium farms, the area allocated for cotton, Today   Vol.: 36,  No.: 2
maize, paddy and ground nut constitute 32.74 percent, 12.94
Kaviraj, Alpana Lal2010 An Overview
percent, 32.66 percent and 21.66 percent total cropped area
of  Tribal  Development  and their Socio-
respectively. It is observed that the area under cotton for
Economic Profile in India. Asian Man    Vol.:
medium farms is more as cotton is high income yielding
4, No.: 1
compare to other crops. It is seen that large farms allocated
28.51 percent, 14.87 percent, 34.80 percent, and 21.82 Nikulsinh M. Chauhan2011 Role Performance
percent respectively to the total area under cotton, maize, of  Tribal  Farmwomen in Domestic and
paddy and groundnut crops. It can be further observed from Agricultural Activities in Gujarat State. Journal
the analysis that, on the sample as a whole, cotton is the of Progressive Agriculture   Vol.: 2, No.: 3
predominant crop followed by other crops each accounting
for 30.60 percent, 14.87 percent, 32.91 percent, and 21.62 S. K. Samantaray; S. Prusty ; R. K. Raj 2009 Constraints
percent respectively. in Vegetable Production-experiences
of  Tribal  Vegetable Growers Indian Research
Journal of Extension Education   Vol.: 9,  No.:
CONCLUSIONS 3,  
The Integrated Tribal Development Agency is
one of the largest single series of concerted measures S. S. Dash; M. K. Misra 2001  Studies on Hill Agro-
contemplated in the fifth plans for promoting the socio- ecosystems of Three  Tribal  Villages on the
economic development of tribes. Eastern Ghats of Orissa,  India Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment   Vol.: 86,  No.:
The average size of holdings 0.96 ha, 2.36 3,   [Page 287-302]
ha, 2.59 ha and 1.97 ha. respectively for small, medium,
large and pooled farms of tribals in Khammam district. In Vijay Oraon 2012 Changing patterns of tribal livelihoods:
Warangal district the average size of holdings 1.02 ha, 1.31 A case study in sundargrh district, Odisha
ha, 2.59 ha and 1.64 ha. respectively for small, medium, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
large and pooled farms of tribals. The gross cropped area (page no.21-29)
accounted for 13.76 ha, 29.91 ha and 53.56 ha on small,
medium, large farms and the pooled farms, was 32.41
ha. in Khammam district. In Warangal district the gross
cropped area accounted for 15.41 ha, 38.33 ha, 59.33
ha and 37.36 ha. on small, medium, large and farms. The
cropping intensity (%) was 118.21, 125..72, 124.26 and
123.79 in respect of small, medium, large and pooled farms
of tribals in Khammam district, where as in Warangal district
the cropping intensity (%) was 130.15, 139.02, 134.53 and
134.19 in respect of small, medium, large and pooled farms
of tribals. Compared to Khammam district cropping area
and cropping intensity was more in Warangal district.
An analysis of cropping pattern of the selected farms
revealed that cotton (51.00%) was major crop followed by
other crops in Khammam district under ITDA area, Whereas
in Warangal district paddy (32.91%) was major crop
followed by other crops under ITDA area.

257
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 258-263 (2015)

CHARACTERIZATION OF CYSTEINE PROTEASE INHIBITOR FROM ARTOCARPUS

HETEROPHYLLUS AND CRY PROTEIN FROM BT (BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS) FOR
ANTIMETABOLIC ACTIVITY OF SCIRPOPHAGE INCERTULAS (YELLOW STEM
BORER)
VIPIN GUPTA*, MRITUNJAY TRIPATHI*** AND N.A.KHANB**
Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute, Saharanpur, U.P. INDIA-247001, +91-9451096311
*

Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, N.D U.A. &T., Kumarganj, Faizabad U.P. INDIA-224229
**

***
Department of Biochemistry N .D U.A. &T., Kumarganj, Faizabad U.P. INDIA-224229
email:vipinnduat@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:
Cysteine protease inhibitor from jackfruit is one of the most promising weapons that confer resistance against insects by inhibiting protease
activities of S.incercutlas. Maximum inhibitor activity was papain by 61.20% by mature jackfruit seed, 57.36% of premature seed, 37.89% of
2 month old immature and 35% of one month old immature. High level of midgut protease inhibition was 67% found by 30-60% ammonium
sulphate and 51.89% by 0–30% fraction jack fruit extract. Molecular mass of purified protein and cry protein were found 14.5 kDa and 45.2
kDa on 12% SDS-PAGE gel. Maximum 17.2% decrease weight of S.incercutlas by 200µg cry protein and 12.8% by 200 µg CPI proteins. By
200 µg dosage of CPI and cry protein was more effective for mortality by achieve up to 100% and 66.6% respectively. Weight of cry protein
and cysteine protease inhibitor was 15.4µg/µl and 12.5µg/µl respectively determination by Folin-Lowery method. The emergence was also
adversely affected by the inhibitor. It may be concluded that jackfruit inhibitor and cry protein have insecticidal potential against S.incertulas.

INTRODUCTION:
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) the world’s most important
cereal crop, suffers severe losses due to insect predation.
Most of these losses are caused by YSB yellow stem borer
Scirpophaga incertulus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) di
morphic, nocturnal insect of rice. Uses of insecticides are
more harmful for environmental sound and human health,
non insecticide are fully effective on pests of rice in Asia
climate condition (Nagata et al., 2002). Protease inhibitors
are natural products which are concentrated in seeds and
tubers of plant belonging to Gramineae, Solanace, Moraceae,
and Leguminosae (Connore et al., 2002). Cystatins are non
toxic, also present in our daily diet. Jackfruit (Artcarpus
heterophyllus family: Moraceae) is grown widely in the
equatorial regions for its large edible summer fruits. The
over-size seeds from this non-leguminous plant is also edible
even though it is believed that it is difficult to be digested
(Siddappa, 1957). In view of the facts mentioned above, the
present is focused on isolation, characterization of cysteine
protease inhibitor from Artocarpus heterophyllus and cry
protein from Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) and its antimetabolic
activity on growth and development of Scirpophage
incertulas (Yellow Stem Borer).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Seed material:
The different stages jackfruit seeds of variety NJ-1
viz. 1-month old immature fruit, 2-month old immature
fruit, 3 month old semi mature fruit and 5 month old mature
fruit were collected from the Main Experimental Farm,
Department of Horticulture. The seeds were excised from
the fruits and stored in the -200C for further use.
Extraction of cysteine protease inhibitor protein:
Extraction was cysteine protease inhibitor from fresh
seeds of jackfruit as described by Abe and Arai (1985).
The amount of protein in jackfruit seeds was estimated by
method of Lowery et al., (1951) with bovine serum albumin
as the standard.
Insect Collection:
The larvae of Scirpophage incertulas (Yellow Stem
Borer) collected from experimental site of Department with
the collaboration of Department of Entomology. Reared of
insects were on rice plant. Extract the midgut from actively
growing laboratory cultured forth instars larvae as described
by Neto et al., 2004.
Ammonium sulphate fractionation:
Crude enzyme was saturated up to 0-30% with solid
ammonium sulphate and then centrifuge at 12,000g for
20 min. The supernatant obtained was further saturated
up to 30-60% with solid ammonium sulphate and again
centrifuged. Dissolve the pellet in the small volume of 0.25
M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0. Take the 0-30 and 30-
60% ammonium fraction filled in side of dialysis tubes and
sealed. Put in the same buffer of one liter and centrifuge for
9-12 hrs for desalting from fractionated jackfruit extract.
Purification of cysteine protease inhibitor:
DEAE cellulose chromatography
4 ml of 30-60% fractionated jackfruit extract was
loaded on to column of DEAE cellulose (1.6 ×12.4 cm, bed
volume 25 mL) and equilibrium with 0.25 M phosphate
buffer, pH 7.0 at room temperature. Wash the column
with equilibration buffer at a flow rate of 20 mL h-1 and
the effluent containing the inactive protein discarded. 0.25
M NaCl from linear gradient in 0.25M sodium phosphate
buffer with pH 7.0 was used for fraction collection. Column
eluted by sodium phosphate buffer at flow rate of 12 mL h-1.
Serial of test tube with ~3 mL per test tube were collected.

258
Eluted were monitored by UV rays absorbance at 280 nm
and further assayed for papain and YSB midgut protease
inhibition.
Purification of Jackfruit cysteine protease inhibitor
by Gel filtration (Column Chromatography)
Gel filtration was done as described by Andrews 1964.
The active DEAE–cellulose fraction was then subjected to
gel chromatography on Sephadex G-75 (bed vol. 36 mL,
2.50×100 cm2, equilibration buffer 0.02 M phosphate,
pH 7.6 containing 0.1 M NaCl). The activity of cysteine
inhibitor was assay by determining the residual cysteine
activity following the method of Kakade et al 1969, with
slight modifications the standard enzyme and BApNA as the
standard substrate described by Barrett 1972.
Electrophoresis analysis:
SDS-PAGE (12%) carried out by the method by
Laemmli (1970) with 6,000-43000 range low molecular
weight marker (Banglore Genei). Activity straining was
done according to the protocol followed by Felicioli et al
1997.
Isolation of Cry Protein from Bacillus thuringiensis
bacteria:
Isolation of Cry Protein from Bacillus thuringiensis
bacteria was described by Lenin’s method (Lenin et al.,
2001).
Protein estimation:
The CPI protein and Cry was estimated by the
Lowery’s method (Lowery et al., 1951).
Bioassay of Scirpophage incertulas larvae with
cysteine protease inhibitor
Bioassay of jackfruit protease inhibitor was done
against second instars larvae of yellow stem borer using the
cut stem method as described by Datta et al. (1998). Three
to five rice stems of young rice plant (including sheath) of
8 cm in length were collected at the booting stage. The rice
culms were dipped in crude and 0-30–60% jackfruit protease
inhibitor (2.9 lg/mL) for 10–15 min for proper soaking of
inhibitor in the rice culm, whereas in the control condition
only fresh rice culms were used. The pre weighted individual
second instars larvae were transferred into the petri
dishes (90-mm diameter) with rice culm control (without
protease inhibitor), crude and 30–60% ammonium sulphate
fractionated jackfruit protease inhibitor and Cry protein of Bt
strain incubated at 370C in the dark.
Moisture was maintained by putting pre soaked
Whatman grade no. 1 filter paper in water at the bottom in
each petridish. The rice culms were replaced by fresh and
subsequently inhibitor soaked rice culm after 24 h. The
weight gain/ reduction and mortality were recorded before
and after treatment with 24 h (1 day) intervals of feeding.
Statistical analysis
The data were subjected to statistical analysis with the
help of GraphPad PRISM software (Motulsky 1999).
Result and Discussion:
259
The maximum inhibitory activity of papain was
observed by mature seeds crude extract (61.20%) followed
by premature (57.36%) and 2-month-old immature
(37.89%), whereas minimum inhibition (35%) was recorded
by 1-month-old immature seed extract. The inhibition
of the midgut protease with the different stages jackfruit
extract was also tested and the inhibition was recorded in
the following manner, mature seeds extract inhibited 55%
inhibition of midgut protease followed by 39.90% inhibition
by premature, 33.78% inhibition by 2-month-old immature
and 20.91% inhibition by 1-month-old immature seed (Fig.
1).
Ammonium sulphate fractionation of crude extract
and in vitro inhibition assay of papain and YSB
midgut proteases:
After maximum inhibition showed by mature jackfruit
seed extract, the crude extract was precipitated with
ammonium sulphate. The 30–60% ammonium sulphate
fractionated extract was inhibited the papain activity with
70.47% inhibition followed with 65.06% inhibition with
0–30% ammonium sulphate fractionated jackfruit extract.
Further, the effect of crude, 0–30 and 30–60% ammonium
sulphate fractionated jackfruit seeds extract was tested on
the activity of YSB larval midgut protease. Highest level of
mid gut protease inhibition (67%) was found with 30–60%
ammonium sulphate fractionated jackfruit extract followed
by 51.89% inhibition of midgut protease with 0–30%
ammonium sulphate fractionated jackfruit seed extract (Fig.
2).
Purification of the protease inhibitor by DEAE-
cellulose and gel filtration chromatography:
The dialyzed 30–60% ammonium sulphate fractionated
jackfruit protease inhibitor was purified by DEAE-cellulose
chromatography. The protein content having protease
inhibitor activity of papain as well as midgut proteases of
yellow stem borer larvae were again fractionated by gel
filtration chromatography (Sephadex G-75) about 11500 Da
from SDS-PAGE. The active fractions (Fig. 3) were collected
and concentrated, similar Abe and Arai (1985) purified the
CPI from rice, the molecular weight of CPI was 12000 kDa.
Molecular mass determination:
The molecular weight of purified weight of purified
jackfruit CPI and Cry protein of Bt strain, protein peaks
fraction samples by DEAE–cellulose and sephadex G-75,
were homogenous by SDS-PAGE. The approximate
molecular mass of the purified protein and Cry protein were
found 14.5kDa, 45.2 kDa running the fraction on 12% SDS
PAGE respectively (Fig. 4A, 4B and 4C). Lenin described
about the molecular weight of Cry-1 Aa, and Cry -1 Ac both
is equal, whereas the molecular weight of cry-1 Ab is slightly
less than 130-140 kDa. The molecular weight of Cry -2Aa is
reported 65kDa (Lenin et al., 2001).
Protein estimation:
Protein estimation was cysteine protease inhibitor and
Cry Protein by Folin and Lowery method. Weight of cry
protein and cysteine protease inhibitor was 15.4µg/µl and
12.5µg/µl respectively.
Insect bioassay:
The cut-stem bioassay results showed weight reduction
and mortality of second instars yellow stem borer larvae after
feeding on crude and dialyzed 30–60% ammonium sulphate
fractionated jackfruit protease inhibitor, cry protein from Bt
strain. The maximum (17.26%) decrease in weight of larvae
of S.incercutlas was observed in 200µg Cry protein dosage
followed by (12.8%) in 200 µg CPI. Mortality was observed
in 40 µg and 200 µg dosage of Cry protein of Bt strain and
CPI protein (Table 1, 2 and 3). The mortality was 33.33%
and 0% respectively at the 24 hours, after treatment of 40 µg
dosage of CPI and Cry protein. In 200 µg dosage of the both
Cry protein of Bt strain and CPI, the mortality was 100% and
66.66% respectively at 24 hours after treatment. Cry protein
of Bt strain was more effective in comparison to CPI protein
Table and Figure:
Table.1 Effect of Jackfruit’s Cysteine protease inhibitor protein on larval weight (g) of S.Incertulas (YSB).
in reducing and mortality of YSB (S. incertulus) larvae.
According the Hines et al. 1991, insect which is dependent
on cysteine protease for dietary protein digestion, consume
the diet with cysteine protease inhibitor.
The rate of growth fecundity and survival were found
negatively affected. Cry protein and Bt strain, the toxin binds
to specific receptor present in midgut epithelial membrane
of YSB larvae. The disturbance in osmotic equilibrium and
cell lyses leads to insect paralysis and death (Ranjekar et
al., 2003). The Cry protein of Bt strain was more effective
than CPI protein. Successful incorporation and expression
of genes of both protein namely Cry protein of Bt strain and
cysteine protease inhibitor might be an alternative approaches
in the development of transgenic rice for resistance against
YSB.

Treatment Larval weight (gm)* of S. incertulas(YSB)

PTW 4HAT 8HAT 12HAT 24HAT 36HAT

Control 0.0260 0.0264 0.0272 0.0278 0.0289 0.0299
40 pg 0.0347 0.0346 0.0344 0.0341 0.0338 0.0331
CPI in pg
200 pg 0.0596 0.0593 0.0590 0.0587 0.0579 0.0572
40 ng 0.0318 0.0317 0.0315 0.0311 0.0306 0.0298
CPI in ng
200 ng 0.0356 0.0353 0.0350 0.0344 0.0331 0.0321
40 µg 0.0283 0.0277 0.0270 0.0263 0.0249 0.0234
CPI in µg
200 µg 0.0504 0.0498 0.0492 0.0483 0.0463 Mortality
SEm± 0.0018 0.0014 0.0020 0.0017 0.0017 0.0013
CD at 0.5 0.0056 0.0042 0.0061 0.0053 0.0052 0.0041
CV% 8.28 6.27 9.11 8.05 8.08 6.43

Table.2 Effect of Cry protein of Bt Strain on the larval weight (g) of S.Incertulas (YSB).

Treatment Larval weight (gm)* of S. incertulas(YSB)

PTW 4HAT 8HAT 12HAT 24HAT 36HAT

Control 0.0281 0.0286 0.0292 0.0297 0.0312 0.0325
40 pg 0.0359 0.0358 0.0356 0.0353 0.0349 0.0341
CPI in pg
200 pg 0.0320 0.0318 0.0314 0.0311 0.0303 0.0295
40 ng 0.0349 0.0348 0.0344 0.0339 0.0329 0.0320
CPI in ng
200 ng 0.0263 0.0259 0.0254 0.0248 0.0237 0.0225
40 µg 0.0356 0.0350 0.0342 0.0336 0.0318 Mortality
CPI in µg
200 µg 0.0308 0.0300 0.0290 0.0279 0.0254 Mortality
SEm± 0.0016 0.0013 0.0013 0.0012 0.0014 0.01135
CD at 0.5 0.005 0.0041 0.0041 0.0036 0.0043 0.0035
CV% 8.68 7.36 7.78 8.05 8.27 7.49

260
Table.3 Comparative effect of cysteine protease inhibitor and Cry protein of Bt Strain on larval weight (g) of S.incertulus
(YSB).
Comparative percentage increase (↑) /decrease (↓) in larval Mortality of S. Mortality of S.
Treatment weight (gm)* of S. incertulas(YSB) incertulas(YSB) at 24 incertulas(YSB) at
4HAT 8HAT 12HAT 24HAT 36HAT HAT (%) 36 HAT (%)
Control Cry Protein 2.14(↑) 5(↑) 6.07(↑) 10.7(↑) 12.8(↑) 0 0
Control CPI 1.93(↑) 5.01(↑) 7.3(↑) 11.5(↑) 15.4(↑) 0 0
40pg Cry Protein 0.278(↓) 0.835(↓) 1.6(↓) 3.06(↓) 5.29(↓) 0 0
40 pg CPI 0.28(↓) 0.8(↓) 1.7(↓) 2.5(↓) 4.8(↓) 0 0
200pg Cry Protein 0.9(↓) 1.8(↓) 2.8(↓) 5.3(↓) 7.8(↓) 0 0
200pg CPI 0.5(↓) 1.17(↓) 1.6(↓) 2.8(↓) 4.5(↓) 0 0
40ng Cry Protein 0.2(↓) 1.4(↓) 2.8(↓) 5.7(↓) 8.3(↓) 0 0
40ng CPI 0.31(↓) 0.94(↓) 2.2(↓) 3.77(↓) 6.28(↓) 0 0
200ng Cry Protein 1.5(↓) 3.4(↓) 5.7(↓) 9.8(↓) 14.44(↓) 0 0
200ng CPI 0.84(↓) 1.96(↓) 3.65(↓) 7.3(↓) 9.8(↓) 0 0
40µg Cry Protein 2.12(↓) 4.2(↓) 6.73(↓) 11.7(↓) mortality 33.33 100
40µg CPI 1.68(↓) 3.6(↓) 5.7(↓) 10.6(↓) 17.3(↓) 0 100
200µgCry Protein 2.6(↓) 5.53(↓) 9.12(↓) 17.26(↓) mortality 100 100
200µgCPI 1.19(↓) 3.5(↓) 6.2(↓) 12.8(↓) mortality 66.66 100

of Bt strain along the molecular marker characterized on

12% SDS-PAGE gel. M Marker size, Line 1, 2, 3 and 4 Cry
protein of Bt Strain.

Fig.4A Various stages of Jackfruit CPI characterized

on 12% SDS-PAGE gel which was stand with comassie
brilliant blue R-250,Lane-1 Crude Jackfruit CPI, Lane-2
30% ammonium sulphate fractionated jackfruit CPI, Lane-3
60% ammonium sulphate fractionated jackfruit CPI, Lane-4
Active column fraction (No.12) by Sephadex G-75, Lane-5
Active column fraction (No.14) by Sephadex G-75, Lane-6
Active column fraction (No.16) by Sephadex G-75.

Fig.4B Active column fraction of 60% CPI along with

standard molecular weight marker, Lane M molecular mass
marker, Lane 1,2 and 3 have active fraction of 60% CPI
(fraction no.14) by Sephadex G-75, characterized on 12%
SDS-PAGE gel.

Fig.4C Molecular mass determination of Cry protein

261

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): page number (2015)

RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY OF GROUNDNUT PRODUCTION IN

ANDHRA PRADESH
Y. LATIKA DEVI1* AND K SUHASINI2
Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU,
Rajendranagar,Hyderabad -500030

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to ascertain the resource use efficiency of groundnut in Andhra Pradesh. Cobb-Douglas
production function analysis was used to calibrate the resource use efficiency. The results showed that the regression
coefficients of area under groundnut, seeds, human labour and pesticide in groundnut cultivation were significant indicating
that increase of these resources over and above the present level lead to a significant increase in groundnut production. The
regression coefficients of fertilizer in groundnut cultivation was positive but non significant indicating that fertilizer was not
the important factor in increasing groundnut production. Results depicted that ratio of MVP to MFC was greater than one for
seeds. It suggested that quantity of these resources was used less than optimum and there exists further scope for increased
use of these resources. The ratio of MVP to MFC for human labour and plant protection chemical chemicals was less than
one indicating over utilization of these resources. Adjustments are required in the use of resources for groundnut production
to increase the profitability of their groundnut crop. A clear-cut government agricultural policy is needed to improve the
profitability of the crops by providing access to seed input and information regarding best management practices.
Keywords : Resource use efficiency, Cobb Douglas.
INTRODUCTION
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is known as king Under this scheme the Andhra Pradesh state is divided
of vegetable oilseed in India. It is regarded as poor man’s into three agro-climatic homogeneous zones based on
almonds since it contains about 25 per cent protein, 45 per crops, soil types, irrigation and rainfall, etc. The sample
cent edible oil and 26 per cent carbohydrates besides other size covered under the scheme in state is 600 farm holdings
essential nutrients. They have a rich nutty flavour, sweet distributed among 60 tehsils. From each zone the sample
taste, crunchy texture and over and above a relatively longer farmers were selected using three stages stratified sampling
shelf life. China leads in production of peanuts, having a technique, with tehsil as stage one, a village or cluster of
share of about 41.5% of overall world production, followed villages at stage second and operational holdings within the
by India (18.2%) and the United States of America (6.8%). cluster as the third and final stage of the sample. From each
Groundnut ranks first in India among oil seed crops and it cluster, a sample of 10 operational holdings, two each from
plays a major role in bridging the vegetable oil deficit in the the five size classes viz. category I (<1 ha), category II (1-2
country. It covers 45% of area and contributes to nearly 25% ha), category III (2-4 ha), category IV (4-6 ha) and category
of total oil seed production in the country. Major Growing V (>6 ha) were selected. Cost accounting method has been
States are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, adopted for collection of household data, which is in very
Rajasthan and Maharashtra accounting for nearly 90 % of detailed form covering all the inputs and outputs of all the
the total production of groundnut in the country. Andhra crops grown as well as other agriculture related activities
Pradesh contributes about 24.71 per cent area and 18.81 on the selected holding. 80 farmers out of 600 farmers are
per cent production of groundnut in the country. Andhra groundnut cultivator. So the study was based on these 80
Pradesh stood third position in production and second groundnut farmers.
position in area. In Andhra Pradesh groundnut is grown
in Anantapur, Kurnool, Chittoor, Cuddapah, Warangal, Data analysis tools
Nalgonda, Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam and Mahaboobnagar Proper and adequate data analysis is essential
districts. This paper seeks to examine the major determinants for reliable conclusion for any research work. The
in groundnut production and the resource use efficiency of tool employed in analyzing the data was production
groundnut production in Andhra Pradesh. function model.
MATERIALS AND METHODS 1.Production function: Multiple regression was used to de-
The present study utilizes the cross-section data velop production function for groundnut production and was
relating to the groundnut output and use of various inputs used to measure the efficiency of resources use. Different
in Andhra Pradesh from the centrally sponsored project functions, linear, semi-log, double-log and exponential were
“Comprehensive scheme to study the cost of cultivation tried and the double log (Cobb-Douglas) was chosen for the
of principal crops in Andhra Pradesh’’, being managed by analysis based on goodness of fit (economic, econometric
the Department of Agricultural Economics, ANGRAU, and statistical criteria). The model was explicitly expressed
Hyderabad for the year 2010-11. as follows:

Sampling technique and sample size Y= b0 X1b1 X2b2 X3b3X4b4 X5b5 ui--------(i)

263
Where, expectation, the magnitude of standard error of the estimated
parameter and statistical significance of the estimated
Y= Yield (output) (qt ha-1) regression coefficient. The double-log (Cobb-Douglas) had
the best and was selected as the lead equation for the analysis
X1= Area under groundnut crop (ha) of input- output relationship in the groundnut production.
X2=Seed (Kg ha-1) The Cobb-Douglas production function is presented in Table 1.

X3= NPK (Kg ha-1)
X4= Value of Pesticide (``ha-1)
X5= Labour hour ( hr ha-1)
And b0 are the constants and b1, b2 ,b3, b4, b5, are the elastic-
ity coefficients of model.
2.Resource use efficiency
The estimated coefficients were used to compute the MVP
and its ratio (r) with MFC used to determine the econom-
ic efficiency of resource used. The model was estimated as
follows
r = MVP/MFC-----------------------------------------(ii)
Based on economic theory, a firm maximizes profits with re-
gards to resource use when the ratio of the marginal return
to the opportunity cost is one. The value are interpreted thus,
• If r is <1; resource is excessively used or over
utilized hence decreasing the quantity use of that
resource increases profits.
• If r > 1; resource is under used or being
underutilized hence increasing its rate of use will
increase profit level.
• If r = 1; it shows the resource is efficiently used,
that is optimum utilization of resource hence the
point of profit maximization.
The values of MVP and MFC were estimated as follows:
MVP = MPP. Py MPP = bi. Y /X
MFC = Pxi Where:
The result indicates that the coefficient of multiple
determinations, R2 is 61.7%. This implies that 61.7% of the
total variation in the output of groundnut was accounted for
the explanatory variables included in the model. The F–value
(12.23) measures the joint significance of all the explanatory
variables of the model which is significant at 1% level.
The area under groundnut cultivation had an elasticity
of 0.207, indicating that one per cent increase in the land
area would bring 0.207 per cent increase in the production.
The regression analysis shows that the coefficient of seeds
is 0.489 and is significant at 10% level of significant
which implies that 1% increase in seeds input increases
the net output by 0.489 %. Also The positive value of seed
coefficient means higher seed rate in kg/ha implies greater
that number of crops stands per hectare and consequently
higher yield, except where there is over- crowding leading to
competition for nutrients and low yields. The human labour
and cost of pesticide applied in the cultivation had significant
and positive elasticity coefficients of 0.798 and 0.046, with
implication that human labour contributes positively to the
output while positive
elasticity of cost of pesticides indicates that even
increase in the cost of pesticide does not hinder in the
reduction of yield. The coefficient of fertilizer (NPK) was
0.034 and non significant. The positive was in accordance
with the expected sign meaning that that quantity of fertilizer
applied was directly related to the output while the statistical
insignificance of the coefficient implies that fertilizer was
not a determinant of output in groundnut production.
From the above discussion, it was concluded that,
most important input in groundnut productivity was human
labour followed by seed and area. While fertilizer quantity
has positive but non-significant impact on yield. The cost of
pesticide per hectare has positive impact on groundnut yield,
indicating that increase in cost of pesticide does not hinder
the yield of groundnut.

r = Efficiency Ratio; Returns to Scale: Returns to scale measures the

proportionate change in output, if all the inputs are changed
MVP = Marginal Value Product; simultaneously by one per cent. It represents the sum of all
the regression coefficients with respect to all the inputs.
MPP = Marginal Value Product;
The returns to scale is 1.57 which was the sum of
MFC = Marginal Factor Cost, elasticities as shown in Table 2. This value being greater than
Y = Geometric Mean of Output; unity (1) means that the farmers are operating at the region
of increasing returns to scale. Increasing returns portrays a
X = Geometric mean of input case whereby an additional unit of input results in a larger
Py = Unit Price of Output increase in product than the preceding unit. This suggests
that groundnut famers in the area can increase their output
Pxi = Unit price of Input
by increasing the use of some of these key resources. This
RESULT AND DISCUSSION requires re-allocation of existing resources. This implies that
To analyze the resource use efficiency in groundnut if all explanatory variables are simultaneously increased by
crop, various forms of production function were employed. one percent, the total physical output of the groundnut will
The selection of lead equation was based on the comparison increase by 1.57%. This implies that production was in the
of coefficient of multiple determination (R2), the apriori irrational zone of production (stage 1) and that the percentage
change in the variable input. That is factor input were not

264
efficiently allocated and utilized. Opportunities still exists to increasing return to- scale. In addition, of the production
increase groundnut output in the study area by increasing the input i.e. seeds were being under-utilized while human labor
level of above mentioned productive resources. and pesticide which was being over utilized. Opportunities
still exists to increase groundnut output by increasing the
Resource use efficiency: Economic efficiency of level of area, fertilizer, seed and decreasing the use of human
resources use in groundnut production was determined labour and pesticide in groundnut production. Based on the
using the ratios of their Marginal Value Product (MVPs) to findings from this study, it is recommended that groundnut
the Marginal Factor Cost (MFC). The MVP for each inputs production should be based on the technique that will utilize
was calculated by multiplying the marginal physical product all of farm inputs in effective and efficient manner. This
(MPP) of each input by the arithmetic mean price of the crop needs effective agricultural policies regarding the provision
output. The MVPs and their ratios of MFCs of thee variable of farm inputs such as seed at adequate and right time with
resources in groundnut production are presented in Table 3. proper extension services to the farmers. Government
The seed has a MVP of Rs. 203.17 which is greater should play its role by accelerating its federal and provincial
than its unit acquisition cost (Rs. 60). This implies that agricultural departments.
increasing seeds by one kilogram would increase Total Table 1: Cobb-Douglas regression estimates for groundnut
Cost of Production by Rs. 60 and revenue by Rs.203.17. production
Therefore, farmers can increase their profit by increasing
seed input. And MVP to MFC ratio is 3.38, indicating Variable B Std. Error t value
underutilized on the farms during the cropping season hence Constant -5.954* 1.448 -4.112
increasing their rate of use will increase output and profit Area under groundnut crop 0.207* 0.111 1.865
level Under utilization of seed could be as a result of high Seed (Kg ha-1) 0.489*** 0.251 1.945
cost of seed. As this input is expensive, most farmers do not Pesticides & others (`ha-1) 0.046*** 0.025 1.856
think about its optimal use.Similarly, two resulting ratios Human Labour (hr ha-1) 0.798* 0.26 3.067
were less than unity; pesticide and human labour indicating NPK (Kg ha-1) 0.034NS 0.178 0.193
that the inputs were excessively used or over utilized hence R square 0.617
decreasing quantity of the inputs use will increase output and
Adjusted R square 0.566
profit level. This confirms that resources are not efficiently
F value 12.23*
utilized.
D-w statistics 1.563
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
* = Significance @ 1% level
This study has examined the efficiency of resource-use
and return-to-scale of groundnut farms in Andhra Pradesh. *** = Significance @ 10% level NS = Not significant
The results indicated that groundnut production has an
Table 2: Returns to scale for the producers of groundnut
Area under
Pesticides & Others Human labour NPK
Variables groundnut crop Seed (Kg ha-1) Return to scale
(`ha-1) (hr ha-1) (Kg ha-1)
(ha)
coefficient 0.207 0.489 0.046 0.798 0.034 1.57

Table 3: Marginal Value Products (MVP) and Marginal Factor Cost (MFC) of the variable inputs
geo mean elasticity MVP MFC MVP/MFC (r )
Seed (Kg ha )
-1
148.94 0.489 203.17 60 3.38
Pesticides & others (`ha )
-1
1290.93 0.046 2.205 450 0.0049
Human Labour (hr ha )-1
2559.98 0.798 19.29 25 0.77

REFERENCES:
Manjunath, K., Dhananjaya Swamy, P.S., Jamkhandi,
B.R. and N.N. Nadoni. 2013. Resource use
efficiency of Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton in
Haveri District of Karnataka. International
Journal of Agriculture and Food Science
Technology. 4: 253-258.
Semerci, A., Mazid, A., Amegbeto,K. N., Keser, M.,
Morgounov, A., Peker, K., Bagci, A., Akin,
M., Kucukcongar, M., Kan, M., Karabak,
S., Altikat, A. and Yaktubay, S. 2012. The
production functions of wheat production in
Turkey. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural
Science. 18 (2):240-253.
Singh, H., Singh, N.K. and Bairwa, K.C. 2014. Resource-
use efficiency in production of groundnut in
Rajasthan: an economic analysis. Annals of
Agricultural Research New Series. 35 (1) : 92-
97.
Suresh, A. and Reddy ,T.R.K.. 2006. Resource-use efficiency
of paddy cultivation in Peechi command area
of Thrissur District of Kerala: An economic
analysis. Agricultural. Economic Research
Review. 19: 159-171.
Zekeri, M and Tijjani, I . 2013. Resource use efficiency
of groundnut production in Ringim local
government area of Jigawa state, Nigeria.
Agrosearch. 13(2):42-50.

265
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 266-268 (2015)

A STUDY OF PHENOTYPIC, GENOTYPIC CORRELATION COEFFICIENT AND ITS

CONTRIBUTING TRAITS OF VARIABILITY, HERITABILITY AND EXPECTED GENETIC
ADVANCE IN BOTTLE GOURD [Lagenaria siceraria (Molina)
S.M.A. ZAIDI, M.K SINGH AND S.P. SINGH
Department of Vegetable Science, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj),
Faizabad (U.P.).

ABSTRACT
To study genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variability, heritability, genetic advance and correlation coefficients for the future strategies
of bottle gourd breeding. Phenotypic coefficient of variability was higher than genotypic coefficient of variability for all the traits. Days to first
staminate flower anthesis, days to first pistillate flower anthesis, days to first harvest, internodal length (cm) and average fruit weight exhibit-
ed low estimates of phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation. The characters showing moderate to high phenotypic and genotypic
coefficients of variability indicated good scope of improvement through selection. Heritability in broad sense ranged from 55.5 % (internodal
length) to 99.0 % (fruit yield), except for internodal length and average fruit weight the broad sense heritability was very high suggesting
therefore, preponderance of additive genetic effect over the environment effect of these characters. Genetic advance as percent of mean were
low for those economic traits which exhibited low estimates of low coefficient of genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variance viz., days
to first staminate flower anthesis, days to pistillate flower anthesis, days to first harvest, internodal length (cm) and average fruit weight.

Kew- Phenotypic, genotypic, variability, heritability in Bottle gourd [Lagenaria siceraria (Molina)
INTRODUCTION
Bottle gourd [Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.,
2n = 22], also called as birdhouse gourd, trumpet gourd,
white flowered gourd and calabash gourd, is one of the most
ancient crops with its man’s association since 12000 B.C. It
is a popular cucurbitaceous crop in India and cultivated in
other tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Besides,
vegetable preparations from its tender fruits, the bottle gourd
fruits and other plant parts have multifarious uses a thing
probably uncommon to any other vegetable crop. The tender
fruits are also used to prepare sweets, rayata, and pickles.
The leaves are also used to prepare vegetable and they have
higher nutritive value than fruits in respect of protein, fat,
minerals, fibre, carbohydrate, energy, calcium, phosphorus
contents (Gopalan et al., 1982). Fruit quality with respect
to cooked vegetable of bottle gourd is hardly a consideration
among the common consumers.
MATERAILS AND METHOD
The present investigation was conducted during 2006
at Main Experiment Station (Department of Vegetable
Science) of Narendra Deva University of Agriculture &
Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad (U.P.).
Narendra Nagar is situated at 26.470 N latitude and 82.120
E longitudes at an altitude of 113 meters above the mean
sea level. The soil type of experimental site was sandy-loam.
The experiment on twenty genotypes of bottle gourd was
planted in summer season on 16th February, 2006. The crop
continued till 10th June, 2006 the data on which last picking
was done. The experimental material consisted of a total of
20 genotypes, including diverse and distinct isolates of long
and round fruited isolates. Narendra Dharidar and Narendra
Jyoti were used as the two standard checks in the experiment.
The experiment was sown in Completely Randomized Block
Design with three replications on February 16, 2006. Each
genotype was planted in 3m x 3m plot size. The distance
between rows and plants was kept at 3m and 50cm,
respectively. Six plants were maintained in each plot.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The range of general mean, phenotypic and genotypic
coefficient of variation, heritability and expected genetic
advance gain as per cent of mean for the 13 characters has
been given in Table-1. Phenotypic coefficient of variability
was higher than genotypic coefficient of variability for all
the traits. Days to first staminate flower anthesis, days to first
pistillate flower anthesis, days to first harvest, internodal
length (cm) and average fruit weight exhibited low estimates
of phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation. Vine
length and number of primary branches showed moderate
coefficient of variability. The remaining characters viz.,
node number of first staminate flower anthesis, node
number to first pistillate flower anthesis, fruit length, fruit
circumference, number of fruit per plant and fruit yield
per plant demonstrated high coefficients of phenotypic and
genotypic variability. The characters showing moderate to
high phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variability
indicated good scope of improvement through selection.
Heritability in broad sense ranged from 55.5 % (internodal
length) to 99.0 % (fruit yield), except for intermodal
length and average fruit weight the broad sense heritability
was very high suggesting therefore, preponderance of
additive genetic effect over the environment effect of these
characters (Table-1). Genetic advance as percent of mean
were low for those economic traits which exhibited low
estimates of low coefficient of genotypic and phenotypic
coefficients of variance viz., days to first staminate flower
anthesis, days to pistillate flower anthesis, days to first
harvest, internodal length (cm) and average fruit weight.
The remaining characters exhibited moderate to high (17.77
%) vine length and 54.57 % fruit circumference (Table-1).
In the present study high heritability along with high
genetic advance as per cent of mean were recorded for node

266
number to first staminate flower anthesis, node number
of firs pistillate anthesis, vine length , number of primary
branches per vine, fruit length, fruit circumference, number
of fruits per plant and fruit yield per plant. therefore, the
above mentioned eight economic traits are expected to be
highly responsible to selection in favourable direction. All
the five maturity traits viz., days to first staminate flower
anthesis, days to first pistillate flower anthesis, node no. of
first staminate flower, node number of first pistillate flower,
days to first harvest had positive and highly significant
correlation coefficients among themselves, which suggested
that selection for earliness in any one of the five maturity
traits would effectively bring about the desire result in the
others. However, it was interesting to record that out of the
five maturity traits only node number to first pistillate flower
anthesis and days to first harvest find to exhibited negative
and significant correlation and coefficients with the most
important traits fruits yield per plant.

Table-1. Phenotypic (rt) and genotypic (rg) correlation coefficient for pairs of characters
Days Node Node
Days to first No. of Fruit No. of
to first number number Days Vine Internodal Fruit Av. Fruit Fruit yield
pistillate primary circumf- fruits
Char- staminate flower
of first of first to first length length
branches
length
erence
weight
per
per plant
acters flower anthesis
staminate pistillate harvest (m) (cm)
per plant
(cm)
(cm)
(Kg)
plant
(Kg)
anthesis flower flower
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. rp 0.81 0.70 0.73 0.60 0.56 -0.19 -0.16 0.13 -0.21 -0.06 -0.10 -0.12
rp 0.87 0.79 0.80 0.66 0.01 0.04 -.014 0.14 -0.23 -0.14 -0.08 -0.12
2. rp 0.78 0.93 0.4 0.28 -0.15 0.20 0.37 -0.48 -0.11 -0.11 -0.16
rp 0.84 0.96 0.90 0.36 -0.22 0.24 0.40 -0.51 -0.19 -0.11 -0.16
3. rp 0.82 0.70 0.25 0.57 0.31 0.48 -0.54 -0.16 -0.24 -0.29
rp 0.89 0.76 0.31 0.14 0.34 0.52 -0.59 -0.29 -0.28 -0.35
4. rp 0.85 0.29 0.03 0.25 0.49 -0.58 -0.17 -0.27 -0.31
rp 0.92 0.34 0.02 0.26 0.51 -0.61 -0.28 -0.30 -0.36
5. rp 0.40 -0.06 0.28 0.58 -0.71 -0.15 -0.36 -0.40
rp 0.49 -0.08 0.36 0.62 -0.75 -0.27 -0.36 -0.42
6. rp 0.30 0.52 0.54 -0.53 0.17 0.02 0.05
rp 0.17 0.68 0.60 -0.63 0.17 -0.04 0.03
7. rp 0.24 0.12 -0.14 0.04 -0.16 -0.14
rp 0.36 0.14 -0.18 -0.11 -0.23 -0.23
8. rp 0.46 -0.49 0.07 0.19 0.19
rp 0.54 -0.57 -0.01 0.15 0.14
9. rp -0.95 0.07 -0.49 -0.47
rp -0.96 0.03 -0.53 -0.50
10. rp -0.02 0.49 0.47
rp -0.02 0.53 0.50
11. rp -0.03 0.29
rp 0.002 0.28
12. rp 0.95
rp 0.96

Table-2. Range, General Mean, variability, heritability and expected genetic advance as per cent to mean for 13 charac-
ters
Expected
Range General Variability Genetic
S. No. Characters Heritability (%) g.a. as %
mean advance
Min. Max. PCV (%) GCV (%) of mean
Days to first staminate flower
1. 49.33 55.47 51.96 3.16 2.92 2.89 5.56
anthesis
Days to first pistillate flower
2. 46.97 56.40 51.77 5.23 4.92 88.5 4.94 9.53
anthesis
Node number of first
3. 5.67 9.60 7.25 17.97 16.40 83.3 2.24 30.84
staminate flower
Node number of first pistillate
4. 4.83 13.83 8.73 27.23 26.30 93.3 4.57 52.33
flower
5. Days to first harvest 57.00 63.00 60.00 4.16 3.91 88.5 4.55 7.58
6. Vine length (m) 6.43 8.93 7.50 11.11 9.79 77.6 1.33 17.77

267
 7. Internodal length (cm) 9.70 11.53 10.47 5.68 4.23 55.5 0.68 6.49
No. of primary branches per
8. 15.60 24.33 20.14 13.89 11.90 73.4 4.23 21.02
vine
9. Fruit length (cm) 21.73 49.37 38.69 26.61 26.47 99.0 20.99 54.24
10. Fruit circumference (cm) 20.63 40.03 26.59 26.86 26.68 98.6 14.5 54.57
11. Av. Fruit weight (kg) 0.79 0.97 0.88 7.38 5.99 65.9 0.09 10.02
12. No. of fruits per plant 5.43 10.90 7.99 22.64 21.22 87.9 3.27 40.97
13. Fruit yield per plant (kg) 4.63 9.77 7.02 22.94 21.66 89.1 2.96 42.11

REFERENCE
Gopalan, C.; Rama, Sastri, B.V. and Balasubramanian, S.C.
(1982). Nutritive value of Indian Foods, Indian
Council of Medical Research, National Institute
of Nutrition, Hyderabad.
Jerome, F.E.; Handerson, C.R. and King S.C. (1956).
Heritability gene interactions and correlations
associated with certain traits in domestic fowl,
Poul. Sci., 35 : 995-1013.
Kumar, A. (2006). Variability and character association
in bottle gourd (Lagenaria Siceraria (Mol.)
Standl.) M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Department of
Vegetable Science, Narendra Deva University
of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj,
Faizabad (U.P.).
Mangal, J.L.; Dixit, J.; Pandita, M.L. and Sidhu, A.S. (1981).
Genetic variability and coorelation studies in
bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.). Indian
J. Hort. Sci., 38 : 94-99.
Prasad, A. and Prasad, R. (1979b). Heritability and genetic
advance in bottle gourd (Lagenaria Siceraria
(Mol.) Standl.) Indian J. Hort. 36 : 216-220.
Singh, A.K. (2004). Genetic Variability in Land Races of
Bottle gourd in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. M.Sc.
(Ag.) Thesis, Department of Vegetable Science,
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture &
Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad (U.P.).

268
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 269-272 (2015)

IMPACT OF DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ORGANIC MANURES IN COMPARISON WITH

RDF AND INM ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF RICE
S. ALAGAPPAN1*, R .VENKITASWAMY2 AND G. MARIAPPAN1

1.Ph.D.,Scholar (Agronomy) 2.Professor of Agronomy

Department of Agronomy , Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641 003.Tamil Nadu, India.
*Email: alga.s@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT
Field experiments were carried out at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India during samba (August-December)
season of 2012 and 2013 to study the effect of different sources of organic manures in comparison with INM and RDF on growth
and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.). The experiment consisted of fourteen treatments which were laid out in Randomized Block De-
sign, replicated thrice and square planting was adopted during both the years. Among fourteen treatments, four treatments with
different organic manures at 100 per cent RDN on equi nutrient basis (farm yard manure, vermi-compost, poultry manure and
(Dhaincha) green manure) another six treatments consisted of 50 per cent combination of each manure, one treatment with 1/4th com-
bination of all the manures and one absolute control (without organic or inorganic). These treatments were compared with the rec-
ommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) and integrated nutrient management practice (RDF + Dhaincha). The important growth (num-
ber of tillers m-2 and dry matter production) parameters, grain and straw yield of rice was highly influenced by the INM treatment
followed by RDF. Among the organic treatments, 100% RDN through green manure followed by 25% RDN through each organic
manures combination recorded better growth and yield attributing characters than other organic treatments used in the experiment.

Key words : number of tillers m-2, dry matter production, grain and straw yield of rice.
INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important and extensively
cultivated food crop which feeds more than half of the
world’s population. In Asia alone, more than 2 billion people
obtain 60 to 70 per cent of their energy intake from rice and
its derivatives. India has the largest area among rice growing
countries and it stands second in production next to China.
It produces 97.24 million tonnes of rice in an area of 43.65
million hectares. The rice productivity in India is 3.37 t ha-1,
while the world average is 4.25 t ha-1 (IRRI, 2011). As a result
of green revolution, self sufficiency in food production has
been achieved by use of high external inputs. The agriculture
of modern chemical era concentrates on maximum output
but over looks input efficiency as a result of which it has
not been sustainable (Ladha, 1995). Stagnation in maximum
yield potential during the recent years in crops like rice
and wheat is a real concern for agricultural scientists.
Undoubtedly, the decreasing rate of cereal production is
mainly attributed to much more dependence on inorganic
fertilizers. As a result, the soil is mined out with more depletion
of nutrients. The indiscriminate use of chemicals in the rice
environment pollutes the fragile soil system which has created
an increasing awareness and interest among the rice farmers on
organic farming.
Energy crisis, higher fertilizer cost, sustainability
in agri-production system and ecological stability are the
important issues which renewed the interest of farmers
and research workers to opt for non-chemical sources
of plant nutrients like bio-fertilizers, azolla, farmyard
manure, green manure, vermi-compost, poultry manure,
etc., Awareness about soil health and crop quality has
increased the attention of people towards organic farming
(Sharma et al., 2008). Balanced use of nutrients through
organic sources like farmyard manure, vermi-compost,
green manuring, neem cake and bio-fertilizers are
pre-requisites to sustain soil fertility, to produce maximum
crop yield with optimum input level (Dahiphale et al., 2003
and Yadav et al., 2007).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field experiments were carried out at Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India during samba
(August-December) season of 2012 and 2013. Coimbatore
is situated in the Western agro-climatic zone of Tamil Nadu
at 11oN latitude and 77oE longitude and at an altitude of
426.7 m above mean sea level The experiment consisted
of fourteen treatments which were laid out in Randomized
Block Design, replicated thrice and square planting was
adopted during both the years. Among fourteen treatments,
four treatments with different organic manures at 100 per
cent RDN on equi nutrient basis (farm yard manure, vermi-
compost, poultry manure and (Dhaincha) green manure)
another six treatments consisted of 50 per cent combination
of each manure, one treatment with 1/4th combination of
all the manures and one absolute control (without organic
or inorganic). These treatments were compared with the
recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) and integrated
nutrient management practice (RDF + Dhaincha).
The rice variety CO (R) 48 with field duration of 135 days
was used in the trial. Separate nurseries were raised for
conventional (INM and RDF) treatments and organic nursery
for organic treatments. For organic and inorgani treatments
separate experimental plots were maintained in both the years
of study. Method of planting was SRI, transplanted with 14
days old seedlings. All other package of practices were carried
out as per recommendation of CPG (2012) for INM and RDF
treatments. For organic treatments no herbicide was used,

269
neem seed kernel extract, Pnchagavyaa and Pseudomonos
were used as prophylactic plant protection measures. In
the net plot area, five sample hills (plants) were selected
randomly and tagged for recording biometric observations.
In the tagged plant, the total tillers and productive tillers
were counted and expressed as numbers m-2. From the
sampling area in each plot, five plants were removed randomly
at active tillering, panicle initiation, flowering and harvest
stages. These samples were first air dried in shade and then
oven dried at 700C to constant weight and dry weight was
recorded and expressed in kg ha-1. Grains from each net
plot were cleaned, sun dried, weighed and adjusted to
14 per cent moisture content and the grain yield was
expressed in kg ha-1. Data on various characters were
subjected to statistical analysis (Gomez and Gomez, 2010).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of tillers m-2
The mean data on number of tillers (m-2) in rice
recorded over the years due to varied treatments at harvest
is furnished in (Table 1). Treatments under study had
influenced on number of tillers m-2 in rice during both the
years of study. During 2012 and 2013 more number of tillers
m-2 with INM practice (T14) at harvest (584 and 588) and
it was comparable with 100% RDN through green manure
(T5) followed by recommended NPK fertilizers (T13). Among
the organic treatments, more number of tillers (508 and 510)
m-2 was recorded with 100% RDN through green manure
(T5) at harvest during 2012 and 2013, respectively and was
followed by 25% RDN through each organic manures (T12).
Absolute control (T1) produced the minimum number of
tillers m-2 at harvest (300 and 303 m-2) during 2012 and 2013,
respectively. Single seedling planted on 14 DOS registered
significantly more number of productive tillers m-2 during
both the years. Transplanting of younger seedlings i.e., less
than 15 day old seedlings in SRI method had higher tillering
capacity both in conventional and organic farming systems.
This result is in conformity with the findings of Thiyagarajan
(2003).
Dry matter production
Dry matter accumulation is considered to be the
reliable index of crop growth. The effects of variables on
the total dry matter production (DMP) (kg ha-1) of rice are
furnished in (Table 1). The DMP was increased at harvest
due to INM practice, organic manures and recommended
NPK fertilizer application. During the course of
investigation, the INM practice (T14) recorded higher DMP
(15038 and 15505 kg ha-1 at harvest during 2012 and 2013,
respectively, which was however, comparable with 100%
RDN through green manure (T5) and recommended NPK
fertilizers (T13). Among the organic treatments, 100% RDN
through green manure (T5) recorded more DMP (13628 and
13998) at harvest during 2012 and 2013, respectively and
was followed by 25% RDN through each organic manures
(T12).The lowest dry matter production at harvest was
associated in absolute control (T1) (9525 and 10065 during
2012 and 2013, respectively). This was significantly inferior
to the dry matter produced by all the organic, inorganic
and INM treatment during both the years of investigation.
The probable reason might be attributed to the continuous
slow release of nutrients which might have enabled the leaf
270
area duration to extend, thereby providing an opportunity for
plants to increase the photosynthetic rate which could have
led to higher accumulation of dry matter. Similar results
were obtained by Sangeetha (2013).
Rice grain yield
The effect of treatment variables on grain yield
(kg ha-1) of rice are furnished in (Table 1). The treatments
imposed had influenced the rice grain yield in both the
years of experimentation The grain yield of rice extended
from 3602 to 6235 kg ha-1 during 2012 and from 3646 to
6270 kg ha-1 during 2013. The INM practice (T14) recorded
higher grain yield (6235 and 6270 kg ha-1 in 2012 and 2013,
respectively) and was found to be on par with recommended
NPK fertilizers (T13), which were on par with each other
during both the years (Fig. 1 & 2). Among the organic
treatments, 100% RDN though green manure (T5) recorded
higher grain yield (5084 and 5140 in 2012 and 2013,
respectively) and was followed by 25% RDN through
each organic manures (T12) (5004 and 5120 in 2012 and
2013, respectively). The lower grain yield (3602 in 2012)
obtained with absolute control (T1), which did not receive
organic manures and recommended NPK fertilizers. This
was significantly inferior to the grain yield obtained with
100% RDN through farm yard manure (T2). During the
conformity trial also similar nature of results were noticed.
Physiologically proper partitioning might have occurred
from source to sink, as a result improved the yield attributes.
The results are similar to the findings of Vijay Kumar and
Singh (2006). Mohandas et al. (2008) observed that the
enhanced and continuous supply of nutrients by the enriched
organics leading to better tiller production enhanced panicle
length and filled grain of rice.
Padmaja Rao (1988) indicated that further filling
of grains with photosynthates is likely to occur. Steady and
continuous supply of N throughout the entire crop growth
period due to gradual transformation and mineralization of
organics, solubilization of water insoluble P compounds by
organic acids released during decomposition of organics
resulting in greater P availability to crop coupled with higher
native K availability might have played a key role in ensuring
superior yield attributes by organics in combination with
inorganic N like in INM practice. This was in agreement with
the findings of several workers who reported all increase in
yield contributing characters due to addition of mineral N
along with organics like Sesbania aculeata (Geethalakshmi
1996, Veerabadran 1996 and Basnet 1999), FYM (Shine
and Ghosh, 1971 and Kenchaiah, 1977) poultry manure
(Budhar et al., 1991) Datta et al., 1992 and Presmud (Sinha
and Sakal 1993, Jain and Tiwari, 1995). Generally, the tiller
formation in rice is highly influenced by solar radiation
interception, total sunshine reception, nutrient uptake, rate
of photosynthesis and other physiological phenomena and
ultimately enhanced the growth and development and yield
of rice (Yoshida, 1972).
Rice straw yield
The mean data pertaining to straw yield (kg ha-1) of
rice are furnished in ( Table 1). The straw yield was influenced
by the treatments imposed in both the years of study (Fig.1
& 2). The straw yield of rice during 2012 and 2013 was
also influenced by the INM practice, organic manures and
recommended NPK fertilizers. The straw yield ranged
from 4907 to 7470 kg ha-1 and from 4939 to 7490 kg ha-1
during 2012 and 2013, respectively. The INM practice (T14)
enhanced straw yield (7470 and 7490 kg ha-1 in 2012 and
2013, respectively) which was on par with recommended
NPK fertilizers (T13). Among the organic treatments, 100%
RDN through green manure (T5) recorded higher straw yield
(6445 and 6467 during 2012 and 2013 respectively) and was
followed by 25% RDN through each organic manures (T12)
with 6376 kg ha-1 and 6455 kg ha-1 of straw yield during
2012 and 2013. In both the years of study, lower straw yield
(4907 and 4939 during 2012 and 2013) was recorded in T1
viz., absolute control.
From this study, it was concluded that, more number
of tillers m-2, dry matter production at different stages of
crop, higher grain and straw yield of rice was recorded
Table 1. Effect of organic manures, RDF and INM on number of tillers m-2, dry matter production, grain and straw yield of
rice (kg ha-1).
with the INM practice followed by recommended dose of
fertilizers (RDF) treatment. Among the organic treatments,
more number of tillers m-2, dry matter production at different
stages of crop, higher grain and straw yield of rice was
recorded with 100% RDN through green manure followed
by 25% RDN through each organic manures in both the
years of experimentation. Though the harvest index did
not influenced the treatments, the same trend was observed
as that of grain yield of rice. From this study, it was found
that the application of 100% RDN through green manure
recorded higher grain and straw yield among the organic
treatments in both the years of experimentation, which found
to be optimum for enhancing rice production for promoting
organic rice farming in Western agro-climatic zone of
Coimbatore.

Samba 2012 Samba 2013

Number Grain Straw
Number of DMP at Grain Straw DMP at
Treatments of tillers yield yield
tillers m harvest yield
-2
yield harvest
m-2 at (kg (kg
at harvest (kg ha ) (kg ha ) (kg ha )
-1 -1 -1
(kg ha )
-1
harvest ha-1) ha-1)

T1 : Absolute control 300 9525 3602 4907 303 10065 3646 4939
T2 : 100% RDN through FYM 409 9890 4164 5424 413 10433 4190 5425
T3 : 100% RDN through VC 419 10208 4296 5549 423 10744 4380 5618
T4 : 100% RDN through PM 429 10411 4377 5608 432 10950 4550 5760
T5 : 100% RDN through GM 508 13628 5084 6445 510 13998 5140 6467
T6 : 50% RDN each of through FYM
416 9827 3910 5120 419 10363 3980 5175
+ VC
T7 : 50% RDN each of through FYM
432 11231 4721 6024 436 11767 4833 6155
+ PM
T8 : 50% RDN each of through FYM
412 10063 4236 5494 416 10599 4316 5568
+ GM
T9 : 50% RDN each of through VC +
436 11720 4923 6255 440 12256 4986 6304
PM
T10 : 50% RDN each of through VC +
404 9845 4079 5321 407 10381 4140 5385
GM
T11 : 50% RDN each of through PM +
422 10266 4322 5578 425 10802 4430 5655
GM
T12 : 25% RDN each of through FYM +
452 12058 5004 6376 455 12525 5120 6455
VC + PM + GM
T13 : RDF : (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1 502 13506 5603 7103 507 13973 5680 7128
T14 : INM Practice 584 15038 6235 7470 588 15505 6270 7490
SEd 40 1036 425 546 40 1083 432 552
CD (p=0.05) 83 2130 874 1123 83 2227 889 1136

FYM: Farm Yard Manure, VC: Vermi-compost, PM: Poultry manure, GM: Green manure (Dhaincha) Sesbania aculeata

RDN: Recommended Dose of Nitrogen, RDF: Recommended Dose of Fertilizers, INM: Integrated Nutrient Management

271
Fig 1: Effect of organic manures, RDF and INM on grain and
straw yield of rice (kg ha-1) (Samba 2012)
Fig 2: Effect of organic manures, RDF and INM on grain
and straw yield of rice (kg ha-1) (Samba 2012)
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Agriculture, Kathmandu (Nepal). 1-3 Nov. 1998.
CPG. 2012. Crop Production Guide, Published by Department
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Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,Coimbatore. pp.
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Dahiphale, A.V., D.G. Giri, G.V. Thakre and M.D. Gin. 2003.
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Datta, M.S. Banik and S..Laskar. 1992. Effect of inoculation of
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in acid soil. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 62(7): 482-485.
Geethalakshmi, V. 1996.Studies on the direct and residual effect
of non-conventional green leaf manures, with N for
rice-rice cropping system.Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu
Agric. Univ. Coimbatore.
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Gomez, K.A. and Gomez,A.A. 2010.Statistical Procedures for
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IRRI. 2011. Trends in the rice economy. In:http:// beta.irri.org/
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Jain, R.C. and Tiwari. 1995. Influence of farm yard manure and
sugar press mud on yield and nutrient content of
soybean (Glycine max CL) Merrill in medium black
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Kenchaiah, A. 1977. Organic farming in rice, Ph.D. Thesis ,
(Unpubl.) Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ. Coimbatore.
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basic slag with green leaf manures on soil available
nutrients and yield of rice. Madras Agric. J., 87(1-
3):53-56.
PadmajaRao, S. 1988. Studies on nitrogen management in relation
to quality grain and yield in lowland irrigated rice.
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Sangeetha. S.P, A.Balakrishnan, P.Devasenapathy 2013. Influence
on Organic Manures on Yield and Quality of Rice
(Oryza sativa L.) and Blackgram (Vignamungo L.) in
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Journal of Plant Sciences, 2013,Vol.4, 1151- 1157.
Sharma, M., C.S. Pandey and B.S. Mahapatra. 2008. Effect of
biofertilizers on yield and nutrient uptake by rice and
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Shine and Ghosh. 1971. In: Integrated Nutrient Management in
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 273-277 (2015)

A STUDY ON NATIVE ISOLATES OF

Trichoderma spp. FROM SOUTHERN DISTRICTS OF TAMILNADU
V. AMIRTHA LINGAM, K.ANGAPPAN, E.G.EBENEZAR, S.RAJESH, S.NAKEERAN*
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU),
Agriculture College and Research Institute, Killikulam,Vallanadu -628 252.
* Deparment of Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore – 641 003.

ABSTRACT
Trichoderma spp. was isolated from twenty five different rhizosphere soil samples collected from various locations of Southern dis-
tricts of Tamil Nadu. All the twenty five isolates were screened against M. phaseolina under in vitro conditions. In dual plate assay,
the isolate SN 10 registered maximum of 70.37 per cent inhibition against M.phaseolina followed by SN 16 that showed 68.52 per
cent inhibition. An assay was performed to test non-volatile compounds production by the Trichoderma isolates using paired plate
technique. Among the different isolates SN 10 and SN 14 inhibited the mycelial growth of M. phaseolina 58.15 and 53.33 per cent
respectively over control. In some plates the sclerotial production was affected by the volatile compounds of Trichodermaspp. In
non-volatile test, all Trichodermaisolates were effective against M. phaseolina. The most efficient isolates of Trichoderma were iden-
tified based on morphological characters and the results revealed that SN 3 as T. atroviride, SN 7 as T. pseudokoningii, SN 10 and SN
16 as T. koningii,and SN 9 and SN 14 asT. harzianum. Toconfirm the results of morphological identification of isolates at species
level, molecular approach such as internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequencing were employed. Poly-
merase chain reaction was performed using the universal primers ITS 1 and ITS 4 which amplified a fragment of 600bp correspond-
ing to the region of the 5.8S rDNA and the products were sequenced. Homology search using NCBI-BLAST algorithm for sequence
similarity revealed that the most efficient isolates viz., SN 9, SN 10 and SN 16 exhibited high sequence similarity with T.harzianum.

INTRODUCTION
Biological control is considered as the most reliable
and better alternative method for plant disease management
to control plant pathogens (Sharma et al., 2012). Fungi
belonging to genus Trichodermaplay a major role in
controlling the fungal plant diseases (Shahzadet al., 2014).
It is abundant in all over geographically different regions.
Many strains are strong opportunistic invaders, fast growing,
prolific producers of spores and powerful antibiotics(Monte,
2001). Anattempt was made to characterize the Trichoderma
spp. isolated from the soils of various places and different
plant origins of Southern districts of Tamil Nadu.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample collection:A total of 30 samples were
collected from different places of Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi
and Kanyakumari districts. The samples were from the
rhizhosphere region of different crops under different
cropping systems.
Isolation:From each soil sample, one gram was
weighed and five-fold serial dilutions were prepared in
sterilized distilled water and 0.5 ml of diluted sample was
poured on the surface of TSM (Elad and Chet, 1983).The
isolates were dual cultured with M. phaseolinadescribed
by Morton and Stroube (1955) to test the antagonistic
ability of Trichoderma spp. per cent growth inhibition were
calculated by the formula of
al., 1996). A 0.5cm mycelial disc of four day old culture of
Trichodermaisolates were placed on PDA medium in a Petri
dish. The top of each Petri plate was replaced with bottom
of another PDA plates were inoculated centrally with a 0.5
cm diameter mycelia disc of M. phasiolinainverted over the
antagonist (Trichoderma spp.) plates and sealed with thin
film and incubated at room temperature for four days. PDA
plates inoculated with the pathogen alone and paired with
PDA plate without Trichoderma spp. served as control. Three
replications were maintained in each treatment. The mycelial
diameter of the pathogen was
Non-volatile compounds :The effect of diffusible
metabolites produced by Trichodermaspp., on the growth
of M. phasiolinawas tested using the method of Dennis
and Webster (1971). Sterilized disc (9 mm in diameter) of a
cellophane membrane was placed on PDA medium in Petri
plate. An agar disc of 5mm Trichodermaisolates was placed in
the centre of the cellophane membrane and incubated at 28 +
2o C for three days. After 3 days of incubation, the cellophane
membrane along with the growth of Trichodermawere
removed aseptically. An agar disc from actively growing
colony of M. phasiolina was transferred to the position
previously occupied by Trichodermaisolates. The mycelial
diameter of M. phasiolinawas measured after incubation of
4 days. The pathogen grown on empty PDA plates (without
prior inoculam withTrichoderma) treated as control.

I = (C−T) /C × 100 Morphological characterization :Morphological

Where,C - Mycelial growth in control plate;T -
Mycelial growth in test organisms inoculated plate;I -
Inhibition of mycelial growth.
Volatile compounds:Effect of volatile metabolites
produced by Trichodermaspp. on mycelial growth of M.
phasiolinawas studied by Paired Petri dish technique (Lahaet
observations were recorded from cultures grown on PDA
plates incubated at 28±2oC with 12 h dark and 12 h cool
white fluorescent light. The following characters were
measured phialides shape, length and width, conidia shape,
length and width and presence of chlamydospores. Cultures
were identified with the protocol of Samuleset al., (2002).
Molecular characterization of Trichoderma isolates

273
 Genomic DNA Extraction from TrichodermaIsolates pentadecane, demadintricodedrmin, viridepyronone
:Isolation of fungal genomic DNA of potential isolates of Chakraborty et al., (2004).Well performed isolates were
Trichoderma spp. was done by growing the Trichoderma for morphologically characterized and were presented in
3-4 days in broth. CTAB method is followed for extraction Table.4.In morphological studies, basic criteria such as
of DNA and all procedures as used by Chakraborty et al., colony characters is not enough to discriminate the genus and
2010. species level. Hence, in this study, ITS and nuclear ribosomal
DNA sequence based approach was used for the identification
Phylogenetic analysis of Trichodermaspp. : The of Trichodermaspecies. PCR was performed to identify the
rDNA homology searches were performed using the BLAST Trichoderma spp. strains using gene specific primers. The
program (Altschulet al., 1990) through the internet server at universal primers ITS-1 and ITS4 amplified a fragment of ̴
the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), 600bp corresponding to the region of the 5.8S rDNA (Plate
National Institutes of Health, and Bethesda, USA. Sequences No.4) the products were sequenced and the isolates SN 9 with
were compared withTrichodermaspp. isolates retrieved from 593 bases, SN 10 with 589 bases and SN 16 of 589 bases of
the Gen Bank database. Newly obtained sequences will nucleotide sequences were obtained. Homology search was
be submitted in the Gen Bank database (New York, USA) performed using NCBI-BLAST algorithm for the sequenced
and accession numbers will be obtained. Multiple sequence Trichoderma isolates. The Phylogenetic relationship of
alignment was done using T-COFFEE tool (Notredameet al., the novel isolates were studied based on their ancestry to
2000) and the phylogenetic tree was constructed based on closed related species reported in all the databases and the
neighbor joining method using MEGA. 4 software (Tamura phylogenetic tree constructed based on the neighbor joining
et al., 2007). method using MEGA 4 software. Homology search using
Statistical analysis :Statistical analysis was NCBI-BLAST algorithm for sequence similarity revealed
performed with the AGRES and AGDATA software’s using that the most efficient isolates viz., SN 9, SN 10 and SN 16
completely randomized analyses of variances (ANOVA) exhibited high sequence similarity with T.harzianum.
and was further used to compare the biocontrol efficacy Table No. 1. Isolates of Trichoderma spp. from the Southern
of Trichoderma isolates and means separated by Fisher’s districts of Tamil Nadu
protected least significant difference (LSD).
Isolate name Crop on field
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SN 1 Paddy
A total of 25 isolates (Plate No.1).were isolated from SN 2 Banana
the 25 soil samples and demonstrated that the presence of SN 3 Paddy
Trichodermaspp. in the locality (Table No.1).Antagonistic SN 4 Paddy
effect of Trichoderma spp. by dual cultureamong all SN 5 Banana
Trichodermaisolates SN 12 exhibited the lowest mycelia
SN 6 Banana
inhibition of M. phaseolina(Table.2)by 32.59%, whereas
SN 10 showed the highest of 70.37% inhibition followed by SN 7 Banana
SN 16 that showed 68.52% mycelial inhibition. SN 14and
SN 25 was on par in inhibiting the M. phaseolina mycelia SN 8 Paddy
growth (Plate No.2). The results revealed that overgrowth SN 9 Paddy
rate of Trichodermaisolates on M. phaseolinaTrichodermais
compete for growth. All Trichodermaisolates over grew the SN 10 Brinjal
M. phaseolina colony and degraded its mycelium. When
SN 11 Banana
the dual plate observed under image analyzer coiling of
Trichoderma spp. on M. phaseolinaalso observed. There are SN 12 Paddy
several mechanisms involved in Trichodermaantagonism
namely antibiosis whereby the antagonistic fungus shows SN 13 Paddy
production of antibiotics, competition for nutrients. In case SN 14 Paddy
of mycoparasitism, Trichodermadirectly attacks the plant
pathogen by excreting lytic enzymes such as chitinases, SN 15 Paddy
β-1,3glucanases and proteases (Haran, Schickler and Chet, 1996;
Devi et al., 2013). An assay was performed to test volatile SN 16 Tomato
compounds production by the Trichoderma isolates using SN 17 Cotton
paired plate technique. Among the different isolates SN 10 SN 18 Banana
and SN 14 inhibited the mycelial growth of M. phaseolina
58.15 and 53.33 per cent (Plate No.3) respectively over SN 19 Tapioca
control(Table No.3). In some plates the sclerotial production SN 20 Paddy
was affected by the volatile compounds of Trichodermaspp.
Similar work reported by Sreedeviet al. (2011). Trichoderma SN 21 Banana
spp. had been shown to produce a broad array of volatile SN 22 Banana
organic compounds, which had received closer attention
recently (Stoppacheret al., 2010). In non-volatile test, all SN 23 Banana
Trichodermaisolates were effective against M. phaseolina. SN 24 Paddy
Antibiotics secreted by antagonistic agents exert strong
SN 25 Maize
inhibitory action with isopropyl alcohol, caryophyllene,

274
Table No. 2. Antagonistic effect of Trichoderma spp. on M. Table No. 3. Effect of volatile compounds ofTrichoderma
phaseolina spp. on M.phaseolina
Average mycelial
Average Isolate Per cent inhibition over
Average growth
mycelial Per cent Name control
mycelial growth Of M.phaseolina (cm)
Isolate growth of mycelial
of the SN 1 8.30 7.78
Name Trichoderma inihibition
M.
spp. over control
Phaseolina(cm) SN 2 9.00 0.00
(cm)
SN 1 5.63 3.37 62.59 SN 3 8.70 3.33
SN 2 4.97 4.03 55.19 SN 4 8.97 0.37
SN 3 5.43 3.57 60.37
SN 5 9.00 0.00
SN 4 4.50 4.50 50.00
SN 6 8.83 1.85
SN 5 4.13 4.87 45.93
SN 7 9.00 0.00
SN 6 3.77 5.23 41.85
SN 7 3.93 5.07 43.70 SN 8 9.00 0.00

SN 8 5.20 3.80 57.78 SN 9 8.83 1.85

SN 9 5.23 3.77 58.15 SN 10 3.77 58.15
SN 10 6.33 2.67 70.37
SN 11 9.00 0.00
SN 11 5.50 3.50 61.11
SN 12 9.00 0.00
SN 12 2.93 6.07 32.59
SN 13 9.00 0.00
SN 13 5.03 3.97 55.93
SN 14 6.10 2.90 67.78 SN 14 4.20 53.33

SN 15 3.77 5.23 41.85 SN 15 9.00 0.00

SN 16 6.17 2.83 68.52
SN 16 8.87 1.48
SN 17 4.27 4.73 47.41
SN 17 9.00 0.00
SN 18 4.97 4.03 55.19
SN 18 9.00 0.00
SN 19 4.30 4.70 47.78
SN 20 4.43 4.57 49.26 SN 19 9.00 0.00

SN 21 4.77 4.23 52.96 SN 20 9.00 0.00

SN 22 5.20 3.80 57.78 SN 21 9.00 0.00

SN 23 5.93 3.07 65.93
SN 22 9.00 0.00
SN 24 5.33 3.67 59.26
SN 23 8.80 2.22
SN 25 5.60 3.40 62.22
Control 0.00 9.00 0.00 SN 24 9.00 0.00

GRAND MEAN 4.26 SN 25 9.00 0.00

CD (0.05) 0.28 Control 9.00 0.00

SEd 0.14 GRAND
8.55
MEAN
CD
0.19
(0.05)
SEd 0.05

275
Table No.4. Morphological characteristics of Trichoderma spp. isolates

Phialide Conidia Phialides Chlamydospores Phialides

Isolates
S.No disposition Chlamydospores Trichoderma spp.
name
Length
Shape Colour L/W (size: μm) Shape
Width (size: μm)

(6.6-7.2) × (4.1- Bottle (10.7-12.3) × Both Terminal &

1 SN 9 2-6 Ellipsoidal Green T.harzianumRifai
4.4) shape (6.2-6.9) intercalary

Globose (7.8-8.8) × (4.4- Bottle (11.7-12.8) × Both Terminal &

2 SN 10 2-6 Green T. koningiiOudem
to Subglobose 4.8) shape (6.3-6.8) intercalary
(16.8-17.1 )×
Globose (5.6-6.4) × (3.24- Bottle Both Terminal &
3 SN 14 2-3 Green (6.4-6.9 ) T.harzianumRifai
to Oboviod 3.92) shape intercalary

(10.2-12.6)×
Globose (5.9-6.4) × (3.3- Bottle
4 SN 16 2-3 Green (5.6-6.3 ) + T.koningiiOudem
to Subglobose 3.2) shape

Plate No.4. PCR amplication of Trichoderma isolates

276
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 278-282 (2015)

INFLUENCE OF MYCORRHIZAL INOCULATION AND FERTILIZER LEVELS ON

PHYSIOLOGICAL GROWTH PARAMETERS AND YIELD OF HYBRID MAIZE
T. ANANTHI1 AND M. MOHAMED AMANULLAH2
1
Research Associate, e-Extension center, 2 Professor, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore-641 003

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University during kharif 2009-10 to
study the influence of mycorrhizal inoculation and fertilizer levels on the physiological growth parameters and yield of hybrid maize under irrigat-
ed condition. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design with four replications. Four fertilizer levels viz., 200:100:100,
150:100:100, 200:75:100 and 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 were the treatments under factor ‘A’. Two mycorrhizal treatments viz., no inoculation of
mycorrhiza (control) (M-) and inoculation of mycorrhiza (M+) were included under factor ‘B’. The results revealed that among the fertiliz-
er levels, the application of 200:100:100 NPK kg ha-1 and among the mycorrhiza, mycorrhizal inoculated treatments recorded higher leaf
area index, crop growth rate, chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll content, soluble protein content and grain yield. Regarding the treatment
combinations, application of 150: 75:100 NPK kg ha-1 along with mycorrhizal inoculation recorded significantly higher physiological and
biochemical parameters and yield. However, the yield was comparable with 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 along with mycorrhizal inoculation.

Key words: Hybrid maize, fertilizer levels, mycorrhiza, physiological parameters, biochemical parameters and yield,

INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most versatile crops properties of soil under eco-friendly environment.The
and can be grown in diverse environmental conditions and nutrient-use efficiency (NUE) of a crop production system is
has diversified uses as human food and animal feed. Besides yield per unit input of fertiliser. This can be improved by soil
its use as food and fodder, maize is now gaining importance application of arbuscular mycorrhiza, which can effectively
on account of its potential uses in manufacturing of starch, improve the mobilisation of nutrients from the soil to roots
resins, syrups, ethanol, etc. It has got immense potential for development of better crop growth and yield. Hence,
and is therefore called as “miracle crop” and also “queen of an attempt was made to study the influence of mycorrhizal
cereals”. Maize, being a C4 plant is an efficient converter inoculation and fertilizer levels on the physiological growth
of absorbed nutrients into food.The productivity of any parameters and the resultant maize yield.
crop is the ultimate result of its growth and development.
Plant population, inorganic and organic fertilization are the MATERIALS AND METHODS
important prime factors that determine the yield of maize
Field experiment was conducted at Agricultural
crop. Among the plant nutrients, primary nutrients such as,
Research Station (TNAU), Bhavanisagar during kharif
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium play a crucial role in
2009 to study the influence of mycorrhizal inoculation
deciding the growth and yield. The nitrogen use efficiency
and fertilizer levels on the yield attributes, yield and grain
can be improved with the use of hybrids, soil application
quality of hybrid maize under irrigated condition. The
of arbuscular mycorrhiza and application of fertilizers
experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design
coinciding with peak need by the crop.Phosphorus is
with four replications. Four fertilizer levels viz., 200:100:100,
known to stimulate early and extensive development of root
150:100:100, 200:75:100 and 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 were the
systems, which enables rapid maize growth and to mature
treatments under factor ‘A’. Two mycorrhizal treatments viz.,
early (Sankaran et al., 2005). Enhancement of P uptake by
no inoculation of mycorrhiza (control) (M-) and inoculation
mycorrhizal hyphae can also be indirectly attributed to the
of mycorrhiza (M+) were included under factor ‘B’. The soil
faster uptake rate of P by the hyphae and the disturbance
of the experimental field was red sandy loam in texture belonging
of the solution solid P equilibrium, which will increase
to Typic Ustropept. The nutrient status of soil was low in available
the sorption of absorbed phosphate into soil solution (Nye
nitrogen (230 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorus (20.2 kg
and Tinker, 1977). In fact, crop production is the practical
ha-1) and medium in available potassium (268.2 kg ha-1). Maize
means of tapping solar energy and converting it into food
hybrid, COH (M) 5, a high yielding single cross hybrid
and other usable material through the production of leaves.
released by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
The surface area of leaves per plant is the important
was chosen for the study.Seeds of maize hybrids were sown
determinant in the production of photosynthates. Leaf area
on the side of the ridges by adopting a spacing 75 x 20 cm
index determines the total photosynthetic area available to
along with vermiculite based mycorrhizal inoculum at a depth
the plant and quantum of source that would be produced
of 5 cm below the seeds. The mycorrhizal inoculum (Glomus
for transformation. Looking to the fact that production of
intraradices TNAU-03-08) used in this study was purchased
leaves (photosynthetic surface area) depends on the supply
from the Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil
of nutrients from the various sources; minimum use of
Nadu Agricultural University. This strain was cultured in
inorganic fertilizers along with mycorrhizal inoculation
maize plants and propagules comprised of infected root bits
are gaining importance for sustainable crop production as
and spores were blended in sterile vermiculite. The inoculum
well as for maintaining physico-chemical and biological
with the spore density of 200 spores g-1 was applied as a

278
thin layer beneath the seeds prior to sowing @ 100 kg ha-
1
. Seeds were dibbled at the rate of one seed hill-1. Well
decomposed farm yard manure at the rate of 12.5 t ha-1
was applied uniformly over the field before last ploughing.
ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha-1 was applied uniformly as basal to all
the plots. As per the treatment schedule, nitrogen as urea was
applied in three splits viz., 25: 50: 25 % as basal and on 25
and 45 DAS, respectively. The entire dose of phosphorus as
single super phosphate was applied basally. The potassium
as muriate of potash was applied in two equal split doses
viz., basal and at 45 DAS. The LAI was calculated by using
the formula suggested by Balakrishnan et al. (1987). The
CGR was computed using the formula suggested by Watson
(1958) and expressed in g m-2 day-1. The RGR during the crop
growth was computed using the formula suggested by En Yi
(1962) and expressed in mg g-1 day-1. Chlorophyll ‘a’, ‘b’ and
total chlorophyll was estimated by following the method of
Yoshida et al. (1971). Soluble proteins in roots and shoots
were determined by the Folin phenol method (Lowry et al.,
1951) using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard. The
grain yield was recorded for individual treatment at 14 %
seed moisture and expressed in kg ha-1.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Physiological growth parameters
Regarding the fertilizer levels, 200:100:100 NPK kg
ha-1 recorded the highest LAI at all the stages viz., 30, 60 and
90 DAS, followed by 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1(Table 1). This
might be due to the production of more number of leaves per
plant by increased NPK levels as reported by Srikanth et al.
(2009a) in hybrid maize.` All the mycorrhizal inoculated
plants recorded higher LAI (3.52, 6.64 and 4.71 at 30, 60,
90 DAS, respectively) than non mycorrhizal plants. This
might be due to the increase in the number of leaves and the
leaf enlargement due to better nutrient uptake. Similar results
were reported in the case of corn (Kothari et al., 1991) and maize
(Subramanian et al., 1995). The increase of the leaf area with
AM inoculation would be by a higher photosynthetic rate.
Similar results were also reported by Boureima et al. (2007)
in sesame and Wu et al. (2008) in citrus.The treatment
combination with fertilizer dose of 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1
with mycorrhiza (F4M+) recorded higher LAI (3.75, 7.03 and
5.04) irrespective of the stages of observation, followed by the
treatment combination 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 along with
mycorrhiza (F3M+) and 200:100:100 NPK kg ha-1 along with
mycorrhiza (F1M+) but were comparable among themselves.
Fertilizer levels had significant influence on crop growth rate
(CGR) at all the stages. Fertilizer level of 200:100:100 NPK
kg ha-1 recorded higher CGR of 21.00 and 32.70 g m-2 day-
1
between 30 - 60 and 60 - 90 DAS (Table 2). Among the
mycorrhizal inoculation, mycorrhiza inoculated plants recorded
the highest CGR of 20.57 and 37.68 g m-2 day-1 between 30 -
60 and 60 - 90 DAS, respectively. The treatment combination
150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 along with mycorrhiza (F4M+)
recorded higher CGR (21.47 and 38.58 g m-2 day-1) during the
stage I and II followed by application of 200:75:100 NPK
kg ha-1 along with mycorrhiza (F3M+). At both the stages,
application of 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 without mycorrhiza
(F4M-) recorded the least CGR (18.74 and 23.58 g m-2 day-1).
Fertilizer levels did not show any significant influence on
relative growth rate (RGR) at both the intervals (Table 3.)
Mycorrhizal inoculation showed significant influence on the
279
relative growth rate. Mycorrhiza inoculated plants recorded
higher RGR of 0.0304 and 0.0556 mg g-1 day-1 between 30 -
60 and 60 - 90 DAS, respectively than non inoculated plants.
Higher nutrient uptake associated with higher nitrogen
application might have resulted in increased photosynthates
accumulation. This would have lead to higher crop growth and
hence the crop growth rate and relative growth rate. Similar
results were reported by Banga et al. (1994). Inoculation of
mycorrhiza significantly recorded higher CGR and RGR
than the control. This might be due to the better growth of
plants due to better uptake of nutrients as evident by higher
LAI and DMP recorded under this treatment, in this present
study.
Chlorophyll content
Chlorophyll, the pigment responsible for converting
light energy into chemical energy is directly associated with
the photosynthetic efficiency of crop plants. Enhancement of
chlorophyll content (‘a’, ‘b’ and total) was often observed
with the increased level of fertilizers. The time trend of
chlorophyll content revealed a gradual increase from 45 to 60
DAS. Treatment 200:100:100 NPK kg ha-1 improved the
chlorophyll content, but was comparable with 200:75:100
NPK kg ha-1. This might be due to the enhanced chlorophyll
synthesis with high N supply and uptake as it is the major
constituent of chlorophyll (Stevens et al., 2001).In the present
study, AM fungus enhanced the content of chlorophyll ‘a’, ‘b’
and total chlorophyll in all the AMF inoculated treatments.
The chlorophyll ‘a’ content increased by 17% at 45 DAS
and 23% at 60 DAS in AM fungus treated plants compared
with their respective controls. Similarly, chlorophyll ‘b’ also
showed an increase in all mycorrhizal plants and the increase
was 20% at 45 DAS and24 % at 60 DAS (Fig1). The total
chlorophyll content increased by 18 % at 45 DAS and increased
by 16 % at 60 DAS in mycorrhizal inoculated seedlings
compared with uninoculated control. The interaction effect
between fertilizer levels and mycorrhiza was significant at
both the stages. Fertilizer level of 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1
with mycorrhizal inoculation (F4M+) recorded the highest
value of chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll (1.853, 0.852
and 2.807 at 45 DAS) followed by 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1
with mycorrhizal inoculation. The increase in chlorophyll
‘a’, chlorophyll ‘b’ and total chlorophyll contents observed
in the present study is in concurrence with the reported
findings of Gemma et al. (1997) who have observed that
mycorrhizal Agrostis plastids has significantly higher
chlorophyll concentration. Mycorrhizal plants had higher
total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents than the non-
mycorrhizal plants as reported by Manoharan et al. (2008)
and Morte et al. (2000) lend support to the present finding.
Mycorrhizal seedlings showed a greater increase in the rate
of photosynthesis than their controls which may be due
to increase in the content of total chlorophyll (Wright et al.,
1998). Subramanian and Charest (1995) also reported higher
chlorophyll concentrations in mycorrhizal maize cultivar,
especially under drought conditions which is in confirmity to
the present result. An increase in chlorophyll concentration
has been generally associated with improved plant nutrition
(McArthur and Knowles, 1993).
Soluble protein
The soluble protein content varied significantly among
the fertilizer levels at all the stages of estimation. The
different fertilizer levels exhibited differential responses
in the rubisco activity, in terms of soluble protein content.
In general soluble protein content was higher at 60 DAS
than 45 DAS (Table 4). Among the fertilizer levels,
200:100:100 NPK kg ha-1 had maximum soluble protein
content (30.09) followed by 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1. The
soluble protein content of mycorrhizal inoculated maize
plants was significantly higher than non-mycorrhizal plants
at both 45 and 60 DAS. Mycorrhizal plants had the soluble
protein content of 33.75 and 36.42 mg g-1, while the non-
mycorrhizal plants had 23.87 and 33.75 mg g-1at 45 and 60
DAS, respectively.The interaction between fertilizer levels
and mycorrhizal inoculation was significant at 45 DAS.
The treatment combination 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 with
mycorrhizal inoculation (F4M+) recorded the highest soluble
protein (36.22 mg g-1) followed by 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1
along with mycorrhiza (F3M+) and 200:100:100 NPK kg
ha-1 along with mycorrhiza (F1M+) and all were comparable.
Application of 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 without mycorrhizal
inoculation (F4M-) recorded the least soluble protein (20.85
mg g-1). In the present study, it is evident that the increased
N supply increased the soluble protein content. This might be
ascribed to enhanced chlorophyll synthesis under higher N
supply forming a major part of soluble protein. The mycorrhizal
treatment had an overall effect on protein concentrations. This is
in accordance with the findings of Martignone et al. (1987).The
maize plants inoculated with mycorrhiza had significantly
higher protein concentrations compared to non mycorrhizal
treatments. In this study, maize colonization with G.
intraradices enhanced the soluble protein concentration when
the N concentrations tended to be higher in the plants. These
results suggest a greater ability of these AM fungal species to
enhance host plant N uptake and assimilation. These results
are in agreement with a previous study (Subramanian et al.,
1997 and Boucher et al., 2010) on two other cultivars of maize
colonized by G. intraradices.
Grain yield
Fertilizer level of 200:100:100 NPK kg ha-1 recorded
the highest grain yield of 6494 kg ha-1 but was comparable
with 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1. The grain yield increase with
200:100:100 and 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 was 20.5 and 19.9
%, respectively, over the fertilizer level of 150:75:100 NPK
kg ha-1 (Table 4). Mycorrhizal inoculation recorded higher
grain yield (6736 kg ha-1) than no inoculation (5869 kg ha-
1
). The interaction between fertilizer levels and mycorrhizal
inoculation on maize grain yield was significant. The highest
grain yield (7275 kg ha-1) was recorded under the treatment
combination 150:75:100 NPK kg ha-1 with mycorrhizal
inoculation followed by 200:75:100 NPK kg ha-1. This
increase in yield was probably due to effective utilization
of applied nutrients, increased sink capacity and nutrient
uptake by crop. The yield potential of maize is mainly
governed by the growth and yield components. The positive
and significant improvement in yield attributes and nutrient
uptake would have resulted in enhanced grain yield. The
present findings are in line with the findings of Maddonni
et al. (2006). The positive responses of hybrid maize
upto 250 kg N ha-1 as reported by Srikanth et al. (2009b)
lend support to the present findings. Since N is the major
structural constitute of cells, as N level increased, the rate of
vegetative and reproductive growth also increased in plants
due to increase in assimilating surface of plants as well as
total photosynthesis. In physiological terms, the grain yield
of maize is largely governed by source (photosynthesis) and
sink (grain) relationship which is directly related to N. These
resulted in more grain yield when N was higher.Mycorrhiza
had positive influence on grain yield of maize crop. The
improved nutritional status of AM fungus-inoculated plants
resulted in higher grain yields by 20% in comparison to
uninoculated treatments. This yield gain in mycorrhizal
plants was mainly caused by the intense flow of minerals
and metabolites from the leaf to the developing kernel. The
increased yields of AM fungus inoculated plants thus suggest
that significant amounts of P and N were translocated from
the source to the sink to support kernel development and
grain yield (Subramanian and Charest, 1997). A higher yield
of maize due to mycorrhizal inoculation has been reported
previously (Subramanian et al., 2008).

Table 1. Leaf area index (LAI) of maize hybrid as influenced by mycorrhiza, nitrogen and phosphorus levels

30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS

Fertilizer levels Mycorrhizal Inoculation Mycorrhizal Inoculation Mycorrhizal Inoculation
NPK Kg ha-1
(M-) (M+) Mean (M-) (M+) Mean (M-) (M+) Mean
F1- 200:100:100 3.15 3.55 3.35 6.33 6.58 6.45 4.21 4.73 4.47
F2- 150:100:100 2.73 3.15 2.94 5.45 6.20 5.83 3.77 4.24 4.00
F3- 200:75:100 2.87 3.66 3.26 6.08 6.75 6.41 3.92 4.84 4.38
F4- 150:75:100 2.58 3.75 3.16 5.25 7.03 6.14 3.56 5.04 4.30
Mean 2.83 3.52 5.78 6.64 3.86 4.71
CD CD CD
SEd SEd SEd
(P=0.05) (P=0.05) (P=0.05)
F 0.12 0.25 0.20 0.41 0.14 0.29
M 0.08 0.18 0.14 0.29 0.10 0.20
FxM 0.17 0.35 0.28 0.58 0.19 0.41

M- - Uninoculated (control), M+ - Inoculated with AMF (Glomus intraradices)

280
Table 2. Crop growth rate (CGR) of maize hybrid as influenced by mycorrhiza, nitrogen and phosphorus levels
M+ - Inoculated with AMF (Glomus intraradices)
Stage I Stage II
(30 -60 DAS) (60- 90 DAS)
Fertilizer levels
Mycorrhizal Inoculation Mycorrhizal Inoculation
NPK Kg ha-1
(g m-2 day-1) (g m-2 day-1)
(M-) (M+) Mean (M-) (M+) Mean
F1- 200:100:100 21.62 20.39 21.00 27.67 37.72 32.70
F2- 150:100:100 19.11 19.72 19.41 25.05 36.26 30.66
F3- 200:75:100 19.33 20.72 20.03 27.23 38.14 32.69
F4- 150:75:100 18.74 21.47 20.10 23.58 38.58 31.08
Mean 19.70 20.57 25.88 37.68
CD CD
SEd SEd
(P=0.05) (P=0.05)
F 0.52 1.07 0.85 1.77
M 0.37 0.76 0.60 1.25
FxM 0.73 1.52 1.20 2.51

Table 4. Soluble proteins (mg g-1) and grain yield (kg ha-1) in maize leaves as influenced by mycorrhiza, nitrogen and
phosphorus levels
45 DAS 60 DAS Grain yield
Fertilizer levels
NPK Kg ha-1 (M-) (M+) Mean (M-) (M+) Mean (M-) (M+) Mean

F1- 200:100:100 26.45 33.73 30.09 33.73 35.80 34.76 6388 6600 6494
F2- 150:100:100 22.65 30.86 26.75 30.86 31.87 31.36 5775 6313 6044
F3- 200:75:100 25.54 34.19 29.87 34.19 37.74 35.97 6151 6755 6453
F4- 150:75:100 20.85 36.22 28.54 36.22 40.27 38.25 5163 7275 6219
Mean 23.87 33.75 33.75 36.42 5869 6736
CD CD CD
SEd SEd SEd
(P=0.05) (P=0.05) (P=0.05)
F 1.14 2.38 1.34 2.79 147 306
M 0.81 1.68 0.95 1.97 104 217
FxM 1.62 3.36 1.90 NS 208 433

M- - Uninoculated (control), M+ - Inoculated with AMF (Glomus intraradices)

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Srikanth, M., Mohamed Amanullah, M., Muthukrishnan, with three arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under
P. and Subramanian. K.S. (2009a) Growth drought stress. The European Journal of Soil
and yield of hybrid maize [Zea mays (L.)] as Biology 44: 122-128.
influenced by plant density and fertilizer levels.
International Journal of Agricultural Sciences Yoshida, S., Foron, D.A and Cock. J.H. (1971) Laboratory
5(1): 299-302. manual for physiological studies of rice.
International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,
Srikanth, M., Mohamed Amanullah, M., Muthukrishnan, P. Philippines. 70 p.
and. Subramanian. K.S. (2009b) Nutrient uptake
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Agricultural Sciences 5(1): 193-196.

282
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 283-285 (2015)

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT GROWING ENVIRONMENTS ON THE GROWTH OF

SELECTED CACTI UNDER TROPICAL CONDITION
M.DHIVYA1* AND R. SANANKARANARAYANAN2
1*
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Floriculture and Landscape Gardening,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -641 003
2
Professor and Head, Department of Floriculture and Medicinal Crops, TNAU,
Horticultural College and Research Institute, Periyakulam – 625 604
*Corresponding Author: shiny.divya@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
An experiment was carried out to study the growth of different cacti species under different growing environments. The results showed that there
were significant differences among the growing environments and the cacti species. Among the different growing environments, conservatory
house was found to be ideal for the cacti and succulents with respect of plant height, plant girth, and plant biomass. The species viz., Mammillar-
ia grahamii, Mammillaria gigantean and Acanthocereus tetragonus, were performed well and highly suitable for growing in tropical condition

KEYWORDS cacti, conservatory house, growing environment

INTRODUCTION
Cacti have a peculiar beauty and attraction for their
strange morphological characteristics of the plant. The
infinite, unique variation in shape, size, colour of areoles and
spines make the plants look curious and interesting. Cacti
can be very decorative house plants. The plants tolerate to a
great degree for drought. Cacti have ability to withstand long
periods without water or even care. This can be cultivated
by any one who loves beauty, brightness, and happiness
(Shewell-Cooper & Rochford, 1973). Cacti and succulents
are cultivated by commercial nurseries, institutions, botanic
gardens and individuals throughout India. These groups
of plants have adapted to varied climatic conditions and
geographical situations to grow equally well when grown
in glass house or polyhouse. However, there are not many
research publications on culture of cacti and other succulents
in India as stated by Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay (1986).
With this view, the study was undertaken to evaluate the
performance of selected cacti and succulents under different
growing environments.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out during the period from
August 2010 to March 2011 at Horticultural College and
Research Institute, Periyakulam. Six species of cacti were
collected from the foothills of lower palani hills were used in
the current study. The experiment was laid out in a Factorial
Completely Randomized Design with three replications.
The experiment was conducted as pot culture study utilizing
the accessible different growing environments viz., (i)
Conservatory house (ii) Open Condition (iii) Shade net house
(iv) Glass house. Consequently, there were four treatments
viz., T1 (Conservatory house), T2 (Open condition), T3 (Shade
net house) and T4 (Glass house).The species viz., C1- Cereus
sp., C2- Acanthocereus tetragonus, C3- Mammillaria sp.,
C4- Mammillaria grahamii, C5- Mammillaria goodridgei,
C6- Mammillaria gigantea. The experimental results were
statistically scrutinized to find out the influence of various
treatments on growing environments as suggested by Panse and
Sukhatme (1985). The critical difference was worked out at 5
per cent (0.05) probability
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study, the highest plant height, girth and
biomass were obtained under conservatory house condition
and it was the lowest in open condition. The plant height of
the different cacti species (Table 1) was significantly higher
in T1 (conservatory house) (7.75 cm) followed by shade
net house condition (T3) (7.27 cm) which was on par with
T1. Lowest plant height of 7.15 cm was recorded in open
condition (T2). The plant height was found to be maximum
in Acanthocerus tetragonus (C2) (10.49 cm) and minimum
in Mammillaria goodridegi (C5) (4.51 cm). The interaction
effect of treatments and cacti recorded highest value of 11.12
cm in T1 in Acanthocerus tetragonus (C2) and lowest value
in T2 (4.25 cm) in Mammillaria goodridegi (C5). The plant
girth of the cacti species was significantly influenced by the
different treatments. (Table 2). It was significantly higher
in T1 (conservatory house) (9.37 cm) followed by shade net
house condition (T3) (8.78 cm). Lowest plant girth of 8.67
cm was recorded in open condition (T2). The plant girth
was found to be maximum in Mammillaria grahamii (C4)
(14.40 cm) and minimum in Cereus sp. (C1) (3.71 cm). The
interaction effect of treatments and cacti recorded highest
value of 14.56 cm in T1 in Mammillaria grahamii (C2) and
lowest value in T2 (3.43 c m) in Cereus sp. (C5).

283
Table 1: Influence of different growing environments on plant height (cm) in different cacti species
Initial Plant height (cm) Final Plant height (cm)
Treatments
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean
T1 6.31 6.87 5.56 4.06 3.50 7.50 5.63 8.48 11.12 7.35 6.08 5.15 8.32 7.75
T2 6.25 7.12 5.49 4.08 3.50 7.25 5.61 8.22 10.24 6.25 5.88 4.25 8.08 7.15
T3 6.30 7.12 5.75 4.06 3.56 7.50 5.71 8.45 10.35 6.32 5.95 4.32 8.25 7.27
T4 6.43 7.00 6.18 3.93 3.87 7.50 5.81 8.32 10.56 6.18 5.43 4.35 8.23 7.17
Mean 6.32 7.02 5.74 4.03 3.60 7.43 5.69 8.36 10.49 6.52 5.83 4.51 8.22 7.32
SEd CD (0.05) SEd CD (0.05)
T 0.005 0.011 0.005 0.011
C 0.007 0.014 0.007 0.014
TxC 0.014 0.291 0.014 0.291
T1 – Conservatory; T2 –Open Condition ; T3 – Shade net; T4 - Glasshouse; C1 –Cereus sp..; C2 –Acanthocereus tetragonus;
C3 – Mammillaria sp. ; C4 – Mammillaria grahamii; C5 – Mammillaria goodridegi. ; C6 – Mammillaria gigantea ;
T-Treatments; C- Cacti species.
Table 2: Influence of different growing environments on plant girth (cm) in different cacti species

Initial Plant girth(cm) Final Plant girth (cm)

Treatments
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean
T1 3.25 4.37 3.75 13.07 8.87 10.44 7.29 4.43 7.32 4..86 14.56 11.15 14.12 9.37
T2 3.12 4.52 4.15 12.75 7.87 10.62 7.17 3.47 6.83 3.82 14.35 10.28 13.30 8.67
T3 4.15 4.54 3.87 12.50 8.52 10.87 7.40 3.43 6.95 3.87 14.36 10.43 13.37 8.78
T4 3.25 4.43 3.75 12.87 8.62 11.23 7.35 3.52 6.84 3.82 14.34 10.35 13.35 8.68
Mean 3.44 4.46 3.88 12.79 8.47 10.78 7.30 3.71 6.98 4.09 14.40 10.55 13.53 8.87
SEd CD (0.05) SEd CD (0.05)
T 0.005 0.117 0.005 0.012
C 0.006 0.014 0.007 0.014
TxC 0.013 0.028 0.014 0.029

T1 – Conservatory; T2 –Open Condition ; T3 – Shade net; T4 - Glasshouse; C1 –Cereus sp..; C2 –Acanthocereus tetragonus; C3 –
Mammillaria sp. ; C4 – Mammillaria grahamii.; C5 – Mammillaria goodridegi. ; C6 – Mammillaria gigantea ; T-Treatments; C- Cacti
species.

Biomass production of the cacti species differed significantly (Table 3 ). Among the species, Mammillaria grahamii
(C4) recorded the highest biomass production of 35.59 g pot-1, followed by Mammillaria gigantea (C6) (13.85 g pot-1) and the
lowest biomass production was recorded in Cereus sp. (C1) (31.1 g pot-1). The maximum biomass production was recorded
in conservatory house (T1) (12.89 g pot-1) and minimum value in open condition (T2) (11.77 g pot-1). The treatment shade net
house (T3) showed second highest biomass production (12.12 g pot-1) which was significantly lesser than T1. The interaction
effect on biomass production was maximum in T1 in Mammillaria (C4) (36.24 g pot-1) and minimum value (4.29 g pot –1) in
open condition (T2) in Mammillaria gigantea (C6).
Table 3: Influence of different growing environments on Biomass production (g pot-1) in different cacti species
Initial Biomass production (g pot-1) Final Biomass production (g pot-1)
Treatments
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Mean
T1 4.13 4.43 3.43 32.56 5.54 10.63 10.12 5.32 7.32 5.35 36.24 8.25 14.88 12.89
T2 3.83 4.42 4.47 31.87 5.46 10.54 10.09 4.29 6.85 4.22 34.53 7.36 13.42 11.77
T3 3.97 3.92 3.46 32.62 6.15 10.22 10.05 4.68 6.45 4.66 35.84 7.54 13.59 12.12
T4 3.65 4.53 3.62 32.48 5.62 10.48 9.06 4.57 6.76 4.43 35.76 7.25 13.54 12.09
Mean 3.89 4.32 3.74 32.38 5.69 10.71 9.83 4.71 6.84 4.66 35.59 7.60 13.85 12.21
SEd CD (0.05) SEd CD (0.05)
T 0.005 0.012 0.005 0.011
C 0.007 0.014 0.006 0.014
TxC 0.014 0.029 0.013 0.028
T1 – Conservatory; T2 –Open Condition ; T3 – Shade net; T4 - Glasshouse; C1 –Cereus sp..; C2 –Acanthocereus tetragonus;
C3 – Mammillaria sp. ; C4 – Mammillaria grahamii.; C5 – Mammillaria goodridegi. ; C6 – Mammillaria gigantea ;
T-Treatments; C- Cacti species.

284
 There is a correlation between temperature and plant
height and girth during the growing period, which is evident
from the fact that the temperature range was comparatively
lower under conservatory condition than under open
condition. The greater plant height achieved could be due
to stimulation of cellular expansion and cell division under
conservatory condition. The results are in accordance with
the findings of Muthuvel (1999) and Arun kumar (2000) who
obtained higher plant height in tomato under glass house
and green house conditions. The luxuriant growth of the
plants under conservatory house might be due to prevalence
of optimum heat units and protection from wind. There
were significant differences for all the quantity and quality
characters studied for the selected cacti and succulents
during the growth period, exhibiting the influence of weather
parameters on both quantity and quality attributes. Humidity
is also another important factor which governs the growth
of the plant. In the present study, the plants grown under
conservatory house recorded higher plant height, girth and
biomass due to higher relative humidity as compared to the
remaining growing environments. This is in accordance with
the findings of Uffelen et al. (1987) who reported that the
humidity enhanced the vegetative growth and improved
the production in capsicum. Hence, the conservatory house
condition was found to be the most suitable environment for
growing cacti when compare to other growing environments.
285
REFERENCES
Arun Kumar, R. 2000. Evaluation of certain tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.)
genotypes under greenhouse and open condition.
M.Sc. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore.
Muthuvel, I. 1999. Evaluation of certain genotypes of
tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.)
for heat tolerance. Ph.D., Thesis, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Panse, V.G. and P.V. Sukhatme. 1985. Statistical methods for
Agricultural Workers 4th Ed. ICAR. New Delhi.
Shewell- Cooper W.E. and T.C. Rochford.
1973. Cacti as house plants.’ Flowers of the
Desert in Your Home’.
Uffelen, J.A.M., J.C.Van and J.C.Bakker. 1987. Temperature
studies with Sweet pepper: more insight
into the effects of 24-h temperature on yield.
Fruits and vegetables, 43 (23): 37- 39.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 286-289 (2015)

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THERMO SENSITIVE GENIC MALE

STERILE LINES FOR FLORAL TRAITS IN RICE
D.DHIVYAPRIYA*, V. KARPAGAM AND R.KALAIYARASI
Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -641003, Tamil Nadu, India
*Email: dhivyaraj.89@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The morphological characterization of thermo sensitive genic male sterile lines were considered important for the exploita-
tion of heterosis and further development of two line hybrids. Four TGMS lines viz., TS09 24, TS09 26, TNAU 27S and TS29
were screened under the sterility favoring environment for TGMS gene expression during summer at Paddy Breeding Sta-
tion, Coimbatore. Morphological characterization of TGMS lines revealed that TNAU 27S found to possess high mean value for stig-
ma exsertion, high stigma length, high stigma breadth, long duration of glume opening, partially exserted panicle and more number of
productive tillers with medium duration. The line TS09 26 was identified to be promising TGMS line with desirable floral traits and mor-
phological traits viz., wider angle of glume opening and long duration of glume opening, moderate number of productive tillers with par-
tially exserted panicle. Hence, the TGMS lines TNAU 27S and TS09 26 could be effectively used for the two line hybrid development in rice.

Key words: Rice, TGMS lines, Floral traits, Characterization

INTRODUCTION
Rice has a special significance in Asia, where about
90 per cent of the rice is produced and consumed as a staple
food. India has the world’s largest area and it is the second
largest producer of rice after China (Tiwari et al., 2011).
Of the annual world production of 596.485 million tonnes
from 155.128 million hectares, Asia produces 540.621
million tons from 138.563 million hectares (Swaminathan
and Rao, 2009). In the present decade, the rate of increase
in rice production is lower (1.5% per year) than the increase
in population (1.8% per year). If this trend is not reversed,
severe food shortage will occur in the next century (Khush,
2005). The present world population of 6.3 billion is likely
to reach 8.5 billion by 2030. Out of this, 5 billion people
will be rice consumers and there is a need of 38 % more rice
by 2030. To meet this challenge there is a need to develop
rice varieties with higher yield potential and greater yield
stability (Khush, 2006). Realizing the rice requirement at
the current growth of population, the country is facing the
challenging task to ensure food and nutritional security to
the country. Therefore, enhancing the productivity through
novel genetic approaches like hybrid rice was need of the
hour. The discovery and application of thermo sensitive
genic male sterility has great potential for revolutionizing
hybrid seed production technology in rice. TGMS lines have
great potential in tropical countries like India. In the tropics
TGMS is more practical to use since day length difference
is marginal (Virmani and Ilyas-Ahmed, 2001). In TGMS
system, temperature was the key factor in determining
male sterility/fertility reaction of a genic male sterile line.
It had been reported that TGMS in rice is inherited in a
normal Mendelian fashion and it is under the control of
single recessive gene (Yang, 1990; Maruyama et al., 1991).
Evaluation of TGMS lines for floral, morphological and
agronomic traits is a pre-requisite to find out commercially
useable TGMS lines (Virmani et al., 1997; Kalaiyarasi and
Vaidhyanathan, 2002). Morphological characterization is the
primary factor to know about the genetic variation or diversity
and to maintain the genetic purity without misappropriation
of varieties (Higgins et al., 1988). Rice spikelet consists of
a branched pistil, six stamens and two empty glumes, the
lemma and palea which protect the floral organs within
them (Takeoka et al., 1993). This morphology is associated
with the mating system of rice (Oka and Morishima, 1967).
TGMS lines with maximum anther length and stigma length
may be useful to achieve higher out crossing rate as they
correlate positively (Ali et al., 1993). In self pollinated crops
like rice, hybrid breeding appeared to be difficult, as the
floral traits are unfavourable for outcrossing. Use of male
sterility system has immensely helped in hybrid breeding.
However, all the lines do not perform equally well and also
give variable heterosis with differential restoration. Thus, the
characterization of CMS lines for floral traits is one of the
important aspects that a breeder should keep in mind while
selecting a parental line in hybrid breeding programme.
In rice, outcrossing is mainly influenced by floral traits
and anthesis which plays a significant role in hybrid seed
production. Natural outcrossing upto 6.8 % has been reported
in rice varieties (Sahadevan & Namboodiri, 1963). The
objective of the study was to identify commercially useable
TGMS lines for two line hybrid seed production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation was carried out at Paddy
Breeding Station, Tamilnadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore. The material consists of four TGMS lines are
listed (Table 1). Different morphological features were
observed based on the IBPGR-IRRI (1980) descriptors for
rice to characterize the TGMS lines. The anther length, anther
breadth, style length, style breadth, stigma length, stigma
breadth were measured by using fluorescent microscope.
At the angle of glume opening. The angle of the opened
floret (angle between lemma and palea) was measured using
protractor and expressed in degree. Stigma exsertion rate
were calculated as the ratio of spikelets with exserted stigma.
For field screening, four TGMS lines were raised during
summer. The traits namely days to heading, days to maturity,

286
panicle length, panicle exsertion, panicle type, stigma
colour, stigma exsertion, stigma length, stigma breadth,
anther length, anther breadth, time of anthesis, angle of
glume opening, duration of glume opening, apiculus colour,
plant height and number of productive tillers were recorded.
About 10-15 spikelets from the freshly emerged panicles of
all the plants were collected and examined under microscope
with 1 % Iodine Potassium Iodine (1 % I-KI) solution for
pollen sterility assessment. Five competitive plants in the
middle row were selected in each treatment at random and
tag labeled and observed for the above characters.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Considering the potentials of two line system, the present
investigation was made to characterize the TGMS lines for their
floral behaviour and to develop two line hybrids involving TGMS
lines. Lu et al (1998) suggested that the major constraints in two
line rice breeding in the tropics are the limited availability of TGMS
germplasm, lack of knowledge of target seasons and / or locations
suitable for expression of complete sterility and fertility and lack
of knowledge of stability of TGMS lines under field conditions.
Hence it is imperative on the part of a plant breeder who ventures
on the TGMS line synthesis to clear out these hurdles to the maximum
extent possible. The preliminary step in exploitation of two line rice
hybrids on a large scale is the identification of TGMS lines with
stable fertility transformation behaviour (Thiyagarajan
et al., 2010). All the TGMS lines had 100 % pollen sterility. The
TGMS lines had complete pollen sterility when tested with 1 %
I-KI solution. The floral and morphological traits were recorded
and listed (Table 2). These TGMS lines can be utilized for seed
multiplication during winter season and hybrid seed production
during summer months. Plant height ranged between 67 cm in
case of TNAU 27S and 94.83 cm in TS29. Days to heading was
minimum in TS29 (75 days) and maximum in TS09 26 (101 days).
Hence, the TGMS line TS29 falls under short duration category.
Percentage of panicle exsertion influencing out-crossing was
predominant in cytosterile line (Singh and Singh, 1998). Cultivated
rice tends to have a shorter stigma and anther than wild rice (Virmani
and Athwal, 1973). Based on panicle type, four TGMS lines were
classified into intermediate and compact. Except for TGMS line
TNAU 27S, all other TGMS lines exhibited compact type (Table
2). Just exserted panicle was seen in TS09 24 and other TGMS
lines with partially exserted panicle. This trait is useful in hybrid
seed production and self- multiplication of TGMS lines. Panicle
length ranged was maximum in TGMS line TNAU 27S (23-24 cm)
and minimum in TS09 24 (20-21 cm). Apiculus colour is invariably
purple in all TGMS lines. The productive tillers was maximum in
TGMS line TNAU 27S (25-30 nos.) and minimum in TS29 (11-
15 nos.). More number of productive tillers is one of the important
traits correlated to grain yield in rice. Stigma colour is purple in all
TGMS lines. Stigma exsertion percentage ranged between 49.42
% and 71.70 %. TNAU 27S was found with higher stigma length
(1.97 mm) and stigma breadth was maximum in TNAU 27S (0.96
mm). The higher stigma length, stigma exsertion would increase
the outcrossing. Kalaiyarasi et al (2006) reported high
panicle exsertion and stigma exsertion for promising TGMS lines.
Similar observations were made by Jayamani and Rangaswamy
(1995) in fifteen wild species of rice as well as in CMS line IR
66707A and IR 66707B. Asish et al (2006a) reported that more than
70 per cent of panicle exsertion in fourteen CMS lines evaluated
for outcrossing traits. Ramalingam et al (1994) reported that the
mean out crossing was high in V20A (16.4%) and IR 58025A
(16.4%) when inter planted with different restorers, and suggested
287
that these lines can be used in hybrid rice breeding programme.
The mean stigma exertion rate in indicas (19.3%) was higher than
that in japonicas from Taihu Valley (3.2%) but lower than that in
japonicas from Yunnan Plateau (25.2%) (Xu, 1988). High stigma
exsertion and panicle exsertion was in diverse CMS lines (Asish
and Kalaiyarasi, 2004).
Out crossing rate in TGMS lines is largely inclined
towards angle of glume angle, panicle exsertion and stigma
exsertion. High frequency of stigma exsertion facilitates
stigma reception of naturally out crossed pollen grains
and higher seed set. Oka (1988) stated that crossing in rice
depended on the capacity of stigma to receive alien pollen
and the ability of anthers to emit pollen to pollinate other
plants in the vicinity. Anther length was maximum in TS09
26 (2.26 mm) and anther breadth maximum in TS09 26
(0.478 mm).
The effectiveness of hybrid seed production lies in
the ideal synchronization of flowering time and duration of
anthesis between parental lines. Two characters viz., angle
of glume opening and duration of glume opening were inter
dependant on each other for effecting hybridization. Parmar
et al (1979) reported that large collection of rice cultivars
reported that variation for angle of glume opening was due
to both genetic and environmental effect. The line TS09 26
was found with wider angle of glume opening (26-28º) and
long duration of glume opening (3.45 hours).
Among all TGMS lines, TNAU 27S found to possess
high mean value for stigma exsertion, high stigma length, high
stigma breadth, long duration of glume opening, partially exserted
panicle and more number of productive tillers with medium
duration. The line TS09 26 was identified to be promising
TGMS line with desirable floral traits and morphological traits
viz., wider angle of glume opening and long duration of glume
opening, moderate number of productive tillers with partially
exserted panicle.
CONCLUSION
The results indicated that these lines possess good
floral traits related to out-crossing and agronomic characters
such as high tiller number with moderate number of
spikelets. Hence, the lines TNAU 27S and TS09 26 could
be effectively utilized for exploitation of two line system of
heterosis breeding in rice.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Department of
Biotechnology, Government of India for their financial
assistance to undertake this investigation.
Table 1. TGMS lines used for floral and morphological
Characterization
S.No TGMS LINES
1 TS09 24
2 TS09 26
3 TNAU 27S
4 TS29
Table 2. Morphological characterization of TGMS lines
S.No. Morphological Traits TS09 24 TS09 26 TNAU 27S TS29
1 Days to heading 96 101 82 75

2 Days to maturity 126 131 112 105

3 Panicle length 20-21 cm 20-21.5 cm 23-24 cm 21.9 cm

4 Panicle exsertion Just exserted Partially exserted Partially exserted Partially exserted

5 Panicle type Compact Compact Intermediate Compact

6 Stigma colour Purple Purple Purple Purple

7 Stigma exsertion % 49.42 57.12 71.70 61.32

8 Stigma length(mm) 1.02 1.01 1.97 1.34

9 Stigma breadth(mm) 0.40 0.42 0.96 0.51

10 Anther length(mm) 2.12 2.26 2.08 2.14

11 Anther breadth(mm) 0.46 0.478 0.38 0.412
12 Time of anthesis 8.40AM 8.20AM 8.15AM 8.25AM

13 Angle of glume opening 220 26-280 24-250 23-250

14 Duration of glume opening 3.10 hours 3.45 hours 3.30 hours 3.40 hours

15 Apiculus colour Purple Purple Purple Purple

16 Plant height (cm) 93.5 93 67 94.83

17 Number of productive tillers 17-18 18-20 35-40 11-15

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 290-293 (2015)

EVALUATION OF SEED TREATING AND FOLIAR INSECTICIDES AGAINST SUCKING

PESTS OF BOLLGARD II Bt COTTON
S.A. JAYAPRAKASH*, S. MOHAN AND M. KANNAN
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu – 641003, India. Phone:
+91 422 6611295; Mobile: +91 9976909060

ABSTRACT
Effects of different seed treating and foliar spraying insecticides on sucking pests and their natural enemies in RCH 2 Bt cotton (Bollgard
II) and non-Bt cotton were studied. Seed treatment with imidacloprid 70 WS (7 g/kg) was found to be significantly superior in reducing
leafhoppers, Amrasca devastans (Dist.), thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood), whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) and aphids, Aphis
gossypii (Glover) population up to 49 DAS. Among the foliar spraying insecticides imidacloprid 17.8 SL (100-125 ml/ha) was found
better than others in reducing sucking pest population. Both imidacloprid 70 WS (7 g/kg) seed treatment and imidacloprid 17.8 SL (100-
125 ml/ha) spray conserved more number of natural enemies viz., Coccinellids and Chrysoperla ; also increased the seed cotton yield.

Keywords: Bollgard II Bt cotton, insecticides, sucking pests

INTRODUCTION
Cotton is a very important fibre crop in India; farmers After Sowing (DAS) to 63 DAS on three leaves (top, middle
face the challenge of economic losses due to various insect and bottom canopy of the plants) per plant by randomly
pests at vegetative and reproductive stages. Bt cotton has selecting five plants from each plot. Similarly, observations
been the first genetically modified crop introduced in on the population of natural enemies were also recorded.
India during 2002 against bollworms. The first generation
Bollgard cultivars (BG I) produces Cry1Ac toxin to control Table 1. Insecticides treatment for sucking pests in BG II Bt
H. armigera (Kranthi et al., 2009). The second generation, and non-Bt cotton (RCH 2)
Bollgard cultivars (BG II) contains two Bt toxins, Cry 1Ac
and Cry 2Ab were introduced in 2005 and offer an improved Treatment
pest management compared to Bollgard cultivars (Vitale Insecticides Dose Genotype
Number
et al., 2008). Transgenic Bt cotton can effectively control T1 Imidacloprid 70WS 7 g * / kg Bt
specific lepidopterous species (Arshad et al., 2009), but there
T2 Imidacloprid 70WS 7 g * / kg Non Bt
is lack of resistance against sucking insect pests (Hofs et al.,
2004; Sharma and Pampapathy, 2006) and hence require Thiomethoxam
T3 5 g * / kg Bt
continuous use of pesticides and other control tactics for 70WS
effective management (Hofs et al., 2006). The pest scenario Thiomethoxam
T4 5 g * / kg Non Bt
in cotton ecosystem is changing fast and is assailed by 70WS
multitude of pests as it evolves through various production T5 Imidacloprid 17.8SL 100-125 ml ** / ha Bt
levels. American and spotted bollworms attained secondary T6 Imidacloprid 17.8SL 100-125 ml ** / ha Non Bt
pest status, and tobacco caterpillar, pink bollworm, mirids Thiomethoxam
T7 100-125 g ** / ha Bt
and mealy bugs are emerging as major pests. Sap sucking 25WG
pests like aphids, jassids, thrips and whiteflies are major Thiomethoxam
T8 100-125 g ** / ha Non Bt
pests and economically important. Hence, finding suitable 25WG
insecticides for managing these sucking pests are essential to T9 Acetamiprid 20SP 100 g / ha
**
Bt
yield benefit of Bt cotton. In the present investigation some T10 Acetamiprid 20SP 100 g ** / ha Non Bt
of the insecticides have been evaluated for their effectiveness T11 Dimethoate 30EC 500 ml ** / ha Bt
against sucking pests of Bt and non-Bt cotton and their T12 Dimethoate 30EC 500 ml ** / ha Non Bt
impact on natural enemy population was also studied. T13 Control - Bt
T14 Control - Non Bt
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Effects of insecticides on sucking pests and their
*
Seed treatment. **
Spray on 35 and 49 DAS.
natural enemies in RCH 2 Bt cotton (BG II) and non-Bt Statistical analysis
cotton were studied in a field experiment at the Department
of cotton, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried
under irrigated conditions during 2010. The experiment was out in completely randomized design as described by
conducted in a Randomized Blocks Design (RBD) with 14 Gomez and Gomez (1984) to determine the significance in
treatments and three replications. The observations on the the differences between the mean values and means were
population of sucking pests, viz., leafhopper, A. devastans; compared by LSD at P = 0.05.
aphid, A. gossypii; thrips, S. dorsalis and whiteflies, B. tabaci
was recorded at fortnightly intervals starting from 21 Days RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

290
Effect of insecticides on the population of
leafhoppers
The incidence of leafhoppers (Figure 1) were
significantly lower in imidacloprid 70WS seed treated plot
both in Bt and non Bt cotton upto 49 DAS (Bt, 0.2, non Bt,
0.0; Bt, 0.4, non Bt, 1.0; Bt, 1.6, non Bt, 1.8 per 3 leaves,
respectively in 21, 35 and 49 DAS). Among different
chemicals sprayed on 35 and 49 DAS, imidacloprid 17.8SL
(Bt, 4.0, non Bt, 4.2; Bt, 1.6, non Bt, 2.0; Bt, 2.2, non Bt, 3.2
per three leaves, respectively in 35, 49 and 63 DAS) was
superior in controlling the leafhoppers. The least control
was observed in dimethoate 30EC treated plot (Bt, 5.8, non
Bt, 5.0; Bt, 2.6, non Bt, 3.4; Bt, 4.0, non Bt, 4.2 per three
leaves, respectively in 35, 49 and 63 DAS). The leafhopper
population was higher in untreated control compared to
treated plot.
Effect of insecticides on the population of thrips
The effect of different insecticides on thrips in RCH
2 (BG II) Bt and non Bt cotton is presented in figure 2. There
was no incidence of thrips invariably in all the treatments
including in control plot up to 21 DAS. Imidacloprid 70WS
seed treatment was significantly superior in controlling the
thrips population compared to thiamethoxam 70WS. The
incidence ranged from 0.1 to 1.4 per three leaves both in Bt
and non Bt over crop growth period in imidacloprid 70WS
seed treated plot. The thrips occurrence in the imidacloprid
17.8SL sprayed plot ranged from 0.1 to 1.2 per three leaves.
Further the thrips population was more in dimethoate 30EC
and acetamiprid 20 SP sprayed plot (ranged from 0.2 to 1.4
per three leaves both in Bt and non Bt cotton).
Effect of insecticides on the population of whiteflies
The reduction in population of whiteflies in RCH 2
Bt and non Bt cotton by different insecticides is presented in
figure 3. The whitefly population was significantly lower in
imidacloprid 70 WS seed treated Bt and non Bt cotton plots
upto 49 DAS (from 0.1 to 2.2 per three leaves upto 49 DAS
both in Bt and non Bt cotton). Spraying by imidacloprid 17.8
SL on 49 DAS reduced the whitefly population significantly.
Thiamethoxam 25 WG sprayed plot recorded low whitefly
population (Bt, 1.8, non Bt, 1.6; Bt, 2.8, non Bt, 2.6; Bt, 1.6,
non Bt, 1.4 per three leaves, respectively in 35, 49 and 63
DAS) followed by imidacloprid 70 WS. The higher whitefly
population was recorded on dimethoate 30 EC (Bt, 2.0, non
Bt, 2.8; Bt, 3.8, non Bt, 3.4; Bt, 3.2, non Bt, 3.0 per three
leaves, respectively in 35, 49, 56 and 63 DAS) treated Bt and
non Bt cotton plots.
Effect of insecticides on the population of aphids
The figure 4 showed the effect of
different insecticides on aphids in RCH 2 A. devastans, thrips, S. dorsalis, whiteflies, B. tabaci and
(BG II) Bt and non Bt cotton. There was significantly lower
population of aphids in imidacloprid 70 WS seed treated
plot up to 49 DAS (Bt, 0.0, non Bt, 0.0; Bt, 0.1, non Bt,
0.0; Bt, 2.4, non Bt, 2.2 per three leaves, respectively in 21,
35 and 49 DAS). Spraying by imidacloprid 17.8 SL on 35
and 49 DAS reduced the aphid population very effectively
followed by thiamethoxam 25 WG. Dimethoate 30 EC was
less effective (aphid population ranged from 0.6 to 4.6 per
three leaves over a crop growth period) when compared to
other insecticides.
291
Effect of insecticides on the population of
Coccinellids
The toxicity of different insecticides on the
population of Coccinellids was studied in RCH 2 Bt and non
Bt cotton and it is given in figure 5. Among the two types of
seed treatment plot the Coccinellids population was higher
in imidacloprid 70 WS seed treated plot (ranged from 0.2
to 3.4 per plant both in Bt and non Bt cotton). Among the
different chemicals sprayed there was higher population of
Coccinellids in imidacloprid 17.8 SL treated plot (ranged
from 0.2 to 0.6 per plant both in Bt and non Bt cotton).
Coccinellids were recorded more in untreated plot than in
insecticides treated plot and it was ranged from 0.2 to 2.8 per
plant over a crop growth period of Bt and non Bt cotton.
Effect of insecticides on the population of
Chrysoperla
The effect of different chemicals on the Chrysoperla
population in RCH 2 Bt and non Bt cotton is presented in
figure 6. The higher population of Chrysoperla was recorded
in untreated plot and it was ranged from 0.2 to 1.2 per plant
over a crop growth period of Bt and non Bt cotton, followed
by it was significantly higher in imidacloprid 70 WS seed
treated plot (ranged from 0.2 to 1.0 per plant). There was no
reduction in Chrysoperla population even after spraying of
imidacloprid 17.8 SL (Bt, 0.6, non Bt, 0.6; Bt, 0.4, non Bt,
0.2; Bt, 0.4, non Bt, 0.2 per three leaves, respectively in 35,
49 and 63 DAS). But there was reduction in the population
of Chrysoperla in other insecticides sprayed plot.
Effect of different insecticides on seed cotton yield
The data on the seed cotton yield of RCH 2 (BG
II) Bt and non Bt cotton revealed (Table 2) that the use of
insecticides against sucking pests considerably increased
the yield of cotton and it varied with the different types of
insecticides used. From 2.99 to 6.77 per cent and from 3.55
to 7.34 per cent yield increase over control was recorded,
respectively in Bt and non Bt cotton by the use of insecticides
against sucking pests. Among the different insecticides used,
imidacloprid 70 WS treatment registered higher yield both
in Bt and non Bt (26.80 and 22.65 q/ha, respectively in Bt
and non Bt cotton). Among the different chemicals sprayed
the higher yield was recorded in imidacloprid 17.8 SL
sprayed plot (26.70 and 22.50 q/ha, respectively in Bt and
non Bt cotton). The lower seed cotton yield was realised
in dimethoate 30 EC sprayed plot (25.85 and 21.85 q/ha,
respectively in Bt and non Bt cotton).The insecticide trials
on sucking pests and natural enemies conducted with RCH
2 (BG II) Bt and non-Bt cotton indicated that among seed
treating insecticides, imidacloprid 70 WS seed treatment was
found to be significantly superior in reducing leafhoppers,
aphids, A. gossypii population upto 49 days after sowing.
Among the different chemicals sprayed, imidacloprid
17.8 SL found better than others in reducing sucking pest
population. The present findings are in agreement with the
results reported by Kannan (2004) and Arshad and Suhail
(2010) who concluded that seed treatment with imidacloprid
reduced the sucking pest population below the economic
threshold level upto 40 days after sowing. The results of
the present study also indicated that seed treatment of
Bt cotton with imidacloprid was not only safer but also
attracted predators to the plants. The populations of natural
enemies viz., coccinellids, Chrysoperla and spiders were
recorded more in the imidacloprid seed treated plot than in
spraying plot. These results are consistent with those of earlier
studies by Satpute et al. (2002) and Kannan et al. (2004) who
concluded that imidacloprid seed treatment was attractive to
the coccinellids, Chrysopa predators in cotton under higher
doses. Further, the seed treatment was safer against ladybird
beetles and egg laying by C. carnea on cotton ecosystem (Katole
et al., 2000). Further they also reported that imidacloprid seed
treatment increased the nitrogen and chlorophyll content in
cotton plants, besides avoiding direct contact of seed dressers
with predators. the yield. Simultaneously the use of imidacloprid 70 WS for
Imidacloprid seed treatment as well as foliar spray
increased the seed cotton yield. This present results are
concurrent with the results of Ameta and Sharma (2005) and
Mohapatra and Sahu (2005). Naveen Aggarwal et al., (2010)
also reported that the use of Admire 70 WG (imidacloprid)
has resulted in highest seed cotton yield (30.35 q/ha).
CONCLUSION
The evaluation of insecticides on RCH 2 (BG II)
Bt cotton clearly showed that the sucking pests invariably
attacking both the Bt and non-Bt cotton. Hence, the
seed treatment with imidacloprid 70 WS will give better
protection from sucking pests up to 49 DAS and thereafter
providing spray with imidacloprid 17.8 SL will help to break
the rising of sucking pest population and thereby increase
seed treatment and also the spraying of imidacloprid 17.8 SL
will results in encouragement of natural enemy population in
crop canopy.

Table 2. Effect of different insecticides on seed cotton yield of RCH 2 (BG II) Bt and Non Bt-cotton
Seed cotton yield
Treatment No. Insecticides Dosage Genotype Per cent yield
gm/plant Q/ha increase over
control
T1 Imidacloprid 70WS 7 g * / kg Bt 85.70 26.80 6.77
T2 Imidacloprid 70WS 7 g * / kg Non Bt 76.10 22.65 7.34
T3 Thiomethoxam 70WS 5 g * / kg Bt 85.40 26.55 5.78
T4 Thiomethoxam 70WS 5 g * / kg Non Bt 75.80 22.40 6.16
T5 Imidacloprid 17.8SL 100-125 ml **/ha Bt 85.50 26.70 6.37
T6 Imidacloprid 17.8SL 100-125 ml **/ha Non Bt 76.00 22.50 6.63
T7 Thiomethoxam 25WG 100-125 g **/ ha Bt 85.20 26.30 4.78
T8 Thiomethoxam 25WG 100-125 g **/ ha Non Bt 75.60 22.25 5.45
T9 Acetamiprid 20SP 100 g **/ ha Bt 85.00 26.25 4.58
T10 Acetamiprid 20SP 100 g **/ ha Non Bt 75.40 22.00 4.27
T11 Dimethoate 30EC 500 ml / ha
**
Bt 84.60 25.85 2.99
T12 Dimethoate 30EC 500 ml **/ ha Non Bt 75.00 21.85 3.55
T13 Control - Bt 84.00 25.10 -
T14 Control - Non Bt 74.20 21.10 -

*
Seed treatment Sprayed on 35 and 49 Days After Sowing
**

292

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 294-297 (2015)

IN VITRO SCREENING OF EFFECTIVE PGPR (FLUORESCENT PSEUDOMONAD)

STRAINS AGAINST ROOT ROT AND WILT OF COTTON
N. KALIESWARI*, T. ANAND AND D. ALICE
Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore- 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
Email: kalies.pat@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
A survey was conducted for the collection of fluorescent pseudomonads in different districts of major cotton grow-
ing areas of Tamil Nadu viz., Coimbatore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Madurai, Virudhunagar and Perambalur. Thir-
ty isolates of fluorescent pseudomonads were isolated from the rhizosphere soil of cotton. These isolates were screened
against root rot and wilt pathogens. Among the thirty isolates tested, the isolate APKP4 had maximum inhibition
of 64.04 per cent inhibition over control and with mean mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum of
32.00 mm under in vitro. Minimum per cent inhibition over control was recorded by ALMP4 with 22.47 per cent and
mean mycelial growth of 64.00 mm. Similarly these isolates were screened against the mycelial growth of Rhizoctonia
solani, the VPNP5 isolate was showed maximum inhibition of 68.53 per cent and mean mycelial growth of 28.00 mm.

Keywords: Cotton, In vitro, Isolation, PGPR, Fluorescent pseudomonad, Root rot and Wilt

INTRODUCTION

Cotton (Gossypium sp.) known as “White Gold” is
an important cash crop of India. It is being cultivated over
an area of about 9.5 m ha, representing the largest cotton
growing areas in the world. Biotic and abiotic stress are
a major limiting factors to cotton output, especially soil
borne diseases (root rot and wilt) and other abiotic stress
(parawilt/drought). Management of cotton diseases through
the repeated application of fungicides have resulted in the
development of resistance and hazardous to environment.
The biocontrol method is safe and eco-friendly. Plant
Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are a group of
free living saprophytic microorganisms that live in the plant
rhizosphere and aggressively colonize the root system, and
have been studied as plant growth promoters for increasing
agricultural production and as biocontrol agents against
plant diseases (Kloepper and Beauchamp, 1992; Liu et al.,
1995; Chen et a.l, 2000). PGPR strains suppress the plant
pathogens by various modes of action. They suppress the
pathogen directly by antagonism through the production of
various secondary metabolites.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation and identification of the pathogens
The pathogens were isolated from the infected roots
of cotton plants showing typical root rot and wilt symptoms
by tissue segment method on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA)
medium (Rangaswami, 2005). The infected root bits were
surface sterilized with 0.1% mercuric chloride for 30
seconds, and subsequently washed thrice in sterile distilled
water to remove the traces of mercuric chloride. Then, the root
bits were placed in sterilized petri dishes containing potato
dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated at the laboratory
conditions at 25 ± 2ο C for seven days. A loop full of fungal
culture were taken on a glass slide and observed with image
analyzer under 100 X magnifications for the presence of
conidia and conidiophores. After confirming the spores, the
cultures were purified by single spore isolation technique.
Survey and isolation of PGPR strains
A survey was conducted in various districts of
Tamil Nadu viz., Coimbatore, Madurai, virudhunagar,
Thirunelveli, tuticorin and perambalur for the collection of
rhizosphere soil of cotton from agricultural ecosystems.
Fluorescent pseudomonad strains were isolated from the
collected soil samples by using the serial dilution technique
in Kings’ B medium (KBM) (peptone 20 g; MgSO4 1.5 g;
K2HPO4, 1.5 g; glycerol, 10 ml; agar, 20 g; distilled water
1l) (King et al., 1954) Strains of Pseudomonas sp. were
identified according to the description given in Bergey’s
manual for Systematic Bacteriology (Krieg and Holt, 1984).
These isolates were maintained for stock at -80ºC with 50%
glycerol.
Efficacy of fluorescent pseudomonad strains
against R. solani and Fusarium
Strains of Fluorescent pseudomonad were tested
for their antagonistic activity against mycelial growth
of Rhizoctonia. solani and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
vasinfectum by following the dual culture technique (Dennis
and Webster, 1971). Five days old culture disc (8mm) of the
both pathogens were placed at one end of the sterilized Petri
plate containing 15 ml of PDA medium. The Fluorescent
pseudomonad strain was streaked using flame sterilized
inoculation needle 3 days after pathogen inoculation.
Three replications were maintained for each treatment.
The plates were incubated at room temperature (28±2°C).
Mycelial growth and mycelial inhibition zone (in mm) of the
pathogens were measured. The radial mycelial growth of the
pathogens and per cent reduction over control was calculated
by using the formula as follows
C-T
Per cent inhibition over control = -------------- x 100
C

294
Where, C- Mycelial growth of pathogen in control activity against the root rot and wilt pathogens.

T- Mycelial growth of pathogen in dual plate Table 1. Isolates of fluorescent pseudomonads collected
from different cotton growing areas of Tamil Nadu
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION S. No. Isolate Location District
Collection and isolation of fluorescent 1. KDUP1 Kinathukadavu Coimbatore
pseudomonads
2. CIRP2 CICR Coimbatore
Thirty strains of fluorescent pseudomonads were
isolated from rhizosphere soils of cotton and these strains 3. TNUP3 TNAU Coimbatore
were collected from different district of Tamil Nadu viz., 4. KMDP4 Karamadai Coimbatore
Coimbatore, Tirunelveli, Virudhunagar, Tuticorin, Madurai
5. VDRP5 Vadapudhur Coimbatore
and Perambalur. Among the thirty isolates, five isolates
were screened effectively against the both pathogens (Table 6. SKLP1 Sankarankovil Tirunelvelli
1).
7. MNRP2 Manoor Tirunelvelli
In vitro antagonism of fluorescent pseudomonad 8. SRIP3 Surandai Tirunelvelli
isolates against radial mycelial growth of
9. ALMP4 Alagipandipuram Tirunelvelli
F. o f.sp. vasinfectum
10. VVMP5 Vasavapuram Tirunelvelli
The thirty isolates of fluorescent pseudomonad
were tested against the radial mycelial growth of F. o f.sp. 11. KLIP1 Kallupatti Madurai
vasinfectum by dual plate method. Among the various
12. SVGP2 Sivagangai Madurai
isolates of Fluorescent pseudomonad were screened, the
isolate APKP4 had maximum inhibition of 64.04 per cent 13. MLRP3 Melur Madurai
inhibition over control and with mean mycelial growth of
14. TRMP4 Thirumangalam Madurai
32.00 mm under in vitro. It was followed by KYP5, VPNP1
and VPNP3 with per cent inhibition of 61.79, 59.55 and 15. PMDP5 Palamedu Madurai
58.42 per cent inhibition over control and with the mycelial
16. KVLP1 Kovilpatti Tuticorin
growth of 34.00 mm, 36.00 mm and 37.00 mm respectively.
Minimum per cent inhibition over control was recorded by 17. KKMP2 Killikulam Tuticorin
ALMP4 with 22.47 per cent and mean mycelial growth of 18. ATNP3 Allvar Thirunagar Tuticorin
64.00 mm (Table 2; Plate 1)
19. KLMP4 Karunkulam Tuticorin
In vitro antagonism of fluorescent pseudomonad
20. KTRP5 Kayathar Tuticorin
isolates against radial mycelial growth of
Rhizoctonia solani 21. SVLP1 Srivilliputhur Virudunagar
Among the thirty isolates of Fluorescent pseudomonad 22. STRP2 Sathur Virudunagar
were tested, VPNP5 significantly showed maximum 23. RPMP3 Rajapalayam Virudunagar
inhibition of 68.53 per cent and mean mycelial growth of
28.00 mm. I was followed by APKP4, KDUP1 and ATNP3 24. APKP4 Aruppukotai Virudunagar
with 62.92, 60.67 and 56.17 per cent inhibition over control 25. KYIP5 Kariyapatti Virudunagar
and mycelial growth of 33.00 mm, 35.00 and 39.00 mm
respectively. Lowest per cent inhibition over control of 26. VPNP1 Veppanthattai Perambalur
19.10 was recorded by TNUP3 (Table 2; Plate 1) 27. VPNP2 Veppanthattai Perambalur
The inhibition of mycelial growth due to the production 28. VPNP3 Veppanthattai Perambalur
of antibiotics viz., 2, 4 - diacetyl phloroglucinol, phenazine,
pyroluterin, HCN and lytic enzymes were reported by many 29. VPNP4 Veppanthattai Perambalur
workers (Ramamoorthy and Samiyappan, 2001). Sumana et 30. VPNP5 Veppanthattai Perambalur
al. (2012) showed the maximum inhibitory for the mycelial
growth of F. o. f.sp. nicotianae by Fluroscent Pseudomonads
under in vitro conditions. Hence the present report of
inhibition of mycelial growth must be due to the production
of antibiotics, lytic enzymes etc. The role of PGPR strain,
suppression of plant pathogen should be carried out at both
lab and field conditions in different soil types with diversified
microbial communities and climatic conditions (Roberts
and Lohrke, 2003)
CONCLUSION
The present study was under taken to find out the effect
of PGPR isolates on the mycelial growth of the pathogens
under in vitro. Also, these strains showed high antagonistic

295
Table 2. Effect of different isolates of fluorescent pseudomonads on the mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
vasinfectum and Rhizoctonia solani
F. oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum Rhizoctonia solani

Isolate Per cent inhibition over Mycelial growth Per cent inhibition
Mycelial growth (mm)
control (%) (mm) over control

KDUP1 47.00g 47.19 35.00c 60.67

CIRP2 62.00 m
30.34 65.00 p
26.95
TNUP3 55.00 j
38.20 72.00 r
19.10
KMDP4 58.00 kl
34.83 50.00 j
43.82
VDRP5 59.00l 33.70 41.00ed 53.93
SKLP1 57.00k 35.95 43.00g 51.68
MNRP2 54.00 j
39.32 42.00 fg
52.80
SRIP3 57.00 k
35.95 40.00 de
55.05
ALMP4 69.00 o
22.47 69.00 q
22.47
VVMP5 52.00 i
41.57 45.00 h
49.43
KLIP1 58.00kl 34.83 59.00n 33.70
SVGP2 64.00n 28.08 47.00i 47.19
MLRP3 65.00 n
26.96 48.00 i
46.06
TRMP4 45.00 f
43.82 56.00 l
37.07
PMDP5 48.00 gh
46.06 52.00 k
41.57
KVLP1 58.00kl 34.83 58.00mn 34.83
KKMP2 68.00o 23.59 58.00mn 34.83
ATNP3 49.00 h
44.94 39.00 d
56.17
KLMP4 55.00 j
38.20 65.00 p
26.96
KTRP5 64.00 n
28.08 48.00 i
46.06
SVLP1 57.00 k
35.95 34.00 bc
61.79
STRP2 59.00l 33.70 69.00q 22.47
RPMP3 65.00n 26.96 57.00lm 35.95
APKP4 32.00 a
64.04 33.00 b
62.92
KYIP5 34.00 b
61.79 41.00 ef
53.93
VPNP1 36.00 cd
59.55 63.00 o
29.21
VPNP2 42.00 e
52.80 45.00 g
49.43
VPNP3 37.00d 58.42 52.00j 51.57
VPNP4 42.00e 52.80 59.00n 33.70
VPNP5 35.00 bc
60.67 28.00 a
68.53
Control 89.00 p
- 89.00 s
-

Values are means of three replications. In a column, means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 5%
level by DMRTs
Plate 1. Efficacy of fluorescent pseudomonads on the mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum and Rhi-
zoctonia solani

296
REFERENCES
Chen, C., Belanger, R.R., Benhamou, N. and Paulitz,
T. 2000. Defense enzymes induced in
cucumber roots by treatment with plant
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Pythium aphanidermatum. Physiology and
Molecular Plant Pathology, 56: 13-23.
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King, E.O., Ward, M.K. and Raney, D.E. 1954. Two simple
media for the demonstration of pyocyanin and
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Kloepper, J.W. and Beauchamp, C.J. 1992. A review of issues
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by bacteria. Can. J. Microbiol., 38: 1219-1232.
Krieg, N.R. and Holt, J.G. 1984. Bergey’s manual of
systematic bacteriology, Williams & Wilkins,
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Liu, L., Kloepper, J.W. and Tuzun, S. 1995. Induction of
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1068.
Ramamoorthy, V. and Samiyappan, R. 2001. Induction
of defense-related genes in Pseudomonas
fluorescens treated chilli plants in response to
infection by Colletotrichum capsici. J. Mycol.
Plant Pathol., 31: 146-155.
Rangaswami, G. 2005. Diseases of crop plants in India.
Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp.
520.
Roberts, P.D. and lohrke, M.S. 2003. United states department
of agriculture – agriculture research service
research programs in biological control of plant
diseases. Pest. Manag.Sci., 59: 654-664.
Sumana, K., Ramakrishnan, S., Srinivas, S. and Devaki, N.S.
2012. Field evaluation of promising fungicides
and bioagents against Fusarium wilt and root
knot complex disease in FCV tobacco crop. J.
Agrl.Tech., 8(3): 983-991.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 298-300 (2015)

EVALUATION OF POLYPHENOLIC COMPOUNDS IN FRUIT WINES

KARTHIKADEVI.M* AND S.GUNASEKARAN
Department of Agricultural Microbiology Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore -641003, Tamilnadu, India.

ABSTRACT
Wines are an excellent source of dietary polyphenols. Many phenolic compounds present in wines demonstrate
potent and desirable antioxidant activity .There is evidence that moderate intake of wine reduces the incidence of coronary
diseases (CHD), cancers and athrosclerosis. Seven fruit wines such as banana wine, grape wine, mango wine, musambi
wine, muskmelon wine, papaya wine and pomegranate wine were taken for measuring polyphenolic compounds such as total
phenol, total flavonoid content. Polyphenolic compounds of wine samples were analyzed at initial (fruit juice), 12 months and
18 months age of fermentation. Grape wine evidenced more total phenolic content (2425±0.87 mg l-1 gallic acid equivalents)
and total flavonoid content (978±2.03 mg l-1 catechin equivalents) followed by mango wine and increased with ageing.
Among the fruit wines, grape wine is a potential fruit wine due to high polyphenolic compounds. The study concluded that
the fruit wines are valuable sources of natural phenolic compounds which are known to have health promoting properties.

Keywords: Fruit wines, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, antioxidants

INTRODUCTION
Phenolic compounds are one of the most important
quality parameters of wines, and they contribute to
organoleptic characteristics such as color, astringency, and
bitterness (Paixao et al. 2007). These compounds are also
active in biochemical processes and have nutraceutical effects
on human health, including antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic,
and antioxidant properties (Seruga et al. 2011). Polyphenolic
substances in wines are usually subdivided into two groups:
flavonoids and nonflavonoids. The most common flavonoids
in wine are flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol, and myricetin),
flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin, and tannins), and
anthocyanins (cyanin). Nonflavonoids comprise stilbenes,
hydroxycinnamic acids and benzoic acids. Minussi et al.
(2003) observed that there was a close relationship between
total phenolic content and total antioxidant potential for all
wines and also found that gallic acid was the highest of the
phenolic acids and (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin were
the next most abundant phenolics in red wines by capillary
zone electrophoresis. Numerous papers have been published
on red and white wines and the antioxidant properties of
wines have been correlated with their polyphenol contents
(Fernandez-Pachón et al. 2006; Cimino et al. 2007).The aim
of the study was to analyze the polyphenolic compounds
present in selected fruit wines such as banana wine, grape
wine, mango wine, musambi wine, muskmelon wine, papaya
wine and pomegranate wine. These wines were compared
with different ages of fermentation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seven fruit wines made from Department of
Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore were analyzed. All fruits were
purchased from local market. The total phenolic content of
each wine sample was determined using the Folin- Ciocalteu
colorimetric method (Singleton and Rossi, 1965), calibrating
against gallic acid standards and expressing the results as
mg l-1 gallic acid equivalents. The total flavonoid content of
the each wine was determined using a modified colorimetric
method as described by Kim et al. (2003). About 0.25ml
of each wine sample was mixed with 1.25 ml of distilled
water and subsequently with 0.075 ml of 5% sodium nitrite
solution and was allowed to react for 5 minutes. Then a
0.15 ml of 10% aluminium chloride was added and allowed
to further react for 6 minutes before 0.5 ml of 1M sodium
hydroxide was added. Distilled water was added to bring the
final volume of the mixture to 3 ml. the absorbance of the
mixture was immediately measured at a 510 nm wavelength
against a prepared blank using a varian spectrophotometer.
The flavonoid content was determined by a catechin
standard curve and expressed as mg l-1 catechin equivalents.
All the experiments were conducted in triplicate. Analysis
of variance for experiments was done using AGRES version
3.01 (Pascal Intl Software Solutions). Values of P < 0.05
were considered as statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fruits have a very important role in human nutrition
either as fresh or in processed form, due to the presence
of numerous high value secondary metabolites that
provide characteristic nutritional qualities. The high value
secondary metabolites present in fruits include vitamins
and phenolics. Natural antioxidants present in foods have
attracted considerable interest due to their safety, nutritional
and therapeutic effects. Berries, grape, and their processed
products such as wines contain a wide range of flavonoids and
other phenolic compounds that possess antioxidant activity
(Heinonen et al., 1998). Phenolics, a large and complex group
of compounds of red wines, also serve as important oxygen
reservoirs and substrates for browning reactions (Proestos
et al. 2005). Analysis of phenolic compounds occurring in
fruit juices and wines has attracted considerable attention
due to the recent discovery of beneficial physiological and
anti-carcinogenic properties for human health of many of
these compounds (Dalluge et al. 1998). Also it evidenced
antioxidant activity. This activity is believed to be primarily
due to their redox properties and which perform important
functions in the adsorption and neutralization of free
radicals, the quenching of singlet and triplet oxygen, and

298
the decomposition of peroxides. Total phenolic content
of fruit juice, fruit wines and cereal wine are presented in
Table 1. Among all the fruit juices analyzed, grape juice
had highest total phenolic content (2246±1.81 mg l-1 gallic
acid equivalents) followed by mango juice (2168±1.94 mg
l-1 gallic acid equivalents). Significant differences were not
observed between pomegranate juice and muskmelon juice.
Total phenolic content of fruit wines ranged from 1517±0.51
mg l-1 to 2356±1.66 mg l-1 gallic acid equivalents at the age
of 12 months. Total phenolic content of wine samples ranged
from 1687±2.16 mg l-1 gallic acid equivalents (papaya wine)
to 2425±0.87 mg l-1 gallic acid equivalents (grape wine) at
18 months of ageing as indicated in Table 1. The results
confirm a variation in polyphenolic contents among wine
samples tested. It is well known that the amounts of
phenolic materials vary considerably in different types of
wines, depending on the type of fruits and their variety ,
environmental factors, the wine processing techniques and
maturation (Villano et al. 2006; Lachman et al. 2007).
Flavonoids have a unique position among the
natural substances used by man for therapeutic purposes. The
pharmacological importance of phenolic compounds from
fruits include their use as components in anti-inflammatory,
antihepatotoxic, antitumor, leucodermic and antipsoriasis,
antibacterial and antiviral preparations. In the present study,
significant differences in the total flavonoid content were
found in fruit juice samples. The flavonoid content of the fruit
wines at the age of 12 months and 18 months was significantly
different from each other (p < 0.05) except banana wine and
papaya wine which were not significantly differed (p > 0.05).
Among the wines, grape wine had highest flavonoid content
(963±0.85 mg l-1 catechin equivalents) and increased with
ageing.In conclusion, the phenolic characteristics of wines
varied largely depending on different fruit types. The grape
wines had significantly higher total phenolic concentrations
and flavonoid content than the other fruit wines. Next to
grape wine, mango wine had higher polyphenolic contents.

Table 1. Total phenols in fruit juice and fruit wines

Total phenols (mg l-1 gallic acid equivalents)
S.No Name of the sample
Fruit juice 12 months aged wine 18 months aged wine

1 Banana 1914±0.99d 1952±0.55cd 1968±0.37d

2 Grape 2246±1.81a 2356±1.66a 2425±0.87a
3 Mango 2168±1.94b 2289±1.65a 2313±1.82b
4 Musambi 1773±1.14e 1964±0.42cd 1978±0.25d
5 Muskmelon 1987±0.15c 1995±0.61c 2025±0.44d
6 Papaya 1459±1.10f 1517±0.51f 1687±2.16f
7 Pomegranate 2015±0.82c 2093±2.35b 2193±1.79c

Note: Values represent means of triplicate determinations ± standard error and a-f Bars with no letters in common are
significantly different (p < 0.05) in the same column.
Table 2. Total flavonoids in fruit juice and fruit wines

Total flavonoids (mg l-1 catechin equivalents)

S.No Name of the sample
Fruit juice 12 months aged wine 18 months aged wine

1 Banana 347±1.73g 389±1.73h 411±0.20h

2 Grape 926±0.58a 963±0.85a 978±2.03a
3 Mango 771±1.34c 854±1.69b 875±1.73b
4 Musambi 415±1.45e 432±1.25g 458±0.67g
5 Muskmelon 456±1.00d 497±1.20f 532±0.91f
6 Papaya 368±2.03f 371±0.47h 397±1.45h
7 Pomegranate 795±0.88b 817±1.15b 826±2.01c

Note: Values represent means of triplicate determinations ± standard error and a-f Bars with no letters in common are
significantly different (p < 0.05) in the same column.

299
REFERENCES
Cimino, F., Sulfaro, V. Trombetta, D. Saija, A. and Tomaino,
A. (2007). Radicalscavenging capacity of
several Italian red wines. Food Chemistry
103(1): 75–81.
Dalluge, J.J., Nelson, B.C. Thomas, J.B. and Sander, L.C.
(1998). Selection of column and gradient elution
system for the separation of catechins in green
tea using HPLC. Journal of Chromatogram
Analysis 793:265–274.
Fernández-Pachón, M. S., Villaño, D. Troncoso, A. M. and
García-Parrilla, M. C. (2006). Determination of
the phenolic composition of sherry and table
white wines by liquid chromatography and their
relation with antioxidant activity. Analytica
Chimica Acta 563(1–2): 101–108.
Heinonen, I.M., Lehtonen, P.J. and Hopia, A.I. (1998).
Antioxidant activity of berry and fruit wines
and liquors. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 46: 25–31.
Kim, D.O., Chun, O.K. Kim, Y.J. Moon, H.Y. and Lee,
C.Y. (2003). Quantification of polyphenolics
and their antioxidant capacity in fresh plums.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,
51(22): 6509–6515.
Lachman, J., Sulc, M. and Schilla, M. (2007). Comparison
of the total antioxidant status of Bohemian
wines during the wine-making process. Food
Chemistry 103(3): 802–807.
300
Paixao, N., Perestrelo, R.. Marques, J.C. and Camara, J.S.
(2007) Relationship between Antioxidant
Capacity and Total Phenolic Content of Red,
Rose and White Wines. Food Chemistry
105:204-214.
Proestos, C., Bakogiannis, A. Psarianos, C. Koutinas, A.A.
Kanellaki, M. and Komaitis. M. (2005). High
Performance Liquid Chromatography Analyses
of Phenolic Substances in Greek. Food Control
16: 319-323.
Seruga, M., Novak, I. and Jakobek, L. (2011) Determination of
Polyphenols Content and Antioxidant Activity
of Some Red Wines by Differential Pulse
Voltammetry, HPLC and Spectrophotometric
Methods. Food Chemistry 124:1208- 1216.
Singleton, V.L. and Rossi, J.A. (1965). Colorimetry of
total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-
phosphotungstic acid reagents. American
Journal of Enology and Viticulture 16: 144-
158.
Villano, D., Fernandez-Pachon, M.S. Troncoso, A.M.
and Garcia-Parrilla, M.C. 2006. Influence of
enological practices on the antioxidant activity
of wines. Food Chemistry 95(3): 394–404.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 301-303 (2015)

EFFECT OF WEED MANAGEMENT METHODS ON WEED CONTROL AND

PRODUCTIVITY OF ONION
M. DHANANIVETHA*, M. MOHAMED AMANULLAH1 AND P. MURALI ARTHANARI2
* Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai – 625104
Professor, Department of Agronomy, TNAU, Coimbatore – 641 003
1

2
Assistant Professor, Directorate of Planning and Monitoring, TNAU, Coimbatore – 641 003

ABSTRACT
Field experiment was conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, during rabi 2012-
13 to evaluate bio-efficacy and phytotoxicity of quizalofop-ethyl (5% EC) for management of weeds in onion. The experiment was laid out in
randomized block design and replicated thrice. The treatments comprised of twelve different weed management practices viz., early post-emer-
gence application of new formulation of quizalofop-ethyl at 37.5, 50, 75 and 100 g a.i.ha-1, already registered early post-emergence herbicide
quizalofop-ethyl (Targa super) at 37.5 and 50 g a.i.ha-1, pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i.ha-1 + hand weeding on 45 DAT, pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i.ha-1
+ mechanical weeding on 45 DAT, oxyfluorfen 0.2 kg a.i.ha-1 + hand weeding on 45 DAT, oxyfluorfen 0.2 kg a.i.ha-1 + mechanical weeding
on 45 DAT, hand weeding on 25 and 45 DAT and unweeded check. Application of new formulation of quizalofop-ethyl (5% EC) at 75 g a.i ha-1
can lower the weed density and dry weight during critical stage of the crop growth which in turn increase the bulb yield and net return in onion.

Keywords: Early post-emergence herbicide, quizalofop-ethyl, onion

INTRODUCTION
Indian agricultural sector plays a crucial role in
the economic development of the country Cereals, pulses,
oilseeds, fruits and vegetables are the major source of food
materials. Among vegetables, onion occupies a prominent
place and is cultivated commercially throughout tropical
and subtropical belts of the world. The bulbous vegetable
onion Allium cepa Var. aggregatum L. (2n=16) is the
most important species of Allium group and is regarded as
the single most important vegetable spices as it forms an
indispensable part of many diets, both vegetarian and non-
vegetarian. Onion is the most common item in every kitchen
as vegetable, spice and condiment. It is also known as Queen
of kitchen. Onion bulb is rich in minerals, especially calcium
and phosphorus. It is a condiment crop, which is consumed
usually as chopped or sliced or fresh in salads as well as used
in dishes as spice (Baloch, 1994). Weeds play a major role
in reducing the yield of the onion crop. Onion exhibits
greater susceptibility to weed competition as compared to
other crops due to its inherent characteristics such as their
slow growth, small stature, shallow roots and lack of dense
foliage (Ware and McCollum, 1975).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field experiment was conducted at Agricultural
Research Station, Bhavanisagar of Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, during rabi 2012-13. The experiment was laid
out in randomized block design and replicated thrice. The
treatments comprised of twelve different weed management
practices viz., early post-emergence application of new
formulation of quizalofop-ethyl at 37.5 (T1), 50 (T2), 75
(T3) and 100 (T4) g a.i ha-1, already registered early post-
emergence herbicide quizalofop-ethyl (Targa super) at 37.5
(T5) and 50 (T6) g a.i ha-1, pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i ha-1 +
Hand Weeding on 45 DAT (T7), pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i
ha-1 + Mechanical Weeding on 45 DAT (T8), oxyfluorfen at
0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + Hand Weeding on 45 DAT (T9), oxyfluorfen
at 0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + Mechanical Weeding on 45 DAT (T10),
Hand Weeding on 25 and 45 DAT (T11) and unweeded check
(T12) were laid out in randomized block design with three
replications. Onion variety Co (On) 5 was transplanted by
raising nursery. The crop was fertilized with the recommended
dose of 60:60:30 kg NPK ha-1.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Predominant weed species observed in the experimental
field are four species of grassy weeds namely Brachiaria reptans,
Chloris barbata, Digitaria bicornis, Echinochloa colonum and six
species of broad leaved weeds namely Eclipta prostrata, Euphorbia
hirta, Portulaca oleracea, Stachytarpheta jamsaicensis, Trianthema
portulacastrum and Tridax procumbens. Cyperus iria was the only
sedge weed found in the experimental field. Grassy weeds dominated
the experimental field followed by broad leaved and sedge weeds
throughout the crop growth. Similar findings were observed by
Sarkar et al. (2005).Weed management treatments significantly affected
weed density and weed dry weight at 40 DAP (Table 1). Lower weed
density and weed dry weight was observed under hand weeding on 25
and 45 DAT (T11) which was comparable with early post-emergence
application of new molecule of quizalofop-ethyl at 100 (T4) and 75 g
a.i ha-1 (T3). After application of quizalofop-ethyl, injury symptoms
began as chlorosis and susceptible weeds stopped growing at 3 to 5
days. Necrosis began after 5 days and the weeds death occured at 7
-10 days. Increasing the dose of herbicide also reduced the density of
herbicide to a greater extent. Similar findings were noticed Rahman
et al. (2011). Similar trend in use of different herbicides at higher
concentration was found to be most effective in controlling weeds
than their lower concentration by Chauhan et al. (1998). Higher weed
density was recorded under unweeded control (T12) irrespective of
all the stages of observation. Similar trend was noticed by Patel et
al. (2011). Higher weed control efficiency was observed under hand
weeded plots followed by quizalofop-ethyl at 100 and 75 g a.i ha-1.
Taller plants were observed under early post-emergence application
of new molecule of quizalofop-ethyl at 75 g a.i ha-1 (T3) comparable
with oxyfluorfen at 0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + hand weeding on 45 DAT (T8)
and oxyfluorfen at 0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + mechanical weeding on 45 DAT

301
(T10). Better control of weeds resulting in favourable environment
in the root zone resulting in absorption of more water and nutrients
from soil. The results are in conformity with the findings of Raj
et al. (2012). Least plant height was obtained under unweeded
control because of the poor exposure to direct sunlight as a result
of smothering effect of weeds. Similar finding was reported by
Channappagoudar and Biradar (2007). Higher bulb weight and
bulb yield (30.20 g and 13,055 kg ha-1) was obtained under early
post-emergence application of new molecule of quizalofop-ethyl at
75 g a.i ha-1 (T3) due to efficient control of weeds at critical stages
resulting in least competition by weeds for nutrients providing
favourable environment for growth and development of onion
leading to increase in yield. This finding derives support from Patel
et al. (2011) who also reported similar findings.
Conclusion
Application of new formulation of quizalofop-ethyl (5%
EC) at 75 g a.i ha-1 (T3) can lower the weed density and dry
weight in grass dominated fields during critical stage of the
crop growth which in turn increase the bulb yield and net return
in onion.

Table 1. Effect of weed management methods on total weed density, weed dry weight and weed control efficiency at 40 DAT

Total weed Total weed dry Weed control

Treatments
density (No/m2) weight (g/ m2) Efficiency (%)

12.76
10.85
T1 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 37.5 g a.i ha -1 75.64
(116.15)
(161.25)
11.99
9.85
T2 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 50 g a.i ha -1 78.56
(95.16)
(141.91)
10.40
8.44
T3 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 75 g a.i ha -1 83.87
(70.05)
(106.73)
10.02
8.14
T4 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 100 g a.i ha -1 85.13
(64.43)
(98.40)
12.36
10.93
T5 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC (TS) at 37.5 g a.i ha -1 75.67
(117.76)
(151.01)
11.19
9.90
T6 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC (TS) at 50 g a.i ha -1 77.82
(96.25)
(146.81)
13.13
9.31
T7 - PE Pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i ha-1 + HW on 45 DAT 74.13
(85.13)
(171.24)
12.75
9.07
T8 - PE Oxyfluorfen at 0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + HW on 45 DAT 75.59
(80.77)
(161.57)
13.02
9.39
T9 - PE Pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i ha-1 + MW on 45 DAT 74.63
(86.34)
(167.90)
12.73
9.01
T10 - PE Oxyfluorfen at 0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + MW on 45 DAT 75.74
(79.44)
(160.57)
9.73
7.28
T11 - Hand weeding on 25 and 45 DAT 85.96
(51.07)
(92.94)
25.76
16.80
T12 - Unweeded control -
(280.97)
(661.83)
SEd 0.57 0.64
CD (P=0.05) 1.19 1.34

Figures in the paranthesis are original values TS -Targa Super HW -Hand Weeding MW -Mechanical Weeding

302
Table 2. Effect of weed management methods on plant height, bulb weight and bulb yield of onion

Plant height Bulb yield

Treatments Bulb weight (g)
(cm) (kg ha-1)
T1 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 37.5 g a.i ha -1 38.94
23.19 9704
T2 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 50 g a.i ha -1 42.94
23.37 10388
T3 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 75 g a.i ha -1 47.43
30.20 13055
T4 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 100 g a.i ha -1
39.97
24.18 9972
T5 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC (TS) at 37.5 g a.i ha -1 37.99
21.83 9633
T6 - EPOE Quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC (TS) at 50 g a.i ha -1 42.47
22.98 10355
T7 - PE Pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i ha + HW on 45 DAT
-1
42.82
23.53 11197
T8 - PE Oxyfluorfen at 0.2 kg a.i ha-1 + HW on 45 DAT 46.45
28.53 12858
T9 - PE Pendimethalin at 1.0 kg a.i ha-1 + MW on 45 DAT 43.25
23.93 10707
T10 - PE Oxyfluorfen at 0.2 kg a.i ha + MW on 45 DAT
-1
45.25
25.76 12681
T11 - Hand weeding on 25 and 45 DAT 43.81
25.12 11393
T12 - Unweeded control 32.47 9.12 4053
SEd 1.77 2.18 793
CD (P=0.05) 3.70 4.55 1657

TS -Targa Super HW -Hand Weeding MW -Mechanical Weeding

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Baloch, A.F. (1994) Vegetable Crops. In “Horticulture”.
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303
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 304-307 (2015)

GENETIC VARIABILITY IN RICE GERMPLASM LINES FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE

TOLERANCE RELATED TRAITS
R.MAHENDRAN*1, P.VEERABADHIRAN1, S.ROBIN1 AND M.RAVEENDRAN2
Center for Plant Breeding and Genetics,
1

Center for Plant Molecular biology and biotechnology,

2

Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

*
Corresponding E-mail: vaasuagri@gmail.com.

ABSTRACT:
An experiment was carried out to assess the genetic variability among 293 germplasm lines of rice for high temperature tolerance re-
lated triats in completely randomized block design with two replications during Rabi season (2014) at Paddy breeding station, TNAU,
Coimbatore. Statistical analysis by analysis of variance was found to be significant for all the traits, indicating the existence of variation
among them. Higher values of genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variability were observed for plant height, number of tillers per
plant, number of productive tillers per plant, spikelet sterility, number of grains per panicle, total dry matter production, grain filling rate,
grain yield per plant. High heritability with high genetic advance was observed for panicle exertion, days to fifty per cent flowering, plant
height, spikelet sterility, number of grains per panicle, total dry matter production, grain filling rate, grain yield per plant. Directional
selection of these traits would be more effective in desired genetic improvement of high temperature tolerance in the rice germplasm lines.

Keywords: Rice germplasms lines; Genetic variability; Heritability; Genetic advance and Heat tolerance.

INTRODUCTION
Global warming has become one of the most serious
issues affecting agricultural productivity. It was reported
that global emissions of carbon dioxide caused by human
activities reached a record high in 2011 and is likely to
increase over succeeding years, thus contributing to the
global increase in temperature (Tenorio et al., 2013).
The magnitude of declining agricultural productivity
over years is augmented by this global temperature rise.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2012)
has estimated a rise of global temperatures by 1.1 °C to 6.4
°C during the next century, which is expected to threaten
rice production by 2050. Cultivated rice is more tolerant to
high temperature than many other major food crops, such
as maize, wheat and potato, but many rice varieties are
still sensitive to high temperature at reproductive stages.
Rice being sensitive to high temperature, especially at the
reproductive stage, responds to the stress by resulting in
spikelet sterility which eventually contributes to severe
yield losses. High temperature stress negatively affects
rice production, especially in vulnerable regions in South
and Southeast Asia (Jagadish et al., 2012). The rice crop is
currently exposed to temperatures higher than the critical
threshold of 33oC in South Asia (Bangladesh, India) and
Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand) during the sensitive
stages, viz., flowering and early grain filling (Wassmann
et al., 2009). This kind of high temperature stress is a
major constraint affecting rice production in tropical and
subtropical regions. Till date, there is no systematic study
for monitoring and evaluating temperature stress induced
yield losses worldwide, although some sporadic reports
on regional high temperature damages were documented
in tropical and subtropical countries, like Pakistan, India,
Bangladesh, China, Thailand, Sudan, and some African
countries (Matsushima et al., 1982; Osada et al., 1973; Tian
et al., 2009). Wide genetic variability exists in the genetic
resources for resistance to heat stress in rice (Prasad et
al., 2006; Matsui and Omasa, 2002). Since the variability
is a prerequisite for selection programme, it is necessary to
detect and document the amount of variation existing in the
population. In evolving new crop varieties and hybrids
through breeding for climate resilience, heat tolerance
is one of the key research areas. The present study was
undertaken to evaluate the rice germplasm lines and identify
the genotypes with higher levels of heat tolerance.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted during Rabi 2014 at Paddy
breeding station, TNAU, Coimbatore. A total of 293
genetically diverse germplasm of rice were taken for the
study. The experiment was laid out in randomized block
design with two replications by adopting a spacing of 20
cmx20 cm. All the agronomic package of practices were
carried out to ensure healthy plant growth. Observations
were recorded on fifteen quantitative high temperature
related traits, viz., panicle exertion, days to 50 per cent
flowering, plant height, number of tillers for plant, number
of productive tillers for plant, hundred grain weight, panicle
length, spikelet sterility, number of grains per panicle, total
dry matter production, grain length, grain breadth, L/B ratio,
grain filling rate, and grain yield per plant. The analysis of
variance was done as suggested by Panse and Sukhatme
(1967). Variability for different characters was estimated –as
per the procedure described by Burton and De Vane (1953).
Heritability and expected genetic advance was calculated
according to descriptions given by Hanson et al., 1956 and
Johnson et al., 1955, respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Genetic variability among the germplasm lines and
existence of donor lines with varying levels of tolerance is
the pre-requisite for any breeding program. Therefore, in an
attempt to develop heat tolerance lines, the present study was
undertaken to evaluate the germplasm lines for identifying

304
the lines with heat tolerance related traits. The analysis of
variance revealed significant difference among the genotypes
for all the characters studied (Tables 1). A wide range for
all the traits indicates, the presence of genetic variability for
high temperature tolerance related traits. Similar results were
earlier reported by Jayasudha and Sharma (2010) in Panicle
length (cm), Grain length (mm), Number of grains per
panicle, Number of filled grains per panicle and100 grain
weight (g).The range in mean values does not reflect the total
variance in the material studied. Hence, actual variance was
estimated for the characters to know the extent of existing
variability. The co-efficients of variation, i.e., phenotypic
co-efficient of variation (PCV) and genotypic co-efficient
of variation (GCV), were estimated by considering the
respective means and the comparisons are presented in Table
2. High values of these parameters indicate wider variability
and viceversa. In the same context, narrow differences
between the PCV and GCV implies lesser influence of
environment on these traits. Highest PCV and GCV were
observed for plant height (22.89, 22.84), number of tillers per
plant (32.19, 22.99), number of productive tillers per plant
(30.54, 23.24), spikelet sterility (62.19, 54.25), number of
grains per panicle (29.63, 28.68), total dry matter production
(28.65, 25.06), grain filling rate (94.20, 83.92), grain yield per
plant (33.78, 28.83). This suggests that these characters are
under the influence of genetic control which could be used as
a parameter for simple selection in breeding program. These
results are in consonance with high estimates of GCV and
PCV for plant height, number of tillers per plant and number
of productive tillers per plant by Elayaraja et al. (2005) and
Girish et al. (2006).Panicle exertion, days to fifty percent
flowering, panicle length, grain length and grain breadth
recorded moderate PCV and GCV values. This indicates the
existence of comparatively moderate variability for these
traits, which could be exploited for improvement through
selection in advanced generations. The moderate GCV and
PCV for panicle length and grain breadth were also reported
by Gholipooret et al., 1998. Improvement in these characters
can be brought about by hybridization or induced mutations
Table (1): Analysis of variance for grain yield and its contributing characters in rice under high temperature stress
Source of
DF PE DFF PH TT PT
variation
Replication 1 8.42 140.65 0.96 15.076 0.06
Genotypes 292 0.72** 264.11** 1467.50** 23.51** 20.60** 21.71** 2.68** 249.42** 2166.72** 404.50** 1.54** 0.235** 0.0031** 79.71**
Error 292 0.06 7.13 3.28 7.62 5.49
to widen the genetic base followed by pedigree selection in
the advanced generations.The broad sense heritability has
been used as a predictor in the selection procedure (Allard,
1960) which gives an idea about the exploitable portion
of variation. The range of heritability (in broad sense) was
between 9.10 % (Hundred grain weight) and 99.60 % (Plant
height). Heritability (h2) estimates were high for most of
the traits although it was moderate for number of tillers per
plant and number of productive tillers per plant. Hundred
grain weight showed low heritability. Similar results were
reported in earlier studies (Sharma and Choubey, 1985;
Pattanayaketal., 2000; Bhandarkar et al.,2002; Sabesan
et al.,2009; Jayasudha and Sharma., 2010).In the current
study, high heritability coupled with high genetic advance
as per cent of mean were observed for panicle exertion, days
to fifty percent flowering, plant height, spikelet sterility,
number of grains per panicle, total dry matter production,
grain length, grain breadth, grain filling rate and grain yield
per plant. This indicates that there was low environmental
influence on the expression of these characters. Directional
selection of these traits would be more effective in desired
genetic improvement of high temperature tolerance in the
rice germplasm lines.High heritability and genetic advance
for these traits were earlier reported by Balan et al. (1999);
Bidhan et al. (2001); Gangashetty et al. (2013); Keshava
Murthy et al.(2011) and Yadav et al. (2010). Moderate
genetic advance as a percentage of mean was observed for
hundred grain weight. Similar results were also reported by
Singh and Singh (2005), Sarkar et al. (2007), Anbanandan
et al. (2009) and Sabesan et al. (2009).The overall results
indicted the core set of germplasm contained high genetic
variability. The broad sense heritability and genetic advance
as percentage of mean indicated that panicle exertion, days
to fifty percent flowering, plant height, spikelet sterility,
number of grains per panicle, total dry matter production,
grain length, grain breadth, grain filling rate and grain yield
per plant are the most important yield components and
selection based on these traits would be very effective for
high temperature tolerance.
PL HGW SS GPP TDMP GL GB GFR SPY
0.46 2.00 1091.84 993.46 4.01 0.079 0.01 0.0012 14.75
2.90 2.23 33.85 70.76 53.87 0.03 0.00 0.0004 12.53

* Significant at P = 0.05 level; ** Significant at P=0.01 level

DF – Degrees of freedom, PE – Panicle exertion, DFF – Days to fifty percent flowering, PH – Plant height, TT- Total
tillers, PT – Productive tillers, PL – Panicle length, HGW – Hundred grain weight, SS – Spikelet sterility, GPP – Number of
grains per panicle, TDMP – Total dry matter production, GL – Grain length, GB – Grain breadth, GFR – Grain filling rate,
SPY – Single plant yield.
Table (2): Mean, range and genetic parameters for yield and yield related characters in rice genotypes under high tem-
perature condition.
Range Variance Co efficient of variation (%) Genetic
Heritability in advance as
Sl.no character Mean
min max Vg Vp GCV PCV ECV broad sense (h2) percent of
mean
1 PE 4.50 2.00 6.50 0.32 0.39 12.65 13.91 5.78 82.7 23.72

2 DFF 97.57 56.50 137.00 128.48 135.92 11.61 11.93 2.73 94.7 23.29

305
 3 PH 118.42 62.50 183.00 732.11 735.39 22.84 22.89 1.52 99.6 46.96

4 TT 12.15 6.25 28.50 7.94 15.56 22.99 32.19 22.53 51 33.83

5 PT 11.74 5.75 28.50 7.55 13.04 23.24 30.54 19.81 57.9 36.43

6 PL 24.29 11.63 34.73 9.41 12.30 12.62 14.44 7.00 76.5 22.74

7 HGW 2.31 1.20 3.78 0.22 2.46 19.85 65.94 62.88 9.1 12.31

8 SS 19.14 1.51 66.01 109.78 141.64 54.25 62.19 30.40 76.1 97.49

9 GPP 112.85 12.00 224.50 1047.98 1118.74 28.68 29.63 7.45 93.7 57.19

10 TDMP 52.83 18.25 126.78 175.31 229.18 25.06 28.65 13.89 76.5 45.15

11 GL 8.63 5.62 10.95 0.75 0.78 10.08 10.25 1.88 96.6 20.41

12 GW 2.61 1.83 3.49 0.11 0.12 13.03 13.26 2.49 96.5 26.37

13 GFR 0.04 0.00 0.26 0.001 0.002 83.92 94.20 42.79 79.4 154.03

14 SPY 20.10 3.85 50.02 33.58 46.12 28.83 33.78 17.61 72.8 50.68

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 308-310 (2015)

COMBINED EFFECT OF PLANT GEOMETRY AND NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON

GROWTH PARAMETERS AND YIELD OF IRRIGATED GREENGRAM
M. MOHANA KEERTHI*, R. BABU, M. JOSEPH AND R. AMUTHA
Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Killikulam, Vallanad, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu - 628 252.
*email: mmkeerthi@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Field experiment was conducted during rabi season of November 2013 to January 2014 at Agricultural College and Research Insti-
tute, Killikulam. The experiment was laid out in randomised block design, greengram variety CO 6 was used for the study. The treat-
ments were adopted various plant geometry of 30 × 30 cm, 25× 25 cm and 30 × 10 cm with nutrient management of Soil Test Crop
Response (STCR) based fertilizer application, Recommend dose of fertilizer (RDF), Farm Yard Manure (FYM) and Zinc Sulphate
(ZnSO4) was applied in soil as basal and foliar spray of pulse wonder and Pink-pigmented facultative methylotrophs (PPFM) spray
was done at one week after flowering and 1% KNO3 at 50 per cent flowering as per the treatments schedule. In that Adoption of plant-
ing geometry of 30 × 30 cm, application of RDF, 12.5 t FYM and 25 kg ZnSO4 asbasal and foliar spraying of 1% KNO3 at
50 per cent flowering recorded better growth characters viz., plant height (35.8 and 67.0 cm at 30, 45 DAS respectively), number of
branches plant-1 (14.8), number of root nodules plant-1 (23.0 and 35.1 at 30, 45 DAS respectively), dry matter production (964 and
2865 kg ha-1 at 30, 45 DAS respectively), higher grain yield (1775 kg ha-1) and Haulm yield (1775 kg ha-1) in irrigated green gram.

Keywords: Green gram, Plant geometry, Nutrients, Foliar, Growth parameters

INTRODUCTION
Pulses occupy a unique position in Indian was analysed 270, 13 and 233 kg ha-1 of KMnO4-N, Olsen-P
agriculture by virtue of the fact that they constitute a major and NH4OAc-K, respectively with EC of 0.22 dSm-1, pH
and the only high protein component to the average Indian of 7.1 and organic carbon of 0.59%.The experiment was
diet. Nutritionally pulses are two to three times richer in conducted in a randomized block design with 11 treatments
protein than the cereal grains and have remained the least and three replications. Greengram variety CO 6 was used for
expensive source of protein for the human being since the the study.
dawn of the modern civilization. Continued population
upsurge necessitates the need for the greater supply of Treatment details
plant protein which already has remained too short of its
requirement. India grows nearly 23 million ha of pulses with T1 : 25 × 25 cm spacing + STCR based fertilizer
the annual production of 17.02 million tonnes and an average application
productivity of 617 kg ha-1 (GOI, 2012). Greengram is a rich T2 : T1 + ZnSO4 + Pulse wonder
source of protein (24%) and also contribute carbohydrates
T3 : T1 + ZnSO4 + Pulse wonder + PPFM spray
(60%), fat (1.5%), amino acids, vitamins, minerals etc. Area
under greengram in India is 3.80 million hectares with an T4 : 25 × 25 cm spacing + RDF + FYM + ZnSO4
annual production of 1.1 million tonnes. In Tamil Nadu, T5 : T4+ 1% KNO3
the area under greengram is 0.13 million hectares with an T6 : 30 × 30 cm spacing + STCR based fertilizer
annual production of 458.8 tonnes. The average productivity
application
of greengram over globe is 577 kg ha-1 whereasin India 426
kg ha-1, which is considered to be low (Indiastat, 2010). The T7 : T6+ ZnSO4 + Pulse wonder
reasons for low yield of green gram are the slow rate of dry T8 : T6 + ZnSO4 + Pulse wonder + PPFM spray
matter accumulation during the pre-flowering phase, poor
pod setting, onset of leaf senescence during the period of pod T9 : 30 × 30 cm spacing + RDF + FYM + ZnSO4
development and low partitioning efficiency of assimilates T10 : T9 + 1% KNO3
to grain. In the present study was carried to following T11 : 30 × 10 cm spacing + RDF + FYM + ZnSO4
necessary information of effect of plant geometry, soil and
foliar spray of nutrients in irrigated greengram. Hence, this (Note: FYM – 12.5 t ha-1 as basal; STCR – 13:25:13 kg ha-1;
study was undertaken to find out the influence of geometry RDF – 25:50:25:20 NPKS kg ha-1; ZnSO4 – 25 kg ha-1; Pulse
and nutrients on growth parameters and yield of greengram wonder @ 5 kg ha-1 at 50% flowering and PPFM – 2% at one
under irrigated condition. week after flowering).

MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A field experiment was conducted during rabi season The plant spacing of 30 × 30 cm with application
of 2013 at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil of RDF, 12.5 t of FYM and 25 kg of ZnSO4 as basal and
Nadu Agricultural University, Killikulam, Tuticorin. The foliar spraying of 1% KNO3 at 50 per cent flowering(T10)
climate of the experimental site is semi-arid tropics. The soil

308
were resulted maximumplant height (35.8, 67.0, and 69.1 cm
on30 DAS, 45 DAS and at harvest respectively), number of
branches plant-1(14.8 at 45 DAS), number of root nodules
plant-1 (23.0 and 35.1 at 30, 45 DAS respectively) in table
1 and more dry matter production (964 and 2865 kg ha-1
at 30, 45 DAS respectively) in table 2. The wider spacing
(30 × 30 cm) produced higher dry matter production than
conventional spacing of 30 × 10 cm. This might be due to
less competition between the inter and intra plants for sun
light, water and nutrients as well as space (Mathur et al.,
2007).The combined application of FYM, RDF, ZnSO4 and
foliar spraying of 1% KNO3 produced higher number of
growth parameters. This might be due to addition of FYM
along with basal application of fertilizer have enhanced the
nutrient availability in the soil rhizo-ecosystem at the early
stages (Nawange et al., 2011) and favoured better crop
growth and development. It was evidenced from taller plants
with more branches and efficient nodulation (Singh et al.,
2004) in greengram.

Table 1. Effect of planting geometry, soil and foliar nutrition on growth parameters of irrigated greengram
Number of
Plant height branches Number of Root Nodules
Treatments plant-1
45
30 DAS 45 DAS At harvest 30 DAS 45 DAS
DAS
T1 23.4 52.8 55.7 10.0 14.3 25.4
T2 24.0 53.4 56.2 10.3 14.8 26.3
T3 27.1 56.9 59.4 11.3 15.8 28.2
T4 29.1 58.1 61.1 11.4 16.0 29.5
T5 31.6 61.9 64.1 12.1 17.1 30.8
T6 25.0 54.3 57.1 10.3 15.0 26.4
T7 26.8 55.7 58.5 11.0 15.3 27.3
T8 32.0 62.3 64.4 12.3 17.7 31.7
T9 33.6 63.2 65.7 13.0 20.7 32.3
T10 35.8 67.0 69.1 14.8 23.0 35.1
T11 23.1 51.6 55.5 9.7 13.0 22.4
SEd 1.2 1.5 1.9 0.6 0.7 1.3

CD (0.05) 2.6 3.3 4.0 1.3 1.4 2.6

The higher grain yield (1775 kg ha-1) and haulm yield Application of FYM along with RDF, ZnSO4 and 1% KNO3
(2920 kg ha-1) of irrigated greengram was recorded in the produced higher grain and haulm yield, this might be due to
treatment comprising of 30 × 30 cm plant spacing with application of recommended dose of fertilizers which would
application of RDF, 12.5 t of FYM and 25 kg of ZnSO4 have increased the soil fertility and favoured for better
asbasal and foliar spraying of 1% KNO3 at 50 per cent nutrient supply during early establishment stages which
flowering (T10) it is shown in table 2. The increase in yield resulted in better plant growth, DMP and nutrient uptake,
at wider planting geometry might be due to better crop which attributed positive influence on the yield attributes of
growth rate and lesser competition for resources between the greengram and eventually in the yield by Quddus et al.
plants, it leads to produce more pods and heavier grains (2012).
which resulted in higher yield by Hussain et al. (2008).
Table 2. Effect of planting geometry, soil and foliar nutrition on dry matter production (kg ha-1) and yield (kg ha-1) of
irrigated greengram
Grain yield Haulm yield
Dry matter production (kg ha-1)
Treatments (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)
30 DAS 45 DAS At harvest
T1 645 1581 2743 1161 1992
T2 690 1689 2909 1219 2040
T3 726 1927 3337 1409 2429
T4 754 2025 3454 1428 2441
T5 819 2167 3655 1488 2606

309
 T6 648 1667 2892 1224 2096
T7 717 1915 3301 1385 2413
T8 880 2362 3949 1586 2776
T9 903 2605 4295 1689 2845
T10 964 2865 4640 1775 2920
T11 600 1435 2489 1053 1915
SEd 27 70 73 72 83

CD (0.05) 56 146 153 150 173

CONCLUSION
On the basis of the above finding it can be concluded that under treatment of 30 × 30 cm plant spacing with
application of RDF, 12.5 t of FYM and 25 kg of ZnSO4 asbasal and foliar spraying of 1% KNO3 at 50 per cent flowering
increased growth parameters and yield of greengram under irrigated condition.

REFERENCES Nawange, D.D., A.S. Yadav and R.V. Singh. 2011. Effect
GOI, 2012. Economic Survey of India, Ministry of Finance of phosphorus and sulphur application on
(Economic Division) GOI, NEW DELHI, growth, yield attributes and yield of chickpea
INDIA. pp.26-28. (Cicerarietinum L). Legume Res., 34: 48-50.

Hussain, B., R. Ahmad and A. Jabbar. 2008. Agro-economic
performance of mungbean intercropped in
sesame under different planting patterns. Pak.
J. Agri. Sci., 45: 210-215.
Indiastat. 2010. Department of Economics and Statistics,
Govt. of Tamil Nadu. In: http://
www.indiastat.com
Mathur, N., J. Singh, S. Bohra, A. Bohra and A. Vyas. 2007.
Agronomic evaluation of promising genotypes
of mungbean under hyper arid conditions of
Indian Thar Desert. Intern.J. of Agril. Res., 2:
537-544.
Quddus M. A., M. H. Rashid and M. A. Hossain. 2012.
Integrated nutrient management for sustaining
soil fertility through chickpea-mungbean-t.
aman Cropping pattern at madaripur region.
Bangladesh J. Agril. Res., 37: 251-262.
Singh, R. and R.K. Rai. 2004. Yield attributes, yield and
quality of soybean (Glycine max) as influenced
by integrated nutrient management. Indian J.
Agron.,49: 271-274.

310
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 311-316 (2015)

PROFILING OF ANTIFUNGAL COMPOUNDS FROM n-HEXANE EXTRACTS OF

MANGO FRUITS AGAINST MAJOR POST HARVEST PATHOGENS
PARTHASARATHY, S*., MOHAMMAD FAISAL, P., PRABAKAR., K., THIRIBHUVANAMALA, G. AND
RAJALAKSHMI, J.
Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003, India.
Corresponding author*: spsarathyagri@gmail.com.

ABSTRACT
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruit crop. Most studies on exploitation of mango have been deal-
ing with mango leaves, juice and bark, however little attention given to mango peel and latex. Biologically active compounds from
vegetal origins are a possible source of natural antifungic effect. Especially, unripe mango contains constitutive defence metabolites
against pathogens and induces quiescent. An n-hexane extraction was used to obtain bioactive metabolites from Mangifera indica L.
cv. Neelum unripe fruit peel and latex. Antifungal effectiveness was determined by challenging the extracts from the best extraction
treatment against two post-harvest fungal pathogens viz., Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia theobromae. The peel
and latex extract exhibited the broadest action spectrum against post-harvest pathogens. The n-hexane extract from Mangifera indi-
ca L. cv. Neelum unripe fruit peel and latex were subjected to TLC and GC/MS analysis for compound profiling. These compounds
were resolute as potential source of secondary metabolites with antifungal properties against invading fungal pathogens.

Keywords: Antifungal compounds, Mango, GC/MS, Post harvest diseases

INTRODUCTION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is considered one
of the most popular fruits among millions of people in the
tropical area and increasingly in the developed countries.
Because of its delicious taste and high caloric value, it is
ranked as one of the good fruits in the international market.
This fruit has become an essential fruit crop in Asia, Southern
and Central America as well as in many parts of Africa.
Because of diverse production conditions and the vast area
grown, mango suffers from a number of diseases, some of
them taking heavy toll on the crop and representing limiting
factors. These diseases include anthracnose and stem end rot,
all largely caused by different fungi, mainly Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia theobromae. Synthetic
fungicides are essential to effectively controlling fungus
attacks on fruit. However, some of these fungicides are toxic
in the environment and to mammals that come into contact
with them, and their efficiency can be reduced as fungi
develop resistance due to improper application (Spalding,
1982). This demand has generated increased interest in the
potential of biological control of pathogens using vegetal
extracts containing secondary metabolites. Use of vegetal
extracts with antifungal properties has been a common
practice for thousands of years, for example, powders or
extracts of acacia, garlic, eucalyptus and mint all function
as fungicides capable of controlling different diseases.This
recent focus on natural management of phytopathogenic
fungi has been reflected in extensive research on biological
fungicides. Extracts from different mango tissues have been
shown to be bioactive. Aqueous extracts of leaves and unripe
fruit peel are known to have antifungal activity against
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The present study objective
was to describe the in vitro antifungal activity of n-hexane
extracts of mango harvest by products (leaves, seeds from
ripe and unripe fruit) and determine the minimum inhibitory
concentration of these extracts and qualitatively identify
some of the bioactive groups of compounds present in them.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Vegetal Material
Unripe mango fruits at harvesting maturity were
obtained from a mango orchard in Coimbatore. Fruits with
no visible blemishes were chosen, washed in running tap
water, spread out on clean tissues and allowed to dry under
ambient conditions. For extraction of antifungal compounds,
peels (1–2 mm thick) were cut using a clean, sharp blade,
weighed and either used immediately or stored at -20°C until
further use.
Isolation and pathogenicity test of fungal cultures
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia
theobromae were isolated from an anthracnose and stem
end rot lesions on a ripe mango fruit separately, following
surface sterilization with 1% NaOCl and maintained on
potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 28 ± 2°C. The pathogenicity
was maintained by inoculation into mango fruit and re-
isolation at 2 month intervals.
Extraction of antifungal compounds from unripe
mango fruits
A, PEEL
Antifungal compounds were extracted by vacuum
infiltration (Adikaram and Bandara 1998) of mango fruit
peel. Ten grams of peel tissue (1 mm thick) cut from unripe
mangoes (cv. Neelum), 60 ml of n-hexane: methanol
(1: 1, v ⁄ v) and a magnet were placed in each of the four
conical flasks (250 ml) with side arms. They were placed on
magnetic stirrers, and the side arms of the four flasks were
serially connected via tubes. The mouth of the fourth flask
was sealed with a stopper, while the first flask was connected
to a vacuum pump. Solvent infiltration was carried out with
continuous stirring for 30 minutes and the extracts were

311
pooled and filtered through Whatman No.1 filter paper. Fresh
solvent was added to the residue and similarly extracted
thrice. Extracts were pooled and concentrated in vacuo at
40°C to 1 ⁄ 10th of the original volume and then partitioned.
The viscous phase was freeze-dried. The residues were re-
suspended in n-hexane solvents. The n-hexane extract was
further used for TLC and GC-MS analysis.
B, Latex
Mango fruits (cv. Neelum) at maturity were picked
with 5 cm long peduncle. The fruit surface and pedicel
were disinfected with 70% ethanol, and the fruit pedicel
was broken at the peduncle pedicel abscission point. Fruit
were inverted and the exuding latex was collected into a
glass vial. A drop of toluene was added to prevent microbial
growth. The latex was allowed to separate into an upper oily
and lower aqueous phase. The antifungal compounds in the
aqueous phase was extracted by n-hexane solvent infiltration
and concentrated in vacuo and used for further analysis.
Antifungal efficacy of n-hexane extracts by
mycelial inhibition assay
Two post-harvest pathogens Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia theobromae were used
for assay of antifungal efficacy of mango peel and latex
extract. Pathogens were kept in potato dextrose agar (PDA),
and the cultures stored at room temperature for 4–7 days
before use in the antifungal activity tests. Inhibition of
mycelial growth was determined by cutting approximately 5
mm diameter discs from the edge of a young fungus culture
colony, and placing the disc in the center of a Petri dish
on PDA containing different dilutions (0.10%, 0.05% and
0.01%) of previously extracts from mango peel and latex
separately with control. The dishes were left to incubate at
room temperature and the experiment terminated when the
control culture (PDA without extract) completely colonized
the agar surface. Radial growth was measured and based
on three replicates per experiment. Results were expressed
as the percentage of radial growth inhibition in the extract
containing media versus the control medium.
Detection of antifungal compound through
chromatography
A, Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Aliquots (10 µl), equivalent to 0.5 g of tissue (FW),
of the n-hexane phase of peel extract and latex, were loaded
on to TLC plates (0.5 mm thick, (Merck, Silica gel 60
F254, Germany). The plates were developed in chloroform:
methanol: ethyl acetate, (90 : 5 : 5, v ⁄ v ⁄ v) and air-dried
overnight (Karunayake et al. 2011). The experiment was
performed thrice. Then the band was observed under UV light.
B, Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometer (GC/
MS)
The n-hexane extract from mango peel and latex was
analyzed through GC/MS (Thermo scientific Trace GC Ultra
DSQ II) equipped with column (30mm × 0.25mm × 0.25µm)
under the following conditions: carrier gas as helium with
flow rate at 1ml per minute and 1µl sample injection with
pre injection of solvent by AI/AS 3000 Method; split-less
mode injection with 30 second of sampling time; the column
temperature maintained initially at 110°C at the increasing
312
rate of 10°C/min without hold was followed by increasing
up to 200°C and kept at the same temperature for 8 minutes
hold; the electron impact energy was 70eV, Julet line
temperature was set at 2000°C and the source temperature
was set at 200°C. Electron impact (EI) mass scan (m/z) was
recorded in the 45-450 aMU range. The total chromatogram
was obtained for each sample of mango peel and latex. The
base peak of each spectrum was compared with the base
peak of the chemical components in the NIST Ver.2005 MS
data library through on-line and comparing the spectrum
obtained through GC/MS. The compounds present in the
n-hexane extracts were identified. The relative percentage
of the extract constituents was expressed as percentage with
peak area normalization.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Pathogenicity test
Pathogenicity test was conducted in vitro on fully
matured ripe mango fruits by following ‘pin prick plus
spore suspension method’. Typical symptoms developed on
all the mango fruits inoculated with the spore suspension
of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia
theobromae seven days after inoculation. The uninoculated
control fruits did not show any symptoms. Inoculations were
repeated twice and similar results were obtained.
Antifungal bioassay of n-hexane extract from
mango peel and latex
Antifungal efficacy of the mango peel extract against
the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia
theobromae, three different dilutions were evaluated by using
poisoned food technique. Among the three concentrations,
growth was well inhibited in two concentrations. The mango
peel extract concentration, 0.1 and 0.05 per cent showed
complete inhibition of mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides
(100 per cent inhibition) and 0.10 per cent showed maximum
inhibition of mycelial growth of L. theobromae was observed,
when compared to control [Table 1]. Similarly, mango latex
aqueous extracts concentration, 0.10 and 0.05 per cent showed
complete inhibition of mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides
(100 per cent inhibition) and 0.10 per cent showed maximum
inhibition of mycelial growth of L. theobromae (87.44 per
cent inhibition), when compared to control [Table 1].
Table. 1 In vitro testing of n-hexane extract against C. gloeosporioides and L. theobromae by poisoned food technique
Peel extract Latex extract
C. gloeosporioides L. theobromae C. gloeosporioides L. theobromae
S. (7 DAI)* (5 DAI)* (7 DAI)* (5 DAI)*
Conc. (%)
No Mycelial Per cent Mycelial Per cent Mycelial Per cent Mycelial Per cent
growth inhibition over growth inhibition growth inhibition growth inhibition
(cm) control (cm) over control (cm) over control (cm) over control
0.40d 1.13d
1 0.10 0.00 c
100.00 95.56 0.00 c
100.00 87.44
(3.67) (6.10)
3.10c 1.89c
2 0.05 0.00c 100.00 65.56 0.00c 100.00 79.00
(10.15) (7.90)
5.67 b
6.13 b
4.78b
2.36 b
3 0.01 37.00 31.89 46.89 73.78
(13.77) (14.33) (12.62) (8.83)
9.00a 9.00a 9.00a 9.00a
4 Control - - - -
(17.46) (17.46) (17.46) (17.46)

*DAI- Days after inoculation; *Mean of five replications

In a column, means followed by a common letter is not
significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT; Values in
parentheses are arcsine transformed values.
Quiescence of Alternaria alternata (Droby et al. 1986)
and C. gloeosporioides (Hassan et al. 2007) in the immature
mango fruit has been attributed to antifungal resorcinols in
fruit peel and latex. Although the presence of gallotannins
in the mango peel was known (Berardini et al. 2004),
they have not been classified as antifungal. Gallotannins
appear to display antimicrobial activity (Berardini et al.
2004; Engels et al. 2010). The oily fraction of mango latex
contains antifungal compounds, and coating fruits with 1000
ppm of oily fraction retarded anthracnose development
(Kumpoun et al. 2007). However, the oily fraction may not
be commercially acceptable because of possible allergic
reactions and risk of skin damage. Mango latex is a rich
source of resorcinol (Oka et al. 2004; Hassan et al. 2007) as
the non aqueous phase of fruit latex contains several times
greater resorcinols than the fruit peel (Hassan et al. 2007).
Detection of antifungal compounds of n-hexane
extracts from mango by TLC
The antifungal compounds extracted from the mango
peel and latex was detected under UV light, through thin layer
chromatography at the Rf value of 0.84 and 0.91 respectively,
when compared to untreated control [Plate 1]. Same kind of
result was earlier obtained by Karunayake et al. (2011)
detected the antifungal compounds of mango latex by
overlapping TLC bioassays with peel extracts, a distinct
antifungal zone was observed at Rf value 0.89, showing
their invariable presence in the mango fruit peel and strong
antifungal activity against post-harvest pathogens of mango.
Plate. 1. Thin layer chromatography of n-hexane
extracts
GC/MS analysis of n-hexane extracts of mango
peel and latex
Antifungal metabolite of unripe healthy mango
peel and latex were extracted and profiled. Antifungal
metabolite profile of healthy unripe mango fruits peel was
determined by GC-MS analysis of its n-hexane solvent
extraction method and the result presented in Table 2.
From the result, twenty six metabolites were determined.
Predominated among them were 5”-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)
2,2’,2”,2”’, 2””-pentamethoxy[1,1’:3 ‘,1”:
3”,1’’’:3”’.1””-quinquephenyl] 3,3””-dimethanol,
(18.83%), 2(3H)-Furanone, dihydro-4-hydroxy- (18.61%),
2,7,12,17-tetrabrom-(all-às) cyclotetrathiophen(2,7,12,17-
tetrabromcycloocta[1,2-b:4,3-b’:5,6-b”:8,7-b”’]
tetrathiophen (18.54%), and the least was 2-(tert-Butyl)-5-
phenyl dihydroisoxazolepentacarbonylchromium (0.51%)
peak area. Ejap 13 is antifungal terpenoid molecule in
Euonymus japanicus (Connolly and Hill 1991). 2(3H)-
Furanone, dihydro-4-hydroxy- is an active principle for pest
repellent in tobacco (Pino et al. 2005) [Table. 2].

Table. 2 GC/MS chromatogram of n-hexane extracts from Mango peel

Peak Peak
S.
RT Name of the compound Area S. No. RT Name of the compound Area
No.
(%) (%)

2,7,12,17-tetrabrom-(all-às)
2-(Ethylenedioxy)
cyclotetrathiophen(2,7,12,17-
1 2.48 18.54 14 18.22 ethylamine,N-methyl-N-[4-(1- 1.42
tetrabromcycloocta[1,2-b:4,3-b':5,6-
pyrrolidinyl)-2-butynyl]
b":8,7-b"']tetrathiophen
5"-(1,1-Dimethylethyl) 2,2',2",2"',
2""-pentamethoxy[1,1':3 ',1": Dodecachloro-3,4-
2 3.12 18.83 15 19.47 0.53
3",1''':3"'.1""-quinquephenyl] benzophenanthrene
3,3""-dimethanol

313
 Peak Peak
S.
RT Name of the compound Area S. No. RT Name of the compound Area
No.
(%) (%)

15-Bromo-4,4',12-tris(t-
3 6.55 2(3H)-Furanone, dihydro-4-hydroxy- 18.61 16 20.17 butyl)naphtho[1,2-f] 0.53
phenanthro[2,1-d]

15,31-Bis(dicyanomethylene) 2-(tert-Butyl) -5-phenyl

4 8.31 -5,8,21,24-pentaoxa 2,11,18, 14.37 17 20.76 dihydroisoxaz- 0.51
27tetrathiatricyclo[19(12,17)] olepentacarbonylchromium

Nona-2,3-dienoic acid, ethyl

5 9.56 N-Methoxy-N-ethylpropionamide 7.33 18 22.32 1.68
ester

2H-1-Benzopyran-4-ol,
6 9.98 Methanol, triethylsilyl 7.33 19 24.54 1.56
3,4-dihydro-2-phenyl-

3,5-Diphenyl-2-(3',4'- Spiro[N-Benzylpyrrolidin
7 10.23 1.93 20 26.67 1.56
dimethoxyphenyl)-pyrrole -2-one-3,9'-xanthene]

8 12.43 Supinine 1.93 21 28.58 (Z)-[(Phenylthio)methyl] 1.56

1,2-Bis(t-tributylsilyl)-1,2-
9 13.26 Styrene-7,8-oxide 1.93 22 29.36 0.94
diphenylcyclotrisilan
Ethyl 2-{[(6'ethylimidazo [2,1-b]
10 13.87 (1,3)-thiazol-5'yl) carbonyl]a mino} 0.68 23 31.28 Ejap-13 0.94
acetate
11 15.34 4-Phenyl-1-buten-3-yne 3.15 24 33.83 Lipo-3-episapelin A 0.94

5,10-Dibutyltetra
12 16.78 10-Methyldodecan-5-olide 1.42 25 37.01 1.00
benzoporphyrin
3,4,5,6-Tetrahydro-7-
5-Cyclotetradecyn-2-one, 8-hydroxy-
13 17.21 1.42 26 41.19 acetoxy-2-(1,3-dithian-2-yl) 1.31
14-penyl-1-oxa
2,6-methano-2H-1-benzoxocin

The results of GC-MS analysis of the n-hexane extract of
mango latex were presented in Table 3. From the result, twen-
ty eight metabolites were determined predominated peak
area by Quinic acid (8.50%) followed by Desulphosinigrin
(8.15%), 2(3H)-Furanone, 5-ethoxydihydro- (3.14%) and
9-Oxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane-2,6-diol was the least (1.06%)
. The present findings that benzaldehyde (2H-1-Benzopy-
ran-4-ol, 3,4-dihydro-2-phenyl- and Spiro[N-Benzylpyrro-
lidin-2-one-3,9’-xanthene]) was strong growth inhibitors
confirm previous reports of their strong inhibition of myce-
lial growth of other microorganisms such as C. gloeospori-
oides, Altenaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, and Fusarium
sambucinum (Vaughn et al. 1993). The fungicidal properties
of benzaldehyde were already reported against Monillinia
fructicolla and B. cinerea (Wilson et al. 1987). The fatty ac-
ids 10-Methyldodecan-5-olide, Nona-2,3-dienoic acid, ethyl
ester have previously been reported to be present in mango
(Pino et al. 2005). The quinic acid derivatives (including
4-feruoyl quinic and 5-ferruoyl quinic acids) characterized
for first time in propolis samples HPLC analysis (Pereira et
al. 2003). Desulphosinigrin is active elicitor bio molecule in
Brassica napus (Brudenell et al. 1999) [Table. 3].

Table. 3 GC/MS chromatogram of n-hexane extracts from Mango latex

Peak Peak
S. S.
RT Name of the compound Area RT Name of the compound Area
No. No.
(%) (%)
Propane,2-(9 borabicyclo [3.3.1]
Methyl á-d-
1 3.22 non-9-yloxy)-3-(9 borabicyclo 2.99 15 26.08 1.26
galactopyranoside
[3.3.1]non-9-ylthio)-1-phenoxy
3-Methoxymethoxy-
Na-(3,5 dinitrobenzoyl) tyrosine 3,7,16,20-tetramethyl-
2 6.98 2.99 16 26.79 1.31
N' (1methyl hexylidene)hydrazide heneicosa-1,7,1
1,15,19-pentaene

314
 Peak Peak
S. S.
RT Name of the compound Area RT Name of the compound Area
No. No.
(%) (%)
4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-
3 8.65 2.68 17 31.34 à-Cedrol 1.31
dihydroxy-6-methyl
2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6- 7-epi-cis-sesquisabinene
4 9.12 2.68 18 31.76 1.31
methyl-4H-pyran-4-one hydrate
á-D-Glucopyranose,
alpha-(2-(1,3,2methyldioxazano))
5 11.50 2.68 19 32.17 4-O-á-D- 3.14
-isobutyric acid methyl ester
galactopyranosyl
N-(1-Methoxycarbonyl-1-
6 12.02 methylethyl)-4-methyl-2-aza-1,3- 2.68 20 32.69 Diethylvinylsilane 3.12
dioxane
2(3H)-Furanone,
7 13.87 l-Alanyl-l-alanine ethylamide 2.68 21 33.43 3.14
5-ethoxydihydro-
9-Oxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane-2,6-
8 15.08 1.08 22 33.89 Betaxolol 2.18
diol
à-Pyrrolidone,
9 17.55 1.08 23 35.20 Quinic acid 8.50
5-[3hydroxybutyl]-
Pyrrolidine,1,2-dedihydro-5-[3-
10 19.90 1.08 24 35.24 Desulphosinigrin 8.15
acetoxy-1-butyl]-2-methylthio-

Piperidine-4-carboxylic acid,1-[2-
Phenol, 4-(3-hydroxy-1-
11 20.34 (2-methyl-2,3-dihydroindol-1-yl)- 1.35 25 35.78 1.65
propenyl)-2-methoxy-
2-oxoethyl]-, amide

8-n-Hexyl-cis-7 thiabicyclo[4.3.0] (+-)-2-Phenethanamine,

12 21.71 1.35 26 36.87 1.65
nonane 1-methyl-N-vanillyl
1-Methyl-8-phenyl-3,4-
13 22.31 4-Azido-3-methylfuroxan 1.35 27 37.11 dihydropyrrolo[1,2-a] 1.19
pyrazine
Phenol, 3-methyl-5-(1-
14 23.54 1.20 28 37.69 Doxepin 2.02
methylethyl)-, methylcarbamate

These results suggests that n-hexane extracts from
Mangifera indica L. cv. Neelum proved that the, antifungal
compounds in the peel and latex of mango is a potent
source for constitutive defence against Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia theobromae. Antifungal
compounds have previously been implicated for quiescence
on mango. This study revealed the presence of several
antifungal compounds in the unripe mango fruit peel and
latex. Antifungal activity was greater in immature fruits than
in a mature fruits.
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Methodology for studying defence mechanisms against
fungal pathogens: an overview. In: Johnson, G.I., Highley,
E, Joyce, D.C. (eds) Proc of International Workshop on
Disease Resistance in Fruits. Chiang Mai, Thailand, ACIAR
Proceedings No 80, pp 177-185.
Berardini, N., Carle, R. and Schieber, A. (2004)
Characterization of gallotannins and
benzophenone derivatives from mango
(Mangifera indica L. cv. Tommy Atkins) peel,
pulp and kernels by high-performance liquid
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(1999) The phloem mobility of glucosinolates. J.
Exp. Bot. 50: 745-s756.
Connolly, J.D. and Hill R.A. (1991) Dictionary of Terpenoids,
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Droby, S., Prusky, D., Jacoby, B. and Goldman, A. (1986)
Presence of antifungal compounds in the peel
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Hassan, K.M., Dann, E.K., Irving, D.E. and Coates, L.M.
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Bandara, R.M.B. and Abayasekara, C. (2011)
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and chitinases in the constitutive defence
of immature mango (Mangifera indica L.)
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Antifungal compound content in mango
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(2003) Distribution of quinic acid derivatives
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 317-320 (2015)

INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE ON THE ENTOMOPATHOGENIC

NEMATODE,STEINERNEMATAMI
K. JANCY RANI* AND S. SUBRAMANIAN
Department of Nematology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil
Nadu, India
Corresponding author: e-mail: jancynematology@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
S. tamicaused 100 per cent mortality of Corcyra cephalonicaat 30 and 35oC temperature and 70-100 per cent moisture lev-
els. At 30oC temperature highest number of infective juveniles (IJs) were able to penetrate C. cephalonica. The time taken
for the emergence of IJs was the least and the emergence of the IJs was the highest from C. cephalonicaat the same tempera-
ture. 100 per cent mortality of S. tamiwas noticed at 70-100 per cent moisture levels. Highest number of IJs penetration, time tak-
en for the emergence of IJs and highest number of IJs emerged from C. cephalonicawere noticed at 100 per cent moisture level.

Key words: temperature, moisture, Corcyra cephalonica, Steinernematami

INTRODUCTION
The economic importance of entomopathogenic
nematodes (EPNs) belonging to the
generaSteinernemaTravassos, 1972, HeterorhabditisPoinar,
1976 and Neosteinernema Nguyen and Smart, 1994
(Rhabditida: Nematoda) is increasing because of their
potential use on biological control of different insect pests
and pathogenicity to insects caused by symbiont bacteria,
Xenorhabdus orPhotorhabdus species carried by them.
The occurrence of HeterorhabditisbacteriophoraPoinar,
1976 in Burliyar, Tamil Nadu was reported by Sivakumaret
al. (1998). Poinaret al. (1992) discovered and described
a new species, H. indica from Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
Steinernemathermophilum, a new species was discovered
and described by SudershanGanguly and Singh (2000) from
New Delhi. Two species viz., S. masoodiand S. seemaewere
discovered and described by Ali et al. (2005) from
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Steinernematami(Luc et al., 2000).
Understanding the environmental parameters influencing
short and long term persistence of entomopathogenic
nematodes is important for predicting the fate of nematodes
released as biocontrol agents (Georgis and Gaugler, 1991).
The biocontrol efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes
may be influenced by many abioic environmental
factors such as soil moisture (Koppenhoferet al., 1995),
temperature (Kung et al., 1991) and light (Gaugleret al.,
1992). Entomopathogenic nematodes are not effective at
high temperatures; sensitive to ultraviolet light and require
adequate moisture and high relative humidity for survival
for reasonable length of time to be virulent and effective.
Hence the studies were undertaken to know the effect of
abiotic factors such as temperature, moisture and ultraviolet
radiation on the efficacy of Steinernematami.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Culture of Corcyra cephalonicaStarin (Pyrallidae:
Lepidoptera)
Corcyra cephalonicawas reared on broken pearl millet
grains sterilized at 100oC for 30 minutes. Two and half Kg
of sterilized pearl millet grains taken in a plastic tray was
infected with 0.5cc of C. cephalonicaeggs and covered with
a muslin cloth. Fully grown larvae were collected after 30
days and used for the studies.
Multiplication and maintenance of nematode
culture
Steinernematamiwas continuously subcultured on
larvae of C. cephalonica. the larvae were exposed to the
nematode by filter paper exposure method described by
Woodering and Kaya (1988). Nematodes were extracted
from the cadavers using a White’s trap (White, 1972) after
4 days. Nematodes were recovered from the traps daily
until exit of IJs ceased. These juveniles were washed and
rinsed several times with sterile water and stored in a B.O.D.
incubator at 20±1oC in canted tissue culture flasks until use.
The nematode cultures were aerated and changed to fresh
sterile distilled water at weekly intervals.
Effect of temperature on S. tami
To study the effect of temperature on the penetration
of S. tamiusing fourth instar larvae of C. cephalonicaas
host, studies were conducted at seven different controlled
temperatures viz., 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40oC in B.O.D.
incubators. The larvae were exposed to IJs (20 IJs/ larva) at
the rate of ten larvae per Petri dish for 72h by filter paper
exposure method. Seven replications were maintained
for each temperature. Observations on mortality of C.
cephalonicalarvae at different temperatures was made. The
dead larvae were dissected in Ringer’s solution at 72h
after inoculation and the number of IJs penetrated per
larva was counted. Effect of temperature on the time taken
for IJs emergence and number of IJs emerged from C.
cephalonicawere conducted at three different temperatures
viz., 25, 30 and 35oC in B.O.D. incubators. Fourth instar
larvae of C. cephalonicawere exposed to IJs (20IJs larva)
at rate of one larva per Petri dish (5 cm dia) by filter paper
exposure method. Seven replications were maintained
for each temperature. Two days after the exposure of IJs,
dead C. cephalonicalarvae were transferred to White’s
trap. Observations on the time taken for IJs emergence and
number of IJs emerged from C. cephalonicawas made for

317
different temperatures.
Effect of moisture on S. tami
Studies were conducted under laboratory conditions
at 25oC in a B.O.D. incubator at different moisture levels
ranging from 10-100 per cent (w/w). The effect of moisture
on the penetration of IJs of S. tamion C. cephalonicaand
the rate of mortality of C. cephalonica were studied by
filter paper exposure method. Three replications were
maintained. Assessment on the effect of moisture on the time
taken for IJs emergence and number of IJs emerged from
C. cephalonicawere conducted at 30-100 per cent moisture
levels in a B.O.D. incubator at 25oC.
Statistical procedures
The experimental design adopted for all the studies
was CRD. Statistical analysis of data was carried out as per
procedures given by Steel and Torrie (1980).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of temperature on mortality of C.
cephalonica
In the present study, S. tamicaused mortality of C.
cephalonicalarvae at temperatures ranging from 25-30oC and
the maximum mortality of 100 per cent was observed at 30
and 35oC within 72h of nematode exposure to the host (Table
1). Similar observations were repoted by SudershanGanguly
and Singh (2001) for S. thermophilum. They also observed
delayed mortality of Galleria mellonellaat 10oC (8 days)
and 20oC (5 days) which indicates that the time taken for
mortality and per cent mortality were greater influenced by
temperature. Deepa and Subramanian (2006a) also reported
that the optimum temperature for highest mortality of C.
cephalonicawas 30 and 35oC for S. thermophilum.
Effect of temperature on the penetration of S.
tamion C. cephalonica
Table 1. Effect of temperature on efficacy of S. tami
Number of dead
Per cent Number of IJs
Temperature oC larvae infected
mortality penetrated/ larva
with S. tami
25 9.0b 90
30 10.0a 100
35 10.0a 100
CD (p=0.01) 0.4335
Effect of moisture on the mortality of C.
cephalonica
In the present study, S. tamicaused mortality of C.
cephalonicalarvae at moisture levels ranging from 30-
100 per cent. The maximum of 100 per cent mortality
was observed at 70-100 per cent moisture levels (Table
2). As the moisture level increased, the host mortality was
also increased gradually. Subramanian and Senthamizh
(2004a) obtained similar results for H. indicaand S. glaseri.
Molyneux and Bedding (1984) reported that in sandy soil,
both Heterorhabditissp. and S. glaseriparasitized larvae of
sheep blowfly, L. cuprinaat high moisture potential close
to saturation. In the present study also the virulence of S.
318
Penetration of S. tamiwas found at temperatures
ranging from 25-35oC. The highest number of IJs were
penetrated at 30oC (Table 1). The present finding was in close
agreement for H. indicaas reported by Karunakaret al. (1999).
They observed more number of H. indica IJs penetrated in
G. mellonellaat temperature above 27.5oC. Subramanian
(2004) also reported that the highest number of H. indicaand
S. glaseripenetrated the host (C. cephalonica) at 30 and
25oC respectively. Migration of S. carpocapsaetowards host
plasma was unaffected by temperature below 30oC but was
impaired at 37oC (Khlibsuwanet al., 1992).
Effect of temperature on the time taken for IJs
emergence from C. cephalonica
Emergence of S. tamiwas found at temperatures
ranging from 25-30oC. The earliest emergence of IJs was
observed at 30oC (Table 1). Grewalet al. (1994) reported
that the exposure to low and high temperatures generally
prolonged the tie for emergence of both Steinernematids and
Heterorhabditids. Brown and Gaugler (1997) reported that
low temperatures signigicantly delayed the emergence of
S. feltiae, S. carpocapsae, S. glaseriand H. bacteriophora. In
the present investigation also the time taken for IJs emergence
was rapid at 30oC (7.2 days) but prolonged at both low and
high temperature viz., 35oC (8.5 days) and 25oC (9.4 days).
Effect of temperature on the number of IJs
emerged from C. cephalonica
In the present investigation the highest number of IJs
were emerged at 30oC (Table 1). SudershanGanguly and
Singh (2002) observed similar results for S. thermophilumon
G. mellonella. Yamanaka et al. (2000) reported that the
progeny production was greatest at 28oC which is very
close to 30oC as observed in the present study. Deepa and
Subramanian (2006) reported that the highest number of IJs
emergence was observed at 30oC for S. thermophillumon C.
cephalonica.
Time taken for IJs
Number of IJs
emergence from
emerged/ larva
C.cephalonica(days)
19.5b 9.4a 997.14b
24.07a 7.2c 1408.14a
21.1a 8.5b 1332.86a
3.1615 0.7994 119.8427
tamiwas found to be highest at 70-100 per cent moisture
levels.
Effect of moisture on the penetration of S.tamion
C. cephalonica
Penetration of IJs was observed at all moisture levels
ranging from 30-100 per cent. The highest number of IJs
were able to penetrate at 100 per cent moisture level (Table
2). As the moisture level increased, the number of IJs
penetrated/ larva was gradually increased. Similar findings
were reported by Subramanian and Senthamizh (2004) for
H. indicaand S. glaseriand by Deepa and Subramanian
(2006) for S. thermophilumon C. cephalonica.
Effect of moisture on the time taken for IJs Effect of moisture on the number of IJs emerged
emerged from C. cephalonica from C. cephalonica
Emergence of IJs was observed at all moisture Nematode multiplication was observed at moisture
levels ranging from 30-100 per cent. The earliest levels ranging from 30-100 per cent. The highest number
emergence was observed at 100 per cent moisture levels of IJs emerged was observed at 100 per cent moisture level
(Table 2). As the moisture level increase from 30-100 (Table 2). As the moisture level increased, the number of
per cent, the time taken for IJs emergence was gradually IJs emerged/ larva was increased gradually. These results
decreased. Similar results were observed for H. indica were in line with the results obtained by Subramanian
and S. glaseriby Subramanian and Senthamizh (2004) and and Senthamizh (2004) for H. indicaand S. glaseriand by
S. thermophilum by Deepa and Subramanian (2006). Deepa and Subramanian (2006) for S. thermophilumon C.
cephalonica.
Table 2. Effect of moisture on efficacy of S. tami
Number of dead Time taken for IJs
Moisture Per cent Number of IJs Number of IJs
larvae infected with emergence from
(per cent) mortality penetrated/ larva emerged/ larva
S. tami C.cephalonica(days)
30 2.33c 23.3 2.4g 8a 696.11d
40 4.66b 46.6 4.1f 7.66a 851.66cd
50 5.33b 53.3 5.8e 7.33ab 960c
60 9.66a 96.6 9.73d 6.66bc 1053.32abc
70 10a 100 10.7c 6.33cd 1118.88ab
80 10a 100 10.7c 6.33cd 1118.88ab
90 10a 100 14.16b 5.66de 1188.33ab
100 10a 100 17.03a 5.33e 1310a
CD (p=0.01) 0.8432 1.1802 1.288 361.22

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Ali, S.S., A. Shaheen, R. Pervez and M.A. Hussaini. Influence of temperature on infectivity,
2005. Steinernemamasoodisp.n. and penetration and multiplication of
S. seemaesp.n. (Nematoda: Rhabditida: Steinernemaglaseriand Heterorhabditisindicus.
Steinernematidae) from India. International International Journal of Nematology, 9: 126-
Journal of Nematology, 15: 89-99. 129.

Brown, I.M. and R. Gaugler. 1997. Temperature and humidity Khilbuswan, W., N. Ishibashi and E. Kondo. 1992. Effects
influence on emergence and survival of of enzymes, chemicals and temperature on
entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematologica, Steinernemacarpocapsaeattraction to host
43: 363-375. plasma. Journal of Nematology, 24: 482-488.

Deepa, S.P. and S. Subramanian. 2006. Influence
of temperature and moisture on the
efficacy of entomopathogenic nematode,
SteinernemathermophilumGanguly and Singh.
Current Nematology, 17: 39-44.
Koppenhofer, A.M., H.K. Kaya and S. P. Taormino. 1995.
Infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes
(Rhabditia: Steinernematidae) at different soil
depths and moistures. Journal of Invertebrate
Pathology, 65: 193-199.

Gaugler, R., A. Bednarek and J.F. Campbell. 1992.
Ultraviolet inactivation of Heterorhabditid
and Steinernematid nematodes. Journal of
Invertebrate Pathology, 59: 155-160.
Georgis, R. And R. Gaugler. 1991. Predictability in biological
control using entomopathogenic nematodes.
Journal of Economic Entomology, 84: 713-
720.
Grewal, P.S., S. Selvan and R. Gaugler. 1994. Thermal
adaptation of entomopaathogenic nematodes:
niche breadth for infection, establishment and
reproduction. Journal of Thermal Biology,
19: 245-253.
Kung, S.P., R. Gaugler and H.K. Kaya. 1991. Effects of
temperature, moisture and relative humidity
on entomopathogenic nematode persistence.
Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 57: 242-
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Luc, P.V., K.B.Nugyen, A.P. Reid and S.E. Spiridonov.2000.
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Nguyen, K.B. and Jr. G. C. Smart. 1994.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 321-324 (2015)

EVALUATION OF ALLELOPATHIC IMPACT OF AQUEOUS LEAF EXTRACTS

OF TAGETES ERECTUS ON SEED GERMINATION, SEEDLING GROWTH OF
PARTHENIUM HYSTEROPHORUS
RAMACHANDRAN. A AND VENKATARAMAN. N.S
Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India - 625 104

ABSTRACT
Allelopathic effects of Tagetes erectus species have been widely reported and considered as a natural way for sustainable weed management.
However, in most of these reports the aqueous leaf extracts have been evaluated. The present study was conducted in order to evaluate the Alle-
lopathic effects of aqueous leaf extract of Tagetes erectus leaves against Parthenium hysterophorus weed. Laboratory study was conducted to
investigate allelopathic effects of aqueous leaf extract of Tagetes erectus on seed germination, seedling growth, fresh and dry mass production
of Parthenium hysterophorus. Different levels of T. erectus aqueous leaf extracts concentrations (25%, 50% and 75%) were used to test its
effect on the test species. Results revealed significant allelopathic effects of aqueous leaf extract of T. erectus on seed germination, roots and
shoot length, shoot and root biomass and biochemical parameters , viz., protein and chlorophyll content. of P. hysterophorus. Therefore, it is
possible to use aqueous leaf extracts for control of P. hysterophorus weed and it can be considered in management program of weed control.

Key words: Alien invasive, allelochemicals, allelopathic, seed germination, seedling growth

INTRODUCTION
Parthenium hysterophorus is herbaceous annual
weed plant found in many parts of Tanzania. According
to Nath, (1988) P. hysterophorus originated from natural
hybridization between Parthenium confertum and
Parthenium bipinnatifidum. As a result of its allelopathic
effect, P. hysterophorus can establish itself rapidly in an
alien environment and suppresses the growth of other native
species. It is is one of the best-known plant invaders in the
world, a phenomenon linking allelopathy to exotic invasion
(Pandey, 1994). According to Evans (1997), the invasive
ability and allelopathic properties of P. hysterophorus posses
a great risk to disrupt ecosystem. The concept of allelopathy
was firstly widely studied in forestry ecosystems where it
was initially discovered that many of the forestry species
investigated had negative allelopathic effects on food and
fodder crops (Olofsdotter, 1998)). In connection to these and
many other findings Olofsdotter (1998) defined allelopathy as
a direct influence of chemicals released from one plant on the
development and growth of another plant. Allelochemicals
are plant secondary metabolites normally released into the
environment through volatilization, leaching, root exudation
and decomposition of plant residues in the soil (Khalaj et
al., 2013). Putnam (1988) listed 6 classes of allelochemicals
isolated from more than 30 families of terrestrial and
aquatic plants including alkaloids, flavonoids, cinnamic acid
derivatives, cyanogenic compounds, benzoxazinones and
ethylene. To link between allelochemicals and allelopathy
Makoi and Ndakidemi (2012) noted in their study that most
of the allelopathic effects in plants are known to result
from allelochemicals released from plants. Tagetes erectus
(marigold) is a commonly used ornamental plant, but its
attractive blooms are not the only benefit of planting this
crop. Marigolds release a chemical substance with a pungent
odor that has been proven scientifically useful for inhibiting
attacks from root-knot nematodes, vine weevils and various
other insects, fungi, bacteria and viruses. Marigolds have
been seeded between beds of solanaceous plants in India for
hundreds of years for nematode and insect pest management
(Khan et al., 1971). A chemical released by marigold
roots called α-terthienyl has drawn much attention for its
nematicidal characteristics. Essential oil of marigold was
found to have a 100% inhibitory effect against Gram-positive
bacteria and a 95% inhibitory effect against fungi (Hethelyi
et al., 1986). Thiophenes, one of several compound classes
found in marigold, show significant antiviral capabilities
(Soule, 1993).The present research work was, therefore,
designed to study i) the effect of aqueous extract of leaf
parts of T. erectus on germination and seedling growth of P.
hysterophorus and ii) the effect of extract spray of T. erectus
on growth and yield of pot grown P. hysterophorus plants.
This information is a prerequisite for the development of
biological weed control methods.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted in the Department of
Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
Preparation of extracts
Fresh leaves of T. erectus plant species were collected
nearby places of Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Madurai. The fresh leaves of the T. erectus species were
collected, cut into small pieces and soaked in water at 1:1
proportion and kept for overnight. After 12 hrs, soaked
leaves were ground with the help of mixer grinder. From
the paste, the leaf extract of T. erectus plant species were
prepared by filtration, which is 100 per cent stock solution
(Sripunitha, 2009). From the stock solution, 25 per cent, 50
per cent and 75 per cent concentration were prepared and
sprayed as per the treatment schedule.
Laboratory bioassay:
In a laboratory bioassay, the effect of different
concentrations of leaf extracts on germination and early
seedling growth of Parthenium was studied. For this, 10
seeds of Parthenium were placed in a 9-cm diameter petri
plate lined with a filter paper and moistened with 3 ml of

321
different concentrations of leaf extracts. Treatment in a
similar manner with distilled water served as control. Each
treatment was replicated thrice. Petri plates were arranged
in a completely randomized design in a growth chamber
maintained at 25°C and 12 hrs light period daily. After
seven days, seed germination, seedling root/shoot length and
fresh weight biomass were determined.
Foliar spray bioassay:
Parthenium seeds were sown in pots of 15 cm diameter
and 15 cm deep, filled with 600 g sandy loam soil. Initially, ten
seeds were sown in each pot which were thinned uniformly
to three seedlings one week after germination. The freshly
prepared leaf extracts of 25, 50 and 75% w/v were sprayed
on the surface of one-week and two-week old Parthenium
plants with a hand sprayer. Two subsequent sprays were
similarly given at 5 and 10 days after the first spray. Control
pots were similarly sprayed with water. Each treatment was
Total chlorophyll (mg/g) = 20.2 x OD 645 + 8.02 x OD 663
Total chlorophyll a (mg/g) = 12.7 x OD 663 ─ 2.69 x OD 645
Total chlorophyll b (mg/g) = 22.9 x OD 645 ─ 4.68 x OD 645
1000 x W
Where V= volume of the supernatant in ml, W= fresh weight of the leaves in gm and OD= Optical density.
Quantitative estimation of protein:
Quantitative estimation of protein was done by the
following method of Lowry et al., (1951). Ten mg of first
fully expanded fresh leaves of each plant under treatments
was homogenized with 1 ml of NaOH for 5 minutes at 100
o
C. Then 5 ml of alkaline copper reagent was added. After
10 minutes at room temperature 0.5 ml of Folin – Ciocalteau
reagent was added and mixed in a tube. The absorbance 650
nm was measured after 30 minutes. The amount of protein
was calculated with reference to standard curve of bovine
serum albumin.
Statistical analysis:
The experimental data collected from three
replications were subjected to statistical scrutiny as per the
method suggested by Gomez and Gomez (1984) as P ≤ 0.05
to compare the treatment means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Effect of leaf extract on germination and early
seedling growth:
Aqueous leaf extract of T. erectus delayed seed
germination ultimately reduced the germination percentage
of Parthenium. The extract was highly toxic and even the
lowest concentration of the extract (25%) significantly
reduced the germination by 66.67% as compared with
control. The increase in extract concentration resulted in a
corresponding decrease in germination. The concentrations
of 50 and 75% extracts reduced the germination by about
322
replicated thrice. The seedlings were harvested in 4 weeks
after sowing the seedlings washed under tap water to remove
soil sticking on the roots. The seedlings were used for
assessing biophysical and biochemical parameters. Root and
shoot length, fresh (FW) and dry weight (DW) of seedling
were measured. Dry weight was measured after drying the
samples for 80 0 C in oven for 48 hours.
Chlorophyll content:
The amount of chlorophyll was determined following
the method of Arnon, (1949). Ten mg of first fully
expanded fresh leaves of each plant under treatments
were ground with neutral sand and 10 ml of 80% acetone
and centrifuged at 3000rpm for 10 minutes. Supernatant
was used to measure optical density at 645 nm and 663
nm. Chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll contents were
calculated as follow.
X V
1000 x W
X V
1000 x W
X V
100% as compared with control. In laboratory bioassays –
studies T. erectus leaf extracts significantly reduced the root
and shoot growth of Parthenium. Lower concentrations
of 25 % leaf extracts significantly reduced the root and
shoot length by 58.14 % and 53.92 % respectively. In
contrast to that higher concentrations of 50 and 75% which
completely inhibited root and shoot length to the tune of
100 % respectively. Similarly lower concentrations of
25 % significantly reduced the plant biomass (69.18%)
respectively. However, the higher concentrations of 50 and
75% reduced the plant biomass to the maximum level of
100% (Table 1). The inhibitory potential of the extracts was
increased by increase in concentration. Likewise various
studies to evaluate the herbicidal potential of allelopathic
grasses (Anjum et al., 2005) and trees (Shafique et al., 2005)
against Parthenium, carried out by our research group, have
provided very encouraging results.
Foliar spray bioassay:
Chlorophyll and protein contents were decreased in
seedlings of Parthenium treated with aqueous leaf extract of
T. erectus. Maximum reduction of chlorophyll and protein
contents were recorded in Parthenium seedlings with
higher concentration of aqueous leaf extracts (50 and 75%)
whereas minimum content of total chlorophyll and protein
content was recorded in Parthenium treated with aqueous
leaf extracts of 25 % concentration. (Table 2). Decrease
in chlorophyll content under influence of allelochemical
present in aqueous leaf extract limit the photosynthetic rate
and accumulation of photo assimilates resulting in inhibited
growth. Similarly, the reduction of protein might be due 1.46 4.25 7.89
T1 = 25 % aqueous
to inhibition of biosynthesis and /or increased degratation leaf extracts
2.79 (1.69) (2.10) (2.47)
of protein.The aqueous leaf extract 25% concentration of concentrations
(1.91)
T. erectus reduced the root and shoot growth and highest
aqueous leaf extracts (50 and 75%) concentration of T. T2 = 50 %, aqueous
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
erectus completely inhibited the root and shoot growth. The leaf extracts
(1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38)
number of leaves per plant was decreased to the minimum concentrations
with aqueous leaf extracts of 25 % concentration. Highest
T3 = 75 % aqueous
concentration of aqueous leaf extracts (50 and 75%) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
leaf extracts
recorded maximum reduction in number of leaves per plant. (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38)
concentrations
The fresh and dry weight of root and shoot were minimum
with leaf extract of 50 and 75 % concentrations which was SEd 0.004 0.006 0.039 0.049
followed by 25% concentration. (Table 3). All the applied
extracts significantly suppressed the seedling growth of the CD (P=0.05) 0.010 0.015 0.091 0.113
test weed in foliar spray pot trials. T. erectus is known to
have Thiophenes, one of several compound classes found Figures in the parentheses are log (X+4) transformed values.
in marigold, show significant antimicrobial capabilities
(Soule, 1993) which might be a cause of growth inhibition Table 3. Effect of different concentrations of aqueous leaf
of Parthenium. extract of Tagetes erectus on the growth of Parthenium in
foliar spray bioassays.
Conclusion:
The present study concludes that aqueous leaf extracts Root (mg/ Shoot (mg/
of T. erectus have significant inhibition on the germination Root Shoot No. of plant) plant)
and growth of Parthenium weed. Further studies are required Treatments length length leaves
to isolate and identify the principles from leaf of T. erectus (cm) (cm) /plant Fresh Dry Fresh Dry
weight weight weight weight
to be used as a lead for the synthesis of natural herbicides
for the control of one of the world’s worst environmentally- Control= 0 %
14.35 8.80 16 128.29 37.57 845.50 162.45
sprayed with
polluting weeds. (2.90) (2.54) (2.99) (4.88) (3.73) (6.73) (5.11)
water
Table 1. Effect of different concentrations of aqueous leaf T1 = 25 %
extract of Tagetes erectus on the germination and early aqueous 10.58 6.70 13 95.45 20.61 735.53 130.11
seedling growth of Parthenium in laboratory bioassays. leaf extracts (2.67) (2.36) (2.83) (4.59) (3.20) (6.60) (4.89)
concentrations
Germi- Root Shoot Fresh T2 = 50 %,
Treatments nation length length weight aqueous 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
(%) (mm) (mm) (mg) leaf extracts (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38)
Control= 0 % sprayed 100.0* 20.56 12.87 9.12 concentrations
with water (89.71) 3.19 (2.82) (2.57) T3 = 75 %
aqueous 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
T1 = 25 % aqueous leaf 33.33 8.55 5.93 2.81 leaf extracts (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38)
extracts concentrations (33.00) (2.52) (2.29) (1.91) concentrations
T2 = 50 %, aqueous leaf 0.0* 0.0 0.0 0.0 SEd 0.010 0.003 0.047 0.020 0.018 0.003 0.017
extracts concentrations (0.28) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) CD (P=0.05) 0.023 0.007 0.109 0.047 0.041 0.007 0.040
T3 = 75 % aqueous leaf 0.0* 0.0 0.0 0.0
extracts concentrations (0.28) (1.38) (1.38) (1.38) Figures in the parentheses are log (X+4) transformed val-
SEd 2.58 0.016 0.011 0.009 ues.
CD (P=0.05) 5.96 0.038 0.026 0.022

*Figures in the parentheses are germination percentage are REFERENCES

(arcsine) transformed values and Figures in the parentheses Anjum, T., R. Bajwa and A. Javaid. 2005. Biological Control
are log (X+4) transformed values. of Parthenium I: Effect of
Table 2.. Allelopathic effects of aqueous leaf extracts of
Imperata cylindrica on distribution, germination and
Tagetes erectus on chlorophyll, protein, and biophysical
seedling growth of Parthenium hysterophorus
parameters of Parthenium hysterophorus.
L. Int. J. of Agri. Biol., 7: 448-450.
Chl Protein Arnon D.T., 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts
Chl a Chl b polyphenoloxidase in Beta
Treatments (a+b) (mg/
(mg/g) (mg/g)
(mg/g) 100 mg)
vulgaris. Plant physiol. 24: 1-5.
Control = 0 % 3.63 2.23 5.86 10.25
sprayed with water (2.02) (1.82) (2.28) (4.07) Evans, H.C. (1997): Parthenium hysterophorus: a review of
its weed status and possibilities
for biological control. Biocontrol News and

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 Information, 18: 89-98.
Gomez K.A. and Gomez A.A., 1984. Statistical procedures
for agricultural research (2nd ed). IRRI,
Manila, Philippines, John Wiley and Sons, New
York, U.S.A.
Hethelyi, E., B. Danos and P. Tetenyi. 1986. GC-MS
analysis of the essential oils of four leaf, stem, and root residue on salvinia and
Tagetes species and the anti-microbial activity
of Tagetes minuta. Flav. Frag. J., 1: 1 6 9 -
173.
Khalaj, M. A., Amiri, M. and Azimi, M. H. (2013):
Allelopathy; physiological and s u s t a i n a b l e
agriculture impact aspects. International
Journal of Agronomy and Plant Biological Control of Parthenium I v :
Production, 415: 950 – 962
Khan, A.M., S.K. Saxena and Z.A. Siddiqi. 1971.
Efficacy of Tagetes erectus in reducing r o o t
infesting nematodes of tomato and okra. Ind.
Phytopathol., 24: 166-169.
Lowry O.H., Rosebrough N.J., Farr, A.L. and Randal R..J.
1951. Protein measurement with t h e
Folin-phenol reagent. J.Biol.Chem. 193: 265 -
275.
Makoi, H.J.R and Ndakidemi, P. A. (2012): Allelopathy as
protectant, defence and growth stimulants in
legume cereal mixed culture systems. New
Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural
Sciences, 40 (3): 161-186
Nath, R. (1988): Parthenium hysterophorus L; a review.
Agricultural Reviews, 9: 171-179
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Olofsdotter, M. (1998): Allelopathic in rice; Proceeding of
the workshop on allelopathy in rice. Manila,
Phillippinis, International Rice Research
Institute, pp. 1 – 5
Pandey, D.K. (1994): Inhibition of salvinia (Salvinia molesta
Mitchell) by Parthenium (Parthenium
hysterophorus L.). II. Relative effect of flower,
paddy. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 20: 3123–
3131
Putman, A. R. (1988): Allelochemicals from plants as
herbicides: Weed Technology, 2: 510 – 518
Shafique, S., R. Bajwa, A. Javaid and S. Shafique. 2005.
Suppressive ability of aqueous leaf extracts of
some allelopathic trees against g e r m i n a t i o n
and early seedling growth of Parthenium
hysterophorus L. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 11(1-
2): 75-79.
Soule, J. 1993. Tagetes minuta: A potential new herb from
South America. In: New Crops.
(Eds.): J. Janick and J. E. Simon. Wiley, NY.
649-654.
Sripunitha, A. 2009. Herbal hydration-dehydration
treatments for improving vigor, viability
and productivity in tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum.Mill) cv. PKM 1. M.Sc.,
Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 325-327 (2015)

DEVELOPMENT OF MUTANT POPULATION FOR LOW RAFFINOSE FAMILY

OLIGOSACCHARIDE CONTENT IN BLACKGRAM (VIGNA MUNGO (L.) HEPPER)
B.RAMYA, G.NALLATHAMBI AND S.GANESH RAM
Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-003
Email:balramagri@gmail.com.

ABSTRACT:

RFOs represent anti-nutritional units for monogastric animals when consumed as a component of feed. Sucrose, raffinose,
stachyose and verbasecose are the four main oligosaccharides present in urdbean. Out of the four, only sucrose is nutri-
tionally useful. When raffinose stachyose and verbascose are fermented by microbes present in the gut, the results are flatu-
lence and discomfort, which ultimately lead to poor weight gain. The objectives of this work were to establish to identify low
raffinose family oligosaccharide (RFO) Mutants. The seeds of TNAUCo (Bg) 6 15mM and 20mM EMS and developed 1464 mu-
tant population and this mutants were screened through enzymatic method and identified 8 lines were low RFO with high yield.

Key Words: Vigna mungo, Black gram, viable mutations, frequency and spectrum, mutagens, radiation and EMS.

INTRODUCTION:
Urdbean (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) is a rich source of
protein and total carbohydrates. However, the consumption
of this legume is limited due to the presence of raffinose
oligosaccharides (RFO), in particular raffinose, stachyose
and verbascose, which can cause abdominal discomfort in
humans and monogastric animals, such as cramps, flatulency
and diarrhoea. This occurs because the mucous in the small
intestine does not possess the α -galactosidase (α -galactoside
galactohydrolase) enzyme necessary for the hydrolysis of
the α-1,6 linkages present in RFO, allowing these sugars to
pass intact to the large intestine where they are fermented
by anaerobic microorganisms creating excessive gas (Karr
Lilienthal et al., 2005). These compounds are also likely to
be accountable for increase gumminess of digesta, which
interferes with absorption of nutrients by reducing their
communication with digestive enzymes in the intestine
(Smits & Annison, 1996). The key step in raffinose , stachyose
and verbascose biosynthesis is mediated by the enzyme
raffinose synthase. The raffinose synthase enzyme is a group
of hydrolase family enzymes that implement a galactosyl
transfer from galactinol to sucrose. Induced mutation using
EMS is a method to produce genetic variation ensuing in new
varieties with better quality. The application EMS in urdbean
breeding of a range of characteristic was undertaken. The
assortment and progress of mutants into suggested varieties
for the farmers have been effectively made in many countries
(Bahl and Gupta 1983; Chow and Loo, 1988; Lamseejan
et al., 1988; Wongpiyasatid et al., 1998). Chlorophyll
mutations are most extensively engaged for assessing the
potentialities of ionizing radiation and chemical in creating
genetic variability. Chlorophyll mutations offer one of the
most dependable index for the estimation of genetic effects
of mutagenic treatments. The frequency of chlorophyll and
morphological mutations recoverable in M2 generation, the
delayed expression are measured a standard calculation of
rates of induced mutations and is the most reliable key for
evaluating the genetic effects of mutagenic treatments. The
present exploration was undertaken to induce mutation and
study mutagenic effect of EMS to establish the mutation
percentage and to screen the diverse mutants in M2 generation
and purify them for possible uses.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Generation of Experimental Materials
Chemical Mutagen: five thousand well developed
healthy seeds were subjected to the mutagenic treatment. The
seeds were pre soaked in distilled water for five hours at room
temperature (28±2°C) prior to treatment. After pre soaking,
the excess of moisture in the seeds were removed. Then, the
seeds soaked in the newly prepared aqueous solution, which
about three times than that of volume of seeds with related
concentrations of EMS (15 and 20mM) for six hours at room
temperature (28±2 °C) with an intermittent shaking. Seeds
were washed thoroughly with distilled water. The untreated
seeds were pre soaked in water used as control. Seeds were
sown in the field in randomized black design (RBD) with
three replication to raised the M1 generation. The mutant
seed were grown during summer 2012 and kharif 2012. M1
and M2 was raised, absolute set of package of practices. In
M1 generation all the single plants were harvest and grown in
successive seasons to develop M2 generations. The frequency
of chlorophyll mutations were determined in10 to 20 day
old seedlings and grouped by their types in M2 generation.
Different types of chlorophyll mutations observed in the
present study could be grouped into lethal and non-lethal
types. The lethal group included albino and xantha, while
viridis and chlorina were non-lethal.
Determination of oligosaccharides: Finely ground
cowpea flour (0.05 g) was treated with500ul of 95 % ethanol
(to digest the endogenous enzymes completely) at 800 C
for 20 min and the final volume was made up to 5 ml using
sodium acetate buffer (50 mM, pH .5). Digested mixture was
incubated at the room temperature for 15 min and vortexed
using thermo mixer at 300 C, 14000 rpm, 5 min to obtain
uniform slurry. Subsequently, 200 ul of chloroform was
added to 500 ul of slurry were vortexes for 15 sec followed
by centrifugation at 14000 rpm for 10 min. A volume of 0.2
ml from the aqueous phase of the supernatant so obtained

325
was taken in three well of eliza plate (namely, A1, B1, and C1 improved metabolizable energy. The identified low RFOs
wells). A well add 0.2 ml of volume of sodium acetate buffer, content with suitable morphological traits mutants may be
B well of add 0.2 ml volume of invertase, and C well of add useful in breeding programs for the development of specialty
0.2 ml volume mixture of α -galactosidase + invertase. The varieties for food and feed purposes with agronomically
plate was incubated at 500 C for 20 min. Reagent blank (0.4 desirable character, which force is utilized in future breeding
ml of sodium acetate buffer) and glucose control (0.1 ml of programme.
standard glucose solution, which contained 0.556 μmol of
glucose + 0.3 ml of sodium acetate buffer) was also taken Table1. Impact of EMS concentration on seed Survival
simultaneously. Subsequently, 3 ml of GOPOD reagent was Survival at 30th day
EMS (mM) No of Seed sown
added in all of the tubes and incubated again at 50 0C for 20 (percentage)
min. Change in absorbance for tubes A, B, and C and glucose Control 100 90.22
control was measured at 510 nm against the reagent blank.
The concentration of sucrose and RFOs was calculated as 10 100 68.75
20 100 55.76
sucrose (mmol /100g) = (ΔB-ΔA) F X 250 X 200 X 1/1000 30 100 36.02
40 100 23.07
RFOs (mmol/100 g) = (ΔC –ΔB) X F X 500
50 100 6.58
RFOs (mmol/100 g) = (ΔC –ΔB) F X 250 X 200 X 1/1000 60 100 90.22

Where Table 2 List of mutant phenotype class

Category Sub-Category No of plant Percentage
F = factor to convert from absorbance to micromoles of
glucose 0.556 (μmol of glucose) / GOPOD absorbance for Plant Type Tall and erect 12 0.59
0.556 μmol of glucose
Dwarf 9 0.44
250 = conversion to 5mLof extract, Compact and 7 0.34
bushy
2000 = conversion from 0.05 to 100 g of sample and
Leaf Crinkled and 14 0.69
1/1000 = conversion from micromoles to mill moles Characters leathery
Small leaf 4 0.20
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Big and broad 5 0.25
A total of 2500 M2 families was developed for leaf
blackgram TILLING population using the Varitey TNAU Co
Narrow leaf 10 0.49
(Bg) 6. Kill Curve analysis was conducted using the Excel
stat software to find the optimum dose of EMS that produces Sterility Sterile 1 0.05
a maximum mutation density (Table 1).
The expected LD50 value for gamma rays in TNAU Co Non flowering 2 0.10
(Bg) 6 50.76 percent for EMS treatment (25 mM). The total of mutant
3000 M1 (summer 2011-2012.) seeds were treated with different Duration Early 13 0.64
doses of mutant and raised in the field during the Kharif 2012.
Amoung this population 2500 M1 was selected and forward Late 3 0.15
to M2 generation and 1064 were harvested individual M2 Pod More no of 12 0.59
generation. Biometrical observation and mutant frequency Characters pods
were recorded (Table 2). Out 0f 1464 mutant plants 105
Hairy pods 5 0.25
different plant type mutant were observed in 64 plants.
All mutant plant was harvesting. This seed were dried (6% Bold seeds 4 0.20
moisture) and 50c at department of PGR. Then during Rabi Small seeds 4 0.20
2012 biochemical analysis were carried out in enzymatic
method with three replication. Identified 3 and 4 Mutant
families of 15mM and 20 mM were found Low RFO content
compared to control (Table 3). The Mutant family M2F39 had
ovate leaf with spreading plant type and Spreading pod,Cuved
pod with stright pod tip, bold seed size. This family lowest
RFO content 0.12 g100g-1 with high single plant yield of
19.36 g followed by M2F52 (0.13 g100g-1 and 20.13 g single
plant yield) had Deltiod leaf with Spreading pod,Cuved hariy
pod with out pod tip and Bold seeed size. Similar result were
observed by Soufuramanien et al. (2014) in blackgram Hou
et al., 2009 in soybean and Sheelamarry (2012) chickpea.
It may be preferred in the formulation of feed rations with

326
Table 3. Performance of low RFOs mutants in M2

Plant Number Hundred Single

Mutagens Family RFOs Number
height of seed plant Plant Type
dose name (g100g-1) of pods
(cm) clusters weight (g) yield (g)

Lanceolated leaf, erect plant Straight,

TNAU Co
control 3.66 32.34 12.65* 32.70 5.10* 10.45 Small spreating pod with stright tip and
(Bg)6
medium seed size
Deltiod leaf with compacted plant type,
15 mM M2F17 0.24* 35.89 8.18 35.58* 5.00* 24.00* Spreading, Cuved pod with curved pod
tip and Medium seeed size
Lanceolated leaf, erect plant Straight,
15 mM M2F55 0.28 40.56* 9.00 14.56 4.59 11.78 spreating pod with stright tip and
medium seed size
Deltiod leaf with spreading plant type
15 mM M2F113 0.23* 35.46 7.02 27.45 4.39 18.30 Spreading pod,Cuved pod with stright
pod tip Medium seeed size.

Mean 0.28 34.56 8.07 24.90 4.49 13.51

Ovate leaf with spreading plant type

20 mM M2F39 0.12* 45.35* 7.97 25.07 5.35* 19.36 Spreading pod,Cuved pod with stright
pod tip and bold seed size
Deltiod leaf with Spreading pod,Cuved
20 mM M2F52 0.13* 38.75 7.58 28.23 5.17* 20.13* hariy pod with out pod tip and Bold
seeed size.

Lancolated leaf with spreading plant type

20 mM M2F68 0.21* 43.56* 7.35 23.34 4.42 17.12 Spreading pod,Cuved black pod with
curved pod tip and Medium seed size

Ovate leaf with spreading plant type

20 mM M2F73 0.24* 23.45 8.27 34.47 3.69 13.04 Spreading pod,Cuved pod with stright
pod tip and Medium seed size.
Lancolated leaf with spreading plant type
20 mM M2F113 0.17* 34.50 12.00* 18.57 4.39 9.48 Spreading pod,Cuved pod with stright
pod tip and Medium seed size.
Mean 0.17 32.23 7.79 25.94 4.17 14.75

REFERENCES:
Bahl, J.R. and P.K. Gupta. 1983. Promising mutants in
mungbean, Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek. Plant
Breeding Abstr. 53(2) : 165.
Chow, K.H. and E.H. Loo. 1988. Mutation breeding in mungbean
by using EMS, pp. 178-185. In Mungbean
Proceedings of the Second International
Symposium. Nov. 16-20, Bangkok.
Hou, A.; Chen, P.; Alloatti, J.; Li, D.; Mozzoni, L.; Zhang,
B.; Shi,A. 2009. Genetic variability of seed
sugar content in worldwide soybean germplasm
collections. Crop Sci., 49 : 903–912
1987.
Sheelamary.S. 2012. Studies on morphological characterization
of germplasm, isolation of low raffinose family
oligosaccharide type and identification of
candidate gene for stachyose in chickpea (Cicer
arietinum L.) Ph. D. Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agrl.
Univ., Coimbatore
Smits, C. H. M., & Annison, G. (1996). Non-starch plant
polysaccharides in broiler nutrition- towards
a physiologically valid approach to their
determination.World’s Poultry Science Journal.
52 : 204–221.

Karr Lilienthal, L. K., Kadzere, C. T., Grieshop, C. M., &
Fahey, G. C. Jr., 2005. Chemical and nutritional
properties of soybean carbohydrates as related
to nonruminants: A review. Livestock Production
Science. 97 : 1–12.
Lamseejan, S., S. Smutkupt, A.Wongpiyasatid, and K. Naritoom.
1988. Use of radiation in mungbean breeding,
pp. 174-177. In Mungbean Proceedings of the
Second International Symposium. Nov. 16-20,
Souframanian, J., G.Roja and T. Gopalakrishna,2012. Genetic
variation in Raffinose family oligosaccharides and
high sucrose content in blackgram (Vigna mungo (l.)
vegetos , 27(2) : 34 -41.
Wongpiyasatid, A., S. Chotechuen, P. Hormchan, S.
Ngampongsai, S. Lamseejan, and S. Pichitporn.
1998. Mutant mungbean lines from radiation and
chemical induction. Kasetsart J. (Nat. Sci.) 32 :
203-212.

327
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 328-330 (2015)

GENETIC VARIABILITY AND HERITABILITY IN EARLY GENERATION OF RICE FOR

GRAIN YIELD AND OTHER YIELD ATTRIBUTES TRAITS
*S. REVATHI1, R. USHAKUMARI1, S. MANONMANI2, K. SAKTHIVEL3 AND S.ROBIN4
1
Agricultural college and Research Institute, TNAU, Madurai,
2
HREC, TNAU, Gudalur
3
Vegetable Research Station, TNAU, Cuddalore
4
Department of Rice, TNAU, Coimbatore

ABSTRACT
The study was to find out the selection criteria for selecting high yielding genotypes in early segregating F2 population by estimating
variability, heritability and genetic advance as percent of mean in two crosses of CB174R × Akshaydhan and CB203R × Akshaydhan. The
characters viz., total number of tillers and number of productive tillers per plant, flag leaf length and width, panicle length, total number
of spikelet per panicle, number of filled grains per panicle and single plant yield having high PCV, GCV, heritability and genetic advance
as percent of mean. These traits must be important selection criteria for high yielding genotypes while handling early generations in rice.

Key words: variability, heritability, genetic advance, F2 generation

INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important
staple crops which provide the source of carbohydrates for
more than half of the world’s population (Tyagi et al., 2004).
Quantum jump in yield improvement has been achieved in
rice with the development of high yielding heterotic hybrids
under commercial cultivation. However, being the staple
food of the population in India, improving its productivity
has become a crucial importance (Subbaiah et al., 2011).
Knowledge on the nature and magnitude of genetic variation
governing the inheritance of quantitative characters like
yield and its components is essential for effecting genetic
improvement. A critical analysis of genetic variability is
necessary for initiating any crop improvement programme
and for adopting of appropriate selection techniques. To
develop high yielding genotypes coupled with good grain
quality and resistance to pest and diseases, population with
high genetic variability serves as prime source for effective
selection, particularly the role by F2 segregants in throwing
much variability is highly recognized. F2 generations are
the critical stage in any rice breeding and they determine
the eventual success or failure of hybridization programme
(Jennings et al., 1979). To achieve this objective, knowledge
on inheritance pattern of grain yield and its components
is very much essential. In addition, knowledge of genetic
variability, heritability and genetic gain of grain yield and its
components are of immense value in the selection of superior
segregants. The present investigations was undertaken in F2
populations of two crosses of rice with a view to assess the
variability, heritability and genetic advance for grain yield
and its twelve attributing traits besides identifying desirable
segregants for high grain yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The material for the present experiment comprised
of 310 F2 populations of two crosses of rice viz., CB174R
× Akshaydhan and CB203R × Akshydhan along with their
F1’s and three parents were raised row spacing of 20 cm and
plant to plant spacing of 20 cm at Paddy Breeding Station,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, and Coimbatore during
Rabi, 2013. Observations on plant height, total tillers per
plant, total number of productive tillers, days to 50 per
cent flowering, panicle length, flag leaf length and breadth,
number of primary and secondary branches per panicle,
number of spikelet per panicle, number of filled grains
per panicle, 100-grain weight and single plant yield were
recorded in parents (CB174R, CB203R and Akshaydhan)
and two F1 hybrids (CB174R x Akshaydhan and CB203R
x Akshaydhan) and on all the competitive plants in the F2
populations of both the crosses. According to Goulden
(1952), the variance existing in F2 progenies is considered
as phenotypic variance, whereas the average of variance
of the parents involved in a particular cross was taken as
environmental variance. Therefore, genotypic variance
is calculated by subtracting the environmental variance
from phenotypic variance. The GCV and PCV values were
computed as per Burton and De Vane (1953). Heritability
and genetic advance as per cent of mean were estimated
following the method of Johnson et al. (1955).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The variations range and the genetic parameters
estimation, which include phenotypic and genotypic
coefficient of variation (GCV and PCV), heritability and
genetic advance as per cent of mean were presented in
Table 1. Wide variability observed in plant height, total
number of tillers and productive tillers per plant, secondary
branches per panicle, total number of spikelet per panicle,
number of filled grains per panicle and single plant yield in
F2 of CB 174R × Akshaydhan cross. The PCV values were
relatively higher than GCV values in F2 generation of both
the crosses coupled with narrow differences indicating less
environmental influence on the expression of all the traits
except primary branches per panicle. High PCV (38.37
%) and GCV (37.70%) were observed in total number of
tillers per plant and also having high heritability (96.58%)
and genetic advance as percent of mean (76.33%) which
indicated major role of additive gene action in the genetic
control of this trait in the F2 population and this result was
in conformity with the report of Chauhan et al. (1993).

328
Among the traits studied, Days to 50 per cent flowering,
primary branches per panicle and 100 grain weight having
high to low heritability and low genetic advance as percent
of mean indicated predominant role of non-additive gene
action. Days to 50 per cent flowering having very low PCV
(1.87) and GCV (1.43) and low genetic advance (2.25).
Among the estimates of genetic parameters, heritability
serves as a good index for transmission of character from one
generation to next generation and it should be considered in
terms of selection concept (Hanson, 1959) Productive tillers
exhibited wide variability and little influence of environment
as well as higher values of PCV (35.55% and 28.03 %) and
GCV (34.23% and 27.34 %) in CB174R x Akshaydhan
and CB203R x Akshaydhan F2 population respectively.
High heritability (97.61% and 71.49%) coupled with high
genetic advance (95.09% and 54.92%) as per cent of mean
in CB174R x Akshaydhan and CB203R x Akshaydhan F2
populations respectively revealed major role of additive gene
action in the genetic control of this trait. Similar results were
reported by Vaithiyalingan and Nandarajan (2006), Nayak
(2008) and Nandeshwar et al. (2010).Very low variability
was noticed for days to panicle emergence as evidenced by
lower values of PCV (2.11% and 1.79%) and GCV (1.72%
and 1.47%), high heritability (66.94% and 67.04%) with
low genetic advance as per cent of mean (2.90% and 2.48%)
in CB174R x Akshaydhan and CB203R x Akshaydhan F2
populations respectively indicated role of non additive in
respect of this trait. Kannan Bapu and Soundarapandian
(1993) also reported similar results in respect of this trait.
F2 population of CB 203R X Akshydhan having moderate
PCV and GCV (10.67 % and 10.49%) values for plant
height. Results of present study are on par with the earlier
reports of Kannan Bapu and Soundarapandian (1993) and
Surendra Singh and Choudhary (1996). Contrary to this,
low variability was observed in CB174R x Akshaydhan F2
population. This trait exhibited high heritability coupled
with moderate to high genetic advance expressed as per
cent of mean in both the crosses indicating role of additive
gene action in its genetic control. Panicle length in both the
crosses showed low to moderate values of PCV and GCV.
This is in accordance with the earlier observations made by
Paramasivan (1986). However, high heritability (99.51%
and 94.65% ) but medium to high genetic advance expressed
as per cent of mean. In case of flag leaf length and breadth in
both the crosses having low variability, it indicates that low
PCV and GCV values for these traits. But both the crosses
of these traits showed high heritability and moderate to high
genetic advance as per cent of mean revealed major role of
additive gene action in the genetic control of these traits.
Very low variability was noticed for primary, secondary
branches per panicle and 100 grains weight as evidenced by
lower values of PCV and GCV in CB174R x Akshaydhan
and CB203R x Akshaydhan F2 population. Also having
low heritability and genetic advance indicated that high
environmental influence, selection of the genotypes based
on these traits misleading. High PCV and GCV values in
CB174R x Akshaydhan and CB203R x Akshaydhan F2
population respectively for total number of spikelet and
number of filled grains per panicle indicated wide variability
for this trait. Estimates of heritability and genetic advance
as per cent of mean were also high in both the populations
respectively revealing that most likely the heritability is due
to additive gene effects and selection may be effective. This
is in accordance with the earlier observations made by Nayak
(2008). Wide variability was noticed for grain yield per plant
as evidenced by relatively higher values of PCV (29.56%
and 26.49%) and GCV (26.84% and 24.82%) in CB174R
x Akshaydhan and CB203R x Akshaydhan populations,
respectively. Estimates of heritability (82.43% and 87.77%)
and genetic advance expressed as per cent of mean (50.19%
and47.90%) were relatively high in CB174R x Akshaydhan
and CB203R x Akshaydhan, respectively indicating major
role of additive gene action in the genetic control this trait
in both the populations. These results are in conformity with
the reports of Sanjeev Kumar et al. (2005), Vaithiyalingan
and Nandarajan (2006) and Nayak (2008).It was suggested
that total number of tillers and number of productive tillers
per plant, flag leaf length and width, panicle length, total
number of spikelet per panicle, number of filled grains per
panicle and single plant yield must be important selection
criteria for high yielding genotypes while handling early
generations in rice.

GA%
S.No Characters Cross Mean Range PV PCV GCV H2% GA

Days to 50 per cent Cross I 106.1 102-112 5.04 2.11 1.72 66.94 3.10 2.90
1
flowering Cross II 104.9 101-112 3.54 1.79 1.47 67.04 2.60 2.48
Cross I 120.09 82-163 129.33 9.47 9.17 93.69 21.95 18.28
2 Plant height (cm)
Cross II 111.34 57-136 141.06 10.67 10.49 96.69 23.66 21.25

Total number of tillers Cross I 11.51 4-31 19.49 38.37 37.70 96.58 8.78 76.33
3.
(nos.) Cross II 9.86 2-20 7.93 28.55 27.32 91.59 5.31 53.87
Number of productive Cross I 10.50 3-28 13.94 35.55 35.13 97.61 7.51 71.49
4.
tillers (nos.) Cross II 9.30 2-16 6.79 28.03 27.34 95.09 5.11 54.92
5 Cross I 31.80 20-47 26.56 16.21 16.14 99.09 10.52 33.09
Flag leaf length (cm)
. Cross II 31.55 15-49 27.68 16.68 16.56 98.58 10.68 33.86
6 Cross I 1.31 1-2 0.04 16.19 14.94 85.11 0.37 28.39
Flag leaf width (cm)
Cross II 1.24 0.2-1.9 0.04 16.68 14.62 76.75 0.33 26.38
7 Cross I 29.31 21.5-40.40 10.94 11.28 11.25 99.51 6.78 23.13
Panicle length (cm)
Cross II 28.99 22.6-36 5.60 8.17 7.95 94.68 4.62 15.93

329
 Primary branches / Cross I 12.08 6-17 2.64 13.44 3.05 5.15 0.17 1.43
8
panicle Cross II 12.50 8-18 3.34 6.56 14.62 20.13 0.76 6.06
9 Secondary branches/ Cross I 32.33 13-77 51.49 22.19 17.12 59.54 8.80 27.22
panicle Cross II 31.61 14-49 43.46 20.86 12.37 35.19 4.78 15.12
Total number of Cross I 193.63 103-331 1618.74 20.78 20.37 96.15 79.69 41.16
10
spikelet/panicle Cross II 195.08 102-390 1823.10 21.89 21.52 96.69 85.05 43.60
11 Number of filled grains Cross I 166.13 85-303 1371.56 22.29 22.03 97.65 74.50 44.85
/panicle (nos.) Cross II 170.29 95-350 1717.91 24.34 23.94 96.75 82.61 48.51
12 Cross I 1.97 1.20-2.31 0.03 8.25 6.00 52.93 0.18 9.00
100 seed weight (g)
Cross II 2.00 1-2.5 0.04 10.56 9.49 80.73 0.35 17.57
13 Cross I 23.06 8.5-43.00 46.45 29.56 26.84 82.43 11.57 50.19
Single plant yield (g)
Cross II 29.48 10-54.5 60.98 26.49 24.82 87.77 14.12 47.90

Table 1. Estimation of Genetic Parameters for 13 yield and yield attributing characters in Rice

Cross I- CB174R X AKSHAYDHAN and Cross II- CB203R X AKSHAYDHAN - F2 population

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330
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 331-334 (2015)

VARIABILITY ESTIMATES AND ASSOCIATION ANALYSIS FOR YIELD AND ITS

COMPONENT TRAITS IN RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.)
*S. REVATHI1, R. USHAKUMARI1, S. MANONMANI2, K. SAKTHIVEL3 AND S.ROBIN4
1
Agricultural college and Research Institute, TNAU, Madurai,
2
HREC, TNAU, Gudalur
3
Vegetable Research Station, TNAU, Cuddalore
4
Department of Rice, TNAU, Coimbatore

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out to identify high yielding genotype in early segregating population (BC1F2) of CB174R//
(CB174R × Akshydhan) and CB203R//(CB203R × Akshydhan) cross combinations. The results revealed that cross CB174R//(CB174R
× Akshydhan) registered moderate to high PCV and GCV values for almost all traits except days to 50 % flowering, plant height and
test weight where as CB203R//(CB203R X Akshydhan) cross, all traits exhibited high PCV and GCV except days to 50% flowering
and panicle length recorded low PCV and GCV. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance in both the crosses for total
number of tillers per plant, productive tillers per plant, panicle length, total number of spikelet per panicle, filled grains per pani-
cle and single plant yield indicated that these characters were predominantly governed by additive gene action and improvement for
these characters could be brought about by direct selection. The correlation study showed that, grain yield per plant exhibited sig-
nificant positive association with total number tillers per plant, productive tillers per plant and panicle length in both cross combi-
nation. Based on consistently high magnitude of heritability and correlation coefficients, the selection based on total number of til-
lers per plant, number of productive tillers per plant and panicle length were used as selection criteria to improve the crop yield.

Key words: Rice, BC1F2 generation, Genetic variability, Correlation, heritability

INTRODUCTION of primary and secondary branches per panicle, number of

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important
staple crops which provide the source of carbohydrates
for more than half of the world’s population (Tyagi et
al., 2004). Grain yield is a complex character and it is
the resultant expression of several interrelated polygenic
characters. Continued improvement of grain yield remains
the top priority in most of the breeding programs (Yan et
al. 2002). Variability in segregating generation for yield
and yield component traits forms the basic factor to be
considered while making selection. Heritability along with
genetic advance may provide a clearer picture for selection
of a particular trait. The knowledge regarding relative
contribution of individual traits to yield may be obtained
by correlation studies (Chaubey and Singh, 1994). In view
of this, the present study was planned to determine the
magnitude of variability and to understand the heritable
component of variation and genetic correlation for yield and
its components in BC1F2 generation of two cross combination
CB174R//(CB174R × Akshydhan) and CB203R//(CB203R
× Akshydhan).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The material for present study consisted of two crosses
between Akshydhan with two popular genotypes viz., CB
174R and CB 203R. The study was conducted at Department
of Rice, Centre for Plant Breeding Genetics, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore during rabi, 2014. The
material for the present experiment comprised of 300 BC1F2
populations of each crosses of rice viz., CB174R//(CB174R
×Akshydhan) and CB203R//(CB203R × Akshydhan) along
with their parents were raised with a spacing of 20 × 20
cm . Observations on days to 50 per cent flowering, plant
height, total tillers per plant, total number of productive
tillers, , panicle length, flag leaf length and width, number
spikelets per panicle, number of filled grains per panicle,
test weight and single plant yield were recorded. The
phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variability (PCV
and GCV) was estimated as per the methods of Burton and
De Vane (1953). The method of Johnson et al. (1955) was
followed for estimation of broad sense heritability (H2) and
genetic advance for all the traits recorded. The phenotypic
correlation coefficients were computed as explained by
Singh and Chaudhary (1985) where grain yield per plant
was kept as resultant variable and other yield component
characters as causal variable.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The improvement of character in a population is
dependent on variability existing in a population. Hence,
formulation of objectives in breeding programme should
be essentially accompanied with assessment of existing
variability. The phenotypic variance was partitioned into
genotypic (heritable) and environmental (non-heritable)
variances for a clear understanding of the pattern of variations.
In the present investigation values of phenotypic co-efficient
of variation (PCV) in BC1F2 generation was higher than the
genotypic co-efficient of variation (GCV) for all the traits in
both cross combinations. The difference between PCV and
GCV was an indication of the magnitude of environmental
influence and thus, true breeding value of the genotype can
be precisely estimated by separating genetic variance from
environmental variance. In this direction the components of
variance such as PCV and GCV, heritability and predicted
genetic advance as per cent mean was computed for all the
characters studied and are presented in Table 1. Among the
estimates of genetic parameters, heritability serves as a good
index for transmission of character from one generation
to next generation and it should be considered in terms of

331
selection concept (Hanson, 1959).The cross CB174R//
(CB174R × Akshydhan) registered moderate to high PCV
and GCV values for almost all traits viz., total tillers per
plant, total number of productive tillers, secondary branches
per panicle, number of spikelets per panicle, number of filled
grains per panicle and single plant yield except days to 50 %
flowering, plant height and test weight where as in CB203R//
(CB203R × Akshydhan), all traits exhibited high PCV and
GCV except days to 50% flowering and panicle length
recorded low PCV and GCV. High heritability coupled with
high genetic advance in both the crosses for total number
of tillers per plant, productive tillers per plant, panicle
length, total number of spikelets per panicle, filled grains per
panicle and single plant yield indicated that these characters
were predominantly governed by additive gene action and
improvement for these characters could be brought about
by direct selection.The trait number of productive tillers
exhibited wide variability and little influence of environment
as well as higher values of PCV (35.65% and 35.57 %)
and GCV (35.05% and 34.41%) in CB174R//(CB174R ×
Akshydhan) and CB203R//(CB203R × Akshydhan) crosses
respectively. High heritability (96.68% and 93.59%) coupled
with high genetic advance (71.00% and 68.57%) as per cent
of mean in CB174R//(CB174R × Akshydhan) and CB203R//
(CB203R × Akshydhan) populations revealed that the major
role of additive gene action in the genetic control of this
trait. Panwar et al. (2007), Nayak (2008) and Nandeshwar
et al. (2010) also reported a similar type of findings.High
PCV and GCV values in CB174R//(CB174R × Akshydhan)
and CB203R//(CB203R × Akshydhan) BC1F2 populations
for total number of spikelets, number of filled grains per
panicle and single plant yield indicated wide variability
for this trait. Estimates of heritability and genetic advance
as per cent of mean were also high in both the populations
respectively revealing that most likely the heritability is
due to additive gene effects and selection may be effective.
This is in accordance with the earlier results made by
Nayak (2008). Wide variability was noticed for grain yield
per plant as evidenced by relatively higher values of PCV
(26.10% and 25.72%) and GCV (25.42% and 25.13%) in
CB174R//(CB174R × Akshydhan) and CB203R//(CB203R
× Akshydhan) populations, respectively. Estimates of
heritability (94.80% and 95.42%) and genetic advance
expressed as per cent of mean (50.98% and 50.56%) were
relatively high in CB174R//(CB174R × Akshydhan) and
CB203R//(CB203R × Akshydhan), respectively indicating
major role of additive gene action in the genetic control
of this trait in both the populations. These results are in
conformity with the reports of Sanjeev Kumar et al. (2005),
Vaithiyalingan and Nandarajan (2006).Though the variability
parameters, heritability and genetic advance indicated about
simple direct selection for this trait, it entirely depends
upon its inherent association with its attributing traits. It is
important to understand the relationship between two metric
traits in the population, as it would be possible to bring about
improvement in one character by selection of other. Grafius
(1959) pointed out that there might not be any gene for yield
as such but operates only through its components. Hence, the
character association study through correlation will surely
help in selecting important yield attributes.The correlation
study (Table 2) showed that, in CB174R//(CB174R ×
Akshydhan) cross grain yield per plant exhibited highly
significant positive association with total number tillers per
plant, number of productive tillers per plant, panicle length
and primary branches per panicle where as other traits
had positive association with grain yield except secondary
branches per panicle. In CB203R//(CB203R × Akshydhan)
cross had significant positive association with total number
tillers per plant, productive tillers per plant, Flag leaf width
and panicle length. These results are in agreement with
earlier reports (Patil et al., 1993, Rajeshwari and Nadarajan
2004 and Monalisa et al. 2006 ).The selection strategy for
less complex traits with consistently higher magnitude
of heritability and positive correlation with grain yield
may facilitate the selection in early generations. The total
number of tillers, number of productive tiller per plant and
panicle length displayed always reasonable PCV and GVC
with estimates of heritability and high degree of association
with grain yield. Hence, it was suggested that number of
productive tillers per plant and panicle length must be
important selection criteria for high yielding genotypes
while handling early segregating generation in rice.

Table 1. Estimation of Genetic Parameters for 13 yield and yield attributing characters in Rice
GA%
S.No Characters Cross Mean Range PV PCV GCV H2% GA
Days to 50 per cent Cross I 106.57 101-112 5.20 2.14 1.59 55.15 2.59 2.43
1
flowering Cross II 103.95 99-112 5.81 2.32 2.15 85.67 4.25 4.09
Cross I 127.29 100-158.4 88.87 7.41 7.23 95.29 18.51 14.54
2 Plant height (cm)
Cross II 103.76 76-135 117.69 10.46 10.24 95.88 21.43 20.65
Total number of tillers Cross I 17.53 5-37 41.75 36.85 35.58 93.21 12.41 70.76
3.
(nos.) Cross II 12.17 4-33 20.28 37.00 36.39 96.71 8.97 73.71
Number of productive Cross I 16.62 5-33 35.12 35.65 35.05 96.68 11.80 71.00
4.
tillers (nos.) Cross II 11.99 4-27 18.19 35.57 34.41 93.59 8.22 68.57
5 Cross I 23.90 15-35 16.25 16.87 15.43 83.60 6.94 29.05
Flag leaf length (cm)
. Cross II 29.33 17-40 17.08 14.09 13.56 92.67 7.89 26.90
6 Cross I 1.22 1-2 0.03 13.82 11.11 64.72 0.22 18.42
Flag leaf width (cm)
Cross II 1.46 1-2 0.07 17.82 16.44 85.15 0.46 31.26
7 Cross I 28.07 38-19.80 8.62 10.46 10.28 96.67 5.85 20.83
Panicle length (cm)
Cross II 25.78 20.2-34 4.45 8.19 7.79 90.64 3.94 15.28
Primary branches / Cross I 11.57 6-17 3.12 15.25 4.59 9.04 0.33 2.84
8 panicle
Cross II 12.79 8-18 2.09 11.29 3.93 12.12 0.36 2.82

332
 9 Secondary branches/ Cross I 29.77 10-56 67.42 27.59 24.29 77.51 13.11 44.04
panicle Cross II 25.62 10-49 51.60 28.04 23.99 73.19 10.83 42.28
Total number of Cross I 195.06 103-331 1578.09 20.37 20.13 97.74 79.98 41.00
10 spikelet/panicle
Cross II 170.52 92-310 1553.94 23.12 22.73 96.70 78.52 46.05
11 Number of filled grains Cross I 176.78 92-315 1493.87 21.86 21.70 98.52 78.44 44.37
/panicle (nos.) Cross II 158.84 70-301 1411.80 23.66 22.84 93.25 86.79 95.42
12 Cross I 19.55 23.1-12 2.65 8.33 6.90 68.61 2.30 11.76
Test weight (g)
Cross II 19.1 12.3-24.5 6.17 13.03 12.14 86.79 4.44 14.01
13 Cross I 25.61 12.3-47.6 44.70 26.10 25.42 94.80 13.06 50.98
Single plant yield (g)
Cross II 27.70 12-48.60 50.78 25.72 25.13 95.42 14.01 50.56
Cross I- CB174R//(CB174R X AKSHYDHAN) and Cross II- CB203R//(CB203R X AKSHYDHAN)-BC1F2 population
Table 2. Correlation of yield attributing traits with grain yield per plant

Crosses D50%F PH TNT NPT FLL FLW PL PB/P SB/P TNS/P TFG/P TW
Cross I -0.050
PH
Cross II -0.040
Cross I 0.004 0.106
TNT
Cross II -0.119* 0.191**
Cross I -0.005 0.100 0.979**
NPT
Cross II -0.111 0.183** 0.991**
Cross I -0.110 0.152** 0.142* 0.141*
FLL
Cross II -0.015 0.075 0.067 0.066
Cross I -0.038 0.173** 0.027 0.023 0.289**
FLW
Cross II -0.018 0.068 0.077 0.078 0.139*
Cross I 0.046 0.130* 0.058 0.067 0.053 0.034
PL
Cross II 0.125* 0.105 0.104 0.102 0.092 0.027
Cross I -0.010 0.021 0.018 0.022 0.095 0.127* 0.213**
PB/P
Cross II 0.105 0.203** 0.057 0.042 0.092 0.051 0.292**
Cross I -0.052 0.165** -0.017 -0.013 0.114* 0.218** 0.222** 0.379**
SB/P
Cross II 0.113 0.015 -0.065 -0.051 0.083 -0.008 0.321** 0.170**
Cross I -0.033 0.207** 0.010 -0.009 0.048 0.129* -0.029 0.072 0.097
TNS/P
Cross II 0.032 0.143* -0.002 -0.009 0.150** 0.004 0.142* 0.014 0.113
Cross I -0.046 0.209** -0.040 -0.056 0.052 0.126* -0.003 0.127* 0.064 0.944**
TFG/P
Cross II 0.035 0.128 *
0.009 0.007 0.103 -0.003 0.140 *
0.029 0.123 *
0.954**
Cross I -0.055 0.023 -0.042 -0.045 -0.074 0.003 -0.040 -0.051 0.042 -0.118* -0.122*
TW
Cross II 0.019 0.013 -0.037 -0.046 -0.049 0.078 -0.051 -0.010 0.020 0.048 0.030
Cross I 0.060 0.071 0.566** 0.571** 0.092 0.059 0.155** 0.140* -0.095 0.031 0.040 0.028
SPY
Cross II 0.024 0.047 0.141* 0.160** 0.024 0.138* 0.120* -0.054 0.042 0.008 0.016 0.040

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

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Panwar, A., Dhaka, R. P. S. and Vinod Kumar (2007) Path
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(1993) Analysis of variability and heritability in
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Sanjeev kumar, H. B. Singh and Sharma. J. K. (2005)
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and some quality traits in rice (Oryza sativa L.).
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Methods in Quantitative Genetic Analysis.
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Tyagi, A. K, Khurana, J.P., Khurana, P., Raghuvanshi, S.,
Gaur, A., Kapur, A., Gupta, V., Kumar, D.,
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(2004). Structural and functional analysis of
rice genome. J. Genet. 83:79- 99.
Vaithiyalingan, M. and Nandarajan, N (2006) Genetic
variability, heritability and genetic advance in
F2 population of inter sub-specific crosses of
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Yan, W, Hunt, L A, Johnson P, Stewart G, Lu X (2002) On-
farm strip trials vs replicated performance trials
for cultivar evaluation. Crop Science, 42, 385-
392

334
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 335-338 (2015)

COMBINING ABILITY STUDIES IN MEDICINAL LANDRACES OF RICE

SUVARNA RANI CHIMMILI*, R. USHA KUMARI, K. SUBHASHINI, K.BAGHYALAKSHMI, A.R. PRIYANKA
V. ULAGANATHAN AND R. VINOTH
Department of Rice, Centre for Plant breeding and Genetics
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University-641003
Email:suvarna.1412@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The present investigation entitled “Combining ability studies in the selected parents and hybrids (Oryzasativa .L)” was undertaken to study the
combining ability through L x T design with 8 lines and five testers for single plant yield and its components.The analysis revealed the predomi-
nance of non-additive gene action for all the characters understudy. This suggests the possibility of exploiting heterosis in the present material.
Among the lines ADT 43, ADT 45, ASD 16 and IR 72 and among the tester Veeradangan are proved to be good combiners for majority of the
characters including the yield, by exhibiting high gca effects. Out of 40 hybrids studied five hybrids viz.,ADT 39 x Kavuni, ADT 43 x Kavuni,
TPS 4 x Veeradangan, MDU 5 x Navara and MDU 5 x Chennellu were adjudged as the best specific combiners for yield and grain characters.

Key words:: lines, testers, combining ability, gca effects, sca effects

INTRODUCTION
More than 90 per cent of the world’s rice is grown and consumed in Asia, known as rice bowl of the world, where 60
percent of the earth’s people and two thirds of world’s poor live
(Khush and Virk 2000). The world population is expected to
reach eight billion by 2030 and rice production must increase
by 50 per cent in order to meet the growing demand (Khush
and Brar, 2002). Rice, being one of the important cereal crops
of India, ranking first among all the cereal crops, is cultivated
as pure culture mainly in wet season; cultivated in large area
but characterized by poor productivity due to lack of high
yielding stable varieties adaptable for different seasons and
agro climatic conditions at different parts of the country.
The basic objective of this crop improvement programs
is to realize a marked improvement in crop yield through
various breeding methods. Success of any plant breeding
programme depends on the choice of appropriate genotypes
as parents in the hybridization programme. The combining
ability studies of the parents provide information which
helps in the selection of better parents for effective breeding.
Combining ability analysis also provides information on
additive and dominance variance. Its role is important to
decide parents, crosses and appropriate breeding procedure
to be followed to select desirable segregants (Salgotra et. al.,
2009). The concept of combining ability is a landmark in
the hybridization program. The results of general (gca) and
specific (sca) combining abilities of eight promising lines
and their all possible combinations excluding reciprocals are
discussed.
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Agricultural
College and Research Institute, Madurai. All the thirteen
genotypes (eight lines and five testers) were sown in raised
bed nursery during Kharif 2011. Two staggered sowings
were taken up at ten days interval to have synchronization in
flowering. Seedlings were transplanted in the main field on
twenty fifth day of each sowing in a total of three row plot
of three meter length and with a spacing of 30 cm between
rows and 15 cm within the row. Recommended package of
practices were adopted. Crosses were affected in a Line x
Tester model following wet cloth method of emasculation
and pollination as suggested by Chaisanget al. (1967). Well
preserved F1 seeds of 40 cross combinations along with
thirteen parents were sown in raised nursery beds during Rabi
2011- 2012. Twenty five days old seedlings were planted in
a Randomized Block Design with two replications with a
spacing of 20 cm between rows and 10 cm between plants.
Single seedling was transplanted per hill in two rows of 3 m
length for each cross combination in each replication. Three
border rows were planted with ADT 43 which is used as a
check variety. Recommended agronomic practices and need
based plant protection measures were adopted. The hybrids
were identified and tagged by comparing morphological
characters of both the parents. Observations were recorded
individually on five randomly labelled plants in each
replication for each hybrid and parents.

MATERIAL AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the present study seven high yielding ruling rice
varieties of short duration viz., MDU 5, ADT 36, ADT 43,
ADT 45, TPS 4, ASD 16 and IR 72 and one medium duration
variety ADT 39 were utilized as lines. The seed materials
were obtained from the rice germplasm maintained at the
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Agricultural
College and Research Institute, Madurai and five medicinal
landraces in rice consumed by the people in different parts
of Tamil Nadu and Kerala viz., Navara, Chennellu, Kavuni,
Veeradangan and Kathanellu were collected and used as
testers.The study was carried out at the research farm of
The analysis of variance revealed the presence of
highly significant differences among the genotypes for the
10 characters viz., days to 50% flowering, plant height,
number of productive tillers per plant, panicle length,
number of filled grains per panicle, hundred grain weight,
single plant yield, kernel length, kernel breadth and kernel
L/B ratio studied.
Combining ability effects
An overall appraisal of gca effects (Table:1) revealed

335
that ADT 43 possessed significant gca effects for single Capitalization of additive gene action, the fixable variance,
plant yield, number of productive tillers per plant, number is important to proceed with recombination breeding. The
of filled grains per panicle, kernel length and kernel breadth gca effects is a value derived from the general mean of
whereas ADT 45 exhibited desirable gca effects for days to all the hybrids involving all the parents.Generally, parents
50% flowering, panicle length, number of productive tillers with high gcaare preferred for recombination breeding
per plant, hundred grain weight and single plant yield. The irrespective of its mean performance. Since high x high
lines ASD 16 and IR 72 showed desirable gca effects for general combiners would involve interaction between the
plant height, hundred grain weight and single plant yield. positive x positive alleles and can be fixable in subsequent
In addition to that IR 72 exhibited desirable gca effects generations if no repulsion phase linkage is involved. On the
for kernel breadth. Based on the above results, it may be other hand parents with high gcaeffects will not necessarily
concluded that the lines ADT 43, ADT 45, ASD 16 and IR 72 generate good combinations always due to interaction
were good combiners for these characters. Among the testers effects. Nadarajan and SreeRangasamy (1990) opined
Kavuni had desirable gca effects for number of productive that hybrids having parents with high gcaeffects and non
tillers per plant, hundred grain weight, kernel length and significantscaeffects would be useful for recombination
kernel breadth whereas Veeradangan showed significant breeding. Based on these criteria, hybrids were identified for
gca effects for number of filled grains per panicle and improvement of characters through recombination breeding
single plant yield. Chennellu and Navara exhibited desirable and were presented in Table 3 For days to 50% flowering,
performance for three traits each but not the good yielders. the lines viz.,MDU 5, ADT 39, ADT 45, TPS 4 and the tester
Hence, the tester Veeradangan was a good general combiner Navara had significantly favorablegcaeffects. Four hybrids
for the improvement in yield. combining these parents viz.,MDU 5 x Navara, ADT 39 x
Navara, ADT 45 x Navara and TPS 4 x Navara could be
Specific combining ability effects utilized for recombination breeding for improvement of this
The sca effect is an important criterion for the trait. In the case of plant height, three lines viz., MDU 5, ADT
evaluation of hybrids. The sca effects of hybrids had been 36, IR 72 and the tester Kathanellu expressed significant
attributed to the combination of favourable genes from gcaeffects. Among the possible three crosses involving
different parents or might be due to the presence of linkage in these parents, only two crosses viz.,ADT 36 x Kathanellu
repulsion phase. Sprague and Tatum (1942) reported that sca and IR 72 x Kathanellu expressed non significantsca effects.
effects are due to non additive gene action. Eleven hybrids Hence, these crosses could be utilized for developing non
exhibited significant sca effect for single plant yield. ADT lodging genotypes.For panicle length, ADT 45 and Kavuni
39 x Kavuni was the best specific combiner for six characters exhibited significant gca and their cross combination had
viz., number of productive tillers per plant, number of filled non significantscaeffects. So, it can be used to evolve longer
grains per panicle, hundred grain weight, kernel length, panicle. In case of number of productive tillers per plant
kernel L/B ratio and single plant yield. The hybrid ADT 43 two cross combinations viz., ADT 43 x Chennellu and ADT
x Kavuni had significant and positive sca for panicle length, 43 x Veeradangan were suited for recombination breeding.
hundred grain weight, kernel length and kernel L/B ratio Thegca effect was positively significant for number of
whereas TPS 4 x Veeradangan showed significant positive filled grains per plant in one line viz., ADT 43 and two
sca effects for number of productive tillers, hundred grain testers viz., Chennellu and Veeradangan . While taking these
weight, kernel length, kernel breadth and single plant yield. parents into account, the hybrids ADT 43 x Chennellu and
Therefore, considering all the above characters ADT 39 x ADT 43 x Veerdangan showednon significantsca effects
Kavuni, ADT 43 x Kavuni, TPS 4 x Veeradangan, MDU 5 x for this trait and hence these hybrids can be suggested for
Navara and MDU 5 x Chennellu were adjudged as the best recombination breeding for improvement of this trait.With
specific combiners for yield and grain characters. regard to single plant yield, three lines namely ADT 39, ADT
43, ADT 45 and one tester Veeradangan had significant gca
Hybrids for recombination breeding effects .Out of the three possible cross combinations only
one hybrid combination ADT 39 x Veeradangan suited for
Selection of hybrids for recombination breeding
recombination breeding.
would pave the way for isolating useful segregants in
the desirable direction in the subsequent generation. Table:1 The gca effects of parents for different
characters
Number of Number
Days productive of filled Kernel Single
to 50% Plant Panicle tillers per grains per Hundred Kernel Kernel L/b plant
Parents flowering height length plant panicle grain weight length breadth ratio yield  
Lines
MDU5 -2.28 * -6.94 * -0.82 -2.03 * -4.44 * -0.47 * 0.42 * 0.01 * 0.17 * -9.43 *
ADT36 0.22 -7.01 * 0.11 -1.23 * 3.06 -0.90 * 0.32 * 0.15 * -0.01 -12.28 *
ADT39 -4.68 * -4.54 * -1.14 2.97 * -8.14 * -0.39 * -0.06 * -0.01 -0.04 * -3.36 *
ADT43 -0.38 7.20 * 0.96 2.28 * 6.96 * -0.08 * -0.13 * -0.29 * 0.21 * 3.75 *
ADT45 -5.47 * 2.01 2.20 * 3.08 * -0.34 0.55 * 0.02 0.06 * -0.05 * 13.58 *
TPS4 -1.27 * 10.49 * -1.84 * 0.28 -1.34 0.06 * -0.41 * 0.03 * -0.18 * 2.08 *
ASD16 4.32 * 5.20 * 0.22 -2.33 * 10.16 * 0.44 * -0.11 * 0.17 * -0.19 * 7.55 *
IR72 9.52 * -6.42 * 0.31 -3.03 * -5.94 * 0.79 * -0.04 * -0.12 * 0.09 * -1.88
SE 0.62 2.24 0.58 0.60 1.66 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 1.55

336
Testers
NAVARA -1.40 * -0.81 0.33 0.08 -19.89 * 0.29 * -0.27 * -0.20 * 0.06 * -1.06
CHENNELLU -0.34 6.26 * 1.59 * 1.01 * 10.80 * -0.42 * 0.61 * 0.07 * 0.17 * -1.68
KAVUNI 1.16 * -1.66 0.30 1.26 * -1.08 0.07 * 0.09 * -0.14 * 0.16 * 1.72
VEERADANGAN 0.16 1.88 -1.62 * 0.32 21.05 * -0.01 -0.23 * 0.08 * -0.16 * 7.35 *
KATHANELLU 0.41 -5.68 * 0.59 -2.67 * -10.89 * 0.07 * -0.20 * 0.19 * -0.23 * -6.32 *
SE 0.49 1.77 0.46 0.47 1.15 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.23
* Significant at 5% LOS
Table:2 The sca effects of hybrids for different characters
Number
Number of
Days of filled Hundred Kernel Single
Plant Panicle productive Kernel Kernel
Parents to 50%  
height
 
length
 
tillers per
  grains   grain  
length
 
breadth
  L/b   plant  
flowering per weight ratio yield
plant
panicle

L1 X T1 1.40   4.79   -0.28   4.71 * -0.81   -0.15 * 0.43 * -0.16 * 0.35 * 7.32 *

L1 X T2 -0.16   -6.53   0.98   -3.01 * 4.50   0.64 * -0.08 * -0.14 * 0.08 * 6.28 *

L1 X T3 -0.16   -10.31 * -1.71   -3.32 * 5.38   -0.49 * 0.73 * -0.03 * -0.29 * -5.17  

L1 X T4 1.34   -4.57   -0.78   -0.74   -18.75 * -0.36 * 0.34 * 0.05 * 0.06 * -20.53 *

L1 X T5 -2.41   16.63 * 1.80   2.36   9.69 * 0.36 * 0.06   0.29 * -0.21 * -12.11 *

L2 X T1 -1.60   -3.60   -1.73   6.25 * -5.31   -0.34 * 0.43 * 0.21   -0.01   2.58  

L2 X T2 5.34 * 20.27 * -0.28   -0.50   8.50 * 0.53 * -0.15 * 0.03 * -0.10 * 10.76 *

L2 X T3 -0.16   -10.74 * -0.95   -4.99 * 15.88 * -0.38 * -0.64 * -0.23 * -0.06 * -11.32 *

L2 X T4 -4.16 * -5.44   0.38   -1.28   -4.25   0.06   0.30 * -0.08 * 0.18 * -1.66  

L2 X T5 0.59   -0.49   2.57   0.53   -14.81 * 0.04   0.05   0.07 * -0.01   -0.37  

L3 X T1 -1.70   -0.32   0.31   -6.17 * -2.61   -0.04   -0.78 * -0.03 * -0.30 * -11.89 *

L3 X T2 -0.26   -3.56   1.70   -2.55   -23.80 * 0.29 * -0.20 * 0.05 * -0.12 * -4.02  

L3 X T3 -0.76   7.25   -1.13   5.01 * 13.57 * 0.26 * 0.57 * -0.04 * 0.27 * 19.25 *

L3 X T4 1.74   0.83   -0.45   1.59   18.95 * 0.20 * -0.13 * -0.03   -0.02   2.09  

L3 X T5 0.99   -4.20   -0.44   2.12   -6.11   -0.71 * 0.54 * 0.05 * 0.16 * -5.43  

L4 X T1 -0.03   -5.92   0.56   -1.12   8.79 * -0.84 * -0.51 * -0.03 * -0.13 * -3.74  

L4 X T2 0.44   0.66   -4.20 * 5.24 * 1.10   -0.08   0.36 * -0.05 * 0.22 * 3.80  

L4 X T3 -2.06   5.55   3.56 * 0.30   -22.52 * 0.48 * 0.23 * 0.02 * 0.12 * 0.33  

L4 X T4 -0.06   -9.93   1.38 * -4.78   -6.65   0.93 * 0.13 * 0.27 * -0.12 * -0.54  

L4 X T5 1.69   9.63   -1.29   0.36   19.29 * -0.50 * -0.21 * -0.19   0.04   0.15  

L5 X T1 1.10   4.52   -1.16   -2.28   6.09   -0.28 * 0.58 * 0.20   0.05   -2.13  

L5 X T2 -1.40   -4.93 * 2.51 * 3.90   -20.60 * 0.59 * 0.08   0.05   -0.02   3.56  

L5 X T3 -20.15   2.74   -0.70 * 7.68   13.27 * -0.13 * -0.02   -0.10 * 0.06 * 13.56 *

L5 X T4 1.04   -10.87   -0.15 * -5.98   -1.85   -0.20 * -0.50 * 0.21 * -0.31 * -9.73 *

L5 X T5 0.79   8.54   -0.50 * -3.32   3.09   0.01   -0.10 * -0.36 * 0.22 * -4.97  

L6 X T1 0.90   9.81   0.54   -1.15   0.09   0.05 * 0.05   -0.12 * 0.10 * -1.61  

L6 X T2 -2.66   -16.41 * 0.03   -0.85   -2.60   -0.20 * -0.31 * -0.04 * -0.09 * -10.17 *

L6 X T3 1.84   13.70 * 0.19   0.50   -18.23 * -0.21 * -0.12 * 0.30 * -0.30 * -7.13 *

L6 X T4 -0.16   5.93   -0.74 * 4.33   11.15 * -0.70 * 0.22 * -0.28 * 0.30 * 10.05 *

L6 X T5 0.09   -12.95 * -0.02   -2.03   9.59 * 0.62 * 0.16 * 0.13   -0.01   8.86 *

L7 X T1 0.80   -8.50   0.94   0.99   3.59   0.31 * -0.18 * -0.07 * 0.07 * 6.57 *

L7 X T2 -0.76   8.21   -0.08   0.37   6.40   -0.50 * 0.04   0.05 * -0.06 * -2.16  

L7 X T3 0.74   0.31   0.82 * -3.18   0.27   -0.15 * 0.15 * 0.10   -0.04   -11.31 *

L7 X T4 0.74   15.28 * -0.42 * 2.76   -11.35 * 0.04   0.03   -0.05   0.05   12.13 *

L7 X T5 -1.51   -15.29 * -1.26   -0.94   1.09   0.29 * 0.18 * -0.03 * 0.11 * -5.23  

L8 X T1 -0.90   -0.78   0.81   -0.43   -9.81 * 0.85 * 0.08 * -0.01   0.05   2.90  

L8 X T2 -0.46   2.37   -0.64   -2.60   26.50 * -1.27 * 0.34 * 0.04 * 0.09 * -7.76 *

L8 X T3 2.04   -8.51   -0.07   -2.00   -7.63 * 0.52 * 0.56 * 0.01 * 0.23 * 1.80  

L8 X T4 -0.46   8.77   0.79 * 4.11   12.75 * 0.02   -0.31 * -0.08 * -0.07 * 8.19 *

L8 X T5 -0.21   -1.86   -0.90   0.92   -21.81 * -0.11 * -0.67 * 0.04 * -0.30 * -5.12  

SE 1.38   5.01   1.29   1.32   3.72   0.04   0.03   0.02   0.02   3.48  

337
* Significant at 5% LOS Bagheri, N. and N. B. Jelodar. (2010) Heterosis and
combining ability analysis for yield and related-
L1 - MDU5 T1- Navara
yield traits in hybrid rice. Inter. J. Bio., 2 (2):
L2- ADT36 T2- Chennellu 222-231.
L3-ADT39 T3- Kavuni Dalvi, V.V. and D.U. Patel. (2009) Combining ability analysis
L4-ADT43 T4- Veeradangan for yield in hybrid rice. Oryza, 46: 97-102.

L5-ADT45 T5- Kathanellu Hassan, H.M., A.B. EL-Abd and N.M. EI-Baghdady. (2011)
Combining ability for some root, physiological
L6-TPS4 and grain quality traits in rice (Oryza sativa L.)
L7-ASD16 under water deficit conditions. J. Agric. Res.
Kafer EI-Sheikh Univ., 37 (2): 239-256.
L8-IR72
Kumar Babu, G., P.V. Satyanarayana, C. Panduranga Rao and
V. Srinivasa Rao. (2010) Combining ability for
REFERENCES yield, components and quality traits in hybrid
Annadurai, A. and N. Nadarajan. (2001) Combining ability rice (Oryza sativa L.). The Andhra Agric. J 57
for yield component and physiological traits (2): 143-147.
in hybrid rice. Madras Agric J., 88 (4-6): 300-
303.

338
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 586-589 (2015)
STANDARDIZATION OF NPK THROUGH FERTIGATION IN CAPSICUM WITH OR
WITHOUT MULCH IN NATURALLY VENTILATED POLYHOUSE
LALITA THAKUR, LALIT BHATT, S.K. MAURYA AND UDIT KUMAR
Department of vegetable Science, College of Agriculture
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology
Pantnagar, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand

ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken to standardize the NPK requirement through fertigation in capsicum grown with or without mulch in nat-
urally ventilated polyhouse. Eight treatments comprises of three NPK fertigation dose (100 per cent, 125 per cent and 75 per cent
of recommended NPK dose) applied in two fertigation frequencies i.e. 14 split and 7 split doses under mulch and unmulched condi-
tion were tested in Randomized Block Design replicated thrice. Application of 100 per cent recommended dose of NPK in 14 splits
with black plastic mulch was found best with respect to fruit parameters, qualitative character, total yield (83.37 t/ha), net return
(R15,453.5/100 m2) and benefit - cost ratio (2.62). Use of mulching and increase in split application of recommended dose of NPK increased
the total yield and benefit –cost ration by 32.58 and 46.37 per cent, respectively, under plastic mulching in a naturally ventilated polyhouse.

Keywords: Capsicum; NPK fertigation, Drip irrigation, Black plastic mulch; Yield.

INTRODUCTION
Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L. var. grossum,
2n=2x=24), popularly known as Sweet pepper or Capsicum or
Shimla Mirch, belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is a highly
priced vegetable crop both in the domestic and international
market. Despite its economic importance, production of
good quality capsicum under open field condition is not
easy due to its specific climatic requirements. Lower night
temperature, high rainfall, hails, frost, water logging, higher
relative humidity and cold wind are major limiting factors
for successful cultivation of capsicum under open field
condition. However, it can successfully be cultivated under
protected condition in Uttarakhand (Chandra et al., 2000 and
Singh et al., 2010). For getting the maximum output form
capsicum under naturally ventilated polyhouse, optimum
nutrient management through fertigation and management
of hydrothermal regime in the soil through mulching
are important aspects need to be considered. Keeping
these points and importance of capsicum under protected
condition, present study was carried out to explore the
impact of the NPK fertigation rates at various frequencies
on the growth, yield, quality and economics of capsicum,
under tarai conditions of Uttarakhand in naturally ventilated
polyhouse with and without black plastic mulch.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted at Vegetable Research
Centre (VRC) of G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar, U.S. Nagar (Uttarakhand), India
during September to May 2012 -2013 on capsicum hybrid
Indra. The experimental site lies in ‘tarai’ plains of foot hills
of Shivalik range of Himalayas having an altitude of 243.8
m. It is located at 29º N latitude and 79.29º E longitude. The
soil of the experimental site was sandy loam in texture, with
a pH of 7.10. The available N, P and K content were 145.6
Kg/ha, 21.67 Kg/ha and 125.13 Kg/ha, respectively. The
seed of capsicum were sown in germination trays on 18th
September and one month old seedlings were transplanted
on beds at row spacing of 60 cm and plant to plant spacing
of 50 cm in the plot size of 7.5 m2. The treatments comprises
of three NPK fertigation rates (100 per cent, 125 per cent and
75 per cent of recommended fertilizer dose of 375:400:90
kg N, P2O5, K2O ha-1, respectively) and two fertigation
frequencies i.e. NPK is applied in 14 split doses and 7 split
doses under naturally ventilated polyhouse using mulch and
unmulched conditions in randomized block design replicated
thrice. Observations for growth and yield parameters were
recorded by using standard techniques in capsicum. In order
to assess the economic viability, both fixed (interest on
initial cost and depreciation on the system) and operating
cost as well as wages of labours incurred since seed sowing
for nursery raising to final picking along with expenditure
on marketing and transportation were considered. The gross
and net returns were worked out accordingly by taking cost
of cultivation and average sale price capsicum during the
growing period. The data recorded were analyzed using
design of experiment as suggested by Gomez and Gomez
(1984) and were presented in Tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth Characters
Application of recommended dose of NPK through
drip with black plastic mulch significantly influenced growth
parameters of capsicum (Table 1). Maximum height (59.05
cm), fresh (532.50 g) & dry (156.25 g) weight of plant and
was recorded by application of 125 per cent of recommended
dose of fertilizer in 14 split doses. Significant improvement
with respect to plant growth characters was also noticed
for the use of plastic mulching in all the different dosed of
fertilizers tested. But with respect to root length, fresh and
dry weight of root per plant, fertigation at 125 and 100 per
cent of recommended doses in 14 splits were statistically
at par separately for mulch and unmulched condition. The
higher height, fresh and dry weight could be attributed to
higher NPK doses given at consistent levels throughout the
plant growth period under favourable microclimate leading
to higher uptake of nutrient and better photosynthetic
expressed in terms of higher growth (Feleafel and Mirdad,

339
2013). Increase in growth characters due to the use of black which enhanced the current photosynthesis for developing
plastic mulch might be due to the reduced nutrient losses, fruit leading to the development of better fruit characters.
weed control and improved hydrothermal regimes of soil At higher doses of NPK, fruit characters showed a negative
(Ashworth and Harrison, 1983). The present findings were response which might be due to toxicity of plant or non
also supported by Nijamudeen et al. (2013). The increase in attraction of NPK by plants. Similar findings were also
root length, fresh and dry weight of roots was due to better reported by Bharma et al. (2010) and Nijamudeen et al.
nutrient utilization and absorption as the precise amount of (2013).
nutrients is being applied at the time of requirement.
Total soluble solids contents of capsicum fruit was
Maturity significantly improved by various treatments (Table 2),
maximum TSS of 5.40 °Brix was recorded with recommended
Fertilizer rates and frequencies had significant effect NPK doses in 14 split under plastic mulch and was at par
on days taken to 50 per cent flowering and days to first fruit with similar treatment having bare field and with 125 per
picking. The significantly early flowering (47.50 days) was cent dose in 14 split using plastic mulching . Likewise T4
observed with 75 per cent of recommended dose in 14 splits (5.00 °Brix), T5 (4.90 °Brix), T6 (4.85 °Brix), C1 (4.95
under plastic mulch. Whereas, with respect days taken for °Brix) and C2 (4.85 °Brix) were also at par with each
first harvest all mulch treatment were at par i.e. 120, 100 and other. Maximum TSS of harvested fruits in was attributed
75 per of recommended dose and were significantly better to the precise amount of nutrient requirement help in better
over unmulched condition. Higher fertilizer doses delays sugar imported by fruits via phloem become concentrated
flowering and fruit setting as higher nutrition of N fertilizer which help in increasing TSS content. These results are also
promoting more vegetative growth and delaying flowering supported by the findings of Elkner and Kaniszewski (1995)
(Guohua et al. 2001). Optimum soil temperature, higher soil and Gupta et al. (2010).
temperature and better microclimate under plastic mulch
leds to early growth and development which advanced the Yield
flowering and fruit setting (Bhatt et al. 2011).
Significant impact of NPK and mulching was
Fruit Characters observed on the yield (Table 3). Maximum yield per plant
(2.50 kg) i.e. 83.37 t/ha was recorded in T1 (100 per cent
Maximum number of fruits per plant (26.12) was recommended doses of NPK in 14 split with black plastic
recorded with 100 per cent of recommended dose in 14 mulch). Increasing the split application of NPK to 14
split under plastic mulch and was at par with T2 and T3. from 7 increases the yield by the order of 48.31 and 34.70
Increasing the split application of fertilizer significantly per cent in mulched and unmulced plots under naturally
increase the number of fruits per plant under both mulch ventilated polyhouse, respectively. Use of black plastic
and unmulched conditions. Significantly longest fruit mulch significantly increases the yield of capsicum in case
(6.94 cm), maximum polar circumference (24.96 cm) and of 100 and 75 per cent of recommended dose of NPK in
lateral circumference of the fruit (26.12 cm) were recorded 14 splits over unmulched plots. The higher yield obtained
compared in those capsicum plant supplied with 100 per cent is might be due to availability of optimum moisture and
of recommended dose of fertilizer in 14 split under plastic uniform distribution of fertigated nutrients in the crop root
mulching compared to 125 and 75 percent of recommended zone throughout the growth stages leading to better uptake
doses of NPK in 14 split in mulched condition (Table 2 ). of nutrients, with higher photosynthesis promoting more
Same treatment also recorded maximum pericarp thickness fruit expressed in terms of higher yield per plant (Agele et
of 0.62 cm, average fruit weight of 95.73 g and maximum al. 2007). On the other hand yield decreases at the highest
dry matter content of 26.80 per cent. Increase or decrease of nitrogen doses were in agreement with Tei et al. (2000) due
fertilizer dose reduced the fruit characters. Increase in all the to toxicity of nutrient in the plant (Boroujerdnia and Ansari,
fruit characters of capsicum at 100 per cent recommended 2007) or application of nutrients more than that
doses of NPK in 14 splits could be attributed to matching of plant
of fertilizer requirement with need and upake by the crop
Table 1. Effect of NPK split doses on plant growth characters of capsicum under naturally ventilated polyhouse
Days Weigh /plant Fruit Weight
Plant Days to Root
to first (g) (g)
Treatments height 50 % length
fruit
(cm) flowering Fresh Dry Fresh Dry (cm)
picking
T1: 100% Recommended NPK dose in 14 splits uder black
55.81 49.00 79.00 476.50 120.00 90.00 25.00 19.25
plastic mulch
T2: 100% Recommended NPK dose in 14 splits in unmulched
52.07 50.50 86.50 395.25 108.75 77.00 18.22 15.32
condn
T3: 125% Recommended NPK dose in 14 splits under black
59.05 49.00 79.00 532.50 156.25 84.50 21.25 18.22
plastic mulch
T4: 125% Recommended NPK dose in 14 splits in unmulched
53.52 51.00 85.00 456.00 150.00 74.00 17.50 14.47
condn
T5: 75% Recommended NPK dose in 14 splits under black
54.71 47.50 77.00 392.50 106.25 80.67 18.75 18.80
plastic mulch
T6: 75% Recommended NPK dose in 14 splits in unmulched
53.97 50.00 84.00 323.50 97.500 73.50 16.25 15.90
condn

340
C1: 100% Recommended NPK dose in 07 splits in black
54.48 49.50 85.00 280.00 116.00 71.75 16.25 15.45
plastic mulch
C2: 100% Recommended NPK dose in 07 splits in unmulched
50.41 50.00 90.00 266.50 98.75 65.00 12.00 14.27
condn
CD at 5% 2.76 1.32 5.54 122.78 34.42 8.36 6.12 2.19
CV(%) 6.92 6.52 8.82 17.86 16.15 10.20 19.02 7.62
requirement. Superiority of black plastic mulch might CONCLUSION
be attributed to its favorable moisture conserving capacity Different NPK doses and fertigation frequencies
in soil and also improves the microclimate condition that have positive effect on growth, yield per hectare. In order
provided a suitable condition in terms of soil temperature to obtain maximum profit form capsicum under naturally
and nutrient. ventilated polyhouse it should be supplied with 100 per cent
Economic analysis of recommended NPK dose (375:400:90 kg/ha) in 14 split
with black plastic mulch.
Economic analysis of different treatments in 100 m2
area of naturally ventilated polyhouse revealed that highest Table 3. Effect of NPK split doses on yield and economics of
cost of cultivation ` 9,752) was recorded in T4 followed by capsicum under naturally ventilated polyhouse
T2 (` 9,726). On the other hand minimum cost of cultivation
of ` 9,430 was noticed in control treatment with black Treat- Average Average Cost of Gross Net B-C
plastic mulch (C1). This increase in cost of cultivation was ments Yield/ Yield/ cultivation return return
because of high fertilizer rates and intercultural operations plant hectare (`/100 m2) (`/100 (`/100
done in without mulch condition. Maximum gross return of (kg) (t) m2) m2 )
` 24,985.5 along with highest net return of ` 15,453.5 and
benefit - cost ratio 2.62 was obtained with 100 per cent of T1 2.50 83.37 9,532 24,985.5 15,453.5 2.62
recommended dose of NPK in 14 splits under black plastic T2 2.05 68.38 9,726 20,493.6 10,767.5 2.11
mulch. Minimum net return of ` 5,551.5 and benefit - cost T3 2.10 69.99 9,532 20,979.0 11,447.0 2.20
T4 1.86 62.00 9,752 18,582.6 8,830.6 1.91
ratio of 1.57 was obtained from the treatment i.e. 100 per cent
T5 2.34 78.07 9,477 23,399.7 13,922.7 2.47
of recommended NPK dose in 7 splits. The increased net T6 1.87 62.38 9,668 18,659.4 8,991.4 1.93
return and higher benefit - cost ratio was because increase in C1 1.68 56.21 9,430 16,845.3 7,415.3 1.79
split applications of fertilizer increase the yield and quality C2 1.52 50.75 9,660 15,211.5 5,551.5 1.57
of produce and attractive fruit were sold at better price and CD at 0.43 14.32
attract number of consumers. Similar findings in terms of 5% 12.32 12.32
gross return and benefit - cost ratio were also reported by CV (%)
Brahma et al. (2010) in tomato and Tumbare and Bhoite
(2002) in chilli.

Table 2. Effect of NPK split doses on fruit characters of capsicum under naturally ventilated polyhouse
Treatments Number Fruit length Fruit (cm) Fruit polar Fruit lateral Pericarp Fruit weight Dry matter TSS
of fruits (cm) circumference circumference thickness (cm) (g) % fruit
per (cm) (cm)
plant
T1 26.12 6.94 7.53 24.96 26.12 0.62 95.73 26.80 5.40
T2 22.62 6.20 7.05 23.98 24.80 0.52 90.67 25.59 5.20
T3 23.50 5.75 7.30 23.86 24.40 0.55 89.33 24.42 5.30
T4 21.00 4.70 6.50 23.50 24.39 0.52 88.64 23.70 5.00
T5 25.27 6.38 7.42 24.77 25.31 0.55 92.59 25.80 4.90
T6 21.37 6.12 6.86 23.51 25.14 0.52 87.55 25.03 4.85
C1 19.87 6.13 6.79 22.58 23.57 0.52 84.74 23.41 4.95
C2 18.75 5.74 6.50 21.42 22.77 0.45 81.52 22.52 4.85
CD at 5% 4.65 0.62 NS NS NS NS 3.04 NS 0.21
CV (%) 11.89 5.92 6.66 7.37 6.43 6.43 6.95 7.12 6.33

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 343-346 (2015)

EVALUATION OF THIAMETHOXAM 25 % WG AGAINST SUCKING PESTS IN OKRA

1
P. THANGACHAMY, 2P. KARTHIK, 3A. SANJEEVI KUMAR, 4K. BHARATHIDASAN
5
S. BAGYARAJ, 6S. KUTTALAM AND 7K. GUNASEKARAN
Senior Research Fellow, 2Research Associate, 6 Professor and Head, Department of Agrl. Entomology and 7Professor and
1,3,4,5

Head, Department of Nanotechnology, TNAU, CBE - 3.

ABSTRACT
Two field experiments were conducted at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
district, Tamil Nadu from April 2013- June 2013 under irrigated conditions. The experiments were laid out on 40 day old okra plants
in a randomized block design with six treatments and four replications. The results indicated that thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 75 g
a.i. ha-1 reduced the mean aphid population significantly (2.65 nos. per three leaves/plant) with 91.73 per cent reduction over con-
trol followed by thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 50 and 25 g a.i. ha-1 (4.35 and 4.90 nos. per three leaves/plant, respectively). In case
of whitefly incidence during the first spray, the mean data revealed that the highest dose of thiamethoxam @ 75 g a.i.ha-1 record-
ed minimum mean whitefly population of 2.91 and 0.87 nos. per three leaves/ plant after the first and second spray, respectively as
against untreated check (12.60 and 10.68 per three leaves/ plant) and their corresponding per cent reduction over control was 76.90
and 91.85 respectively. Thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 75 g a.i. ha-1 reduced the mean jassids population significantly (2.17 nos. per
three leaves/plant) with 81.26 per cent reduction over control followed by thiamethoxam 25% WG at 50 (2.90 nos. per three leaves/
plant). Similar trend was observed during the second spray also. The data recorded on the yield of okra, on the first trial indicated
that thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 75 g a.i. ha-1 (8100.50 kg ha-1) exhibited significantly higher yield over rest of the treatments. Thia-
methoxam 25% WG @ 50 g a.i. ha-1 (7690.50 kg ha-1) was on par with thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 25 g a.i. ha-1 (7345.00 kg ha-1).

Keywords: Thiamethoxam, Okra, Aphis gossypii, Bemisia tabaci, Amrasca biguttula biguttula

INTRODUCTION
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Monech), commonly
known as “Bhendi”, is cultivated throughout India.
Okra provides an important source of vitamins, calcium,
potassium and other minerals, which are often lacking in the
diet of developing and under developed countries. In India,
okra occupies an area of about 3, 70,000 ha with production
of 3550 million tones and productivity of 95.94 q/ha
(Anonymous, 2004). In India, okra is commercially grown
in the states of Gujrat, Maharashtra, Andra Pradesh, West
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Harayana, Punjab and Assam (Anonymous,
2011).One of the limiting factors in cultivation of okra is the
damage caused by various insect pests. Among 72 species
of insects infesting the crop, the sucking pest viz., Aphids
(Aphis gossypii Glover), leafhopper (Amrasca biguttula
biguttula Ishida) and whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius)
are the most important which cause significant yield
reduction. Aphids and leafhopper are important pests in the
early stage of the crop which desap the plants, making them
weak which results in reduced flowering and poor fruit set
ultimately reduction in yield. The cultivation of okra in India
received a setback due to yellow vein mosaic virus (YVMV)
and enation leaf curl virus (ELCV), spread by the vector
whitefly. The loss in marketable yield has been estimated at
50-94%, depending up on the stage of crop growth at which
the infection occurs. Failure to control these pests in the initial
stage causes a yield loss upto 54.04 per cent (Chaudhary and
Dadeech, 1989). Krishnaiah (1980) reported about 40-56 per
cent losses in okra due to leafhopper. In order to overcome
these problems and keeping in view, the importance of okra
crop, the present studies were undertaken to validate and test
the efficacy of different doses of newer insecticides against
sucking pest of okra.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation was conducted at the
experimental field of Department of Entomology,
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu
from April 2013- June 2013 under irrigated conditions.
The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design
with six treatments replicated four times. Okra variety
‘Ajeet-333’ was raised at spacing of 45 cm × 30 cm in plots
of size 4 x 5 m. Recommended agronomical practices except
plant protection were followed for raising the crop. Two
sprays were given at fortnightly interval. The treatments
included Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 15, 25, 50, 75, standard
check Thiamethoxam 25 WG (Willoxam) @ 15 g a.i. ha-1
and untreated control. The observations on population of
sucking insect pests (aphid, leafhopper, whitefly) were made
on three leaves, each selected randomly on 5 plants from
top, middle and bottom canopy. The sucking insect pest’s
population was recorded before as well as 3, 7 and 14 days
after each. Observations on whitefly adults were recorded
without disturbing the plants to minimize the observational
errors. Population of sucking pest was recorded from each
net plot and population was worked out per leaf. Okra green
fruits were collected at each picking and weighed separately
from each net plot area. At the end of last picking, total
yield from each net plot was calculated and computed on
hectare basis (kg ha-1). The data obtained on the pests and
fruit yield was subjected to statistical analysis after suitable
transformations as per statistical guidelines given by Gomez
and Gomez (1984).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Efficacy of different doses of insecticides against

343
sucking pests of okra during first spray, mean population of jassids prior to first
spraying was 7.00 to 8.20 per three leaves plant -1 (Table 3).
Aphid (Aphis gossypii Glover) Thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 75 g a.i. ha-1 reduced the mean
The results of the incidence of aphids in different jassids population significantly (2.17 nos. per three leaves/
treatments for the two applications are given in Table 1. plant) with 81.26 per cent reduction over control followed by
During first spray, Thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 75 g a.i. thiamethoxam 25% WG at 50 (2.90 nos. per three leaves/
ha-1 reduced the mean aphid population significantly (2.65 plant). The standard check, Willoxam® at the rate of 25 g
nos. per three leaves/plant) with 91.73 per cent reduction over a.i. ha -1 recorded the population of 3.34 nos. per three leaves/
control followed by thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 50 and 25 plant when compared to untreated check (11.58 nos. per three
g a.i. ha-1 (4.35 and 4.90 nos. per three leaves/plant). The leaves/plant). During second spray, Thiamethoxam 25%
standard check, Willoxam® @ 25 g a.i. ha-1 recorded the WG @ 75 g a.i. ha -1 recorded higher reduction in jassids
mean aphid population of 5.24 nos. per three leaves/plant population (0.93 nos. per three leaves/plant) with 92.42 per
when compared to untreated check (32.05 nos. per three cent reduction over control. The standard check, Willoxam
leaves/plant). During second spray, Thiamethoxam 25% @ 25 g a.i. ha -1 recorded the mean jassids population of
WG @ 75 g a.i. ha -1 recorded higher reduction in aphid 1.98 nos. per three leaves/plant with 83.87 per cent reduction
population (0.63 nos. per three leaves/plant) with 98.11 per over control. The untreated check recorded the population
cent reduction over control. The standard check, Willoxam® of 12.28 nos. per three leaves/plant. The present findings are
at @ 25 g a.i. ha -1 recorded the aphid population with in line with the results of Bharpoda et al. (2014), Patil et al.
93.25 per cent reduction over control. The untreated check (2014) and Sinha and Sharma (2007).
recorded the population of 33.35 nos. per three leaves/plant.
The present findings are in line with the results of Gavkare Effect of different doses of insecticides on green
et al. (2013), Ghoshal et al. (2013) and Patil et al. (2014). fruit yield
The results of the present investigation showed
Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius) that the data recorded on the yield of okra indicated that
From the table 2, the results of the present investigation thiamethoxam 25% WG at 75 g a.i. ha-1 (8100.50 kg ha-1)
showed that pooled mean data revealed that the highest dose exhibited significantly higher yield over rest of the treatments
of thiamethoxam @ 75 g a.i.ha-1 recorded minimum mean (Table 4). Thiamethoxam 25% WG at 50 g a.i. ha-1 (7690.50
whitefly population of 2.91 and 0.87 nos. per three leaves/ kg ha-1) was on par with thiamethoxam 25% WG at 25 g
plant after the first and second sprays, respectively as against a.i. ha-1 (7345.00 kg ha-1). The lower dose of thiamethoxam
untreated check (12.60 and 10.68 per three leaves/ plant) 25% WG at 15g a.i. ha-1 recorded yield of 5726.50 kg ha-1.
and their corresponding per cent reduction over control The present findings are in line with the results of Patil et al.
was 76.90 and 91.85. The standard check, Willoxam ® @ (2014) and Venkataravanappa et al. (2012).
25 g a.i.ha-1 recorded the mean population of 4.83 and 2.14
nos. per three leaves /plant after the first and second sprays, Conclusion
respectively. The present findings are in line with the results It is concluded that the higher dose of thiamethoxam
of Mohansundaram and Sharma (2011), Patil et al. (2014) 25% WG at 75 g a.i. ha-1 effectively reduced the sucking pests
and Rohini et al. (2012). population in okra. Since the standard check, thiamethoxam
25% WG (Willoxam) at 25 g a.i. ha-1 was on par with the
Leafhopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida) higher dose of thiamethoxam, it may be recommended for
The results of the present investigation showed that the management of sucking pests in okra.
Table 1. Effect of thiamethoxam 25 % WG on aphids in okra
First spray Second spray
Dose Per cent Per cent
S. No PTC
Treatments (g a.i ha-1) PTC Mean reduction Mean reduction
over control over control
1. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 15 20.63 7.34 72.09 3.95 3.95 88.15
2. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 25 21.43 4.90 84.71 1.96 1.96 94.12
3. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 50 20.17 4.35 86.42 1.83 1.83 94.51
4. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 75 23.50 2.65 91.73 0.63 0.63 98.11
Thiamethoxam 25 % WG
5. 25 22.87 5.24 83.65 2.25 2.25 93.25
(Willoxam)
6. Untreated check - 20.73 32.05 - 33.35 33.35 -

PTC – Pre treatment count; DAT – Days after treatment; *Mean of four replications
Figures in parentheses are x + 0.5 transformed values
In a column, means followed by a common letter(s) are not significantly different by DMRT (p=0.05)

344

Table 2. Effect of thiamethoxam 25 % WG on whiteflies in okra

I spray II spray
Dose
S.No Percent PTC Percent
Treatments (g a.i ha-1) PTC
Mean reduction Mean reduction
over control over control
1. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 15 12.47 5.55 55.95 2.55 2.55 76.12
2. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 25 12.00 4.50 64.28 1.74 1.74 83.70
3. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 50 11.53 3.96 68.57 1.29 1.29 87.92
4. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 75 12.10 2.91 76.90 0.87 0.87 91.85
Thiamethoxam 25 % WG
5. 25 12.90 4.83 61.66 2.14 2.14 79.96
(Willoxam)
6. Untreated check - 12.93 12.60 - 10.68 10.68 -
PTC – Pre treatment count; DAT – Days after treatment; Mean of four replications

Figures in parentheses are x + 0.5 transformed values

In a column, means followed by a common letter(s) are not significantly different by DMRT (p=0.05)
Table 3. Effect of thiamethoxam 25% WG on jassids

I Spray II spray
Dose Percent Percent
S. No PTC
Treatments (g a.i ha-1) PTC Mean reduction Mean reduction
over control over control

1. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 15 7.23 3.91 66.23 2.25 2.25 81.67

2. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 25 7.00 3.07 73.48 1.81 1.81 85.26
3. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 50 8.20 2.90 74.95 1.67 1.67 86.40
4. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 75 7.13 2.17 81.26 0.93 0.93 92.42
Thiamethoxam 25 % WG
5. 25 7.50 3.34 71.15 1.98 1.98 83.87
(Willoxam)
6. Untreated check - 7.90 11.58 - 12.28 12.28 -

PTC – Pre treatment count; DAT – Days after treatment; Mean of four replications

Figures in parentheses are x + 0.5 transformed values

In a column, means followed by a common letter(s) are not significantly different by DMRT (p=0.05)

Table 4. Effect of thiamethoxam 25% WG on the yield of *Mean of four replications; In a column, means followed by
okra a common letter(s) are not significantly different by DMRT
Dose (P=0.05)
Trt. Yield*
Treatments (g a.i.
No (kg ha-1) REFERENCES:
ha-1)
Anitha, K.R. and Nandihalli, B.S. (2009) Bioefficacy of
1. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 15 5726.50c newer insecticides against leafhopper and aphid
2. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 25 7345.00b in okra. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural
Sciences, 22 (3): 714-715.
3. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 50 7690.50b
Anonymous. (2004) FAO Statistics. www.fao.org./2004/
4. Thiamethoxam 25 % WG 75 8100.50a
pdf/.
Thiamethoxam 25 % WG
5. 25 6915.00bc Anonymous. (2011) Indian Horticulture Database – 2011.
(Willoxam)
6. Untreated check - 4936.00d Bharpoda, T.M., Patel, N. B., Thumar, R.K., Bhatt, N.A.,
Ghetiya, L.V., Patel, H.C. and Borad, P.K. 2014.

345
 Evaluation of insecticides against sucking insect Mohanasundaram, A. and Sharma, R.K. (2011) Effect of
pests infesting Bt cotton BG- II. The Bioscan. 9 newer pesticide schedules on the population of
(3): 977-980. suckingpests and predators on okra. Pesticide
Research J., 23 (1): 55-63.
Chaudhary, H.R. and Dadeech (1989) Incidence of insect
attacking okra and the available losses caused Patil, S.R., Lande, G.K., Nikita S. Awasthi* and U.P.
by them. Ann. Arid Zone. 28 (3): 305-307. Barkhade. (2014) Effect of different doses of
newer insecticides against sucking pests of
Gavkare, O., Kumar, S., Sharma, N. and Sharma, P.L. (2013) okra. The BioScan, 9 (4): 1597-1600.
Evaluation of some novel insecticides against
Myzus persicae (Sulzer). The Bioscan. 8 (3): Sinha, S.R. and Sharma, R.K. (2007) Efficacy of
1119-1121. neonicotinoids against okra insect pests.
Pesticide Research J., 19 (1): 42-44.
Ghosal, A., Chatterjee, M.L. and Bhattacharyya, A. (2013)
Bioefficacy of neonicotinoids against Aphis Venkataravanappa, V., Krishnareddy, M.,
gossypii Glover of okra. J. Crop. and Weed, 9 Lakshinimarayanreddy, C.N. and Salil Jalali.
(2): 181-184. (2012) Managament of okra YVM disease
through neem product and insecticides. Annals
Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A. (1984) Statistical procedures of Plant Protection Science. 19 (2): 487-488.
for agricultural research, 2nd edition, A wiley
interscience publication, J. Wiley and Sons,
New York. pp. 302-307.
Krishnaiah, K. (1980) Methodology for assessing crop
losses due to pests of vegetable. Assessment of
crop losses due to pests and diseases. In Proc.
of Workshop held from Sept, 19-30, 1977 at
U.A.S., Bangalore. pp. 259-267.

346
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 347-350 (2015)

IN VITRO SCREENING OF FUNGICIDES AND ANTAGONISTS AGAINST LEAF BLIGHT

OF GLORIOSA SUPERBA INCITED BY CURVULARIA LUNATA
S.THANGESWARI1*, S. ARCHANA2, VANITHA3 AND S.K. MANORANJITHAM4
1
Assistant Professor, Coconut Research Station, Veppankulam – 614 906
2
Senior research fellow, 3Professor, 4Assisitant Professor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 3
*email: thangeshagri@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT
The in vitro screening of different fungicides and antagonists against Curvularia lunata causing leaf blight in Glorio-
sa superba showed that Mancozeb completely inhibited the conidial germination of Curvularia lunata at 300 ppm lev-
el. Mancozeb, Propiconazole 25 % EC, Difenoconazole 25 % EC at 0.2 % had completely inhibited the mycelial growth com-
pared to Carbendazim at 0.2 % recorded the highest mycelial growth (70%) and in control (80.5 %). Among the antagonists
Trichoderma viride (TV2) had maximum mycelial growth inhibition (72.22 per cent), PGPR isolates Pf1 of P. fluroscense and BS1
of B. subtilis exerted maximum mycelial inhibition of growth with 55.83 and 55.39 per cent inhibition over control respectively.

Keywords: Gloriosa superb, leaf blight, fungicides , biocontrol agents

INTRODUCTION
Glory lily is among some of the modern medicine’s
most important plants actually facing local extinction.
Gloriosa superba derives its name Gloriosa from the word
‘gloriosus’, which means handsome and superba from
the word ‘superb’ means splendid or majestic kind. This
plant has been a source of medicine right from the ancient
time. Gloriosa superba locally known as kalahari (Hindi),
kanvazhipoo, kanvazhikizhangu, kandhalmalar, karthigai
kizhangu (Tamil) is an export oriented medicinal plant. It is
cultivated in Tamil Nadu mainly in Erode and Salem district
in an area of 1000 ha. The annual production and export
of Gloriosa seeds from the state is around 400 tonnes with
a foreign exchange of Rs. 40 crores. Tamil Nadu leads in
production of Gloriosa and it is estimated that more than 400
ton of seeds are produced and exported.The plant has been
used in Indian system of medicine since time immemorial.
Though it is poisonous, it is used as anti periodic, tonic,
anthelmentic and also against snake bites and scorpion sting.
It is sometimes used for promoting labour pain and also as
abortifacient. It is considered useful in colic, chronic ulcers,
piles and gonorrhoea. The medicinal properties of the drug
are due to the presence of alkaloids, chiefly ‘colchicine’
(CH22O25N6) and ‘gloriosine’ (CH22O25N6). Colchicine is
used in the treatment of ‘Gout’, a common disorder in
temperate countries exploited but after knowing the fact that
the seeds have higher quantity of alkaloids, the crop is grown
now mainly for seeds which are in good demand. Because
of the various medicinal properties the demand is increasing
every year. The crop is now severely affected by leaf blight
caused by Curvularia lunata. The severiety of the infection
ranged from 20 to 65%.A leaf blight disease of this plant
was observed during June to September (temperature
31 ± 2ºC). Early symptoms appeared as small,
circular to oval, light brownish spots (25–38
mm), 2–6 per leaf, scattered at the tip, margin,
and midrib of the leaves. Subsequently, the spots
enlarged and usually developed into a concentric
ring. At an advanced stage, the spots became dark
brown to blackish in colour, gradually coalesced
and became irregular in shape, then the affected
leaf blighted completely. The present study reveals
that radial growth inhibition of biocontrol agents
and different fungicides against the growth and
sporulation of Curvularia lunata under laboratory
conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of pathogen
To isolate the fungus for in-vitro study, newly developed
diseased spots were collected from the leaf lamina and surface
sterilized in a 1% solution of sodium hypochloride or 0.1%
HgCl2 for four minutes. Single disease spots were excised
from leaves and plated on 10 pairs of petri dishes containing
Potato Dextrose Agar medium under aseptic conditions. The
inoculated dishes were incubated at room temperature (28
± 20C) for seven days to obtain good growth of the fungus.
The isolates of the pathogen were brought into pure culture
by single hyphal tip method (Rangaswamy, 1975) and the
axenic cultures were maintained on PDA slants for further
studies.
Laboratory assay of different fungicides against
Curvularia lunata
In order to compare the efficacy of different fungicides
for the control of leaf blight of Gloriosa, preliminary
screening of the fungicide was made. A drop of fungicide
solution (100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 ppm) was placed
individually in a cavity slide and allowed to air dry and then
add a drop of the spore suspension of Curvularia lunata and
incubated at 20ºC for six hours in moist petridishes under
darkness. The spore suspension in sterile water served
as control. The treatments replicated thrice. Observation
on the spore germination was recorded after six hours of
incubation by counting the total number of spore germinated

347
in the microscopic field. Three such microscopic fields were
observed and the mean per cent spore germination and
percent inhibition of spore germination were worked out
(CSFT, 1943).
Effect of fungicide on radial mycelial growth of
Curvularia lunata
The inhibitory effect of fungicides viz., Mancozeb,
Difenoconazole 25% EC, Score, Propiconazole 25%
EC, Captan 70% + Hexaconazole 5% WP, Captan and
Azoxystrobin 23% SC at different concentrations viz., 100,
150, 200, 250 and 300 ppm on the growth of fungi were
evaluated by poisoned food technique (Schmitz, 1930). Each
treatment was replicated three times with proper control. The
fungal growth was measured after seven days and per cent
inhibition was calculated.
Dc – Dt
PI= x 100
Dc
PI = Per cent inhibition
Dc = average diameter of fungal growth (cm) in control
Dt = average diameter of fungal growth (cm) in treatment
Efficacy of antagonists against Curvularia lunata
Five-mm-diameter mycelial disc of the pathogen was
placed at one end of the Petri plate with PDA and allowed
to grow up to 4 cm. The bacterial antagonist was streaked
then at the opposite end. Inoculation of the pathogen
without antagonist served as control and each treatment was
replicated three times. When the fungus attained full growth
in the control plate, growth of the pathogen was measured
and per cent reduction in growth over control was calculated.
Per cent inhibition (PI) of mycelial growth was calculated
Trichoderma viride was screened as described above
by placing 5-mm-mycelial disc of Trichoderma at the
opposite end of the pathogen. . Inoculation of the pathogen
without antagonist served as control and each treatment was
replicated three times. When the fungus attained full growth
in the control plate, growth of the pathogen and inhibition
zone were measured and per cent reduction in growth over
control was calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Efficacy of different fungicides against conidial germina-
tion of Curvularia lunata in vitro
The fungicides viz., Mancozeb, Difenoconazole
25% EC, Propiconazole 25% EC, Captan 70% +
Hexaconazole 5% WP, Captan and Azoxystrobin 23%
SC at different concentrations viz., 100, 150, 200, 250 and
300 ppm were tested against Curvularia lunata and the
results are presented in (Table 1). The data revealed that the
conidial germination of the pathogen was inhibited by all the
fungicides, with varied level of concentration and the extent
of inhibition increased with the increase in concentration of
fungicides. Among them, mancozeb, Difenoconazole 25%
EC inhibited the conidial germination of Curvularia lunata
with (85, 87, 90, 95, per cent), (84, 88, 90, 94, per cent) at
100, 150, 200, 250 ppm respectively. Mancozeb completely
inhibited the conidial germination of Curvularia lunata at
348
300 ppm level.
In vitro screening of different fungicides
Evaluation of seven different promising fungicides were
screened out by employing the poisoned food technique.
The data obtained on the effect of various fungicides
on the vegetative growth and sporulation of the test
fungus Curvularia lunata is presented in the Table 2. The
results showed that Mancozeb, Difenoconazole 25% EC,
Propiconazole 25% EC at 0.2 per cent completely inhibited
the mycelia growth of Curvularia lunata and found to be the
most effective while Carbendazim shows the least mycelial
growth (17.64 %). This result is in agreement with the
findings of Fajemisin and Okuyemi (1976) who reported that
Mancozeb completely inhibited the growth of Curvularia
pallescens isolates of maize. Gadage and Patil (1977) and
Thengne et al. (2008) also observed that Mancozeb was
most effective against Curvularia lunata in in vitro.
In vitro screening of bacterial and fungal
antagonists
Antagonistic activity of isolates of Pseudomonas
fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis isolates and Trichoderma viride
against Curvularia lunata was done by the dual culture
method (Vincent 1927). The interactions were monitored
by measuring the inhibition zone between the pathogen
and the antagonist and comparing with a control without
the antagonists. Dennis and Webster (1971) first described
the antagonistic properties of Trichoderma in terms of
antibiotic production which included both non-volatiles and
volatiles. Trichodermin, a sesquiterpene antibiotic produced
by Trichoderma spp. has been reported to be active against
fungi. They also produced the antibiotics named as gliotoxin
and viridin (Wright, 1956). In our study T. viride isolate
TV2 significantly exerted the maximum inhibition of 72.00 per
cent on the mycelial growth (25.00 mm) of the pathogen
as against 90.00 mm colony diameter in control (Table 3).
Lowest inhibition was recorded by isolate TV3 with mycelial
growth of 36.00 mm and 60.00 per cent inhibition over
control. Among the four isolates of P. fluorescens screened,
the isolate Pf1 had maxium inhibition to an extent of 55.83
per cent inhibition over control. It was followed by MDU1
and MDU2 with 51.44 per cent inhibition. Lowest per cent
inhibition over control was recorded by PY1with 46.82 per
cent (Table 4). The similar reports on inhibition of mycelial
growth of pathogenic fungi have been reported by several
workers. The lower mycelial pathogen growth may be due
to antibiotics produced by the biocontrol agents, as has been
reported by many workers (Ramamoorthy and Samiyappan,
2001; Viswanathan and Samiyappan, 2001). The inhibition of
mycelial growth may be due to the production of antibiotics
by the biocontrol agents. Production of antibiotics viz., HCN,
pyrrolnitrin, phenazine and 2, 4-diacetyl phloroglucinol and
lytic enzymes by P. fluorescens against fungal pathogens
were also reported (Ramamoorthy and Samiyappan, 2001;
Viswanathan and Samiyappan, 2001).Bacillus spp. is the
major potential unexploited biocontrol agent which has the
ability to produce antifungal metabolites and antibiotics. It
can be well exploited for the control of many plant pathogens.
Among the five isolates of B. subtilis tested for antagonism,
isolate BS1 exerted the maximum inhibition of 55.39 per cent
on the mycelial growth showing 40.00 mm colony diameter of
the pathogen as against 89.67 mm in the control (Table 5). This was followed by BS2 recording 66.00 mm of the mycelial growth
accounting for 26.40 per cent inhibition over control.
Table: 1. Efficacy of fungicides against conidial germination of Curvularia lunata

Concentration (ppm)

Treatments 100 150 200 250 300 Mean

Per cent inhibition of conidial germination* (after 6 h)

85.00 a 87.00 b 90.00 a 95.00 a 100.00 a

Mancozeb 91.39
(67.21) (68.86) (71.56) (75.25) (89.71)
84.00 b 88.00 a 90.00 a 94.00 b 100.00 a
Score (Difenoconazole 25% EC) 91.19
(66.42) (69.73) (71.56) (75.82) (89.71)
Taqat (Captan 70% + 62.00 e 64.00 e 66.00 d 67.00 e 75.00 c
66.80
Hexaconazole 5% WP) (51.94) (53.13) (54.33) (54.94) (55.55)

65.00 c 69.00 c 70.00 b 75.00 c 70.00 d

Azoxystrobin 23 SC 69.60
(53.73) (56.16) (56.79) (60.00) (62.02)
64.00 d 66.00 d 69.00 c 70.00 d 68.00 e
Captan 67.40
(53.13) (54.33) (56.16) (56.79) (60.00)
60.00 f 63.00 f 65.00 e 67.00 e 94.00 b
Tilt (Propiconazole 25% EC) 69.80
(50.77) (52.53) (53.73) (54.94) (56.16)
0.00 g 0.00 g 0.00 f 0.00 f 0.00 f
Control -
(0.50) (0.50) (0.50) (0.50) (0.50)

*Mean of three replications *Mean radial growth % Inhibition over

Sl.No. Antagonist
(mm) control
Values in parentheses are arcsine-transformed values
1. TV1 27.00 b 70.00
In a column, means followed by a common letter are not 2. TV2 25.00 a
72.22
significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT\
3. TV3 36.00 d 60.00
Table 2. Effect of various fungicides on growth of Curvular-
ia lunata. 4. TV4 32.30 c 64.10
Fungicides *Mean % 4. TV5 38.00 e 57.80
mycelial Inhibition 5. Control 90.00 -
Concen-tration
growth over control
(mm) *Mean of three replications
Mancozeb 0.2% 00.00 a
100.00
Carbendazim 0.2% 70.00 d
17.64 In a column, means followed by a common letter are not
significantly different at the 5% level by LSD
Score 00.00a 100.00
(Difenoconazole 25% 0.2% Table 4. Effect of P. fluorescens isolates on growth of Cur-
EC) vularia lunata
Tilt (Propiconazole 00.00a 100.00 *Mean radial % Inhibition over
0.2% Sl.No. Antagonist
25% EC) growth (mm) control
Captan 0.2% 10.30b 84.70
1. MDU1 42.00 b 51.44
Azoxystrobin 0.2% 20.10c 75.29
Taqat (Captan 70% 10.00b 88.23 2. Pf1 38.20 a 55.83
+ Hexaconazole 5% 0.2%
WP) 3. PY1 46.00 d 46.82
Control - 80.50 e
-
4. TPK1 43.50 bc 49.71
*Mean of three replication
4. MDU2 42.00 b
51.44
In a column, means followed by a common letter are not 5. Control 86.50 -
significantly different at the 5% level by LSD
Table 3. Effect of fungal antagonists against on growth of *Mean of three replications
Curvularia lunata In a column, means followed by a common letter are not

349
significantly different at the 5% level by LSD Prentice. Hall of India private limited, New
Delhi, p. 520.
Table 5. Effect of B. subtilis isolates on growth of
Schmitz, H. 1930. Food poisoned technique. Indust. Engine
Curvularia lunata Chem. Analyst. Edz., pp. 361-363.

*Mean radial growth % Inhibition over Thengne P.M., M. P. Diwakar, U. K. Sawant and J. J.
Sl.No. Antagonist Kadam. 2008. Varietal screening and efficacy
(mm) control
of fungicides against leaf spot of sweet potato
1. BS1 40.00 a 55.39
incited by Curvularia lunata. Journal of Plant
2. BS2 66.00 b
26.40 Disease Science, 3(2) : 246 – 248.
3. BS3 73.00 d 18.59 Vincent, J.H. 1927. Distortion of fungal hyphae in the
4. BS4 73.67 cd 17.84 presence of certain inhibitors. Nature, 17: 159-
850.
4. BS5 70.00 c 21.94
5. Control 86.50 - Dennis, C. and Webster, J. 1971. Antagonistic properties of
species groups of Trichoderma: Production of
non-volatile antibiotics. Transactions of British
*Mean of three replications
Mycological Society, 57: 25-39.
In a column, means followed by a common letter are not
significantly different at the 5% level by LSD Ramamoorthy, V. and Samiyappan, R. 2001. Induction
of defense-related genes in Pseudomonas
REFERENCES fluorescens treated chilli plants in response to
infection by Colletotrichum capsici. Journal
Fajemisin, J. M. and O. Okuyemi. 1976. Fungicidal Control Mycology and Plant Pathology. 31: 146-155.
of Curvularia leaf spot of maize, PANS 22 (2) Viswanathan, R and Samiyappan, R. 2001a. Role of chitinases
: 234-238. in Pseudomonas spp. induced systemic
Gadage, N.B. and B.P. Patil. 1977. Chemical control of resistance against Colletotrichum falcatum in
Curvularia leaf spot of cotton. Pesticides II sugarcane. Indian Phytopathology. 54: 418-
(11): 11-12. 423.

Rangaswamy, G. 1975. Diseases of crop plants in India.

350
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 351-354 (2015)

IN VITRO SCREENING OF FUNGICIDES AND BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST

FUSARIUM WILT (FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM F.SP. CUBENSE) AND SIGATOKA LEAF
SPOT (MYCOSPHAERELLA MUSICOLA) OF BANANA
S.THANGESWARI*, S.K. MANORANJITHAM**, N.S. KALAIVANAN**, R. MASANAM, R. INDUMATHI AND
S. KAVITHA
**Department of Plant Pathology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
*Assistant Professor, Coconut Research Station, Veppankulam
*
Corresponding Author: E-mail: thangeshagri@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT
The causal organism of Fusarium wilt and sigatoka diseases of banana was identified as Fusarium oxysporum fsp. cubense and Mycos-
phaerella musicola respectively based on colony morphology. Of the six antagonists tested, isolate Bs2 of B. subtilis was exerted maximum
mycelial growth of M. musicola and isolate Tv2 of T. viride was highly antagonistic to F. oxysporum fsp. cubense recording 58.43 and 61.80
per cent inhibition over control respectively. Three fungicides at three concentrations carbendazim (0.05%, 0.1% and 0.15%), Propicono-
zole (Tilt) and Difenoconozole (Score) (0.2%, 0.25% and 0.3%) were screened against F. oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola. Among
the three fungicides tested, carbendazim was found to be effective against the fungus F. oxysporum fsp. cubense at all concentrations. Three
fungicides at all three at all three concentrations inhibited the fungal radial growth of M. musicola completely under in vitro condition.

Keywords: Fusarium wilt, sigatoka leaf spot, antagonists, fungicides

INTRODUCTION
Banana (Musa spp.) is a major fruit crop belongs
to the family Musaceae and is native to tropical south
and Southeast Asia. Banana is the fourth most important
staple food crop in the world. Banana contain potassium,
magnesium, sodium,
phosphorous, calcium, iron, copper, iodine manganese,
zinc and cobalt (Ewusie, 1970). India occupied on
area of 856 ha with an annual production of 29287 million
tonnes in the world. Tamil Nadu ranks first in India with
regard to area and production of banana (130 ha and 6738
million tonnes) and third in its productivity (51.7 million
tonnes per ha) (www.nhb.gov.in).
sanitation methods. Chemical treatments like soil fumigation
and foliar spray treatments have been evaluated against
wilt and sigatoka diseases and have provided control in
certain instances (Erwin, 1973). Chemical control however
has economical and environmental implications and can
lead to the suppression of other beneficial microorganisms
(Erwin, 1973). Studies on biological control and soils that
are naturally suppressive to Fusarium wilt of banana due
to beneficial microorganisms have only recently started.
Many effective biological control agents can be found for
Fusarium wilt and sigatoka diseases, which makes biological
control a promising alternative for managing Fusarium wilt
and sigatoka leaf spot diseases of banana.

Diseases and pests are threatening the worldwide
production of banana (Stover, 1962). Fungi, bacteria, virus
and nematodes affect different parts of the plant, causing
sustainable yield losses. Panama disease (Fusarium wilt)
caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense, has been
responsible for considerable economic losses and affects
many important cultivars of banana (Jeger et al., 1995).
Sigatoka leaf spot caused by Mycosphaerella musicola is
considered an important disease problem of banana due to
its destructiveness and wide distribution. Bacterial diseases
such as moko wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum,
Rhizome rot caused by Erwinia carotovora pv. Carotovora
are also very damaging in many parts of the world. Among the
viral diseases, banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) and of the
nematode Radopholus similis (Cobb) are considered the most
destructive. Fusarium wilt and sigatoka leaf spot diseases
are known to be destructive to many economically important
agricultural crops planted around the world (Armstrong and
Armstrong, 1981). Management of both diseases depends
on the integration of different control strategies, since
no single method is fully effective on its own. Preventing
measures include restricting the introduction of disease,
early detection of the disease and effective quarantine and
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of pathogens
The pathogens causing panama wilt and sigatoka
leaf spot in banana were isolated from the collected samples
by tissue segment method on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and
they were purified by single spore isolation and maintained
on PDA. The causal organisms were identified based on
colony characters.
Isolation of biocontrol agents
The biocontrol agents were isolated from rhizosphere
soil by serial dilution (Pramer and Schmidt, 1956), using KB
medium for fluorescent pseudomonads, NA for Bacillus spp
and Trichoderma selective medium for Trichoderma spp.
Screening of biocontrol agents in vitro
The antagonistic effect of the biocontrol agents viz., two
isolates of fluroescent pseudomonads, two isolates of Bacillus
spp., two isolates of Trichoderma viride were tested by dual
culture (Dennis and Webster, 1971) on PDA.

351
Screening of bacterial biocontrol agents against F.
oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola
Five-mm-diameter mycelial disc of the pathogen was
placed at one end of the Petri plate with PDA and allowed
to grow up to 4 cm. The bacterial antagonist was streaked
then at the opposite end. Inoculation of the pathogen
without antagonist served as control and each treatment was
replicated three times. When the fungus attained full growth
in the control plate, growth of the pathogen was measured
and per cent reduction in growth over control was calculated.
Per cent inhibition (PI) of mycelial growth was calculated
using the formula suggested by Pandey et al. (2000).
Per cent Inhibition over Dc – Dt
x 100
control (PI) = Dc
Dc = average diameter of fungal growth (cm) in control
Dt = average diameter of fungal growth (cm) in treatment
Screening of Trichoderma spp. against F.
oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola
Trichoderma viride was screened as described
above by placing 5-mm-mycelial disc of Trichoderma at the
opposite end of the pathogen. . Inoculation of the pathogen
without antagonist served as control and each treatment was
replicated three times. When the fungus attained full growth
in the control plate, growth of the pathogen and inhibition
zone were measured and per cent reduction in growth over
control was calculated.
Screening of fungicides in vitro against F.
oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola
The inhibitory effect of three fungicides each at
three concentrations viz., carbendazim (0.05%, 0.1% and
0.15%), Propiconozole (Tilt) and Difenoconozole (Score)
(0.2%, 0.25% and 0.3%) on the growth of fungi were
evaluated by poisoned food technique (Schmitz, 1930). Each
treatment was replicated three times with proper control. The
fungal growth was measured after seven days and per cent
inhibition was calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Inhibitory effect of antagonists on the growth of F.
oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola
The antagonistic effect of biocontrol agents was
estimated by dual culture method. The inhibition of mycelia
growth may be due to the production of antibiotics, volatile
and non-volatile metabolites by the biocontrol agents.
Production of antibiotics viz., Hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
pyrrolnitrin, phenazine, 2, 4-dicetyl pholoroglucinol and
lytic enzymes by P. fluorescens, trichodermin, gliotoxin
and viridin by T. viride, iturin and surfactin by B. subtilis
against fungal pathogens were also reported. Antagonistic
potential of six isolates of antagonists tested against F.
oxysporum fsp. cubense revealed that the T. viride isolate
Tv2 was highly effective inhibiting the growth of the
pathogen by 61.80 per cent over control. Next to the isolate,
Tv1 and Bs2 were inhibitory to the pathogen reducing its
growth by 58.43 and 51.69 per cent respectively (Table
352
1). Screening of six antagonists revealed that the isolate
Bs2 was highly antagonistic to M. musicola recording
58.43 per cent inhibition followed by Bs1 with 53.93 per
cent inhibition (Table 2). The above facts suggest from
the present study, the maximum inhibition of the mycelial
growth of F. oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola by
Tv2 and Bs2 respectively may be due to the production of
antibiotics and metabolites. The similar reports on inhibition
of mycelia growth of pathogenic fungi have been reported
by several workers. Raguchander et al. (1997) found that T.
viride effectively inhibition the growth of F. oxysporum f.
sp. cubense and reduced the wilt incidence in field condition.
Sivamani and Gnanamanickam (1998) reported that the
seedling of Musa balbisiana treated with P. fluorescens
showed less severe wilting and internal discolouration due
to F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense infection in green house
experiment and the bacterized seedling also showed better
root growth and enhanced plant height. Among the 11
isolates of P. fluorescens screened, isolate Pf10 was the most
effective in inhibiting the mycelial growth of F. oxysporum
f. sp. Cubense (Thangavelu et al., 2001).
Screening of fungicides in vitro against the growth
of F. oxysporum fsp. cubense and M. musicola
Evaluation of three different promising fungicides was
screened out by employing the poisoned food technique. In the
present study, among the three fungicides evaluated against
F. oxysporum fsp. cubense, three at their recommended
dose viz., carbendazim, propiconazole and difenoconazole,
carbendazim was found to be effective against the fungus
at all concentrations. With increase in concentration, the
efficacy of all the fungicides was increased. The inhibition
at 0.10 per cent of carbendazim was 82.02 per cent while
the same at 0.15 per cent was 86.52 followed by tilt with
78.65 and 77.53 per cent inhibition over control at 0.30
and 0.25 per cent respectively (Table 3). Some measures of
success against Fusarium wilt diseases has been achieved
with fungicides belonging to the benzimidazole group viz.,
benomyl, carbendazim, thiabendazole and thiophanate.
Carbendazim, thiophonate and triophanatemethyl have been
used to control Fusarium wilt of cucurbits (Li and Liu, 1990).
Carbendazim was observed to reduce the mycelial growth of
F. oxysporum f.sp. ciceri to the maximum in vitro (Gupta
et al., 1997; Subhani et al., 2011). In our study, among the
three fungicides screened against M. musicola, all the three
fungicides inhibited the fungal growth completely. These
three fungicides were effective at all three concentrations
tested. (Table 4).
Table 1. Effect of antagonists on the growth of Fusarium
oxysporum fsp. cubense
Per cent
S. Mycelial Growth inhibition over
Antagonists
No. (cm) control
(%)
Trichoderma viride
1 3.70 58.43
(Tv1)
Trichoderma viride
2 3.40 61.80
(Tv2)
 Pseudomonas 3 Score 0.20 3.50
3 7.10 20.22 60.67
fluorescens (Pf1) 0.25 3.40
61.80
Pseudomonas 0.30 3.10
4 6.60 25.84 65.17
fluorescens (Pf2)
4 Control - 8.90 -
5 Bacillus subtilis (Bs1) 5.70 35.96
Table 4. Effect of Fungicides on the growth of Mycosphaer-
6 Bacillus subtilis (Bs2) 4.30 51.69 ella musicola by poisoned food technique

7 Control 8.90 - Per cent

Fung- Concen- Mycelial
inhibition
S.No icides tration Growth (cm)
over control
Table 2. Effect of antagonists on the growth of (%)
(%)
Mycosphaerella musicola
0.05 0.00 100.00
Mycelial
Carben-
Growth (cm) 1 0.10 0.00 100.00
dazim
Per cent 0.15 0.00 100.00
S. Antagonists inhibition
No. over control 0.20 0.00 100.00
(%)
2 Tilt 0.25 0.00 100.00
0.30 0.00 100.00
Trichoderma viride
1 5.30 40.45
(Tv1) 0.20 0.00 100.00

Trichoderma viride 3 Score 0.25 0.00 100.00

2 5.70 35.96
(Tv2)
0.30 0.00 100.00
Pseudomonas 4 Control - 8.90 -
3 6.70 24.72
fluorescens (Pf1)
REFERENCES
Pseudomonas
4 7.00 21.35 Armstrong, G.M. and Armstrong, J.K. 1981. Formae
fluorescens (Pf2)
speciales and races of Fusarium oxysporum
5 Bacillus subtilis (Bs1) 4.10 53.93 causing wilt diseases. In: Nelson, P.E.,
Toussoun, T.A. and Cook, R.J. (Eds), Fusarium:
6 Bacillus subtilis (Bs2) 3.70 58.43
Disease, Biology and Taxonomy. Pennsyvania
State University Press, University Park, USA,
pp.391-399.
7 Control 8.90 -
Dennis, C. and Webster, J. 1971. Antagonistic properties of
species groups of Trichoderma I. Production of
Table 3. Effect of Fungicides on the growth of Fusarium non-volatile antibiotics. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc.,
oxysporum fsp. cubense by poisoned food technique 57: 25 – 39.
S.No Fungicides Concen- Mycelial Per cent
tration Growth inhibition Erwin, D.C. 1973. Systemic fungicides: Disease control,
(%) (cm) over control translocation, and mode of action. Ann. Rev.
(%) Phytopathol., 11: 389-422.
1 Carbe-ndazim 0.05 1.40 Gupta, S.K., Upadhyay, J.P. and Ojha, K.H. 1997. Effect of
84.27 fungicidal seed treatment on the incidence of
0.10 1.60 82.02 chickpea wilt complex. Ann. Pl. Prot. Sci., 5:
0.15 1.20 184-187.
86.52
2 Tilt 0.20 2.40 Jeger, M.J., Eden-Green, S., Thresh, J.M., Johanson, A.,
73.03 Waller, J.M. and Brown, A.E. 1995. Banan
0.25 2.00 diseases. In: Gowen, S. (Ed.), Bananas and
77.53
0.30 1.90
Plantains. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 337-
78.65 397.
Li, Z. and Liu, C. 1990. A new fungicide – HDE and its
application in controlling wilt diseases of
cucurbits. Pesticide Science, 28: 413-418.

353
Pandey, K.K., Pandey, P.K. and Padhyay, J.P. 2000. Selection
of potential isolate of biocontrol agents based
on biomass production, growth rate and
antagonistic capability. Veg. Sci., 27: 194- 196.
Pramer, D. and Schmidt, E.L. 1956. Experimental soil
Microbiology, Buffer Publ. Co., Minneapolis,
USA, 107pp.
Raguchander, T., Jayashree, K. and Samiyappan,
R. 1997. Management of fusarium
wilt of banana using antagonistic
micro-organisms. J. Biol. Control, 11:
101-105.
Sivamani, E. and Gnanamanickam, S.S. 1998. Biological
control of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense
in banana by inoculation with Pseudomonas
fluorescens. Plant Soil, 107: 3-9.
Stover, R.H. 1962. Fusarial wilt (Panama diseases) of bananas
and other Musa species. Commonwealth
Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, UK, 117p.
Subhani, M.N., Sahi, S.T., Hussain, S., Ali, A., Iqbal, J.
and Hameed, K. 2011. Evaluation of various
fungicides for the control of gram wilt caused
by Fusarium oxysporum fsp. ciceri. Afr. J. Agrl.
Res., 6(19): 4555-4559.
Thangavelu, R., Palaniswam, A., Ramakrishman, G.,
Sabitha Doraiswamy, Muthukrishnan, S. and
Velazhahan, R. 2001. Involvement of fusaric
acid detoxification of Pseudomonas fluorescens
strain Pf10 in the biological control of Fusarium
wilt of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum
f.sp.cubense. J.Plant Dis.Prot., 108: 433-445

354
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 355-356 (2015)

GENOTYPIC RESPONSE FOR ZINC DEFICIENCY UNDER AEROBIC RICE

ECOSYSTEM
J. VANITHA1, K. AMUDHA2, R. USHA KUMARI1, S. ROBIN2 AND S. THIYAGESHWARI1
1
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai.
2
Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

ABSTRACT
To study association analysis and zinc efficiency among sixty rice genotypes, green house pot experiment was conducted at Pad-
dy Breeding Station, TNAU, Coimbatore during 2014. A Zn deficient clay soil was used in our screening. Treatments include
two Zn levels, -Zn (no Zn applied) and +Zn (12.5 mg Zn/ kg of soil) for 10 characters. Association studies revealed that, zinc effi-
ciency of shoot and root had significant and positive correlation with zinc score(scale), shoot length(cm), root length(cm), shoot
zinc content(ppm), root zinc content(ppm), shoot fresh weight(g), shoot dry weight(g), root fresh weight(g), root dry weight(g),
root surface area (cm2plant-1), zinc translocation and zinc efficiency of root. Therefore, selection for any one of the above char-
acters would bring in simultaneous improvement of zinc efficiency of shoot and root and ultimately improving the grain yield.

Keywords: Aerobic, zinc deficiency tolerance, rice, correlation and zinc efficiency.

INTRODUCTION
Zinc (Zn) deficiency is one of the important abiotic
factors limiting rice productivity worldwide and also a
widespread nutritional disorder affecting human health. Given
that rice is a staple for populations in many countries, studies
of Zn dynamics and management in rice soils is of great
importance. Changing climate is forcing the growers to switch
from conventional rice transplanting in flooded soils to water-
saving cultivation, including aerobic rice culture and alternate
wetting and drying system. As soil properties are changed with
altered soil and water management, which is likely to affect Zn
solubility and plant availability and should be considered before
Zn management in rice. In this study, we critically appraise the
role of Zn in plant biology and its dynamics in soil and rice
production systems. Strategies and options to improve Zn uptake
and partitioning efficiency in rice by using agronomic, breeding
and biotechnological tools are also discussed (Rehman et al.,
2012). The term ZE is defined as the capacity of a genotype
to grow well under -Zn deficient conditions and ZE is usually
expressed as the ratio of shoot dry weight under Zn deficiency
over that under adequate Zn supply (Graham et al., 1992). So
far, however, breeding efforts has mainly focussed on the yield
of aerobic genotypes and improvement of zinc efficiency needs
attention. Hence, it is relevant to investigate whether there is
association among ZE among rice genotypes for utilizing it in
crop improvement programme.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted in Paddy
Breeding Station, TNAU, Coimbatore to determine ZE for
different rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes. Treatments include
2 Zn levels and 60 rice genotypes. Zn levels were -Zn (no Zn
applied) and +Zn (12.5 mg Zn kg-1 of soil). Zn was applied
together with the other nutrients as a solution of ZnSO47H2O,
and was equivalent to 25 kg Zn ha-1. A Zn-deficient soil
(0.74ppm) was collected from Wetland, TNAU, Coimbatore.
The treatments were combined in a factorial randomized
block design (FRBD) with 2 replicates. Twenty seeds of one
genotype were sown per plastic pot containing 2 kg soil. At
sowing time, each pot received a basal application of 110 mg
N as CH4N2O, 390 mg P as KH2PO4 and 52.5 mg K as KCl.
Deionized water was added in amounts sufficient to bring the
soil water content to 80% of field capacity. After emergence,
the plants were thinned to 12 seedlings per pot. The pots were
watered daily with deionized water to 80% of field capacity.
Plants were harvested 28 days after germination, because Zn
deficiency problems are usually most severe in the first 2–4
weeks of growth (Doberman and Fairhurst, 2000). Shoots were
cut off at ground level and soil was washed from the roots with
tap water. Digital root images were made with a scanner (HP
LaserJet). The resulting grayscale images were analyzed with
imageJ root analysis software. All root images were analyzed
for root length and surface area. Shoots and roots were rinsed in
deionized water, oven dried at 70°C for 48 h, and weighed. ZE
was calculated as the ratio of shoot (root) dry weight under Zn
deficiency over that under adequate Zn supply. Dried plant and
seed samples were digested in acid mixture (HNO3+ H2SO4+
HClO4) for Zn analysis (Hessey, 1971). Zn in plant digests
was analyzed with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Data were recorded on 10 agronomic characters viz., zinc
score(scale), shoot length(cm), root length(cm), shoot zinc
content(ppm), root zinc content(ppm), shoot fresh weight(g),
shoot dry weight(g), root fresh weight(g), root dry weight(g) and
root surface area (cm2plant-1). Zn translocation was calculated
as the ratio of Zn concentration to the total plant weight of a
shoot Zn concentration and expressed as percentage
Zn translocation = (Zn in shoot) / (Zn in plant) ×100
[Zinc Efficiency = (Dry weight at low Zn level/
Experimental mean dry weight at low Zn)/(Dry weight at high
Zn level/Experimental mean dry weight at high Zn)] (Graham,
1984; Fageria, 2001).The data collected for aforesaid plant traits
were statistically analyzed for simple correlation utilizing the
formula suggested by Aljibouri et al. (1985).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the integrated structure of plant, correlation analysis
measures the influences of one variable upon another.
Knowledge on association among components of economically
important traits can help in providing the information for efficient
selection. Simple correlation coefficients among the Zinc

355
efficiency of shoot and other characters are presented in Table
1. Zinc efficiency of shoot and root had significant and positive
correlation with all the characters except for shoot root dry
weight ratio. Similar results were reported by Gao et al., 2005.
In this study shoot length showed positive correlation with root
length, shoot zinc content, root zinc content, shoot fresh weight,
shoot dry weight, root fresh weight, root dry weight and root
surface area. Root length is positively correlated with shoot
zinc content, root zinc content, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry
weight, root fresh weight, root dry weight, root surface area,
zinc translocation and findings was supported by Toorchi et
al. (2002) who reported the positive correlation between root
length, root dry weight, root number and root volume. Wissuwa
et al., (2006) reported that shoot zinc content showed significant
correlation with root zinc content. It is confirmed in this study
with the result of strong correlation of shoot zinc content with
root zinc content, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root
fresh weight, root dry weight and root surface area and zinc
translocation. Root zinc content is highly significant with
shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root fresh weight, root
dry weight and root surface area.Shoot/root dry weight is the
most sensitive parameter in evaluation of genotypes for their
susceptibility to zinc deficiency. Sudha et al., (2007). Shoot
fresh weight had positive correlation with shoot dry weight,
root fresh weight, root dry weight and root surface area and zinc
translocation. Shoot dry weight had positive correlation with
root fresh weight, root dry weight and root surface area and zinc
translocation. Root fresh weight had positive correlation with
root dry weight and root surface area and zinc translocation.
Root dry weight had positive and significant correlation with
root surface area, zinc translocation and negatively correlated
with shoot/root dry weight ratio. Root surface area had
positive significant with shoot/root dry weight ratio and zinc
translocation. Similar results were reported by Toorchi et al.,
(2002) and Gao et al., (2005).

Table 1. Simple correlation coefficients among different traits and zinc deficiency
Root Shoot Zinc Root Zinc Shoot Root Shoot/
Shoot dry Root fresh Root dry Zn translo- ZE of ZE of
  length content content fresh surface root dry
weight(g) weight(g) weight(g) cation root shoot
(cm) (ppm) (ppm) weight(g) area(cm2) weight
Shoot length(cm) 0.61** 0.54** 0.64** 0.50** 0.66** 0.59** 0.58** 0.75** 0.17 0.10 0.59** 0.62**
Root length(cm)   0.68** 0.57** 0.64** 0.70** 0.76** 0.64** 0.71** 0.14 0.37** 0.61** 0.55**
Shoot Zinc
    0.76** 0.54** 0.61** 0.65** 0.56** 0.71** 0.12 0.67** 0.63** 0.70**
content(ppm)
Root Zinc
      0.49** 0.56** 0.53** 0.50** 0.70** 0.09 0.04 0.60** 0.70**
content(ppm)
Shoot fresh weight(g)         0.56** 0.63** 0.46** 0.58** 0.16 0.28** 0.54** 0.49**
Shoot dry weight(g)           0.83** 0.63** 0.81** 0.48** 0.27** 0.51** 0.52**
Root fresh weight(g)             0.72** 0.78** 0.18 0.37** 0.52** 0.45**
Root dry weight(g)               0.68** -0.35** 0.32** 0.41** 0.37**
Root surface
                0.20* 0.27** 0.59** 0.61**
area(cm2)
Shoot/root dry weight                   0.01 0.10 0.16
Zn translocation                     0.27** 0.28**
ZE of root                       0.79**

REFERENCES Lauchli A. pp. 57–102. New York: Praeger Scientific.

Aljibouri H A, Miller P A and Robinson H P. l985. Genotypic and
environmental variances and covariances in upland
cotton cross of interspecific origin. Agron. J., 50: 633-
36.
Dobermann A and Fairhurst T. 2000. Rice: Nutrient Disorders and
Nutrient Management. International Rice Research
Institute, Manila, Philippines.
Fageria N K. 2001. Screening method of lowland rice genotypes for
zinc uptake efficiency. Sci. Agric. 58, 623–626.
Gao X P, Zou C Q, Zhang F S, Sjoerd E A T M and Hoffland E.
2005. Tolerance to zinc deficiency in rice correlates with
zinc uptake and translocation. Plant Soil. 278:253–261
Graham R D, Ascher J S and Hynes S C. 1992. Selecting zincefficient
cereal genotypes for soils of low zinc status. Plant Soil
146: 241–250.
Graham R D. 1984. Breeding for nutritional characteristics in
cereals. In Advances in Plant Nutrition. Ed. Tinker P B;
Hesse P R. A Text Book of Soil Chemical Analysis, John Murry
Publ.. , 1971: London.
Rehman H T, Muhammad A F, Abdul W, Renge Z. 2012. Zinc
nutrition in rice production systems: a review. 10: 9-12.
Sudhalakshmi C, Krishnasamy R and Rajarajan A. 2007. Influence
of Zinc Deficiency on Shoot /Root Dry Weight Ratio of
Rice Genotypes. Research Journal of Agriculture and
Biological Sciences, 3(4):295-298.
Toorchi M. Shashidhar H E, Sharma N and Hittalmani S. 2002.
Tagging QTLs for maximum root length in rainfed
lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) using molecular markers.
Cell Mol. Biol. Lett., 7: 771–776.
Wissuwa M, Abdelbagi M, Ismail and Yanagihara S. 2006. Effects
of Zinc Deficiency on Rice Growth and Genetic Factors
Contributing to Tolerance. Plant Physiology, 142: 731–
741.

356
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): page number 357-360 (2015)

BIOEFFICACY OF PSEUDOMONAS FLUORESCENS AND BACILLUS SPP. ON

ROOT KNOT NEMATODE MELOIDOGYNE INCOGNITA IN BRINJAL (SOLANUM
MELONGENA L.)
V. VIGILA AND K. DEVRAJAN
Department of Nematology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore – 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail: agrijill@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:
A pot experiment was conducted to study the bioefficacy of biocontrol agents viz., Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Ba-
cillus pumilus against root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on brinjal. Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pfbv22) was the most effective
treatment on both root population (5 g roots) and soil population of nematode which achieved 66.52 and 70.45 per cent reduction,
respectively. It also reduced the root galls, egg masses on root system, number of juveniles in soil and remarkably increased the plant
growth characters. This was followed by Bacillus subtilis (Bbv57), which exhibited 65.31 and 68.91
per cent of reduced root, soil nematode population, respectively over control.

Keywords: Bacillus subtilis, B. pumilus, brinjal, root knot nematode, Pseudomonas fluorescens
INTRODUCTION

Eggplant or brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is one of
the important solanaceous vegetable crops grown in almost
every part of the country. Plant parasitic nematodes are
capable of producing recognizable disease symptoms on
susceptible hosts. They affect the production and economy
of crops in diverse ways such as reduction in quality and
quantity. Root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita is an
important nematode parasite of brinjal which reduces the
yield and quality of the fruit drastically. Available yield
losses due to root knot nematodes in brinjal are 26.2 to 50 per
cent (Anonymous, 1987). To manage this nematode various
management practices i.e. chemical, physical and cultural
methods are used in the country, but they are not economical for
farmers. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are
eco-friendly and economically feasible and can benefit plant
growth by different mechanisms (Bashan and de-Bashan,
2005). In recent year, PGPR, are reported to be effective
in managing M. incognita infestation in many crops viz.,
banana (Jonathan et al., 2006) and brinjal (Liza barua and
Bora, 2008). Therefore, the present investigation was carried
out to manage the root knot nematode infestation using the
effective isolate of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pure culture of Meloidogyne incognita
M.incognita isolated from infested brinjal fields in
Kallukadai near Madhampatti, Coimbatore district, Tamil
Nadu was used for the study. Pure culture was maintained
on brinjal cv. Co2 in earthen pots containing steam sterilized
pot mixture (1:1:1 red earth, sand and FYM). The egg
masses and juveniles required for the experiment were
collected from the roots by carefully uprooting the plants.
The egg masses were then handpicked under a stereozoom
microscope and allowed to hatch in tap water. The hatched
second stage juveniles were used for inoculation in the
following experiment.
Source of nematode bacterial antagonistic
strainsThe following bacterial isolates maintained at the
Department of Plant Pathology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore were used for this study,
1. Bacillus subtilis (Bbv 57)
2. Bacillus pumilus (Eppf 238)
3. Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pfbv 22)
4. Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf128)
Preparation of bacterial inoculums
The Pseudomonas and Bacillus strains were grown
in King’s B broth and Nutrient broth respectively with
constant shaking at 150 rpm for 48 h at room temperature
(28± 2º C). The bacterial cells were harvested and centrifuged
at 6000 rpm for 15 min and the cells were resuspended
in phosphate buffer (0.01 M, pH 7.0). The concentration
was adjusted using a spectrophotometer to approximately
108 cfu/ml (OD595=0.3) and used as bacterial inoculum
(Tompson, 1996). These strains were kept at -80º C in 44
per cent glycerol and the cells from stock were first grown
in KB broth and Nutrient broth. Inoculum was prepared
by transferring one loopful from each culture to 100 ml
KB broth and Nutrient broth in a 250 ml conical flask and
incubated at room temperature (28±1º C) on a shaker at150
rpm for 48 h. These isolates were sub cultured once in a
month.
Preparation of talc based formulation of
Pseudomonas and Bacillus isolates
A loopful of Pseudomonas and Bacillus isolates were
inoculated into KB broth and Nutrient broth separately and
incubated in a rotary shaker at 150 rpm for 48 h at room
temperature (28±2ºC). The broth containing 9x108cfu/ml was
used for the preparation of talc based formulations. To 400
ml of bacterial suspension, one kg of the purified talc power
(sterilized at 105ºC for 12 h), 15 g of calcium carbonate (to
adjust the pH to neutral) and 10 g of carboxy methyl cellulose
(CMC) as an adhesive were mixed under aseptic conditions
following the method described by Vidhyasekaran and

357
Muthumilan (1999). The product was shade dried to reduce
the moisture content to less than 20 per cent and then packed
in polypropylene bags and sealed. At the time of application,
the population of bacteria in talc formulation was assessed as
2.5 – 3x108cfu/g.
Evaluation of Pseudomonas and Bacillus isolates
against M. incognita under glasshouse condition
The evaluation of different formulations of bacteria
against M. incognita was carried out under pot culture
conditions in brinjal as seed treatment (talc treated seeds) and
combined application (talc treated seeds+ soil application
of talc formulations). Brinjal seeds (cv. Co2) were sown
in pots and maintained for 25 days. Later seedlings were
transplanted in pots containing sterilized pot mixture.
Brinjal plant was inoculated @ one J2/g of soil 15 DAT. The
experiment was conducted under glasshouse conditions in a
Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with the following
treatments which were replicated three times.
Treatment details - (Combinations-Seed treatment
+ Soil application)
T1-Bacillus subtilis Bbv57- ST (talc) @ 10 g/ kg of seeds
T2-Bacillus subtilis Bbv57- ST (talc) + SA of talc @ 2.5 kg
/ ha
T3-Bacillus pumilus Eppf238– ST (talc) @ 10 g/ kg of seeds
T4-Bacillus pumilus Eppf238– ST (talc) + SA of talc @ 2.5
kg / ha
T5- Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf bv22- ST (talc) @ 10 g/ kg
of seeds
T6- Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf bv22 – ST (talc) + SA of
talc @ 2.5 kg / ha
T7- Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf128 – ST (talc) @ 10 g/ kg
of seeds
T8- Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf128 – ST (talc) + SA of talc
@ 2.5 kg / ha (Bakker et al., 2003). Isolates of P. fluorescens and B. subtilis
T9- Control
OBSERVATIONS
Plant growth parameters
Plant growth parameters viz., shoot length, root
length, shoot weight and root weight were recorded.
Assessment of nematode population
Soil
Soil samples collected in pot was mixed thoroughly
and a composite soil sample of 250 cm3 was used for
estimating the nematode population. The soil was processed
using Cobb’s sieving and decanting method (Cobb, 1918)
followed by Modified Baermann’s technique (Schindler,
1961). Nematode population was estimated from 1 ml
aliquot in a stereoscopic binocular microscope.
Root
About 5g root samples were collected and washed
free of soil. It was stained with acid fuchsin-lactophenol
358
solution for examining the endoparasitic female and
egg mass. Nematode population was estimated under
stereoscopic binocular microscope.
Gall index
The gall indices were graded with 0 to 5 scales
rating (Taylor and Sasser, 1978) as detailed below.
Gall
No. of galls Reaction
index
0 No galls Highly resistant
1 1 to 2 galls Resistant
Tolerant/ Moderately
2 3 to 10 galls
resistant
3 11 to 30 galls Susceptible
4 31 to 100 galls Moderately Susceptible
5 100 galls and above Highly Susceptible
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Evaluation of bacterial formulations as seed treatment
and combined application (seed treatment + soil application)
on plant growth parameters and nematode population of
brinjal under pot culture condition.
The evaluation of bacterial formulations revealed that
higher shoot length (49.33 cm), root length (21.00 cm), shoot
weight (18.47 g) and root weight (4.25 g) were recorded in
combined application of talc treated seeds + soil application
of talc formulations of P. fluorescens (Pfbv22) which was
followed by B. subtilis (Bbv57) (Table1). Krishnaveni
(2005) reported that the application of P. fluorescens (Pfb
34) significantly increased plant growth parameters viz.,
plant height, pseudostem girth, number of leaves and total
leaf area in banana. The mechanism involved in the PGPR
mediated plant growth promotion are directly related to
the production of plant growth regulators auxin, gibberllin
and cytokinin or indirectly by stimulating nutrient uptake
were reported to induce profuse root development in banana,
tomato and betelvine and reduce the infestation of M. incognita
(Jonathan et al., 2000, 2004). The lowest root nematode
population (31.00/5 g root) was observed in Pfbv22
talc treated seeds + soil application of talc formulations
followed by Bbv57 (32.12/5 g root). The highest soil
nematode population (169.22/250 cc soil) was observed
in the control (Table 2). The present investigations also
revealed that the combined application (seed treatment
+ soil application) of bacterial formulations viz., Pfbv22,
Bbv22 significantly reduced number of adult females,
eggmasses, gall index, root and soil nematode population
of M. incognita in brinjal. This might be due to the
production of toxic metabolites like antibiotics and cyanide
(Voisard et al., 1989). Soil application of P. fluorescens
significantly increased the seedling growth and reduced the
infestation of M. incognita on tomato and brinjal (Anita and
Rajendran, 2002).
Table 1. Evaluation of bacterial formulations as seed treatment and combined application (seed treatment + soil applica-
tion) on growth of brinjal infested by M. incognita under pot culture condition
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Shoot Root Shoot Root
increase increase increase increase
S.No Treatments length length weight weight
over over over over
(cm) (cm) (g) (g)
control control control control
1. T1-Bbv 57 (ST) 28.64 29.74 12.49 33.30 11.32 33.21 1.83 55.19
2. T2-Bbv57(ST+SA) 47.46 57.60 20.53 59.42 18.00 58.00 4.00 79.50
3. T3-Eppf 238 (ST) 27.15 25.89 11.75 29.10 10.43 27.25 1.33 38.34
4. T4-Eppf238(ST+SA) 36.23 44.46 16.76 50.29 14.56 48.07 2.16 62.03
5. T5-Pfbv 22 (ST) 29.25 31.21 13.35 37.60 11.83 36.09 1.96 58.16
6. T6-Pfbv22(ST+SA) 49.33 59.21 21.00 60.33 18.47 59.06 4.25 80.70
7. T7-Pf 128 (ST) 29.32 31.37 12.42 32.93 10.82 30.12 1.66 50.60
8. T8-Pf 128 (ST+SA) 38.00 47.05 17.11 51.31 15.00 49.60 2.46 66.66
9. T9-Control 20.12 - 8.33 - 7.56 - 0.82 -
SEd 3.18 1.40 1.23 0.21
CD 6.74 2.90 2.61 0.45

Values are mean of three replications

Table 2. Evaluation of bacterial formulations as seed treatment and combined application (seed treatment + soil pplica-
tion) on M. incognita in brinjal under pot culture condition
No.
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
No. of of egg Root Root Soil
decrease decrease decrease decrease
S.No Treatments females mass knot population population
over over over over
(5g root) (5g index (5g root) (250cc soil)
control control control control
root)

1. T1-Bbv 57 (ST) 36.00 50.07 23.12 56.37 2.00 58.33 37.01 77.31 54.31

2. T2-Bbv57(ST+SA) 22.00 69.49 10.12 80.90 1.22 32.12 65.31 52.61 68.91

3. T3-Eppf 238 (ST) 41.32 42.69 27.62 47.88 2.00 17.25 81.37 85.67 49.37

4. T4-Eppf238(ST+SA) 34.00 52.84 17.94 66.15 1.97 46.12 50.19 72.30 57.27

5. T5-Pfbv 22 (ST) 34.57 52.05 22.67 57.22 2.00 57.00 38.45 76.67 54.69

6. T6-Pfbv22(ST+SA) 21.21 70.58 10.33 80.50 1.33 31.00 66.52 50.00 70.45

7. T7-Pf 128 (ST) 42.57 40.96 24.00 54.71 2.00 69.12 25.36 81.00 52.13

8. T8-Pf 128 (ST+SA) 32.21 55.33 16.08 69.66 1.99 45.00 51.40 70.00 58.63

9. T9-Control 72.11 - 53.00 - 4.23 92.61 - 169.22 -

SEd 3.87 2.81 0.21 5.99 8.35

CD 8.21 5.92 0.44 12.71 17.71

Values are mean of three replications

359
REFERENCES
Anita, B. and Rajendran, G. 2002. Nursery application of
Pseudomonas fluorescens for the control of
Meloidogyne incognita on tomato and brinjal.
Nematologia Mediterranea, 30: 209-210.
Anonymous, 1987. All India Coordinated Research Project
on Plant Parasitic Nematodes with Integrated
Approach for Their Control. Division of
Nematology, IARI, New Delhi. 12- 13.
Bakker, P. A. H. M., Ran, L. X ., Pieterse, C. M. J. and Van
Loon, L. C. 2003. Understanding the involvement
of rhizobacteria mediated induction of systemic
resistance in biocontrol of plant diseases. Canadian
Journal of Plant Pathology, 25: 5-9.
Bashan, Y. and de-Bashan, L. E. 2005. Bacteria / Plant
growth- promotion. In: Hillel D., Ed.,
Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment.
Vol.1, Elsevier, Oxford, U.K.,pp. 103-115.
Cobb, N. A. 1918. Estimating the nematode population
of soil. Agricultural Technology
Circular 1, United States Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office
of Technology, 48 p.
Jonathan, E. I., Barker, K. R., Abdel-Alim, F. F., Vrain, T.
C. and Dickson, D.W. 2000. Biological control
of Meloidogyne incognita in tomato and banana
with Rhizobacteria, Actinomycetes and Pasteuria
penetrans. Nematotropica, 30: 231-240.
Jonathan, E. I., Cannayane, I. and Samiyappan, R.
2004. Field application of biocontrol agents
for the management of spiral nematode,
Helicotylenchus multicinctus in banana.
Nematologia Mediterranea, 32: 169-173.
Jonathan, E. I., Sandeep, A., Cannayane, I. and
Umamaheswari, R. 2006. Bioefficacy of
Pseudomonas fluorescens on Meloidogyne
incognita in banana. Nematologia Mediterranea,
34: 19-25.
360
Krishnaveni, M. 2005. Management of spiral nematode
Helicotylenchus multicinctus (Cobb, 1893)
Golden 1956, in banana (Musa spp.) cv.
Nendran using plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria. Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India.130p.
Liza Barua and Bora, B. C. 2008. Comparative efficacy
of Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas
fluorescens against Meloidogyne incognita and
Rhizoctonia solonacearum complex in brinjal.
Indian Journal of Nematology, 38: 86-89.
Schindler, A. F. 1961. A simple substitute for a Baermann
funnel. Plant Disease Reptorter, 45: 747-748.
Taylor, A. L. and Sasser, J. N. (1978). Biology, identification
and control of root knot nematode
(Meloidogyne spp.) A Cooperative Publication
of the Department of Plant Pathology, Raleigh,
North Carolina: North Carolina State University
and United States Agency for International
Development; 1978. p. 111.
Thompson, D. C. 1996. Evaluation of bacterial antagonist
for reduction of summer patch symptoms in
kentuky bluegrass. Plant Disease, 80: 856-862.
Vidhyasekaran, P. and Muthamilan, M. 1999. Evaluation
of powder formulation of Pseudomonas
fluorescens Pf1 for control of rice sheath blight.
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 9: 67-74.
Voisard, C., Keel, C., Haas, D. and Defaya, G. 1989. Cyanide
production by Pseudomonas fluorescens helps
suppression of black root rot of tobacco under
abiotic conditions. The EMBO Journal, 8: 351-
358.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 361-363 (2015)

BREAKING DORMANCY AND INDUCING GERMINATION OF THE WORLD WORST

WEED THE CYPERUS ROTUNDUS USING NANOPARTICLES
N.VIJI* AND DR.C.R. CHINNAMUTHU**
PH.D SCHOLAR*, PROFESSOR **, DEPT. OF AGRONOMY, TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
MADURAI, TAMIL NADU.

Email Id: mathumitha08@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) is one of the most troublesome weeds and it affects 52 crops in more than 90 tropical and sub-trop-
ical countries. Tubers are recognized as the primary dispersal unit for purple nutsedge. Increasing phenolic compounds in the tubers
reduced the sprouting. Due to apical dominance and bud dormancy, tubers stay in the soil for extended periods before sprouting. Control
would be facilitated if tuber longevity is short enough so that all buds could sprout at the same time so that the resultant plants can be
killed. A laboratory experiment was carried out at the Department of Nano Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
to induce germination of Cyperus rotundus tubers using Zinc oxide nanoparticles by degrade the phenolic compounds in tubers. Zinc
oxide nanoparticles were synthesized in the wet lab by chemical method. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized by UV-VIS
spectrophotometer, FTIR and SEM. The tubers were treated with zinc oxide nanoparticles at different concentration viz., 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 g kg-1 of tubers. Results revealed that the zinc oxide nanoparticles at the concentration of 3.0 g kg-1 of tubers recorded
74.5 per cent higher rate of germination over control by means of degradation of phenols present in the tubers. Since, nanoparticles
lead to production of more OH- radicals results in the oxidation of phenol, by means germination percentage of tubers was increased.

Keywords: Cyperus rotundus, dormancy, nanoparticles, phenol, weed

INTRODUCTION
Cyperus rotundus is reportedly native to India, but it has
been introduced around the world, which is commonly called
as purple nutsedge. Regarded to be the world’s worst weed,
Cyperus rotundus causes serious problems in more crops in
more countries than any other weed (Kadir and Charudattan,
2000). The tubers are the primary means of reproduction and
spread of purple nutsedge. Basal bulb occurs simultaneously
with tuber development on rhizomes. Basal bulb can sprout
and differentiate into the plants, while remaining attached
to the parent plant (Bangarwa et al., 2008). The tubers
remain viable for more than three years and pass over the
harsh weather period by preventing the germination of buds
present in the tubers. Jangaard et al. (1971) noted that the bud
dormancy in tubers has been suspected by many workers as
being due to the presence of inhibitors in the tuber. He reported
that increasing phenolic compounds and abscissic acids in the
tubers reduced the sprouting. Due to dormancy, the tubers may
sustain in the soil for longer and interfere with the crops raised
in the following season. Under this situation, a new strategy
have to be designed to break the dormancy and killing the
sprouted tubers chemically or desiccating the germinated
tubers culturally will helps to reduce the incidence and carry
over to the next season. The newly emerging science, the
nanotechnological approach throws some light to manage
this world’s worst weed with the help of nanoparticles (Gu et
al., 2009). Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been
realized as efficient technologies for phenol degradation
which uses nanoparticles as catalyst (Bach et al., 2010). By
means of degrading the germination inhibitor i.e. phenols
present in the C.rotundus tubers, the germination percentage
may increase. With this knowledge, the present study
was conducted which paves way for breaking dormancy
of C.rotundus and have potential application in weed
management.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Cyperus rotundus tubers were collected from various
fields for the analysis. They were sorted based on diameter to
maintain uniformity. From this tubers of 3 cm diameter were
chosen as samples for studies.
The reagents
Zinc nitrate, sodium hydroxide were purchased from Otto.
Synthesis of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles
The Zinc Oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized in
the laboratory through chemical routes (Talam et al., 2012). For
which 0.45 M aqueous solution of zinc nitrate [Zn (NO3)2.4H2O]
and 0.9 M aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were
prepared in ultra pure water. The beaker containing NaOH
solution was heated to the temperature of 55 ºC. The zinc
nitrate solution was added drop wise (slowly for 40 min) to the
above heated solution under high speed stirring. The beaker
was sealed at this condition for two hour. The precipitated ZnO
nanoparticles were cleaned with ultra pure water and ethanol
then dried in atmospheric air at about 60 ºC. Dried particles
were collected and stores in vial for further analysis.
Characterization of Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
nanoparticles
The synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were characterized
by UV-VIS spectrophotometer, FTIR and SEM.
Germination studies
The germination percentage of ZnO nanoparticles

361
treated C.rotundus tubers were tested to assess the dormancy
breaking ability of ZnO nanoparticles. The tubers were sown
in soil media and germination percentage was recorded for
each treatment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characterization of synthesized ZnO nanoparticles
UV-VIS spectroscopy
The UV-VIS optical spectra of ZnO nanoparticles
suspended in deionized water were recorded in SPECORD
spectrophotometer from 200-700 nm. Optical absorption
spectrum of ZnO nanoparticles are shown in Fig 1. ZnO
nanoparticles show absorption band in the UV region. In
the present investigation, band was observed at 304 nm for
ZnO nanoparticles (Weil et al., 2005).

Fig 1. UV-VIS spectra of ZnO nanoparticles

FTIR spectroscopy
FTIR spectrum of the synthesized ZnO nanoparticles was depicted in Fig 2. The fundamental mode of vibration
at 3248 cm-1 which corresponds to the O-H stretching vibration, 2924 cm-1 corresponds to C-H stretching vibration. The
absorption at 833 cm-1 is due to the formation of tetrahedral coordination of Zn. The peak at 771 cm-1 attributed to the C-O
bond stretching. 709 cm-1 indicates the stretching vibrations of ZnO nanoparticles (Ravichandrika et al., 2012).
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The SEM micrograph obtained from ZnO nanoparticles (Fig 3) showed that, they were in the shape of bunches of
flowers. Each bunch is gathered of closely packed nanometer scale rods and forms radiating structures. The average diameter
of the nanoparticles was 75.3 nm.

362
Fig 2. FTIR spectra of ZnO nanoparticles Conclusion
Zinc oxide nanoparticles at the concentration of 3.0
g kg tubers-1 (T7) recorded higher per cent of germination
i.e 74.5 per cent over control. It was followed by T6 (2.5
g kg tubers-1) i.e. 69.6 per cent over control. In the case
of the AOPs, the generation of hydroxyl radicals takes
place through a catalytic mechanism in which the zinc
oxide nanoparticles play a very important role in phenol
degradation. By the way of breaking dormancy factor, the
germination percentage of the zinc oxide nanoparticles
treated Cyperus rotundus tubers was increased, which has a
potential application in weed management.
REFERENCES
Bach, A., H. Shemer, R. Semiat. 2010. Kinetics of Phenol
Mineralization by Fenton-Like Oxidation.
Desalination., 264: 188–192.
Bangarwa, S.K., J.K. Norsworthy, P.Jha and
M.Malik. 2008. Purple nutsedge
(Cyperus rotundus) management in an organic
production system. Weed Science., 56 (4): 606-
613.
Fig 3. SEM image of ZnO nanoparticles
Gu. B. X, C. X. Xu, G. P. Zhu, S. Q. Liu, L. Y. Chen and X.
Dormancy breaking studies of C.rotundus tubers S. Li. 2009. Tyrosine’s immobilization on ZnO
Table 1. Effect of Zinc Oxide nanoparticles (ZnO) on germi- Nanorods for phenol detection. The Journal of
nation percentage of C.rotundus tubers Physical Chemistry B., 113: 377–381.
Concentration of Jangaard, N.O., M. M. Sckerl and R. H. Schieferstein. 1971.
Germination percentage
S.No ZnO nanoparticles The role of phenolics and abscisic acid in
(%)
(g kg of tuber-1) nutsedge tuber dormancy. Weed Science., 19:
1 T - Control 13.3 17-20.
1
2 T - 0.5 22.1
3
2
T - 1.0 27.5 Kadir, J., and R. Charudattan. 2000. Dactylaria higginsii, a
3 fungal bioherbicide agent for purple nutsedge
4 T - 1.5 33.5
4 (Cyperus rotundus). Biological control: theory
5 T - 2.0 39.1
5 and applications in pest management., 17:113-
6 T - 2.5 43.8 124.
6
7 T - 3.0 52.2
SEd
7
1.74 Ravichandrika, K., P. Kiranmayi and R.V.S.S.N. Ravikumar.
CD (P=0.05) 3.73 2012. Synthesis, characterization and
antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles.
International Journal of Pharmacy and
Germination percentage of ZnO nanoparticles treated
Pharmaceutical Sciences., 4(4): 75-91.
C,rotundus tubers was depicted in Table 1. By degrading
the germination inhibitor i.e. phenol, the ZnO nanoparticles Talam, S., S.R. Karumuri and N. Gunnam. 2012. Synthesis,
significantly influenced the germination percentage of Characterization, and Spectroscopic Properties
C.rotundus tubers. ZnO nanoparticles at the concentration of of ZnO Nanoparticles. Nanotechnology., 2012.
3.0 g kg tubers-1 (T7) recorded higher germination percentage
i.e 52.2 per cent. It was followed by ZnO nanoparticles at Weil,M., D. Zhi and J. L. MacManus-Driscoll. 2005. Self-
2.5 g kg tubers-1 gives 43.8 percentage germination. The catalysed growth of zinc oxide nanowires.
untreated control recorded only 13.3 percentage germination. Nanotechnology., 6: 1364-1368.
The bud dormancy in tubers is due to the presence of inhibitors
in the tuber. The increasing phenolic compounds and abscissic
acids in the tuber may inhibit sprouting. Due to the production
of hydroxyl radicals by ZnO nanoparticles, the phenols
present in the tubers were degraded by the AOPs. Hence the
germination percentage of the treated tubers was increased
with the increased ZnO nanoparticles dosage, by breaking
the germination inhibitor. By this way of dormancy breaking
mechanism, the sprouted tubers may killed chemically or
desiccating the germinated tubers culturally will helps to
reduce the incidence of C.rotundus and carry over to the next
season.

363
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 364-369 (2015)

IN VITRO SCREENING OF BACTERIAL CULTURE FILTRATES AGAINST

MELOIDOGYNE INCOGNITA IN TOMATO ( SOLANUM LYCOPERSICUM L.)
V. VIGILA* AND S. SUBRAMANIAN
Department of Nematology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore – 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding author E-mail id: agrijill@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Native isolates of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. collected from the rhizosphere region of tomato crop were tested for their efficacy
against the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita infesting tomato. All the tested native isolates of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus
spp. recorded enhanced germination percentage and enhanced the vigour index of tomato seeds in roll towel method. Under in vitro stud-
ies, higher reduction in nematode egg hatching and juvenile mortality were observed in the culture filtrates of Pseudomonas spp. (isolate
Pfpv1) and Bacillus spp. (isolate Bsvn11) at 100 per cent concentration.

Keywords: Bacillus spp., hatching, Meloidogyne incognita, mortality, Pseudomonas spp.

INTRODUCTION
Plant parasitic nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) cause a
high level of economic losses in a wide range of agricultural
crops, especially vegetables, causing yield losses mainly in
tropical and sub-tropical agriculture (Sikora & Fernandez,
2005). Although chemical methods for controlling these
nematodes are effective, their use may lead to environmental
contaminations, human health hazards and resistance
problems (Noling & Becker, 1994). An alternate strategy
is to exploit or use biological antagonists to manage these
nematodes. Antagonistic bacteria have repeatedly been
shown to be an effective biocontrol agent against plant
parasitic nematodes (Jayakumar, 2009). The plant growth
promoting rhizobacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens
Migula has been reported to be effective in suppressing
M. incognita in many crops viz., tomato (Jonathan et
al., 2000), chickpea (Khan et al., 2001) and turmeric
(Srinivasan et al., 2001). Several non parasitic rhizobacteria
Bacillus spp. have been tested for their ability to control
plant parasitic nematodes (Gokte & Swarup, 1988; Siddiqui
& Mahmood, 1995). Hence, the present study was undertaken
to evaluate the potential of the rhizobacteria, Pseudomonas
spp. and Bacillus spp. on hatching and mortality of M.
incognita in vitro.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Nematode culture
Meloidogyne incognita was obtained from naturally
infested roots of tomato plants. The egg masses were
picked out and kept in Petri plates containing sterile
distilled water for a week in an incubator at 25 ± 2oC.
Hatched juveniles were poured on the roots of tomato plants
(cv. PKM 1) grown in earthern pots containing sterilized
soil-sand mixture. A number of culture pots were raised and
maintained for further use.
Survey and isolation of bacteria
Hundred and thirty eight soil samples were collected
from rhizosphere region of healthy tomato plants obtained
from various districts of Tamil Nadu to isolate native strains
of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. by a serial dilution
agar plate technique (Aneja, 2002). One ml each of 10-5
and 10-6 dilution was pipetted into sterile Petri dishes.
Nutrient agar medium was cooled to 30 ± 1oC, poured into
Petri dishes, rotated and incubated at room temperature (28
± 1oC) for 24 h. Based on colony morphology, they were
identified as Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. They
were individually purified and subcultured. The efficacy
of bacterial isolates Pf 1and Bbv 57 (standard checks)
obtained from Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore were used
to study the egg hatching and juvenile mortality of M.
incognita in vitro.
Plant growth promotion
Effect of Pseudomonas and Bacillus isolates on seed germi-
nation and seedling vigour under laboratory conditions
The isolates of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp.
were selected on the basis of their growth promotion activity
which were periodically maintained at the Department
of Nematology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.
Roll towel method
The bacterial suspension of Pseudomonas and Bacillus
isolates were tested for their plant growth promotion ability
by standard roll towel method (ISTA, 1993). The tomato
seeds (cv.PKM1) were soaked in 10 ml of the bacterial
suspension (108cfu/ml) for 24 h. Then the seeds were blot
dried, placed in wet blotters and incubated in the growth
chamber for 14 days. Seeds soaked in sterile water served
as control. The germination percentage was recorded and
vigour index was calculated using the following formula
(Abdul Baki and Anderson, 1973).
Vigour index = Per cent germination x Seedling length
(Shoot length + Root length)
Pot culture method
Surface sterilized tomato seeds (cv. PKM1) were
steeped in suspension of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus
spp. isolates overnight and an untreated control was also

364
maintained. The treated seeds were sown in pots containing
500 g of sterilized pot mixture. The germination percentage,
shoot length and root length were measured 25 days, after
germination and vigour index was calculated.
In roll-towel and pot culture studies, seeds treated with
23 isolates viz., Pseudomonas spp. Pfpv1, Pfks23, Pfpv12,
Pfkk11, Pfpk3, Pfmp34, Pfsm33, Pfan7, Pfkp9, Pfco45, Pf 1
and Bacillus spp. Bsvn11, Bsvn12, Bsks2, Bspv5, Bsmp32,
Bsrk16, Bspk18, Bsag37, Bstp29, Bstk42, Bbv57. Among
the above mentioned isolates, Pfpv1, Pfks23, Pfpv12, Pf
1 and Bsvn11, Bsvn12, Bsks2, Bbv57 has recorded good
germination percentage and healthy plants with higher root,
shoot length. It leads to enhanced vigour index than other
bacterial isolates. The above mentioned best eight isolates
were selected for further studies.
In vitro screening of bacterial isolates against M.
incognita
The culture filtrates of the isolates were tested for
their effect on hatching of M. incognita eggs at different
concentrations (100, 50 and 25 per cent). One egg mass
each of M. incognita was placed in Syracuse dishes with
each bacterial filtrate of each isolate and kept at 28 ± 1 °C.
Nutrient broth without bacteria was also maintained and tap
water was used as control. The experiment was conducted in
a completely randomized design and each treatment was
replicated four times. The numbers of hatched juveniles
were recorded at 24, 48 and 72 h after exposure.
To study the nematicidal activity of Pseudomonas
spp. and Bacillus spp. isolates in vitro, one ml of each of
the bacterial culture filtrates were poured into separate
Syracuse dishes at different concentrations (100, 50 and 25
per cent). Egg masses of M. incognita were collected from
an infested root and hatched separately in distilled water
with good aeration. After 48 hrs, 100 second stage juveniles
(J2) were introduced into each dish and incubated at 27 ± 1
°C. Nutrient broth without bacteria and tap water were used
as control. Each treatment was replicated four times. The
mortality of juveniles after 24, 48 and 72 h of exposure was
recorded and per cent mortality was calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Pseudomonas and Bacillus isolates on seed
germination and seedling vigour
In the present study, Pseudomonas and Bacillus
isolates viz., Pfpv1 and Bsvn11 recorded the highest vigour
index (1764.80, 1592.18 and 4196.87, 4079.41) compared
to other isolates both in roll towel and pot culture studies
(Table 1 & 2). The findings are in line with that of Jonathan
et al. (2005) and Senthil kumar et al. (2008) who observed
enhanced germination and seedling vigour due to the
treatment with isolates of P. fluorescens and B. subtilis. The
bacteria may have promoted the plant growth by means
similar to plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
as suggested by Feng et al., (2006). The mechanism by
which the plant growth is improved include the production
of phytohormones, enhanced availability of nutrients,
production of antibiotics, reduction of ethylene level,
induced systemic resistance and competition for space and
nutrition (Holland, 1997).
365
In vitro screening of bacterial isolates against M.
incognita
Under in vitro conditions, the culture filtrates of the
promising eight isolates were used in the hatching study of
M. incognita eggs. The greatest reduction in egg hatching
was observed with Pfpv 1 at 100 per cent concentration. The
experimental results revealed that the lowest egg hatching
was recorded in Pfpv1 (9.16) followed by Bsvn11 (13.87)
at 100 per cent concentration of culture filtrate after 72 h
exposure period (Table 3). The highest juvenile mortality
was observed in Pfpv1 (94.67) followed by Bsvn11 (80.50)
at 100 per cent concentration after 72 h exposure period.
Nematode mortality was also increased with the increase
in the concentration of the culture filtrates. Culture filtrate
of Pfpv1 caused the greatest nematode mortality, at 100
per cent concentration after 72 h of exposure (Table 4). Similar
observations were also made by Becker et al. (1998) and
Tian and Riggs (2000), who proved the antagonistic effect of
culture filtrates of P. fluorescens on eggs and juveniles of M.
incognita. Jonathan et al. (2006) found that the culture filtrates
of isolates viz., Pfbv22 and Bbv57 showed significantly
higher larvicidal action on M. incognita juveniles on tomato.
Aalten et al. (1998) reported that the presence of secondary
metabolites in the culture filtrates was responsible for the
nematicidal action. Similar toxic property of P. fluorescens
culture filtrates had also been reported on the juveniles of
M. incognita and Heterodera cajani (Gokte & Swarup,
1988). The results agree with Krishnaveni (2005) who
observed toxic effect of the native P. fluorescens isolate PfB
34, isolated from banana, against the spiral nematode H.
multicinctus. Culture filtrate of the P. fluorescens strain
CHA0 produces DAPG causing reduction in egg hatch of M.
javanica and inducing mortality of larvae under laboratory
condition (Siddiqui & Shaukat 2003). Delayed nematode
egg hatch and reduced juvenile mobility of Meloidogyne
spp. due to culture supernatants of Pseudomonas sp. (Sharma
et al., 1998) and Bacillus sp. (Padgham et al., 2005) was
also reported. Bansal et al. (1999) tried to understand the
mechanism of nematode inhibition using physiologically
different rhizobacteria. Virtually; the rhizobacteria possessing
excellent biocontrol activity have shown in vitro excretion
of antinemic metabolites, and in situ production of these
metabolites is of major importance in the biological control
as these metabolites change the chemical microenvironment
in rhizosphere deterring the host root nematode interaction.
The present results also agreed with the findings of Siddiqui
and Mahmood, (1999) the toxins produced in bacterial culture
filtrate includes the suppression of nematode reproduction,
egg hatching and juvenile survival, as well as direct killing
of nematodes. Spiegel et al. (1991) also indicated the
effectiveness of P. chitinolytica against M. incognita due to
its strong chitinolytic and proteolytic activity. Becker et al.
(1988) has reported the production of secondary metabolites
such as phenazines, pyrolnitrin, tropolone, pyochanin and
2, 4-diacetylphloroglucinol in culture filtrates of P.
fluorescens. (Shanthi and Rajendran, 2010) reported
that presence of toxic metabolites in the culture filtrate
of P. fluorescens, Trichoderma viride, Bacillus subtilis
and Paecilomyces lilacinus induced significant levels of
mortality of banana lesion nematodes. Such production of
antibiotics may be nematicidal in nature and would have
been responsible for juvenile mortality. These findings
suggested that the inhibitory effect of cell free filtrates on
hatching and mortality of the nematode might be due to the
nematoxic metabolites released by the bacteria. Non-cellular
extract of B. subtilis has also been reported to cause high
degree of larval mortality of root knot and cyst nematodes
(Gokte & Swarup, 1988). The culture filtrate of B. subtilis
and Anthrobotrys cladodes caused 72.51 and 59.30 per cent
juvenile mortality at 50 per cent concentration within 48h
of exposure period respectively (Cannayane and Rajendran,
2001). Siddiqui and Shaukat (2003) reported that 2,
4-diacetyl phloroglucinol (2, 4-DAPG) production by P.
fluorescens was responsible for the mortality of M. javanica
juveniles in vitro and reduction of nematode penetration in
tomato roots.

Table 1. Plant growth promotion activity of bacterial isolates in tomato (Roll towel method)

Isolates Germination (%) Shoot length (cm) Root length (cm) Vigour index
Pseudomonas spp.
Pfpv1 85.67 (67.76)* 8.52 12.08 1764.80
Pfks23 80.44 (63.75) * 7.18 11.25 1482.50
Pfks12 75.68 (60.45) * 7.02 10.60 1333.48
Pfkk11 60.46 (51.04) * 6.81 9.31 979.45
Pfpk3 52.12 (46.22) * 6.66 9.16 824.53
Pfmp34 55.22 (48.00) * 6.74 9.23 881.86
Pfsm33 63.89 (53.06) * 6.82 10.08 1079.74
Pfan7 49.13 (44.50) * 6.58 9.10 770.35
PfkP9 48.80 (44.31) * 6.42 9.00 752.49
Pfco45 47.02 (43.29) * 5.88 8.87 693.54
Pf1 79.83 (63.31) * 7.09 10.83 1430.55
Bacillus spp.
Bsvn11 83.36 (65.93) * 7.39 11.71 1592.18
Bsvn12 70.25 (56.95) * 7.00 10.52 1230.78
Bsks2 67.07 (54.98) * 6.95 10.21 1150.92
Bspv5 65.36 (53.95) * 6.92 10.26 1122.88
Bsmp32 58.58 (49.94) * 6.76 9.16 932.59
Bsrk16 49.01 (44.43) * 6.51 9.07 763.57
Bspk18 53.83 (47.20) * 6.71 9.21 856.97
Bsag37 48.00 (43.85) * 5.92 8.97 714.72
Bstp29 50.05 (45.03) * 6.63 9.14 789.28
Bstk42 47.00 (43.28) * 5.72 8.50 668.34
Bbv57 69.91 (56.73) * 6.96 10.37 1211.54
Control 45.77 (42.57) * 4.41 8.17 563.42
SEd 0.44 0.04 0.07 7.64
CD(P=0.05) 0.89 0.09 0.14 15.24

*Figures in parentheses are arcsine transformed values

Table 2. Plant growth promotion activity of bacterial isolates in tomato (Pot culture)

Isolates Germination (%) Shoot length (cm) Root length (cm) Vigour index
Pseudomonas spp.
Pfpv1 86.87 (68.76) * 28.12 21.60 4196.87
Pfks23 82.37 (65.17) * 24.93 20.47 3739.59
Pfks12 77.61 (61.76) * 22.15 19.25 3213.05
Pfkk11 65.13 (53.81) * 15.73 12.58 1843.83
Pfpk3 57.50 (49.31) * 13.91 15.50 1691.07
Pfmp34 61.24 (51.50) * 12.91 10.23 1404.84

366
 Pfsm33 67.37 (55.16) * 16.85 12.19 1956.42
Pfan7 50.23 (45.13) * 15.37 09.77 1262.78
PfkP9 47.13 (43.35) * 12.21 11.06 1096.72
Pfco45 43.93 (41.51) * 11.82 09.83 951.08
Pf1 78.77 (62.56) * 21.11 20.71 3294.16
Bacillus spp.
Bsvn11 84.41 (66.74) * 26.15 20.81 4079.41
Bsvn12 76.66 (61.11) * 21.05 18.37 3021.94
Bsks2 74.51 (59.68) * 19.49 16.46 2678.63
Bspv5 73.18 (58.81) * 19.26 15.96 2577.40
Bsmp32 63.50 (52.83) * 15.40 12.73 1786.26
Bsrk16 49.83 (44.90) * 16.13 14.71 1536.76
Bspk18 60.66 (51.15) * 17.82 15.14 1999.35
Bsag37 45.35 (42.33) * 15.67 13.81 1336.92
Bstp29 54.78 (47.74) * 12.04 10.13 1214.47
Bstk42 42.96 (40.95) * 11.19 09.80 903.02
Bbv57 75.49 (60.33) * 19.82 16.87 2769.73
Control 37.65 (37.85) * 09.06 7.18 611.14
SEd 0.50 0.13 0.11 16.71
CD(P=0.05) 1.00 0.27 0.23 33.34
*Figures in parentheses are arcsine transformed values

Table 3. Effect of culture filtrates of isolates of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. on the egg hatching of M. incognita

25 % Concentration 50 % Concentration 100% Concentration

S.No Isolates
24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs
Pseudomonas spp.
31.78 34.92 39.69 16.96 19.88 25.33 04.96 08.83 09.16
1. Pfpv 1
(5.68) (5.95) (6.34) (4.18) (4.51) (5.08) (2.34) (3.05) (3.11)
51.33 56.33 61.63 35.38 42.77 49.60 12.41 16.57 18.76
2. Pfks23
(7.20) (7.54) (7.88) (5.99) (6.58) (7.08) (3.59) (4.13) (4.39)
65.73 78.65 81.79 53.06 58.66 67.55 22.14 26.18 27.67
3. Pfpv12
(8.14) (8.90) (9.07) (7.32) (7.69) (8.25) (4.76) (5.17) (5.31)
55.68 57.25 61.92 38.62 48.96 51.53 18.75 19.33 19.60
4. Pf1
(7.50) (7.60) (7.90) (6.25) (7.03) (7.21) (4.39) (4.45) (4.48)
Bacillus spp.
44.67 49.99 51.92 27.33 31.24 36.54 09.23 12.14 13.87
5. Bsvn11
(6.72) (7.11) (7.24) (5.28) (5.63) (6.09) (3.12) (3.56) (3.79)
81.57 89.53 94.63 61.40 68.39 75.32 28.33 32.38 34.68
6. Bsvn12
(9.06) (9.49) (9.75) (7.87) (8.30) (8.71) (5.37) (5.73) (5.93)
92.62 96.44 103.53 71.87 77.39 86.55 41.53 44.57 47.08
7. Bsks2
(9.65) (9.85) (10.25) (8.51) (8.83) (9.33) (6.48) (6.71) (6.90)
86.33 89.67 96.69 69.08 74.32 82.37 32.46 33.95 34.33
8. Bbv 57
(9.32) (9.50) (9.86) (8.34) (8.65) (9.10) (5.74) (5.87) (5.90)
Nutrient 112.62 136.67 201.79 98.57 114.44 173.53 68.87 93.39 116.53
9.
Broth (10.64) (11.71) (14.22) (9.95) (10.72) (13.20) (8.33) (9.69) (10.82)
121.07 173.65 215.77 121.07 173.65 215.77 121.07 173.65 215.77
10. Control
(11.03) (13.20) (14.71) (11.03) (13.20) (14.71) (11.03) (13.20) (14.71)
SEd 0.57 0.71 0.87 0.49 0.65 0.80 0.40 0.57 0.70
CD(P=0.05) 1.16 1.46 1.78 1.00 1.32 1.65 0.83 1.16 1.44

*Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values

367
Table 4. Effect of culture filtrates of isolates of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. on the mortality of Meloidogyne incog-
nita

25 % Concentration 50 % Concentration 100% Concentration

S. No Isolates
24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs 24 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs
Pseudomonas spp.
32.31 51.67 60.13 69.33 72.67 78.67 86.34 91.20 94.67
1. Pfpv 1
(5.86) (9.83) (7.88) (8.45) (8.64) (8.98) (9.40) (9.65) (9.83)
19.71 38.52 41.67 52.40 54.28 60.41 69.85 72.78 78.43
2. Pfpv23
(4.66) (8.97) (6.61) (7.38) (7.50) (7.90) (8.48) (8.64) (8.97)
18.51 38.31 37.23 48.46 50.28 58.41 61.94 68.72 73.79
3. Pfpv12
(4.53) (8.71) (6.26) (7.10) (7.23) (7.77) (8.00) (8.40) (8.71)
19.51 39.41 41.78 51.78 52.67 60.83 68.61 71.84 75.03
4. Pf1
(4.64) (8.78) (6.58) (7.33) (7.39) (7.93) (8.41) (8.59) (8.78)
Bacillus spp.
24.51 42.41 47.31 58.78 59.78 66.83 74.89 79.77 80.50
5. Bsvn11
(5.15) (9.08) (7.02) (7.80) (7.86) (8.30) (8.77) (9.04) (9.08)
15.27 21.01 34.99 32.59 33.16 40.86 58.73 65.66 72.82
6. Bsvn12
(4.16) (8.65) (6.08) (5.88) (5.93) (6.55) (7.79) (8.22) (8.65)
13.00 16.01 30.15 26.48 27.58 37.67 56.41 51.76 67.25
7. Bsks2
(3.87) (8.32) (5.67) (5.34) (5.44) (6.30) (7.64) (7.33) (8.32)
13.19 17.33 34.00 29.33 32.58 38.75 57.79 64.17 71.43
8. Bbv 57
(3.90) (8.57) (6.00) (5.60) (5.88) (6.38) (7.73) (8.13) (8.57)
2.12 4.76 6.48 7.33 8.64 10.75 11.86 12.00 12.47
9. Nutrient Broth
(2.03) (3.80) (2.91) (3.05) (3.26) (3.57) (3.72) (3.74) (3.80)
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
10. Control
(1.41) (1.41) (1.41) (1.41) (1.41) (1.41) (1.41) (1.41) (1.41)
SEd 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
CD(P=0.05) 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06

*Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 370-372 (2015)

GROWTH AND YIELD OF MULBERRY AS AFFECTED BY THE ROOT-KNOT

NEMATODE, MELOIDOGYNE INCOGNITA
M. MUTHULAKSHMI
Department of Nematology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641 003,
Tamil Nadu
Corresponding author email id: lakshminem@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Pot experiment was conducted to assess the growth and physiological changes and yield of mulberry variety V1 when infested with
Meloidogyne incognita. The results revealed that there was significant decrease in the number of branches, number of leaves, shoot
length, root weight and leaf area in the plants inoculated with M. incognita. Total leaf yield loss due to M. incognita was found to be
16.05 per cent when compared to the plants treated with the recommended dose of carbofuran 3G @ 1 kg a.i./ha. The untreated plants
recorded protein, nitrogen and total chlorophyll contents of 41.52, 24.44 and 20.58 per cent less than the carbofuran-treated plants.

Keywords: Mulberry, M. incognita, growth parameters, physiological parameters, yield loss, carbofuran

INTRODUCTION
Mulberry (Morus alba L.), the sole food plant of
silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), is cultivated both in tropical
and temperate countries of the world. India is the second
largest country in the world having 3.42 lakh hectares under
mulberry cultivation (Govindaiah and Sharma, 1994).
In India, due to the prevalence of favourable climatic
conditions, mulberry is cultivated mainly in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and North-eastern states.
These states collectively account for 97 per cent of the total
area under mulberry cultivation and 95 per cent of raw silk
production in the country. In recent years, much emphasis has
been given to produce superior quality raw silk to compete
with international market. To achieve this goal, concentrated
efforts are being diverted to increase the production of good
quality mulberry leaves, which has a direct influence on the
quality and quantity of raw silk production. In Tamil Nadu,
mulberry is almost grown throughout the year under rainfed
or irrigated conditions.
Several pests and diseases reduces the nutritive value
of mulberry leaves and influence the growth and development
of silkworm ultimately leads to poor cocoon production.
Plant parasitic nematodes play an important role in reducing
herbage yield and quality of leaves besides the life span
of mulberry plants. The root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne
incognita is economically important on mulberry, which
affects the crop quantitatively and qualitatively. Govindaiah
et al. (1991) reported that the larvae of silkworm feeding on
the leaves of nematode infested plants suffered a significant
reduction in their silk layer ratio and silk gland weight
when compared to their body weight. Root knot nematode
disease is found world wide but it is most serious in tropical
and subtropical countries. The disease is manifested by
the formation of galls in the root accompanied by stunted
growth, chlorosis and loss of vigour of the plant (Babu et
al., 1999). In a field experiment, the avoidable yield loss was
estimated as 11.8 per cent due to the root knot nematode.
Govindaiah and Sharma (1994) estimated the loss due to
root knot nematode as 10-12 per cent (leaf yield) in addition
to the loss of leaf quality for silkworm feeding. Sharma et
al. (1998) estimated the yield loss as 12.6-13.7 per cent
due to root knot nematode under field conditions. Mohana
(2003) reported the avoidable yield loss due to M. incognita
as 11.4 per cent in mulberry. Paul et al. (1995) reported that
root knot nematode damage in mulberry plants resulted in
significant reduction in plant growth, leaf yield and moisture
content and produced nutritionally inferior quality leaves by
the way of reducing the protein content. Hence, investigation
was carried out to estimate the changes in growth and
physiological parameters and yield of mulberry infested with
M. incognita on a ruling variety V1 in Tamil Nadu.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted under pot culture
conditions using paired ‘t’ test (Leclerg, 1967) in glasshouse
of the Department of Nematology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore. Following specific methods were
included:
Maintenance of pure culture of root knot nematode,
Meloidogyne incognita
Raising of mulberry rooted cuttings
Nematode inoculation
Avoidable yield loss
Gall index
The following gall index with 1-5 scale rating was used in
the present study (Heald et al., 1978).
Percentage of root system with galls/ Gall index
plant
No galls 1
1-25 2
26-50 3
51-75 4
≥75 5
Physiological study
Estimation of moisture content in mulberry leaves (Anon.,

370
1970)
Estimation of Chlorophyll
Estimation of soluble protein in mulberry leaf
Estimation of Nitrogen
The experimental data were statistically analyzed
using the procedures of Gomez and Gomez (1984).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the experiment showed that there was
significant decrease in the growth parameters and leaf yield
of mulberry variety V1 due to M. incognita. Untreated plants
recorded significantly less values of number of branches,
number of leaves, leaf area, shoot length, shoot weight, root
length and root weight and leaf weight than the plants treated
with carbofuran. The per cent loss was 33.42, 27.43, 22.87,
10.37, 14.93 and 6.98 respectively. The total leaf yield loss was
found to be 16.05 per cent due to M. incognita (Table 1). In
carbofuran treated plants increase in physiological parameters
and decrease in nematode population compared to control (Table
1-2). Govindaiah and Sharma (1994) estimated the loss due to
root knot nematode as 10-12 per cent (leaf yield) in addition
to the loss of leaf quality for silkworm feeding. Sharma et al.
(1998) estimated the yield loss as 12.6-13.7 per cent due to
root knot nematode under field conditions. Mohana (2003)
reported the avoidable yield loss due to M. incognita as 11.4
per cent in mulberry.
Yield loss studies in mulberry in the present
investigation revealed that the root knot nematode,
Meloidogyne incognita caused an avoidable leaf yield loss of
16.05 per cent in mulberry variety V1. This is in conformity
with the earlier findings on yield losses in mulberry due to M.
incognita conducted by Govindaiah et al. (1991) at Mysore
(Karnataka) and Mohana (2003) at Coimbatore, whom have
reported the yield losses of 11.8 and 11.4 per cent respectively.
The present finding indicates the susceptibility of V1, a
popular high yielding variety of mulberry, although the
avoidable yield loss is comparatively less as documented for
other crops i.e., 19.9 per cent in cotton (Jain et al., 2000); 61.0,
45.7 and 19.7 per cent in tomato, brinjal and chilli respectively
(Naganathan, 1982); 16.4 in sunflower (Devappa et al., 1998);
20.0 per cent in ginger (Makhnotra and Luqman Khan, 1997);
and 30.9 per cent in banana (Jonathan and Rajendran, 2000).

Table 1. Effect of M. incognita on plant growth parameters of mulberry and avoidable yield loss (Mean of 3 replications)
Number of Number of Leaf area Shoot Shoot Root length Root weight Total leaf
Treatments
branches leaves (cm2) length (cm) weight (g) (cm) (g) weight (g)
Carbofuran 3G @ 1
3.86 34.38 127.89 71.76 104.71 47.09 87.98 42.41
kg a.i./ha
2.57 24.95 98.64 64.32 93.40 40.06 81.84 35.60
Untreated control
(-33.42) (-27.43) (-22.87) (-10.37) (-10.80) (-14.93) (-6.98) (-16.05)
t (n-1) 11.369 22.066 8.168 4.201 7.411 5.388 2.542 7.314

Figures in parentheses are avoidable loss due to nematode infestation.

Table 2. Effect of carbofuran on M. incognita in mulberry (Mean of 3 replications)

Number of
Nematode population Number of Number of egg
Treatments eggs/egg Gall index
(250g of soil) females/g of root masses/g of root
mass
Carbofuran 3G
135.74 13.74 10.33 240.96 3
@ 1 kg a.i./ha
Untreated 242.77 23.83 19.57 269.32 5
control (78.83) (73.43) (89.45) (11.77)
t (n-1) 18.618 18.740 10.954 2.453
Figures in parentheses are per cent increase over chemical treated.

Table 2. Effect of M. incognita on physiological parameters of mulberry leaves (Mean of 3 replications)

Chlorophyll content (mg/g)

Treatments Moisture content Protein (mg/g) Nitrogen (%)
Chl A Chl B Total Chl
Carbofuran 3G @
73.38 59.00 4.91 1.46 0.47 2.43
1 kg a.i./ha
72.57 34.50 3.71 1.39 0.41 1.93
Untreated control
(-1.10) (-41.52) (-24.44) (-4.79) (-12.76) (-20.58)
t (n-1) 0.405 13.610 8.630 1.680 4.740 7.250

Figures in parentheses are per cent decrease (-) over chemical treated.

371
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 373-376 (2015)

MANAGEMENT OF PESTS OF BRINJAL (SOLANUM MELONGENA. L.) USING NEWER

INSECTICIDE MOLECULES UNDER PRECISION FARMING SYSTEM
B. BEBITHA1, C. MUTHIAH* C .CHINNIAH*AND P.CHANDRAMANI*
*Department of Agricultural Entomology
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai-625104.
Bebybalakrishnan87@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The effectiveness of the newer insecticide molecules against the major pests of brinjal was evaluated in a farmers field under precision farm-
ing system. From the investigations, it is evident that application of fipronil @50 g a.i/ha recorded the highest mean per cent reduction of leaf
hopper population (95.01%) and aphid population (94.92 %) which was on par with carbosulfan @ 187.5 g a.i/ha (75.26 %and 86.50 %) re-
spectively. Highest per cent reduction of shoot damage by shoot and fruit borer was recorded in plots treated with emamectin benzoate @ 7.5
g a.i/ha (92.18 %) followed by spinosad @ 75 g a.i/ha (91.8 %) which were on par with standard check quinalphos @ 250g a.i /ha (92.69 %).

Key words: Brinjal,Major pests, new insecticide molecules, chemical control.

INTRODUCTION
Brinjal, (Solanum melongena.L.) is one of the common
vegetable crops cultivated extensively by virtue of its wide
adaptability to grow from plains to the altitude up to 1500m
above MSL. Several workers have reported the varied yield
loss due to the brinjal shoot and fruit borer varied from 54 to
66 per cent (Krishnaiah, 1980), 70 per cent (ported to infest
brinjal crop from the nursery stage to hzarvesting stage
(Vevai, 19Lal, 1964) and 54 per cent (Sinha and Chakrabarti,
1982). Tripathy et al. (1997) recorded 4.33 to 6.54 per cent
shoot damage and 52.3 per cent fruit damage irrespective of
growing period. Spotted leaf beetle (H. vigintioctopunctata)
infests brinjal plants from seedling to maturity. The damage
caused by feeding on the foliage of these plants range from
a little over 10 to 70 percent, there by reducing the yield
of brinjal considerably (Jayanthi and Alexander Jesudasan ,
2000). Goel et al. (1992) reported that leafhopper occurring
in the early stages of the crop growth caused ‘hopper burn’
causing considerable yield loss.
Precision Farming aims at increasing productivity,
decreasing production costs and minimizing the
environmental impact of farming.. Adoption of precision
farming has led to increase in yield by 34 per cent in brinjal.
Increase in gross margin has been found as 67 per cent in
brinjal farming. The contribution of technology for higher
yield in brinjal under precision farming has been 20.48 per
cent. (Maheswari et al.2008).
standard check.
For leaf hopper three leaves on each top, middle and
bottom was selected per plant. The total number of nymphs
and adults on each leaf was counted and the mean was worked
out to express the population as mean number per leaf. For
aphid the total number of nymphs and adults on each leaf
was counted and it was computed as mean population per
leaf. The population was assessed 25 days after transplanting
on 10 randomly selected plants. For shoot and fruit borer
total number of shoots and fruits and also affected shoots
were counted and the per cent shoot and fruit damage was
worked out in 10 randomly selected plants. Observation on
pest occurrence was recorded on 10 randomly selected plants
prior to the treatment and also after imposing the treatment.
Post treatment observation was recorded on 1, 3,7 and 15
days after spraying.
The yield of brinjal fruits was recorded from each
plot, replication wise and treatment wise, and the same was
weighed and recorded for statistical scrutiny. The yield was
computed in terms of t/ha and the increase in yield in treated
plots over the untreated control was worked out adapting the
formula given by Regupathy and Dhamu (2001). Finally
CBR was calculated for each chemical treatment.

Certain new insecticide molecules are applied at lower
concentration to control the voracious feeders of crop there by
reducing the residues which otherwise, exist in environment
leading to pollution in water, soil and consumable part of the
crop. Hence the present study was undertaken to evaluate
the effectiveness of certain newer insecticides against major
pests of brinjal.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: elucidated that fipronil @50 g a.i/ha recorded the highest
Field experiments were conducted to study the efficacy
of newer insecticide molecules against major pests of brinjal,
viz., shoot and fruit borer, aphid and leaf hopper with nine
treatments replicated three times. Untreated control were
also maintained and all the treatments were compared with
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The results after two rounds of treatment revealed
that, among the various treatments fipronil @50 g a.i/ha
recorded the highest mean per cent reduction of leaf hopper
population (95.01%) over untreated control(Table.1), closely
followed by thiamethoxam @ 75 g a.i/ha which recorded
94.45 % reduction of leaf hopper population followed by
diafenthiuron @ 300 g a.i/ha (94.15%). Similar results also
mean per cent reduction of aphid population (94.92 %) over
untreated control(Table.2) followed by thiamethoxam @ 75
g a.i/ha (93.67 %) and diafenthiuron @ 300 g a.i/ha (93.47
%), which were statistically on par with the standard check
carbosulfan @ 187.5 g a.i/ha (86.50 %).

373
       Among the various treatments after first spray application of conventional synthetic insecticides in the
the standard check quinalphos @ 250g a.i/ha was superior context of environmentally benign management tactics
which reduced the shoot damage of shoot and fruit borer by so also in order to mitigate the adverse effect on the total
72.39 % (Table.3),followed by emamectin benzoate@ 7.5 g environment. Emamectin benzoate (5 SG) applied @ 10,
a.i/ha (70.18 %) and spinosad @ 75 g a.i/ha (70.09 %) . In the 8.75 g a.i/ha was effective against brinjal fruit borer when
second spray also emamectin benzoate@ 7.5 g a.i/ha (92.18 compared to the standard check spinosad 2.5 SC@12.5g a.i/
%), spinosad @ 75 g a.i/ha (91.8 %), lamda cyhalothrin @ ha as reported by Stanley et al., (2007). Emamectin benzoate
30 g a.i/ha (91.56 %) indaxocarb @ 100 g a.i/ha (91.46 5% SG (Proclaim) was found to be effective in reducing
%) and fipronil @50 g a.i/ha (87.10 %) were statistically dead hearts and also fruit damage in brinjal. The total fruit
on par and highly effective, next only to the standard check yield was also higher(Prasad Kumar and Devappa, 2006).
treatment quinalphos @ 250g a.i/ha (92.69 %) in terms of However, in order to reduce the pest damage in brinjal
their bioefficacy. ecosystem and enhance the yield potential using of newer
insecticide molecules at lower concentrations will be a good
The results of present study indicated that newer pest management aspect in precision farming.
insecticide molecules may be a better alternative to the
Table 1.Efficacy of certain new insecticide molecules against leaf hopper Amrasca devastans on brinjal.
Redu-
(Mean leaf hopper /3 leaves) ction
Treatments Redu- *Mean Over
S.No ction II control
& Doses Pre *Mean Pre 7 (%)
1 DAS 3 DAT 7 DAS 15 DAS Over 1 DAS 3 DAS 15 DAS spray
count I spray count DAS
control
(%)
Emamectin
10.32 9.67 8.34 7.21 8.85 10.65 9.89 8.98 7.97 9.37
1. benzoate (7.5 g. 12.54 55.66 11.54 63.20
(3.21)c (3.1)c (2.88)c (1.7)c (2.19)c (3.2)c (3.14)c (2.99)c (2.8)c (3.0)c
a.i/ha)
Spinosad (75 g. 10.42 9.65 8.35 7.32 8.90 10.76 9.91 8.92 7.98 9.39
2. 14.65 55.41 11.73 63.21
a.i/ ha) (3.22)c (3.1)c (2.88)c (1.59)c (2.11)c (3.28)c (3.14)c (2.98)c (2.8)c (3.06)c
4.57
Thiamethoxam 3.24 2.14 1.72 2.91 3.17 1.57 0.88 0.36 1.49
3. 13.65 (2.13) 85.44 10.74 94.45
(75 g .a.i /ha) ab (1.8)ab (1.46)ab (1.31)ab (1.70)ab (1.78)ab (1.25)ab (0.93)ab (0.6)a (1.22)ab

Diafenthiuron 5.22 4.12 3.12 1.27 3.78 3.14 1.64 0.97 0.55 1.57
4. 13.17 81.13 10.32 94.15
(300 g .a.i /ha) (2.3)c (2.02)c (1.76)c (1.3)c (1.94)ab (1.77)a (1.28)a (0.98)ab (0.74)ab (1.25)ab
Lamda
14.87 15.45 15.89 13.43 14.91 15.82 16.34 21.87 25.43 19.86
5. cyhalothrin (30 g. 11.56 25.50 10.39 26.26
(3.87)d (3.9)d (3.99)d (3.66)d (3.86)d (3.9)d (4.04)d (4.67)d (5.04)d (4.45)d
a.i/ha)
Fipronil (50 g. 4.1 3.01 2.4 0.87 2.59 2.91 1.46 0.66 0.34 1.34
6. 12.82 87.05 11.28 95.01
a.i./ha) (2.02)a (17)a (1.5)a (0.93)a (1.61)a (1.7)a (1.2)a (0.7)a (0.58)a (1.15)a
10.18
Indaxocarb (100 11.5 10.76 9.54 8.92 11.98 10.87 9.87 8.98 10.42
7. 13.91 (3.19) 49.20 10.41 60.30
g. a.i/ha) (3.39)c (3.28)c (3.08)c (2.9)c c (3.46)c (3.29)c (3.14)c (2.99)c (3.22)c

Carbosulfan 6.18 5.53 4.43 3.69 4.95 4.28 4.07 2.77 0.75 2.96
8. 12.83 75.26 10.6 88.98
(187.5 g .a.i/ha) (2.48)ab (2.35)ab (2.10)ab (1.92)ab (2.22)ab (2.06)ab (2.01)ab (1.66)ab (0.86)ab (1.72)ab
15.76
Quinalphos (250 14.76 15.98 14.35 15.21 14.97 16.87 18.95 22.92 18.43
9. 13.23 24.08 11.14 28.34
g.a.i/ha) (3.84) d
(4.0)d (3.79)d (3.9)d (3.86)d (4.1)d (4.35)d (4.78)d (4.29)d
(3.96) d

15.47 18.54 20.5 23.65 20.04 25.23 26.35 27.43 28.76 26.94
10. Untreated  control 12.31 - 24.3 -
(4.17)e (4.3)e (4.53)e (4.86)e (4.47)e (5.02)e (5.13)e (3.23)e (5.36)e (5.21)e
NS NS

DAT: Days after treatment.

Each Value is the Mean of three replications
Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values
In a column, means followed by same letter(s) are not significantly different at P = 0.05 by DMRT

374
Table 2.Efficacy of certain new insecticide molecules against aphid Aphis gossypii on brinjal.
Redu-ction
(Mean aphid / leaf) Over
Treatments control
Red- *Mean
S.No (%)
uction II spray
& Doses Pre *Mean Pre 7
1 DAS 3 DAT 7 DAS 15 DAS Over 1 DAS 3 DAS 15 DAS
count I spray count DAS
control
(%)
Emamectin
13.87 12.76 11.89 10.96 12.37 11.76 11.1 10.87 8.97 10.67
1. benzoate (7.5 15.43 43.84 21.96 56.40
(3.7)c (3.5)c (3.44)c (3.31)c (3.5)c (3.42)c (3.33)c (3.2)c (2.99)c (3.26)c
g. a.i/ha)
Spinosad (75 13.89 12.79 11.92 10.97 12.39 11.79 11.12 10.98 9.89 10.9
2. 15.6 43.74 12.21 55.60
g. a.i/ ha) (3.72)c (3.57)c (3.45)c (3.31)c (3.5)c (3.43)c (3.34)c (3.3)c (3.14)c (3.3)c
Thiamethoxam 9.22 6.12 4.85 3.84 4.91 2.98 1.88 0.88 0.54 1.57
3. 16.54 77.67 11.83 93.67
(75 g .a.i /ha) (3.03)ab (2.47)ab (2.20)ab (1.95)ab (2.21)ab (1.72)ab (1.37)ab (0.93)ab (0.73)ab (1.25)ab
Diafenthiuron 7.57 4.85 3.72 3.59 4.93 3.1 1.86 0.91 0.61 1.62
4. 16.37 77.61 12.15 93.47
(300 g .a.i /ha) (2.75)ab (2.20)ab (1.92)ab (1.89)ab (2.22)ab (1.76)ab (1.36)ab (0.95)ab (0.78)ab (1.27)ab
Lamda
14.51 14.61 16.31 16.43 15.46 14.97 16.97 18.2 22.1 18.06
5. cyhalothrin (30 16.32 28.70 11.13 27.21
(3.8)d (3.82)d (4.03)d (3.93)d (3.93)d (3.86) (4.11)d (4.26)d (4.7)d (4.24)d
g. a.i/ha)
0.87
Fipronil (50 6.23 4.35 2.76 0.78 3.53 2.5 1.45 0.22 1.26
6. 16.65 83.97 12.15 (0.93) 94.92
g. a.i./ha) (2.4)a (2.08)a (1.66)a (0.88)a (1.87)a (1.58)a (1.2)a a (0.46)a (1.12)a

Indaxocarb 10.98
13.9 12.87 11.9 10.98 12.41 11.8 11.2 9.98 10.99
7. (100 g. a.i/ 15.76 43.50 12.3 c (3.31) 55.40
(3.7)c (3.58)c (3.44)c (3.31)c (3.52)c (3.43) (3.34)
c
(3.15)c (3.31)c
ha) c

Carbosulfan 9.14 7.83 6.48 4.95 7.1 2.72

5.71 3.98 0.98 3.34
8. (187.5 g .a.i/ 16.4 (3.02) (2.79) (2.54) (1.98) (2.66) 67.70 11.73 ab (1.64) 86.50
(2.38) (1.99)
ab
(0.97)ab (1.82)ab
ha) ab ab ab ab ab ab

Quinalphos 15.79 16.54 17.43 16.54 16.63 14.98 16.91 18.85 21.54 18.07
9. 16.43 24.47 12.39 27.17
(250 g.a.i/ha) (3.9)d (3.97)d (4.01)d (4.13)d (4.07)d (3.8)d (4.1)d (4.3)d (4.6)d (4.25)d
24.92
Unt-reated 20.43 21.43 22.5 23.76 22.03 23.54 24.56 26.23 24.81
10. 16.3 - 22.4 (4.99) -
control (4.51)e (4.62)e (4.74)e (4.87)e (4.69)e (4.85)e (4.95)e e (5.12)e (4.98)e

NS NS
DAT: Days after treatment.
Each Value is the Mean of three replications
Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values
In a column, means followed by same letter(s) are not significantly different at P = 0.05 by DMRT

Table 3.Efficacy of certain new insecticide molecules against Shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis on brinjal. (Shoot
damage). 
Reduction
(Mean percent shoot damage) Over
Treatments *Mean control
S.No Reduction (%)
& Doses Pre *Mean Over Pre II spray
1 DAS 3 DAT 7 DAS 15 DAS 1 DAS 3 DAS 7 DAS 15 DAS
count I spray control count
(%)
Emamectin
9.12 7.12 5.1 3.15 6.12 4.25 2.1 1.12 0.66 2.03
1. benzoate (7.5 g. 18.45 8.2 92.18
(16.3)ab (14.3)ab (12.12)ab (10.1)ab (13.19)ab 70.18 (12.5)ab (9.45)ab (5.93)ab (4.66)ab (9.2)ab
a.i/ha)
Spinosad (75 g. 9.13 7.14 5.12 3.17 6.14 4.69 2.63 0.89 0.31 2.13
2. 18.76 70.09 12.54 91.80
a.i/ ha) (16.3)ab (14.3)ab (12.15)ab (10.2)ab (13.2)ab (12.62)ab (9.33)ab (5.41)ab (3.19)ab (9.52)ab
Thiamethoxam 13.47 12.28 11.17 9.2 11.53 12.24 11.76 11.56 10.65 11.55
3. 17.54 43.80 12.56 55.50
(75 g .a.i /ha) (21.5)c (20.5)c (19.5)c (17.8)c (19.10)c (19.43)c (17.6)c (17.5)c (16.75)c (18.52)c
Diafenthiuron 11.94 10.31 10.39 8.76 11.1 12.25 11.8 11.6 10.7 11.59
4. 17.32 46.80 12.49 55.43
(300 g .a.i /ha) (20.2)c (18.7)c (18.8)c (16.1)c (18.17)c (19.45)c (17.9)c (17.61)c (16.8)c (18.6)c
Lamda
11.15 6.24 5.12 7.68 6.14 4.55 2.5 1.2 0.5 2.22
5. cyhalothrin (30 g. 18.23 69.88 12.34 91.56
(18.2)ab (13.3)ab (12.1)abc (14.58)ab (14.01)ab (12.31)ab (9.4)ab (6.44)ab (4.0)ab (9.12)ab
a.i/ha)
Fipronil (50 g. 9.2 7.2 5.2 3.2 6.19 5.27 4.26 2.65 1.23 3.35
6. 16.59 68.56 11.18 87.10
a.i./ha) (16.2)ab (14.4)ab (12.10)abc (10.19)ab (13.4)ab (13.27)ab (11.91)ab (9.36)ab (6.36)ab (10.78)ab
Indaxocarb (100 9.15 7.16 5.15 3.16 6.17 4.66 2.69 1.02 0.51 2.32
7. 18.47 69.68 11.59 91.46
g. a.i/ha) (16.4)ab (14.42)ab (12.2)ab (10.2)ab (13.18)ab (12.46)ab (9.54)ab (5.79)ab (4.09)ab (9.19)ab

375
 Carbosulfan 16.14 16.36 17.18 17.23 16.52 17.76 17.58 16.61 15.70 16.9
8. 16.1 19.53 11.76 34.95
(187.5 g .a.i/ha) (22.8)d (23.5)d (23.09)d (23.14)d (23.60)d (23.84)d (23.63)cd (22.43)d (22.24)d (23.97)d

9.01
Quinalphos (250 7.02 5.1 3.1 5.9 4.21 2.21 0.84 0.35 1.9
9. 17.4 (16.06) 72.39 11.37 92.69
g.a.i/ha) a (14.01)a (12.1)a (10.0)a (13.1)a (11.84)a (8.54)a (5.25)a (3.39)a (7.94)a

20.53
19.2 19.75 20.42 22.76 24.5 25.87. 26.34 27.29 26
10. Untreated  control 18.21 (26.84)e - 23.4 -
(25.9)e (26.3)e (26.8)e (27.1)e (29.66)e (30.57)e (30.87)e (31.49)e (30.76)e
NS NS
DAT: Days after treatment.
Each Value is the Mean of three replications
Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values
In a column, means followed by same letter(s) are not significantly different at P = 0.05 by DMRT

Krishnaiah,K. 1980. Methodology for assessing crop losses

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Resource- Poor Environments. Agricultural
Economics Research Review. pp .415-424.
Prasad kumar and V. Devappa .2006. Bioeffecacy of
Emamectin benzoate 5 % SG (Proclaim)
against Brinjal shoot and fruit borer. Pestology.
30(3):17-19.
Regupathy, A. and K.P. Dhamu. 2001. Statistics work book
for insecticide toxicology. Softeck Computers,
Coimbatore. pp. 22-24.
Sinha, S.N. and A.K. Chakrabarti. 1982. Evaluation of
chemical control schedules against important
insect pests of brinjal seed crop. Seed Res., 10:
58-65.
Stanley , J., S. Chandrasekaran and A. Regupathy.2007.
Evaluation of Emamectin benzoate against
brinjal fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis
(Guen.). Pesticide. Res. J.,19(1):34-36.
Suman Gupta, R.K. Sharma, S.R. Sinha, R.K. Gupta and
V.T. Gajbhiye.2007. Persistence of some new
insecticides in brinjal and their efficacy against
brinjal leafhopper and borer. Pesticide. Res. J.,
19(2):205-209.
Tripathy, M.K., B. Senapati and R. Patra. 1997. Relationship
of fruiting period and crop age with shoot
and fruit infestation in brinjal by Leucinodes
orbonalis (Guenee) at Bhubaneshwar. Ecol.,
15(1): 142-144.
F.

376
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 377-378 (2015)

UTILIZATION OF SERIWASTE COMPOST AS A SUPPLEMENT TO INORGANIC

FERTILIZER IN HYBRID MAIZE
KALAIYARASAN V
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Dept. of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3.

ABSTRACT
Field experiment were conducted during 2010-2011 at Northern block farm of Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, to evaluate the effect of seriwaste compost with other organics and inorganics on the
growth, yield and economics of hybrid maize. The experiments were laid out in randomized block design with three replica-
tions. Organic manures, viz., seriwaste compost and vermicompost at 5 t ha-1 was imposed along with Nitrogen, Phosphorus
and Potassium levels (150:75:75 kg ha-1), with different Recommended Dose of Fertilizer. Treatments consisted of 100% of
Recommended Dose of Fertilizer, 75% of RDF + 25% Seriwaste compost, 50% of RDF + 50% Seriwaste compost, 25%
of RDF + 75% Seriwaste compost, Seriwaste compost 100% (5 t/ha), Vermicompost 100% (5 t/ha), Seriwaste compost
50% + Vermicompost 50%. The results revealed that application of 50% RDF + 50% seriwaste compost recorded higher
grain yield (6447 kg ha-1), stover yield (11266 kg ha-1), higher net return of Rs. 40688.75 ha-1 and benefit cost ratio of 2.6.
Key words: Maize, Seriwaste, Vermicompost., grain yield and stover yield

INTRODUCTION

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important maize with and without inorganic fertilizers.
cereal crop grown all over the globe as poor man’s food
and also as cattle and poultry feed. With the intention of MATERIALS AND METHODS
achieving evergreen revolution, intensive research in maize
has been started anticipating its importance for enhancing
Field experiment was conducted at Northern
block farm of Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar,
food and feed production. Recycling of crop residues as one
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, during 2010-2011
among the intensive approach has received considerable
to evaluate the effect of seriwaste compost with other
interest in the present day agriculture. Sericulture is one of
organics and inorganics on the productivity of maize. The
a commercially sustainable farm based economic enterprise.
experiments were laid out in randomized block design with
In these farms, the left over mulberry leaves from rearing bed
three replications. Two sources of organics viz., seriwaste
and field and other waste including silk worm litter are not
compost and vermicompost at 5 t ha-1 was imposed along
properly utilized in preparing compost of highly organic and
with Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium levels (150:75:75
nutritive value (Jagadish et al., 2003). Hence, it is essential
kg ha-1), with different Recommended Dose of Fertilizer.
to convert the sericulture farm waste in to valuable compost
Growth and yield parameters were recorded in five randomly
by adopting suitable technology. Keeping above in view, a
selected plants. Grain yield, stover yield were recorded and
new trend of using seriwaste in research trial was carried out
economics were worked out. The data were statistically
to study the effect on growth, yield and economics of hybrid
analyzed and reported.
Table 1. Effect of seriwaste organic and inorganic fertilizer levels on economics of hybrid maize
Stover Gross Cost of
Grain yield Net return B:C
Treatments yield (kg. return (Rs. cultivation
(kg.ha )
-1
(Rs.ha-1) ratio
ha-1) ha-1) (Rs.ha-1)

T1 - 100% of Recommended Dose of Fertilizer 5271 9384 34440.24 12674 21766 1.7

T2 - 75% of RDF + 25% Seriwaste compost 5547 9732 36199.66 11309 24890 2.2
T3 - 50% of RDF + 50% Seriwaste compost 6447 11266 42059.75 11758 30301 2.6
T4 - 25% of RDF + 75% Seriwaste compost 5862 10313 38266.68 11683 26583 2.3
T5 - Seriwaste compost 100% (5 t/ha) 4033 8983 26894.79 11375 15519 1.4
T6 - Vermicompost 100% (5 t/ha) 3790 7977 25133.02 11367 13766 1.2
T7 - Seriwaste compost 50% + Vermicompost 50% 4037 9101 26950.16 11357 15593 1.4
T8 - Absolute control 3297 6630 21769.1 10885 10884 1.0

SEd 159.3 303.4

CD (0.05) 341.7 650.5

377
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Application of 50% RDF + 50% seriwaste compost
higher grain (6447 kg ha-1) yield and stover (11266 kg ha-
1
) was recorded. This might be due to better and adequate
nutrient release from the organic manures. Besides this,
favorable soil physical condition promoted by organic
manure in addition to supplying plant nutrient might have
influenced the growth parameters positively. The results are
in conformity with the findings of Pattanashetti et al. (2002).
The aforesaid treatment reported higher net return of
Rs. 40688.75 ha-1 and benefit: cost ratio of 2.6. This might
be due to application of organic manures and inorganic
fertilizers leads to higher grain productivity of maize
resulted in higher gross and net returns. This is in accordance
with the finding of Skekinah (2004). From the study, it is
imperative that application of seriwaste compost at 50 per
cent combined with 50 per cent RDF to maize would be
advantageous and profitable.
378
REFERENCES
Jagadish, N., K.P. Chinnaswamy, S.S. Raj and
Changalarayappa. 2003. Silkworm excreta as
carrier material in biofertilizer production. In:
“National Conference on Tropical Sericulture
for Global Competitiveness”. Nov 2003.
CSR&TI, Mysore, Abstract. p.48.
Pattanashetti, V.A., C.A. Agasimani and H.B. Babalad. 2002.
Effect of organic Sources and fertilizer levels
on growth, yield and yield attributes of soybean
intercropped with maize in north transitional
tract of Karnataka. Karnataka. Journal of
Oilseeds Research, 19(1): 113-114.
Skekinah, D.E. 2004. Performance of fodder maize based
cropping system in a farming system approach
in western zone of Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal
of Agronomy, 49(1): 22-25.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 379-381 (2015)
STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR QUALITY TRAITS IN WHEAT
(Triticum spp.)

S.R.KASHTE1,S.G.LONAGRE2 AND D.N.INGOLE3.

Department of Agriculture Botany, VNMKV Parbhani (M.S.) 431 402 Department of Agriculture Entomology,
Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104 Department of Agriculture Economics, Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was under taken to study stability analysis for yield and quality traits in wheat (Triticum species) gen-
otypes. The experimental material comprised of thirteen genotypes and four checks. The experiment was conducted in random-
ized block design with three replication with three environment viz., E1 (15 Nov., 2011), E2 (1st Dec., 2011) and E3 (16 Dec., 2011).
Protein content, gluten content and polshenke value and the data was collected and analyzed for analysis of variance, sta-
bility analysis. Analysis of variance for all the genotypes and all the characters were found significant over three environ-
ments. In present investigation, large amount of variation was noticed for all the characters including quality parameters.

KEYWORDS: Stability,Analysis,Quality,Traits,Wheat.

INTRODUCTION :
Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a most widely consumed
cereal crop of the world in variety of forms. Global demand
for wheat by the year 2020 is forecasted around 950 million
tonnes. This target will be achieved only if global wheat
production is increased by 2.5 % per annum. Wheat flour
is also used for the preparation of bread in the industry.
Bread form the major food product accounting 50 per cent
of the total bakery products produced in country (Hanslas,
1998). The production of bread by the bakery industry
provides direct and indirect employment to lakhs of people.
Single most important and major ingredient required for
the production of bread is wheat flour. Wheat is mainly
processed in to refined flour (Maida). To improve the quality
of bread and other bakery products it is a prerequisite and
also important to improve the quality of wheat grain. In this
context ‘gluten’ is the main quality determinant and needs
to be taken care for improvement. The present investigation
was undertaken with the objectives to study the stability,
correlation and path analysis of different genotypes for yield
as well as quality traits in wheat species.
MATERIALS AND METHOD :
The experimental material comprised of seventeen
genotypes of wheat and with four check varieties (LOK-1,
NIAW-301, HD-2189 and NIDW-295). Out of seventeen
genotypes, fourteen genotypes of aestivum and three
genotypes of durum. The experiment was conducted in
randomized block design with three replication with three
environment viz., E1 (15 Nov., 2011), E2 (1st Dec., 2011) and
E3 (16 Dec., 2011).Thirteen different genotypes of wheat with
four checks were sown during rabi 2011-12 in Randomized
Block Design with three replications at Experimental Farm of
Department of Agricultural Botany, College of Agriculture,
VNMKV, Parbhani. The experimental details are given
below. Five plants were selected randomly from each two
row plot from each replication for recording the observations.
Average value of the line for each character was computed
from these plants. Protein content was estimated by Micro
Kjeldhal method, Gluten content were expressed on flour
basis (14% moisture basis) according to AOAC procedure
(1965) and Polshenke value calculated as per the procedure
given by Pushman and Bingham, 1976 The data collected
individual characters subjected to the method of analysis of
variance (Panse and Sukhatme, 1955). The stability analysis
were carried out as per method proposed by Ebberhart and
Russel model (1966). Correlation and path analysis were
analyzed by using the model suggested by Dewey and Lu
(1959) used to partition correlation coefficient into direct
and indirect effects.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION : The data was
collected and analyzed for analysis of variance, stability
analysis, correlation and path analysis. The results obtained
are summarized below.
The genotypes PBW 638, K 0820, JWS
132 and AKDW 4080 showed average stability for protein
content. None of the genotypes showed below average
stability and above average stability for this character.
Similar trend as that of protein content was found for the
gluten content, higher gluten content was found in the
genotypes K 0820 (8.70), NIDW 295 (8.51), JWS 132 (8.35),
AKDW 4080 (8.26) and LOK 1 (8.02). Stability analysis
indicated that only two genotypes i.e. LOK 1 and NIDW
295 exhibited average stability. Below average stability
was recorded for the genotypes JWS 132 and AKDW 4080,
while the genotypes K 0820 had given gluten content above
average stability. The genotypes JWS 132 (160.11), HI 8680
(157.22), HD 2189 (151.22), RAJ 4210 (137.77) and UAS
415 recorded significantly higher polshenke value than the
general mean of population. None of the genotypes showed
average stability for this character. Analysis of variance for
all genotype and all character for all three environments
were found to be significant. In present investigation
large amount of variation was noticed for all the characters
including quality parameter.

379
Table 1.Mean performance of seventeen wheat genotypes over three environments and pooled stability analysis for the
character protein content (%)
Sr. No. Genotypes Environment Pooled mean bi S2di
E1 E2 E3
1 PBW-343 10.74 11.04 11.44 11.07 0.97 -0.16
2 NIAW-1548 10.96 11.29 11.73 11.33 1.06 -0.16
3 UAS-415 10.56 10.86 11.37 10.93 1.11 -0.16
4 PBW-638 12.32 12.66 13.06 12.68 1.01 -0.16
5 MP-3302 10.46 10.83 11.23 10.84 1.05 -0.16
6 K-0820 12.74 13.10 13.50 13.10 1.04 -0.16
7 JWS-132 13.20 13.50 13.90 13.53 0.97 -0.16
8 MP-4080 10.87 11.21 11.61 11.23 1.01 -0.16
9 RAJ-4210 10.95 11.25 11.66 11.28 0.97 -0.16
10 AKDW-4080 13.03 13.33 13.73 13.36 0.96 -0.16
11 NIAW-917 10.36 10.67 11.04 10.67 0.97 -0.16
12 HI-8680 10.34 10.64 11.04 10.67 0.97 -0.16
13 MACS-7273 11.19 11.50 11.90 11.53 0.98 -0.16
14 LOK-1 13.72 13.03 13.43 13.06 0.97 -0.16
15 NIAW-301 10.57 10.86 11.26 10.90 0.95 -0.16
16 HD-2189 11.26 11.56 11.96 11.60 0.96 -0.16
17 NIDW-295 13.34 13.62 14.03 13.66 0.97 -0.16
General mean 11.50 11.82 12.23 11.85
Range 10.34-13.34 10.64-13.62 11.04-14.04
SE + 0.36 0.68 0.65
CD @ 5% 0.74 1.38 1.33

Table 2. Mean performance of seventeen wheat genotypes over three environments and pooled stability analysis for the
character gluten content (%)
Environment
Sr. No. Genotypes Pooled mean bi S2di
E1 E2 E3
1 PBW-343 5.94 5.65 5.44 5.67 1.06 -0.02
2 NIAW-1548 6.79 6.76 6.30 6.62 1.01 0.01
3 UAS-415 6.44 6.29 6.13 6.28 0.64 -0.02
4 PBW-638 6.74 6.44 6.26 6.48 1.01 -0.02
5 MP-3302 6.30 6.35 6.15 6.27 0.31 -0.01
6 K-0820 8.88 8.69 8.54 8.70 0.70 -0.02
7 JWS-132 8.79 8.18 8.07 8.35 1.53 -0.01
8 MP-4080 6.55 6.33 6.14 6.34 0.86 -0.02
9 RAJ-4210 6.60 6.42 6.22 6.41 0.80 -0.02
10 AKDW-4080 8.72 8.14 7.94 8.26 1.67 -0.00
11 NIAW-917 6.78 6.32 6.13 6.41 1.37 -0.01
12 HI-8680 5.91 5.70 5.48 5.70 0.91 -0.02
13 MACS-7273 6.75 6.54 6.25 6.51 1.04 -0.02
14 LOK-1 8.20 8.04 7.81 8.02 0.81 -0.02
15 NIAW-301 6.16 5.88 5.60 5.88 1.19 -0.02
16 HD-2189 6.85 6.64 6.43 6.64 0.86 -0.02
17 NIDW-295 8.79 8.51 8.23 8.51 1.18 -0.02
General mean 7.13 6.87 6.65 6.88
Range 5.91-8.80 5.65-8.69 5.44-8.54
SE + 0.11 0.31 0.17
CD @ 5% 0.24 0.63 0.35

380
Table No 3. Mean performance of seventeen wheat genotypes over three environments and pooled stability analysis for the
character polshenke value

Environment
Sr. No. Genotypes Pooled mean bi S2di
E1 E2 E3
1 PBW-343 75.00 78.33 74.66 76.00 0.36 -7.32
2 NIAW-1548 122.66 117.66 119.33 119.88 1.85 -7.07
3 UAS-415 138.00 140.00 134.33 137.44 2.39 -6.67
4 PBW-638 78.66 81.00 77.66 79.11 0.73 -10.25
5 MP-3302 114.66 110.33 110.33 111.77 2.51 -11.44
6 K-0820 72.00 75.00 68.00 71.66 2.65 -0.304
7 JWS-132 161.66 161.00 157.66 160.11 2.47 -14.54
8 MP-4080 76.33 76.33 72.33 75.00 2.51 -13.29
9 RAJ-4210 140.33 137.66 135.33 137.77 3.01 -15.19
10 AKDW-4080 77.66 76.66 74.66 76.33 1.83 -15.28
11 NIAW-917 120.33 121.66 120.33 120.77 0.06 -14.18
12 HI-8680 156.00 155.66 160.00 157.22 -2.53 -12.46
13 MACS-7273 110.33 107.66 110.33 109.44 -0.13 -10.64
14 LOK-1 75.00 73.66 73.33 74.00 0.98 -15.11
15 NIAW-301 79.66 80.00 77.33 79.00 1.48 -14.12
16 HD-2189 150.00 148.00 155.66 151.22 -3.65 -1.97
17 NIDW-295 125.66 121.00 124.66 123.77 0.40 -3.50
General mean 110.23 109.51 108.58 109.4
Range 72.00-161.00 73.66-161.00 68.00-160.00
SE + 5.60 5.39 5.44
CD @ 5% 11.42 1.99 11.09

REFERENCES : Sinha, A.C. and Singh, H.P. (1974). Studies on the

Pushman, F.M. and Bighum, J. (1976). A rheological test for farinographic and related characteristics of
assessing bread quality. J. Agric. Sci. Comb., improved commercial varieties of Indian wheat
85: 221-231. bull. Grain Technol., 12: 127.

Rakesh Yadav and Singh, T.B. (2003). Stability analysis in Snandloi, K.C., Rao M.V. and Austin, A. (1974). Inneritance
wheat for grain protein. Indian J. of Genetics, of two baking quality characteristics in common
63(4): 337-338. wheat. Indian J. Genetics, 34(4): 646.

Shantha Nagrajan, S. Tripathi, G.P. Singh and H. B.
Chaudhary (2007). Effect of genotype and
environment on quality traits and grain yield of
wheat, Indian Journal of Genetics, 67(2)-.149-
152.
Tyagi, P.K., R.K. Pannu, K.D. Sharma and B.D. Singh,
(2003). Effect of sowing time on performance
of wheat genotypes. Annls. Biol. 19(2):119-
122.

381
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 382-383 (2015)

INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT MULCHES ON PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

FIG (FICUS CARICA L.) CV. DINKAR
S.D. DESHMUKH1*, M.H. DAHALE2 AND S. P. SHERE3
Department of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, AKOLA (M.S.) INDIA

A BSTRACT
Taking into consideration importance of mulching (organic and inorganic) in semi arid agro ecological regions of India we exam-
ine whether the use of different mulches can influence physico-chemical properties of fig. The present investigation was conducted at
‘Central Research Station “ Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola during the year 2013-2014. The experiment was laid
out in Randomized Block Design with seven treatments such as black polythene, silver polythene, bicolor polythene, dry grass, wheat
straw, leaf litter and control (no mulch),replicated three times. The result revealed that tree basin mulch with black polythene sheet
of 200 micron followed by dry grass mulch 12 cm thickness showed better results. In respect of fruit quality such as avg. fruit weight
(46.59 g) and biochemical properties like TSS (19.110 brix), ascorbic acid (9.55 mg/100 g), total sugar (18.14 %) was maximum un-
der black polythene mulch and minimum acidity (0.182 %) was found under black polythene mulch than other mulching treatments .

Key words: Mulching, Ficus carica, physico-chemical properties

INTRODUCTION
Fig (Ficus carica L.) is one of the most ancient fruits
known to mankind which finds its mention in the Bible. It
is thought to be a native to Southern parts of the Arabian
Peninsula, Italy. It is good source of carbohydrates including
fibre. Fresh fruits are in calorie, protein, calcium and iron. Fig
helps to maintain the acid- alkali balance of the body by very
effective neutralizing excess acid. The fruit contains 3.02
per cent (dry weight basis) total acids. Fig is gaining more
importance and preferred in dry land horticulture. As soil and
climatic conditions are suitable for fig cultivation, but due to
insufficient moisture in summer creates more problems. To
mitigate this problem mulching is very important because
it prevents direct evaporation of moisture from the soil and
thus limits the water losses and soil erosion over the surface.
In this manner it plays a positive role in water conservation.
The suppression of evaporation also has a supplementary
effect; it prevents the rise of water containing salt, which is
important in countries with high salt content water resources.
Considering these facts in view, the present study was
carried out to investigate the influence of different mulches
on physico-chemical properties of fig.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
TSS by using hand held refractometer (0-320 Brix) , acidity
determined by titrating the juice against 0.1 N NaOH,
ascorbic acid and total sugar by using standard techniques
(A.O.A.C.,1990). The data collected was analyzed for the
statistical significance and interpretation as described by
Panse and Sukhatme (1985).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
It is the evident from Table 1 that mulching significantly
influenced the physico-chemical properties of fig.
Average fruit weight:
Fruit weight was highest under the treatment of black
polythene mulch (46.59 g) followed by dry grass mulch
(44.88 g) while in control, it was lowest (34.42 g). This
confirms with the results reported in mango by Ghosh and
Bauri (2003) and Shirgure in acid lime (2012) which may
be due to increased absorption of nutrients, moisture and
reduction in weed population.
Table 1: Influence of different mulches on physico-chemical
properties of fig (Ficus carica L.) cv. DINKAR

The present investigation was carried out on fig Treat- Avg. TSS Acidity Ascorbic Total
orchard during the year 2012-13 at the Central Research ments weight of ( Brix)
0 (%) acid sugars
Station, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola. fruit (mg / (%)
The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (gm) 100 g)
with seven treatments. The various treatments such as black T1 46.59 19.11 0.182 9.55 18.14
polythene, silver polythene, bicolour polythene, dry grass, T2 42.71 16.49 0.234 6.48 15.61
wheat straw, leaf litter and control, which were replicated T3 40.70 15.41 0.240 5.98 14.89
three times. The fig plants were spaced at 4m x 4m and T4 44.88 18.01 0.191 8.04 16.97
the mulching was imposed on basin area around the trunk T5 38.96 17.30 0.208 7.39 16.77
during March. The polythene mulch of 200 micron thickness T6 36.50 16.69 0.216 6.92 16.34
and organic mulches of 12 cm thick were applied during T7 34.42 15.08 0.250 5.47 14.18
the study period. The other cultural practices were carried ‘F’ test Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig.
out uniformly. The qualities of fruits were estimated by SE (m)± 0.46 0.18 0.002 0.07 0.17
taking a random sample of 10 fruits from each treatment
CD at 5% 1.42 0.55 0.008 0.24 0.53
at time of harvest. The avg. fruit weight was measured by
weighinggravimetrically and chemical attributessuch as

382
Chemical attributes:
The different mulching treatments conserved soil
moisture during summer months and reduction in weed
population resulted better TSS, ascorbic acid, total sugar and
acidity. The highest TSS (19.11 0 Brix), ascorbic acid (9.55
mg/100 g) and total sugar (18.14 %) was observed under
black polythene mulch followed by dry grass mulch (18.01
0
brix, 8.04 mg/ 100 g and 16.97 %) and lowest found in
control (no mulch).The changes in quality attributes may
probably be due to the results of higher nitrogen availability
under organic mulches whereas, under black polythene
mulch higher soil temperature may be the principal cause.
Also appreciable improvement in fruit quality in terms
of ascorbic acid by various mulching treatment might be
associated with increased in conserving soil moisture which
ultimately caused mobilization of soluble carbohydrates in
the fruits (Nath and Sharma, 1994 and Bal and Singh, 2011).
The acidity was lowest with black polythene mulch (0.182
%) followed by dry grass mulch (0.191 %) and highest
acidity under control (no mulch) similar results found in
apple by Pande et al.(2005).
REFERENCES
A.O.A.C., 1985.Official Methods of Analysis Association
of Official Agricultural Chemists. Washington,
D.C., (USA).
383
Bal, T. S. and S. Singh, 2011. Effect of mulching material
and herbicides on tree growth, yield and fruit
quality of Ber. Indian J. of Horti., 68 (2): 189-
192.
Ghosh, S. N. and F. K. Bauri, 2003. Effect of mulching
on yield and physico-chemical properties of
Mango fruits. The Orissa J. of Hort., Vol. 31
(1): 78-81.
Nath, J. C. and R. Sharma, 1994. A note on the effect of
organic mulches on fruit quality of Assam
lemon (C. limon Burm). Haryana J. Hort. Sci.,
23 (1):46-48.
Pande, K. K., D. C. Dimri and P. Kamboj, 2005. Effect of
various mulches on growth, yield and
quality attributes of Apple. Indian J. Hort., 62
(2): 145-147.
Panse, J.M. and Sukhatme, P. V. (1985). Statistical method
of agricultural workers, ICAR Publication,
New Delhi.
Shirgure, P. S., 2012. Sustainable acid lime fruit production
and soil moisture conservation with different
mulches. Agriculture Engineering Today.
36(3):21-26.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 384-387 (2015)
STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR YIELD TRAITS IN WHEAT
(Triticum spp.)
S.R.KASHTE1,S.G.LONAGRE2 AND D.N.INGOLE3
Department of Agriculture Botany, VNMKV Parbhani (M.S.) 431 402. Departgriment of Aculture Entomology,
Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104. Department of Agriculture Economics, Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104.
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was under taken to study “stability analysis for yield traits in wheat (Triticum species) genotypes”. The experi-
mental material comprised of thirteen genotypes and four checks. Observations were recorded on 1000 grain weight, yield per plant, yield
per plot, yield per hectare. The data was collected and analyzed for analysis of variance, stability analysis. The genotypes under study
responded differently for stability performance for different environments. The genotypes MP 3302, K 0820, MP 4080 and RAJ 4210 were
found to be more stable genotypes for grain yield quintals per hectare and genotypes HI 8680 giving highest yield. However the genotypes
PBW 343, NIAW 917 and HI 8680 had below average stability and these genotypes could be exploited for favourable conditions. The
genotypes NIAW 1548, NIAW 301 and HD 2189 had above average stability.These genotypes may perform well under adverse conditions.

KEYWORDS: Stability Analysis,Yield Traits,Wheat.

INTRODUCTION
Wheat is an annual plant of gramineae family ( sub
family - Poaceae) belongs to the genus Triticum grown in
tropical, sub-tropical as well as temperate zones .It can
tolerate severe cold as well as snowfall and resume growth
with grain setting in a warm weathers. There are 50 wild
species and three species are being cultivated in India viz.,
Triticum dicoccum L. (2n=14) also called as emmer wheat.
Triticum durum L. (2n=28) as macroni wheat and Triticum
aestivum L. (2n=42) as a bread wheat or spring wheat. About
87 per cent of total wheat production is of bread wheat 12 per
cent of durum wheat and very less i.e. 1 per cent of dicoccum
wheat, which is having therapeutic value.
In terms of area and production China rank first
and India ranks second among wheat growing countries in the
world and contribute approximately 30 per cent of the total
food grain production. With the increase in world population
and change in food habits, growing demands for increase
in wheat productivity becomes essential. Its unique gluten
content and associated bread making properties assure its
continuing role in society. Stability of quality characteristics
is becoming an important need for the milling industries and
1000 grain weight. Test weight traits, which can be used to
determine potential flour yield in wheat grain are accepted as
main quality factors by the milling industry.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Thirteen different genotypes of wheat with four checks
were sown during rabi 2011-12 in Randomized Block Design
with three replications at Experimental Farm of Department
of Agricultural Botany, College of Agriculture, VNMKV,
Parbhani. In Petri dish 1000 grains from each replication
were counted and accurately weighed on sensitive balance
the weight of 1000 grain was recorded. Five plants selected
randomly from each replication and then harvested separately
and average weight was recorded as seed yield per plant.
From each replication and each entry the seed is harvested
separately and average weight was recorded as seed yield
per plot. The yield obtained from plot is converted into kg/
ha basis and was recorded in each treatment and replication.
The data collected individual characters subjected to
the method of analysis of variance (Panse and Sukhatme,
1955). The stability analysis were carried out as per method
proposed by Ebberhart and Russel model (1966). It is
an improvement upon the model of Finley and Wilkinson
(1963). According to this model, the regression of the variety
mean on environmental index and a function of the squared
deviations from this regression would provide estimates of
the desired stability parameters . the term stable variety has
been used for a variety that performs above average in all
environments
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The genotypes were evaluated in
randomized block design with three replications to estimate
analysis of variance, stability analysis. Stability analysis data
indicated 46.82 g population mean for seventeen genotypes
and over three environments for 1000 grain weight. many
genotypes exhibited average stability for 1000 grain weight
which was UAS 415, PBW 638, JWS 132, HI 8680 and
Lok 1 indicated suitability these genotypes under all kind
of environments. The genotypes MP 3202, K 0820 and
RAJ 4210 were found to be suitability for favoruable
environment and showed below average stability. None of
the genotypes showed above average stability. These results
are in accordance with the results reported by Bhullar et al.
(1983), Yadav et al. (2008), Singh et al. (2008) and Parveen
et al. (2010) in wheat. General stability for yield per
plant (g) was found in the genotypes NIAW 1548, MP 4080,
RAJ 4210, NIAW 917, HI 8680, Lok 1 and NIAW 301.
Out of these stable genotypes LOK 1 and NIAW 301 are
accepted by the farmers, while the genotypes MP 4080, HI
8680 and RAJ 4210 can be identified as suitable genotypes
for Marathwada region. These genotypes could be identified
as a stable genotypes for any kind of environment. None
of the genotypes showed below average stability and above
average stability similar results were also reported by Bhullar
et al. (1983), Jaydeep (2006) and Gohil and Jadeja (2009)
in wheat. Stability analysis indicated population mean for
the yield per plot at the tune of 1.77 kg. Genotypes MP

384
3302, K 0820, MP 4080 and RAJ 4210 exhibited average 17 NIDW-295 44.33 42.66 39.66 42.22 1.12 -1.29
stability. The genotypes PBW 343, NIAW 917, HI 8680
and MACS 7273 were found to be more suitable under General
48.88 46.84 44.74 46.82
favourable environment as they exhibited below average mean
stability, while above average stability was noticed in the 41.33- 39.33- 37.00-
Range
genotypes NIAW 1548 and NIAW 301 which could do 57.33 54.66 52.66
better under poor environment. Similar results were also SE + 2.01 1.43 1.85
reported by Karale et al. (1997) and Shantha Nagrajan et
CD @ 5% 4.11 2.91 3.77
al. (2007). Performance of genotypes yield per hectare is
the combined effect of different yield contributing traits. In
present investigation followed by further population mean Table 1b.Analysis of variance for pooled stability analysis
for yield per hectare over three environments was 39.47 for 1000 grains weight
quintals. The genotypes MP 3302, K 0820, MP 4080 and Sr. Source of variation d.f. Sum of Mean sum F value
RAJ 4210 exhibited average stability. These genotypes can No. square of square
perform in all kind of environment means timely sown, late 1 Replication with 6 6.10 1.01** 16.20
sown and very late sown i.e. 15th December. These could be environment
identified as photo and thermo insensitive genotypes and
2 Genotypes 16 1476.74 92.29** 1470.38
could be better identified for the Marathwada region. Among
these genotypes K O820 is a durum wheat is coupled with 3 Env + (Geno x Env) 34 149.55 4.39** 70.07
higher yield and more protein content. The genotypes PBW 4 Environment 2 145.50 72.75** 1159.00
343, NIAW 917 and HI 8680. The genotypes NIAW 1548, 5 Genotypes x 32 4.05 0.12NS 2.01
NIAW 301 and HD 2189 were found to be promised for Environment
unfavourable environment as thee exhibited above average 6 Environment (linear) 1 145.50 145.50** 2318.01
stability. The results obtained by the Tyagi et al. (2003), 7 Genotypes x 16 2.98 0.18* 2.97
Negi et al. (2003), Khan et al. (2007) and Parveen et al. Environment (linear)
(2010) in wheat. 8 Pooled deviation 17 1.06 0.06NS 0.03
Table 1a.Mean performance of seventeen wheat genotypes 9 Pooled error 96 153.00 1.59
over three environments and pooled stability analysis for 10 Total 50 1626.30 32.52
the character 1000 grains weight (g)
* Significant at 5% level against pooled error
Sr. Environment Pooled ** Significant at 1% level against pooled error
Genotypes bi S2di
No. mean
E1 E2 E3 NS – Non significant
1 PBW-343 45.66 44.66 42.66 44.33 0.72 -1.40 2.a.Mean performance of seventeen wheat genotypes over
three environments and pooled stability analysis for the
2 NIAW-1548 44.00 41.00 38.66 41.22 1.28 -1.46
character yield/plot (kg)
3 UAS-415 50.33 48.33 46.33 48.33 0.96 -1.55
Sr. Genotypes Environment Pooled bi S2di
4 PBW-638 54.66 58.33 51.33 53.11 0.80 -1.49 No. E1 E2 E3 mean
1 PBW-343 2.10 2.04 1.94 2.03 1.72 -0.008
5 MP-3302 57.33 54.66 52.66 54.88 1.12 -1.47
2 NIAW-1548 1.82 1.80 1.75 1.79 0.76 -0.008
6 K-0820 54.33 51.33 49.33 51.66 1.20 -1.36 3 UAS-415 1.75 1.71 1.66 1.70 0.92 -0.008
4 PBW-638 1.69 1.66 1.66 1.65 0.93 -0.008
7 JWS-132 56.33 54.33 52.33 54.33 0.96 -1.55 5 MP-3302 1.86 1.80 1.75 1.80 1.05 -0.008
6 K-0820 1.83 1.78 1.72 1.77 1.05 -0.008
8 MP-4080 45.33 43.33 40.33 43.33 0.96 -1.55 7 JWS-132 1.60 1.56 1.52 1.56 0.82 -0.008
8 MP-4080 1.87 1.83 1.77 1.82 0.96 -0.008
9 RAJ-4210 54.66 52.00 50.00 52.22 1.12 -1.47 9 RAJ-4210 1.82 1.79 1.74 1.78 0.89 -0.008
10 AKDW-4080 1.67 1.64 1.60 1.63 0.78 -0.008
AKDW-
10 43.66 41.33 39.33 41.44 1.04 -1.53 11 NIAW-917 2.05 1.96 1.89 1.97 1.58 -0.007
4080
12 HI-8680 2.19 2.13 2.04 2.12 1.54 -0.008
11 NIAW-917 41.66 39.66 37.66 39.66 0.96 -1.55 13 MACS-7273 1.81 1.79 1.70 1.77 1.19 -0.008
14 LOK-1 1.68 1.68 1.65 1.67 0.35 -0.008
12 HI-8680 51.66 50.00 48.00 49.88 0.88 -1.54 15 NIAW-301 1.85 1.82 1.77 1.81 0.79 -0.008
16 HD-2189 1.76 1.73 1.69 1.73 0.78 -0.008
MACS-
13 41.33 39.33 37.00 39.22 1.04 -1.54 17 NIDW-295 1.56 1.52 1.48 1.52 0.81 -0.008
7273
General 1.82 1.78 1.72 1.77
14 LOK-1 53.66 52.33 50.33 52.11 0.80 -1.49 mean
Range 1.56- 1.52- 1.48-
15 NIAW-301 43.33 41.33 39.33 41.33 0.96 -1.55 2.19 2.13 2.04
SE + 0.13 0.11 0.12
16 HD-2189 48.66 46.66 44.66 46.66 0.96 -1.55 CD @ 5% 0.28 0.22 0.25

385
Table 2b.Analysis of variance for pooled stability analysis 5 Genotypes x Environ- 32 4.34 0.13** 3.56
for yield per plot ment
6 Environment (linear) 1 42.20 42.20** 1108.55
Sr. Source of variation d.f. Sum of Mean sum F value
7 Genotypes x Environ- 16 3.69 0.23** 6.07
No. square of square
ment (linear)
1 Replication with 6 0.04 0.008** 109.42
8 Pooled deviation 17 0.64 0.03NS 0.02
environment
9 Pooled error 96 150.86 1.57
2 Genotypes 16 1.16 0.07** 955.42
10 Total 50 617.76 12.35
3 Env + (Geno x Env) 34 0.09 0.002** 35.21
4 Environment 2 0.08 0.04** 530.48 * Significant at 5% level against pooled error
5 Genotypes x 32 0.01 0.00** 4.25 ** Significant at 1% level against pooled error
Environment
6 Environment (linear) 1 0.08 0.08** 1060.96 NS – Non significant
7 Genotypes x 16 0.00 0.00** 7.44
Environment (linear) CONCLUSION
8 Pooled deviation 17 0.00 0.00NS 0.01 The genotypes under study responded differently
9 Pooled error 96 0.75 0.00 for stability performance for different environments. The
10 Total 50 1.25 0.02 genotypes MP 3302, K 0820, MP 4080 and RAJ 4210
were found to be more stable genotypes for grain yield per
* Significant at 5% level against pooled error hectare. However the genotypes PBW 343, NIAW 917 and
** Significant at 1% level against pooled error HI 8680 had below average stability and these genotypes
could be exploited for favourable conditions of the form
NS – Non significant which rich / progressive farmers can afford. The genotypes
Table 3a.Mean performance of seventeen wheat genotypes NIAW 1548, NIAW 301 and HD 2189 had above average
over three environments and pooled stability analysis for the stability and these are the genotypes of poor farmers as these
character yield/ha (q) genotypes do well under adverse conditions for most of the
yield contributing char
Sr. Genotypes Environment Pooled bi S2di
No. E1 E2 E3 mean i) Average stability over environment :- Screening of
1 PBW-343 46.81 45.47 43.10 45.13 1.68 -1.51 wheat genotype for average stability revealed that
2 NIAW-1548 40.59 39.99 38.95 39.84 0.74 -1.54 the genotypes MP 3302, K 0820, MP 4080 and RAJ
3 UAS-415 38.88 38.07 36.88 37.94 0.90 -1.55 4210 showed average stability for grain yield per
4 PBW-638 37.55 36.95 35.55 36.68 0.91 -1.51 hectare.
5 MP-3302 41.33 40.14 39.03 40.16 1.02 -1.52 ii) Stability for favourable environment : Screening
6 K-0820 40.66 39.55 38.36 39.52 1.02 -1.54 of wheat genotypes for favourable environment
7 JWS-132 35.62 34.81 33.84 34.76 0.79 -1.55 recorded that the genotypes PBW 343, NIAW
8 MP-4080 41.55 40.66 39.47 40.56 0.93 -1.55 917 and HI 8680 were the genotypes suitable for
9 RAJ-4210 40.58 39.77 38.33 39.56 1.02 -1.53 favoruable environment i.e. suitable for timely
10 AKDW-4080 37.25 36.44 35.55 36.41 0.76 -1.55 sowing (15thNovember) and recommended in
11 NIAW-917 45.62 43.55 42.14 43.77 1.54 -1.32 breeding programme.Stability for poor environment
12 HI-8680 48.73 47.33 45.40 47.15 1.50 -1.55 : The wheat genotypes NIAW 1548, NIAW 301 and
13 MACS-7273 40.37 39.84 37.84 39.35 1.16 -1.34 HD 2189 were the desirable performing genotypes
14 LOK-1 38.14 37.33 36.66 37.37 0.65 -1.53
15 NIAW-301 41.18 40.51 39.47 40.39 0.77 -1.55 under poor environment for grain yield per hectare.
16 HD-2189 39.25 38.51 37.55 38.44 0.76 -1.55
17 NIDW-295 34.81 33.84 33.03 33.89 0.79 -1.52
General 40.52 39.57 38.30 39.47
REFERENCES
mean Eberhart, S.A. and W.A. Ressel (1966). Stability parameters
Range 34.81- 33.84- 33.03- for comparing varieties. Crop Sci., 6: 36-40.
48.79 47.33 45.40
SE + 1.68 1.89 1.63 Finley, K.W. and Wilkinson, G.N. (1963). The analysis
CD @ 5% 3.43 4.03 3.32 of adaptation in a plant breeding programme.
Ayst. J. Agric. Research, 14: 742-754.
Table 3B.Analysis of variance for pooled stability analysis
for yield per hectare Gohil, D.P. and G.C. Jadeja (2009). Phenotypic stability in
durum wheat (T. aestivum) for grain yield and
Sr. Source of variation d.f. Sum of Mean sum F value component characters under conserved soil
No. square of square moisture. Crop Res. (Hisar), 113(38): 147-155.
1 Replication with envi- 6 7.72 1.28** 33.83
ronment Jayaeep Banerjee R. S. Rawat and J. S. Verma (2006).
2 Genotypes 16 571.22 35.70** 937.83 Stability analysis in bread wheat (Triticum
3 Env + (Geno x Env) 34 46.54 1.36** 35.96 aestivum L. em. Thell) and durum wheat
4 Environment 2 42.20 21.10** 554.27 (T. durum L.) Genotypes, Indian Journal of

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Khan, J.A., S.B. Izar Rasul and Muhammad Zulkifal Mujhid
Hussain, (2007). Effect of sowing dates on
yield and yield components in wheat using
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Biol. 9(1):129-132.
Negi, S.C., B.S. Mankotia and R.S. Rana, (2003).
Performance of wheat varieties (Triticum
aestivum) at different dates of sowing in North
Western Himalaya. Agril. Sci. Digest. 23(1):55-
56.
Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. (1955). Statistical methods
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Parveen Latafat, Iftikhar Hussain Khalil and Shad K. Khalil,
(2010). Stability parameters for tillers, grain
weight and yield of wheat cultivars in North-
West of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 42(3):1613-1617
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Shantha Nagrajan, S. Tripathi, G.P. Singh and H. B.
Chaudhary (2007). Effect of genotype and
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Singh, T.A., F.A. Monika Pathania, (2008). G x E interaction
and phenotypic stability for yield and its
component traits in bread wheat. Prog. Agril.
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Tyagi, P.K., R.K. Pannu, K.D. Sharma and B.D. Singh,
(2003). Effect of sowing time on performance
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 388-390 (2015)
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT PYRETHROIDS ALONE AND IN COMBINATION WITH
DIMETHOATE AGAISNT Spodoptera litura OF SOYBEAN
S.G.LONAGRE1,S.R.KASHTE2 AND D.N.INGOLE3
Departgriment of Aculture Entomology, Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104.
Department of Agriculture Botany, VNMKV Parbhani (M.S.) 431 402.
Department of Agriculture Economics, Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104.

ABSTRACT
Field experiment on “Efficacy of different pyrethroids alone and in combination with dimethoate against Spodoptera litura of soybean.”
was conducted during Kharif season of 2011-2012 on field of Department of Entomology, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyap-
eeth, Akola. The experiment was planned in Randomized Block Design with gross plot size 4.5× 3.0 m2 and Net Plot Size 3.6 × 2.6
m2 with twelve treatments replicated thrice with the object to study the effect of synthetic pyrethroids in combination with dimetho-
ate on the incidence of Spodoptera litura of soybean. The result revealed that Most of the data regarding Spodoptera litura on soy-
bean at different interval after each spray was found to be non-significant.Treatment deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% + dimethoate
30 EC @ 0.045%, triazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready mix formulation) @ 0.09% were found significantly effective in
minimizing the larval population of Spodoptera litura at 3 days after first spray. Lastly economics were calculated for each treatment.

KEYWORDS:Efficacy, pyrethroids,spodoptera litura.Soybean.

INTRODUCTION
Soybean is legume native to East Asia, that is grown
for oil and protein around the world, cultivated primarily in
warm and hot climates. Soybean is known as the ‘golden
bean’ of the 20th century, though soybean has emerged as
one of the important commercial crop in many countries.
Soybean is major oilseed crop of the world. On the global
scale, it became top on the list of oilseed crop in India to
increase the edible oil resources in the country due to high
yield potential. It contributes 21 per cent of Indian vegetable
oil pool in 2003-2004 (Hegde, 2005). Soybean is reported
to be attacked by 273 species with an extensive rise in area
under soybean cultivation. The pest problem has also been
increase, severely minimize the yield level. This crop is
attacked by 88 insect species belongs to six different order
and mites. Most economic injury caused by 25 insects belongs
to order Lepidoptera and Hemiptera. Now days everywhere
there is a severe problem of timely availability of labour in
rural area for the application of plant protection chemical. In
order to manage defoliators insect and to save labour, time
and economics on plant protection there is popular practice
among farmer for mixing of different chemicals. Hence to
find out suitable, economical and effective combinations of
insecticides against Spodoptera litura.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Field experiment was conducted during Kharif
season of 2011-2012. Variety JS-335 was sown in the
plots, on field of Department of Entomology, Dr. Panjabrao
Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola. To evaluate “Efficacy
of different pyrethroids alone and in combination with
dimethoate against Spodoptera litura of soybean.” The
experiment was planned in Randomized Block Design with
twelve treatments replicated thrice. The twelve treatments
used in present study were consisting of cypermethrin 25
EC @ 0.01%, deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028%, fenvalerate
20 EC @ 0.01%, alpha cypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003%
, dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045%, cypermethrin 25 EC @
0.01% + dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045%, deltamethrin 2.8
EC @ 0.0028% + dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045%, fenvalerate
20 EC @ 0.01% + dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045%, alpha
cypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003% + dimethoate 30 EC @
0.045%, triazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready
mix formulation ) @ 0.09%, triazophos 40 EC @ 0.06%
+ deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% and (Untreated) control.
The present investigation was undertaken to study the effect
of synthetic pyrethroids in combination with dimethoate on
the incidence of Spodoptera litura of soybean. Three sprays
were undertaken at 30 days after sowing at an interval of
15 days. Post treatment observation on population reduction
of Spodoptera litura at 3, 7 and 14 days after each spray.
Population count of number of larvae per meter row length
of Spodoptera litura, was recorded at 5 spot in plot. The
data thus obtained from above experiment was subjected to
statistical analysis.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The data presented in Table 1 indicate the
deltamethrin @ 0.0028% + dimethoate @ 0.045% and
triazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready mix
formulation) @ 0.09% followed by triazophos @ 0.06%
+ deltamethrin @ 0.0028%, fenvalerate @ 0.01% , alpha
cypermethrin @ 0.003%, fenvalerate @ 0.01% + dimethoate
@ 0.045%, alpha cypermethrin @ 0.003% + dimethoate @
0.045%, dimethoate @ 0.045%, cypermethrin @ 0.01%
and deltamethrin @ 0.0028% were found significantly
most effective in minimizing the mean larval population of
Spodoptera litura at 3 days after 1st spray. Present findings
of insecticides alone are in conformity with the report of
Ansari et. al., (2002) who stated that cypermethrin 25 EC
@ 0.01% and fenvalerate 20 EC @ 0.01% were found most
effective against Spodoptera litura of soybean. But, other
combinations treatment could not be compare due to want
of literature. The data presented in Table 2 regarding yield
shows that dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045% reported highest

388
yield (22.81q/ha) followed by Alpha cypermethrin @ 0.003%
+ dimethoate@0.045%(20.39 q/ha), Alpha cypermethrin @
0.003%(20.30 q/ha), Ttriazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1%
(36% Ready mix formulation) @ 0.09%(20.10 q/ha) and
cypermethrin 0.01%(20.00q/ha), were found most effective
in recording highest yield of soybean. Present findings
are in agreement with Parmar et al., (2004) reported that
dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045% yielded highest seed yield
of castor against leaf hoppers, Sangle et al.,(2004) he had
reported that diflubenzuron 5%+ alphacypermethrin 2.5%@
4000 g/ha yielded highest quantity of grain yield (695 kg/ha)
against Helicoverpa armigera in cotton.
Also Vadodaria et al., (1998) studied bioefficacy on
readymix insecticides against pests of cotton and found that
Triazophos 35% + Delt. 1% @ 0.09 % (Readymix) yielded
highest quantity of grain yield (2056 kg/ha). But, other
treatment could not be compared due to want of literature

Table 1: Mean larval population of semilooper per mrl.

Days after 1stspraying Days after 2nd spraying Days after 3rd spraying
Sr.
Treatment
No. 3DAS 7DAS 14DAS 3DAS 7DAS 14DAS 3DAS 7DAS
14DAS
(**) (**) (**) (**) (**) (*) (**) (**)
1 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.40 2.13 0.60 0.06
Cyp 25 EC @ 0.01% 0
(0.71) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.95) (1.46) (1.05) (0.75)
0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 1.66 0.86 0.13
2 Delt 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% 0
(0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.87) (1.29) (1.17) (0.79)

0.13 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.46 2.06 0.86 0.06

3 Fenv 20 EC @ 0.01% 0
(0.79) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.98) (1.44) (1.17) (0.75)

0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.40 1.66 0.80 0.13

4 Alph cyp 10 EC @ 0.003% 0
(0.71) (0.75) (0.75) (0.71) (0.99) (1.29) (1.14) (0.79)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 1.73 1.60 0.13

5 Dim 30 EC @ 0.045% 0
(0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.75) (1.32) (1.45) (0.79)
Cyp 25 EC 0.01%+ Dim 30 EC@ 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.53 1.80 0.66 0.00
6 0
0.045% (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.75) (1.01) (1.34) (1.08) (0.71)

Delt 2.8 EC @ 0.0028%+Dim 30 EC 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.60 1.80 0.73 0.06
7 0
@ 0.045% (0.75) (0.75) (0.75) (0.71) (1.05) (1.34) (1.11) (0.75)

Fenv 20 EC @0.01%+Dim 30 EC @ 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 1.26 0.53 0.13
8 0
0.045% (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.79) (1.12) (1.01) (0.79)
Alph cyp 10 EC @ 0.003%+ Dim 30 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.30 1.26 0.46 0.06
9 0
EC @ 0.045% (0.71) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.89) (1.12) (0.98) (0.75)

0.66
Triazophos 35% + Delt 1% @ 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.46 1.00 0.06
10 (1.08) 0
0.09%(Readymix) (0.71) (0.71) (0.75) (0.75) (0.98) (1.00) (0.75)

Triazophos 40 EC @ 0.06% + Delt 2.8 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.46 1.00 1.26 0.06
`11 0
EC @ 0.0028% (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.98) (1.00) (1.33) (0.75)

Control 0.40 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.53 3.73 1.30 0.06

12 0
(0.95) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (1.01) (1.93) (1.34) (0.75)
‘F’ test Sig NS NS NS NS NS NS NS -
SE (m)± 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.20 0.16 0.04 -
CD (p = 0.05) 0.09 - - - - - - - -
CV% 7.13 7.09 5.21 4.37 16.76 28.02 24.47 9.36 -

NB : Figure in parentheses indicates (*)√x value

Figure in parentheses indicates (**)√x+ 0.5 value

389
Table 2: Yield of soybean q/ha: CONCLUSION:
Avg. From the above results it can be concluded that the
Avg.
Sr. Yield deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% + dimethoate 30 EC @
Treatment RI R II R II yield
No. kg/ 0.045%, triazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready mix
qt /ha
plot formulation) @ 0.09% were found significantly effective in
1 Cyp 25 EC @ 0.01% 1.860 1.840 1.910 1.870 20.00 minimizing the larval population of Spodoptera litura at 3
days after first spray.
Delt 2.8 EC @
2 1.790 1.830 1.840 1.820 19.45 Dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045% was found to be the
0.0028% most economical treatment in recording highest yield
(22.81q/ha) followed by, Alpha cypermethrin 10 EC @
3 Fenv 20 EC @ 0.01% 1.620 1.820 1.690 1.710 18.30
0.003% + Dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045% (20.39q/ha) Alpha
Alph cyp 10 EC @ cypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003% (20.30q/ha), Triazophos
4 1.860 1.930 1.910 1.900 20.30 35% + Deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready mix formulation) @
0.003%
0.09%(20.10 q/ha) and Cypermethrin @ 0.01%(20.00q/ha).
5 Dim 30 EC @ 0.045% 2.030 2.180 2.180 2.130 22.81
Cyp 25 EC 0.01%+ REFERENCE:
6 1.740 1.720 1.820 1.760 18.80
Dim 30 EC@ 0.045% Ansari, M.S., M. Asif Ali and SK. MD. Azizur Rahman,
Delt 2.8 EC @ 2002. Evaluation of insecticides on tobacco
7 0.0028%+Dim 30 EC 1.790 1.860 1.770 1.840 19.70 caterpillar, Spodoptera litura Fab. (LEP:
@ 0.045% Noctuidae). Pestology 26(5): 31-33.
Fenv 20 EC Hedge, D. M. 2005. Striving for self sufficiency. The Hindu
8 @0.01%+Dim 30 EC 1.820 1.790 1.940 1.850 19.80 Survey of Indian Agriculture,58-63
@ 0.045%
Parmar, P. D., H. J. Vyas and R. R. Rathod, 2004.Efficacy
Alph cyp 10 EC @
and economics of insecticides against
9 0.003%+ Dim 30 EC 1.950 1.900 1.880 1.910 20.39 Castor leaf hopper, Jacobiasca furcostylus
@ 0.045% (Ramakrishnan and Menon). Indian J. of Plant
Triazophos 35% Protection.32(1):135-137
10 + Delt. 1% @ 1.890 1.860 1.890 1.880 20.10 Sangle, P.D., P.P. Kausale, D.W. Wadnerkar and P.R.
0.09%(Readymix) Zanwar, 2004. Efficacy of Diflubenzuron
Triazophos 40 EC @ 5% + Alphacypermethrin 2.5% WP against
Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) in cotton.
`11 0.06% + Delt 2.8 EC 1.810 1.850 1.830 1.830 19.60
Pestology 28(10): 81-83.
@ 0.0028%
Vadodaria, M.P., I. M.Maisuria, R.B. Patel, C.J. Patel and
12 Control 1.470 1.420 1.460 1.450 15.32 R. H. Patel, 1998. Bioefficacy of Readymix
insecticides against pests of cotton. Pestology
‘F’ test Sig Sig
22(9):43-47.
SE (m)± 0.03 0.32
CD (p = 0.05) 0.09 0.96
CV% 7.61 7.61

390
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 391-393 (2015)
CORRELATION ANALYSIS FOR SEED YIELD AND ITS ATTRIBUTES IN PARENTS AND
F1 GENERATION IN BLACKGRAM (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper).
A.V.S. DURGA PRASAD* AND E. MURUGAN
Dept. of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai - 625 104. India.

ABSTRACT :
An investigation was conducted with 14 parents and their 33 F1 crosses in blackgram to study the correlation be-
tween seed yield and its component traits. The results of correlation analysis revealed that the seed yield per plant was
found to be highly significant positively correlated with number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant and hun-
dred seed weight in parental generation whereas in F1 generation, significant positive association of number of clus-
ters per plant, number of pods per plant, pod length, number of seeds per plant and hundred seed weight with seed yield was ob-
served. Hence selection based on these traits would be highly effective and efficient in enhancing the seed yield in blackgram.

Key words : Blackgram, correlation, yield components

INTRODUCTION
Blackgram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) is one of
the nutritious pulse crops, popularly known as the mash,
mashbean and urdbean. It is an important edible short
duration autogamous grain legume cultivated as a sole crop,
mixed crop, catch crop, sequential crop and rice-fallow pulse
crop under semi irrigated and dryland conditions. Its seeds
are highly nutritious with protein (25-26%), carbohydrates
(60%), fat (1.5%), minerals, aminoacids and vitamins. Like
other pulses, it also enriches the soil fertility, improves the soil
structure and used as green fodder for cattle. Lack of stable
high yielding varieties is a major bottleneck hindering the
crop yields. Therefore from breeding perspective, selection
of elite genotypes is of paramount significance. As seed yield
is a complex polygenic character and is strongly influenced
by environmental factors, it is of utmost importance to
explore the interrelationship of yield component with
highly heritable characters and giving selection pressure on
these characters, which account for the indirect selection.
Association studies elucidate the type, nature and magnitude
of correlation between seed yield and its components to
permit selection by which simultaneous improvement of
more than one character is possible. Genotypic correlation is
the correlation of breeding values i.e., (Additive + Additive
gene action). Knowledge of inter-relationships existing
among yield components is vital for selection efficacy in
crop improvement. Hence, the present study was undertaken
to estimate the correlation coefficients in order to formulate
selection criteria for evolving high yielding elite genotypes
in blackgram.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Each of fourteen genotypes comprising of 11 MYMV
susceptible lines viz., ACM 05007, MDU (Bg)1, ADT
3, Co 5, Co 6, LBG 623, LBG 645, LBG 685, LBG 709,
TMV 1, VBN (Bg) 5 and three resistant donors PU 31, VBN
(Bg) 4 and VBN (Bg) 6, used as parents were sown in three
staggered sowings at 10 days interval to obtain synchrony
in flowering and crosses were effected in L x T fashion
at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai
during October, 2013. Crossing was done as per the method
suggested by Boiling et al. (1961). All 47 entries comprising
of 14 parents and 33 F1 hybrids were then evaluated in
RBD replicated twice by adopting a spacing of 30 cm x
10 cm during July, 2014 at NPRC, Vamban. Recommended
agronomical practices were adopted to raise the crop.
Biometrical observations were taken on 10 randomly
selected plants in each replication for nine quantitative traits
viz., days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height (cm), number
of branches per plant, number of clusters per plant, number
of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, hundred seed
weight (g) and seed yield per plant (g). The phenotypic and
genotypic correlation coefficients were calculated using the
method advocated by Johnson et al. (1955).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The genetic architecture of seed yield, a polygenic trait
in blackgram as well as other crops, is based on the balance
or overall net effect produced by various yield components
directly with one another. Therefore, identification of
important yield components and information about their
association with yield and also with each other is very
useful in selecting elite genotypes for evolving high yielding
varieties. In this context, correlation coefficient which
provides symmetrical measurement of degree of association
between two variables or characters, help us in understanding
the nature and magnitude of association among yield and
yield components.
In the present investigation, correlation coefficients
were computed among nine characters in parental and their
F1 generation separately. The results on correlation analysis
in parental generation indicated that significant positive
phenotypic and large genotypic association of pods per plant,
number of seeds per plant and hundred seed weight were
observed with seed yield per plant (Table 1). Hence, these
traits could be utilized in indirect selection so as to improve
the seed yield per plant. Similar results were reported with
seed yield for number of pods per plant by Chauhan et al.
(2007), Isha Parveen et al. (2011), Bharti et al. (2013), Gaur
et al. (2014), Singh et al. (2014), Vijay Kumar et al. (2014)
for number of seeds per plant by Kodanda Rami Reddy et al.
(2011), Singh et al. (2014), Vijay Kumar et al. (2014) and for
hundred seed weight by Isha Parveen et al. (2011) Gaur et al.
(2014) and Singh et al. (2014).

391
 Similarly, plant height showed significant positive
association with number of branches per plant indicating
selection of the tall plants could result in increased branches
per plant. On contrary, plant height exhibited highly
significant negative correlation with number of pods per
plant and number of seeds per plant indicating that selection
of tall plants reduces the pods per plant, seeds per plant
and seed yield per plant. The trait days to 50% flowering
recorded significant positive association with plant height,
number of clusters per plant and pod length while significant
negative association was noted with pods per plant. The
number of branches per plant showed significant positive
association with number of clusters per plant. The trait
number of clusters per plant exhibited significant positive
association with pod length implying more clusters may
increase pod length in a linear fashion. The trait number of
pods per plant exhibited significant positive association with
number of seeds per plant, hundred seed weight. Pod length
showed significant negative association with hundred seed
weight which reveals that selection for more pod length led
to reduced hundred seed weight; therefore it is a handicap
to raise the yield level. The trait number of seeds per pod
showed significant positive association with hundred seed
weight.
In F1 generation, number of clusters per plant, number
of pods per plant, pod length, number of seeds per pod and
hundred seed weight showed highly significant positive
association with seed yield per plant (Table 2.). Hence these
traits could be selected indirectly in order to improve the
seed yield per plant. Similar kind of significant positive
associations of clusters per plant and pods per plant with seed
yield were reported by Chauhan et al. (2007), Isha Parveen
et al. (2011), Bharti et al. (2013) and Vijay Kumar et al.
(2014). Days to 50% flowering showed positive significant
TABLE 1. CHARACTER ASSOCIATION IN PARENTAL GENOTYPES FOR SEED YIELD AND ITS COMPONENTS
IN BLACKGRAM
association with plant height. Plant height exhibited positive
significant association with clusters per plant, pods per plant
and seeds per pod. Number of branches per plant showed
positive significant association with number of clusters per
plant and pod length. Number of clusters per plant exhibited
positive significant association with number of pods per
plant and pod length. Number of pods per plant showed
positive significant association with pod length, number of
seeds per plant, and hundred seed weight. Pod length showed
significant positive association with number of seeds per
plant. Thus it was observed that the occurrence of positive
association at significant level of seed yield with majority
of its component traits and positive association between
most of the yield components reveals less complex inter-
relationships between yield and yield components. Such
situation is favorable from breeding point of view because
selection for one trait may bring correlated response for
improvement of other traits which are positively associated
with it.
Based on the results and foregoing discussion on
correlation analysis in both parental and F1 generation,
it was inferred that the traits number of pods per plant,
number of seeds per pod and hundred seed weight showed
positive significant association with seed yield. Hence,
these characters must be given prime importance while
formulating selection criteria in segregating generation to
evolve promising high yielding elite genotypes for seed
yield in blackgram.
Acknowlegdements : The first author is highly grateful
to ANGRAU and ICAR for providing deputation and Senior
Research Fellowship (SRF) respectively to carry out the
research during Ph.D Programme at TNAU, Coimbatore.

CHARACTER   PLH NBP NCP NPP POL NSP HSW Correlation with SYP
rp 0.4362  0.5195* 0.5669* -0.4226  0.6517** -0.0502 -0.4074 -0.4358  
DFF
rg 0.4691* 0.6571**  0.6113*  -0.5122*  0.7096** -0.2076 -0.4356  -0.5136 *
rp   0.5050* 0.1090  -0.5668*   0.1262 -0.4240  -0.4343  -0.6278 **
PLH
rg   0.5765*  0.1086 -0.6010*   0.1270 -0.4823*  -0.4383 -0.6342 **
rp     0.4277  -0.0059 0.1961  0.1724  0.0075  -0.0029 
NBP
rg     0.4915 * 0.0714   0.1798 0.2252   0.0012 0.0081 
rp       -0.1637 0.7642 ** -0.0477  -0.2345  -0.1169 
NCP
rg       -0.1796  0.7791 ** -0.0713  -0.2388 -0.1240 
rp       -0.5114 * 0.6314 ** 0.7982**   0.9517**
NPP
rg         -0.5185 * 0.7394 ** 0.8352 ** 0.9929** 
rp           -0.1904  -0.4616*  -0.4398 
POL
rg           -0.2668  -0.4618 * -0.4485
rp             0.5966*  0.6963 **
NSP
rg             0.7082** 0.7770** 
rp               0.8776 **
HSW
rg               0.8851 **
* Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level
DFF - Days to 50 per cent flowering POL - Pod length
PLH - Plant height NSP - Number of seeds per pod
NBP - Number of branches per plant HSW - 100 seed weight
NCP - Number of clusters per plant SYP - Seed yield per plant
NPP - Number of pods per plant

392
TABLE 2. CHARACTER ASSOCIATION IN F1 GENERATION FOR SEED YIELD AND ITS COMPONENTS IN
BLACKGRAM

CHARACTER   PLH NBP NCP NPP POL NSP HSW Correlation with SYP
rp 0.1173  -0.0437  0.0103 -0.1499  0.1346  -0.1979 0.1092  -0.0648 
DFF
rg 0.2844 * -0.0457  0.0266 -0.2124  0.1403  -0.2094 0.1398  -0.0695  
rp   0.1329  0.2967 * 0.3235*  0.2091  0.3224* 0.0070  0.1995 
PLH
rg   0.2096  0.4008**  0.5206** 0.2654  0.3826 *    0.0061 0.3531 
rp     0.5252 ** 0.1104  0.3810*  0.0180  0.0072  0.1774 
NBP
rg     0.5394 ** 0.1155  0.4128**  0.0466  0.0187  0.1853 
rp       0.3861 ** 0.4922 ** 0.2230   0.1359 0.3781*
NCP
rg       0.3999 ** 0.5132**  0.2572  0.1417  0.3866**
rp         0.3981**  0.5901**  0.3816*  0.8120 **
NPP
rg         0.4381**  0.6680**  0.4134**  0.8325**
rp           0.2915* 0.1316   0.5171**
POL
rg           0.2985* 0.1412  0.5816** 
rp              0.2047 0.6437 **
NSP
rg             0.2033   0.6944**
rp                0.4632 **
HSW
rg                0.4896**

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Bharti, B., Rajesh Kumar, H.N. Bind, A. Kumar and variability in soybean. Agron J., 47: 314-318.
V.Sharma. 2013. Correlation and Path Kodanda Rami Reddy, D., O. Venkateswarulu, M.C. Obaiah
analysis for yield and yield components in and G.L. Siva Jyothi. 2011. Genetic
blackgram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper). estimates, association and path co-efficient
Progressive Res.,8 (Special) : 473-476. analysis in blackgram (Vigna mungo (L.)
Chauhan, M.P., A.C. Mishra and A.K.Singh. 2007. Hepper). The Andhra Agric. J. 58(3) : 306-309.
Correlation and path analysis in Singh, A.K., R.K. Gautam, P.K. Singh, K.Kumar, N. Kumar,
urdbean. Legume Res., 30(3):205-208. S.Swain and S.D. Roy. 2014. Estimation of
Gaur, M., Y. Singh and D.K. Mishra. 2014. Correlation and genetic variability and association analysis in
path analysis for yield contributing the indigenous landraces of u r d b e a n
characters in urdbean. JNKVV Res., J., 48(3): (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) of Andaman islands.
288-292. Vegetos, 27 (1) : 113-122.

Isha Parveen, S., M. Reddi Sekhar, D. Mohan Reddy and P. Vijay Kumar, G., M. Vanaja, P. Sathish, P. Vagheera, S.S.
Sudhakar. 2011. Correlation and Shishodia and Abdul Razak. 2014.
path coefficient analysis for yield and yield Correlation and path analysis of seed yield and
components in blackgram (Vigna mungo yield contributing components of
(L.) Hepper). International J. Appl. Biol. blackgram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) under
Pharmaceut. Tech., 2(3): 619-625. rainfed condition from Andhra Pradesh, India.
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Johnson, H.W., H.O. Robinson and R.E. Comstock. 1955. 5(3): 137-140.

393
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 394-398 (2015)
PROBLEMS FACED BY FARMERS DUE TO DYEING INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS IN THE
NOYYAL RIVER BASIN OF TAMIL NADU
ANITHA PAULINE. A1 AND C.KARTHIKEYAN2
Ph.D.Scholar 2. Professor. Department of Agricultural Extension & Rural Sociology
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003
Corresponding author e-mail: anithapauline.agri@gmail.com

ABSTRCT
The study mainly focused on location specific problems faced by farmers due to dyeing industrial pollution. The study was conducted
in Tiruppur and Erode districts of Tamil Nadu. A sample size of 90 farmers from each category viz., affected and unaffected areas were
considered for the study. Totally 180 farmers were selected as respondents for the study. The selection of affected and unaffected area was
based on their distance from industrial zones and their well water quality standards. The results revealed that in the affected areas, all
the respondents faced soil and water pollution affecting the agricultural productivity (100.00%), increased farm expenditure (100.00%),
gradual increase in the salinity of ponds and farm tanks leading to reduction in water storage capacity (100.00%), poor germination of
seeds and crop growth (100.00%), necessity to go for a change in cropping pattern with less water and labour requiring crops (100.00%)
as their major problems in agriculture. With regard to livestock management, altogether 10 problems were identified by the farmers
of affected areas, such as scarcity of labour to look after animals (100.00%), drastic reduction in the number of livestock owned per
household (100.00%), milk yield got reduced (97.80%), non availability of space for open grazing by cattle (91.10%) were the major
problems faced by farmers in the affected regions. From the above findings, it is clearly seen that pollution caused severe damages to
crops and livestock. Finally the study suggested that discharge of effluent into open stream and wastelands must be strictly prohibited.

INTRODUCTION
In Tirupur, around 727 units were engaged in dyeing
and bleaching operations. These units are water intensive,
and generate a large quantity of wastewater. Typical water
consumption in Tirupur is around 200 to 400 l/kg of finished
product, compared with the international norm of 120 to 140
l/kg.  Around, 281 small and medium scale textile units are
connected to CETPs (Common Effluent Treatment Plants),
and the remaining units either have individual effluent
treatment plants or discharge directly into Noyyal River.
The rapid growth of textile units in the last two-decades in
Tirupur, has led to the depletion of groundwater resources
and serious deterioration in environmental quality of both
surface and ground water in the area (Nelliyat, 2007).
The effluent released by dyeing industries causes
adverse effect on soil properties, seed germination and also
causes reduction in the growth of seedlings. The negative
externalities of industries would lead to loss in crop area,
production changes in cropping pattern, health problems
and socio-economic imbalance in the affected regions. The
dyeing industrial pollution might cause labour migration,
unemployment or change in employment pattern and
decrease in share of farm income to the total household
income. Furn (2004) reported that the majority of the farmers
in Noyyal river basin have been shifted cropping pattern
from food crops to fodder crops due to pollution. Nelliyat
(2007) noted that the farmers during the period (1993-1994)
had cultivated all types of crops like paddy, sugarcane,
tobacco, cotton, cholam, turmeric, gingely, and banana
during the early period. After 1998 cropping pattern has been
changed and paddy, which is the staple food grain of India,
has disappeared. Cholam, cotton crops and coconut trees has
been raised. Chandrasekaran et al. (2007) reported that milk
production in the affected area was reduced by 12.35 per
cent. Forty five per cent of the respondents in the affected
villages had sold their livestock sold due to various reasons
like reduced milk yield, loss in weight, water scarcity and
inadequate man power to tend them. Sarathamani (2012)
reported that low retention of water capacity is one of the
problems of pollution. From the above findings, it is clearly
seen that pollution had caused many problems in agriculture
and livestock management.
In Tamil Nadu four districts were having major dyeing
industries viz., as Coimbatore, Erode, Tiruppur and Karur.
Out of these districts, Erode and Tiruppur were having
maximum number of dyeing industries in Tamil Nadu. It
affected the water sources, land, human and livestock in
these four districts. The present study concentrates mainly
on location specific problems of dyeing industrial pollution
on agriculture and livestock management. The inquiry into
the location specific problems of dyeing industrial pollution
and its consequences faced by the farming community will
provide an exact and accurate picture about the quantity
and magnitude of the pollution problem on agriculture and
will throw useful implications for the policy makers and
researchers.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the present study, it was contemplated to explore
impact of dyeing industrial pollution on migration. Therefore,
in consultation with the experts involved in the environmental
protection, Public Works Department (PWD), Tamil Nadu
Pollution Control Board (TNPCB), scientists involved in
the environmental research, officials of the development
departments viz., agriculture, animal Husbandry, fisheries
and the experts in the field of agricultural extension and
agricultural economics, it was decided to select the study
area where agriculture is the main occupation with more
proneness towards dyeing industrial pollution. In Tamil
Nadu four major districts Viz., Coimbatore, Erode, Tiruppur
and Karur had major dyeing industries. Out of these districts
Tiruppur and Erode districts were selected purposively,

394
PH VIDYA
because these two districts had more number of dyeing
industries which affect the water resources, land, human
and livestock. (Industrial Profile of Karur District: 2012-
13). Tiruppur block from Tiruppur district and Chennimalay
block from Erode district were purposively selected for the
study based on the following criteria. Tiruppur block is in
the upstream of Noyyal river and consisted of many dyeing
and bleaching industries. Similarly Chennimalay block is
in the downstream of Noyyal river where effluents were
stored in the Orathupalayam dam. These two blocks were
severely affected due to dyeing industrial effluents. (Source:
Department of Environmental Science, 2012). From the
selected blocks, six revenue villages were selected and
accordingly, three revenue villages from Tiruppur and Erode
districts were selected. A sample size of 90 farmers from
each category (affected and unaffected) was considered for
the study. Totally 180 farmers were selected. Farmers were
randomly selected for interview from two areas (affected
and unaffected) with similar social and ecological conditions
except pollution intervention. The selection of affected and
unaffected area was based on their distance from industrial
zones and their well water quality standards. The number of
respondents from each of the selected village was fixed based
on the Proportionate Random Sampling (PRS) method. Data
were collected through pre- tested interview schedule. The
data were analyzed by using appropriate statistical tools and
the significant findings are given here under.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The results on the problems of dyeing industrial
pollution, as encountered by farmers of both affected and
not- affected areas are discussed below.
PROBLEMS FACED BY FARMERS DUE TO
DYEING INDUSTRIES
Farmers come across many problems in their locality
due to dyeing industrial pollution and subsequent disturbances
in their locality. With a view to explore the problems due to
the dyeing industrial pollution as perceived by the farmers,
they were asked to express the location specific problems
of pollution and the details are presented in the succeeding
paragraphs, under the following sub-heads:
4.1. Agriculture
4.2. Livestock management
4.1. AGRICULTURE
An overview of the data presented in the table
indicate that there were 15 location specific problems
concerning farming activity of the locality identified by
the farmers of the affected areas due to dyeing industrial
pollution as considered for the study. It is vivid from the
table that the farmers of the affected area unanimously all
the respondents faced soil and water pollution affected
the agricultural productivity (100.00%), increased farm
expenditure (100.00%), gradual increase in the salinity of
ponds and farm tanks leading to reduction in water storage
capacity (100.00%), poor germination of seeds and crop
growth (100.00%), necessity to go for a change in cropping
pattern with less water and labour requiring crops (100.00%)
as their major problems. The other major problems faced by
395
majority of the respondents were of the following : increase
in the depth of ground water table (94.50%), compulsion to
go for over adoption of inorganic fertilizers (92.20%), extent
of fallow and uncultivable land increased due to dyeing
industrial pollution (88.90%), demand for availability of
organic manures (85.60%), erosion of fertile top soil due to
large scale deforestation of farm lands acquired for industrial
purposes (83.40%), discharge of industrial effluents into
drainage channels of open fields (83.33%), deposition of
industrial emissions over crops and foliage of trees (76.67%),
frequent pest and disease incidence and pest resurgence
on crops (68.88%) over dependence and indiscriminate
application of plant protection chemicals (46.67%) were
reported by most of respondents of affected area.
Similarly, the respondents from not-affected areas
also expressed their problems in different magnitude. A
special mention may be made of the important problems of
the locality namely, increased farm expenditure (94.45%),
compulsion to go for over adoption of inorganic fertilizers
(75.55%), demand for availability of organic manures
(60.00%), deposition of industrial emissions over crops and
foliage of trees (54.50%), soil and water pollution affected
the agricultural productivity (52.20%), necessity to go for
a change in cropping pattern with less water and labour
requiring crops (52.20%), extent of fallow and uncultivable
land increased due to dyeing industrial pollution (50.00%),
erosion of fertile top soil due to large scale deforestation
of farm lands acquired for industrial purposes (48.90%),
frequent pest and disease incidence and pest resurgence
on crops (41.11%), discharge of industrial effluents into
drainage channels of open fields (40.00%), gradual increase
in the salinity of ponds and farm tanks leading to reduction
in water storage capacity (31.11%), increase in the depth of
ground water table (28.90%), poor germination of seeds and
crop growth (25.60%), over dependence and indiscriminate
application of plant protection chemicals (24.40%).
It is evident from the Table 1 that some of the
problems were expressed in high proportion in both the
areas such as, increased farm expenditure, compulsion to
go for over adoption of inorganic fertilizers, demand for
availability of organic manures, deposition of industrial
emissions over crops and foliage of trees, deposition of
industrial emissions over crops and foliage of trees, soil
and water pollution affected the agricultural productivity
and extent of fallow and uncultivable land increased due
to dyeing industrial pollution. The reason for increased
farm expenditure is due to the hike in the cost of labour and
agricultural inputs, low efficiency and subsequent increase
in the labour requirement, high transport cost and more
investment on deepening of existing bore wells and drilling
of new tube wells were opined as the most important reasons
by the respondents of affected areas. Whereas, in the case of
affected areas, in addition to the above four reasons, more
investment on land reclamation was also considered as one
of the prime reasons by the respondents. Over years, due to
soil degradation need for adoption of inorganic fertilizers
was high in both the areas. This result gives a fair idea that
in general the farmers of affected areas have faced disastrous
consequences in their livelihood occupation viz., farming,
in such a high magnitude as compared to that of farmers of
not-affected areas. This might be especially due to pollution
problems caused by industrial activities of that locality.
4.2. LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
With regard to livestock management, altogether 10
problems were identified by the farmers of affected areas.
It could be seen from the Table 1 that a majority of the
respondents reported the problems such as scarcity of labour
to look after animals due to reluctance among the younger
generations to maintain cattle and cattle yards (100.00%),
drastic reduction in the number of livestock owned per
household (100.00%), milk yield got reduced (97.80%), non
availability of space for open grazing by cattle (91.10%),
increased prevalence of infertility and improper conceiving
among animals(87.77%), gradual increase in the abortion
of cows (84.45%), more spread of common diseases such
as skin diseases, indigestion, dysentery and fever (80.00%),
incidences of unknown non-deductible disease among
animals (72.22%), weight loss of animals and skinning
appearance (61.10%) and intensification of the problems of
sudden mortality among cattle (22.22%).
Similarly, the respondents from unaffected area also
encountered problems in different magnitude. It could be
seen from the Table 1 that a majority of the respondents
reported the problems such as scarcity of labour to look after
animals due to reluctance among the younger generations of
labour category to maintain cattle and cattle yards (90.00%),
Milk yield got reduced (67.75%), drastic reduction in the
number of livestock owned per household (62.22%), weight
loss of animals and skinning appearance (40.00%), gradual
increase in the abortion of cows (31.11%), non-availability
of space for open grazing by cattle (26.70%), more spread
of common diseases such as skin diseases, indigestion,
dysentery and fever (25.55%), incidence of unknown non-
deductible disease among animals (21.11%), increased
prevalence of infertility and improper conceiving among
animals (14.44%) and intensification of the problems of
sudden mortality among cattle (6.67%).
It is also conspicuously clear from the Table 1 that
in case of unaffected areas all the problems reported by less
than fifty percent except scarcity of labour to look after
animals due to reluctance among the younger generations to
maintain cattle and cattle yards and drastic reduction in the
number of livestock owned per household. Now- a- days,
most of the youngsters prefer only white collar jobs than
doing farming and livestock even though they have their
own lands. Further, the farmers who are having agriculture
as their main occupation also did not want to engage their
children in farming, since it is perceived as risky occupation.
This might be the probable reason for the youngsters not
taking dairy as important enterprise. The reason for scarcity
of labour was, most of the people worked as daily wagers in
dyeing industries and their wages were also fairly high as
compared to agriculture wage earners. The reason for drastic
reduction of livestock owner per house hold might be many
farmers sold their livestock due to poor quality of water and
non-availability of space for cattle grazing.

Table 1. Problems faced by farmers due to dyeing industrial effluents

Affected area (n=90) Unaffected area (n=90)
S.No Particulars Major Minor Not at all Major Not at all a
Minor problem
problem problem problem problem problem
I. Agriculture
Soil and water pollution 90 47 35 8
1. affected the agricultural - -
productivity (100.00%) (52.20%) (38.80%) (9.00%)
90 85 5
2. Increased farm expenditure - - -
(100.00%) (94.45%) (5.55%)
Fallow and uncultivable 80 10 45 22 23
3. land increased due to dyeing -
industrial pollution (88.90%) (11.10%) (50.00%) (24.50%) (25.50%)
Discharge of industrial 75 15 36 22 32
4. effluents into drainage -
channels of open fields (83.33%) (16.70%) (40.00%) (24.40%) (35.60%)
Indiscriminate exploitation 58 20 12 21 10 59
5. of ground water for industrial
purpose (64.40%) (22.20%) (13.40%) (23.40%) (11.10%) (65.50)
Deposition of industrial 69 2 19 49 13 28
6. emissions over crops and
foliage of trees (76.67%) (2.22%) (21.11%) (54.50%) (14.40%) (31.10%)
Increase in the depth of 85 5 26 16 48
7. -
ground water table (94.50%) (5.50%) (28.90%) (17.80%) (53.30%)
Erosion of fertile top
soil due to large scale 75 15 44 20 26
8. deforestation of farm lands -
acquired for industrial (83.40%) (16.60%) (48.90%) (22.20%) (28.90%)
purposes

396
9. Gradual increase in the 90 - - 28 17 45
salinity of ponds and farm
tanks leading to reduction in (100.00%) (31.11%) (18.88%) (50.00%)
water storage capacity
10. Compulsion to go for over 83 7 - 68 19 3
adoption of inorganic
fertilizers (92.20%) (7.80%) (75.55%) (21.12%) (3.33%)
11. Frequent pest and disease 62 12 16 37 21 32
incidence and pest resurgence
on crops (68.88%) (13.32%) (17.80%) (41.11%) (23.34%) (35.55%)
12. Over dependence and 42 25 23 22 35 33
indiscriminate application of
plant protection chemicals (46.67%) (27.78%) (25.55%) (24.40%) (38.90%) (36.70%)
13. Poor germination of seeds 90 - - 23 33 34
and crop growth
(100.00%) (25.60%) (36.70%) (37.70%)
14. Necessity to go for a change 90 - - 47 26 17
in cropping pattern with less
water and labour requiring (100.00%) (52.20%) (28.90%) (18.90%)
crops
15. Demand for availability of 77 13 - 54 24 12
organic manures
(85.60%) (14.40%) (60.00%) (26.67%) (13.33%)
II. Livestock management
1. Scarcity of labour to 90 - - 81 9 -
look after animals due
(100.00%) (90.00%) (10.00%)
to reluctance among the
younger generations of
labour category to maintain
cattle and cattle yards
2. Milk yield got reduced 88 2 - 61 9 20
(97.80%) (2.20%) (67.75%) (10.00%) (20.25%)
3. Non availability of space for 82 8 - 24 26 40
open grazing by cattle
(91.10%) (8.90%) (26.70%) (28.90%) (44.40%)
4. Drastic reduction in the 90 - - 56 21 13
number of livestock owned
(100.00%) (62.22%) (23.34%) (14.44%)
per household
5. More spread of common 72 18 - 23 45 22
diseases such as skin diseases,
(80.00%) (20.00%) (25.55%) (50.00%) (24.45%)
indigestion, dysentery, fever
etc., among cattle
6. Weight loss of animals and 55 21 14 36 22 32
skinny appearance
(61.10%) (23.35%) (15.55%) (40.00%) (24.44%) (35.56%)
7. Increased prevalence of 79 11 - 13 59 18
infertility and improper
(87.77%) (12.23%) (14.44%) (65.56%) (20.00%)
conceiving among animals
8. Incidence of unknown non- 65 15 10 19 41 30
deductible disease among
(72.22%) (16.67%) (11.11%) (21.11%) (45.55%) (33.34%)
animals
9. Gradual increase in the 76 11 3 28 35 27
abortion of cows
(84.45%) (12.22%) (3.33%) (31.11%) (38.89%) (30.00%)
10. Intensification of the 20 21 49 6 14 70
problems of sudden mortality
(22.22%) (23.33) (54.45%) (6.67%) (15.55%) (77.78%)
among cattle

397
CONCLUSION
The study results shows that dyeing industrial
pollution affected the livelihood of the rural people in the
Noyyal river basin. Some suggestions have been made
to overcome dyeing industrial pollution. Some of the
suggestions recommended to overcome pollution effects are
as follows:
Regulation of ground water utilization by industries
may be revised and strictly prohibited.
The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB)
may periodically publish the results of the analysis of effluent
samples taken from the industries along permissible levels
so as to bring in accountability and create public awareness.
Soil testing and soil reclamation measures may be
strengthened and taken up on large scale basis at subsidized
cost by Department of Agriculture.
Veterinary medicines may be provided at adequate
quantities and special thrust may be given for education on
care and maintenance of cattle in polluted atmosphere
REFERENCES
Chandrasekaran, M., N.Raveendaran, C.Sekar and
M.Maheswari. 2007. Effects of Textile Dyeing
Industry Effluents on Ground Water Quality
and Their Consequent Impacts on Human and
Animal Health, Agricultural Production and
Eco-system in Western Tamil Nadu. Centre for
Agricultural and Rural Development Studies
(CARDS series 29). www.spc.tn.gov.in/SLUB_
STUDIES_PDF/Study_31.pdf
398
Department of Environmental Science. 2012. “A Report
on Integrated Remediation for Improving
and Managing Polluted Soils and Water in
Triuppur, Coimbatore, Erode and Karur
Districts”. The Study conducted by Department
of Environmental Science, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University- Coimbatore-641003.
State Plan scheme 2012, Governemrnt of Tamil
Nadu.
Industrial profile of Karur District, 2012-13. MSME (Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises), Government
of India. http://dcmsme.gov.in/
Nelliyat Prakash .2007. “Industrial Growth and
Environmental Degradation: A Case Study
of Tiruppur Textile Clusters. Working Paper
17/2007. Madras School of Economics. www.
mse.ac.in/pub/working%20paper%2017%20
%20pdf.pdf
Furn, K. 2004. Effects of Dyeing and Bleaching industries
on the area around the Orathupalayam Dam in
Southern India. Uppsala Universitet. Retrieved
August 7, 2013, From http://uu.diva-portal.org/
smash/record. jsf?pid=diva2:159170
Sarathamani, T. (2012). Economic Impact of Pollution on
Agriculture and Rural households-A Case Study
of Industrial Estate in Coimbatore District,
Tamil Nadu. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis in
Economics. Bharathiyar University.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 399-402 (2015)
IMPACT OF POLLUTION ON MIGRATION OF FARMERS IN NOYYAL RIVER BASIN OF
TAMIL NADU
ANITHA PAULINE. A1 AND C.KARTHIKEYAN2
Ph.D.Scholar 2. Professor. Department of Agricultural Extension & Rural Sociology
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003
Corresponding author e-mail: anithapauline.agri@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The study mainly focused on the impact of pollution on migration of farmers. The study was conducted in Tiruppur and Erode dis-
tricts of Tamil Nadu. Totally 180 respondents constituted the sample for the study. A sample size of 90 farmers from each category
(affected and unaffected) was considered for the study. The selection of affected and unaffected area was based on their distance from
industrial zones and their well water quality standards. The results revealed that in the affected areas, more than fifty percent of the
respondents (51.11%) had partially migrated. Similarly, in the unaffected areas one-third (35.55%) of the respondents had partially
migrated. In the affected areas, 13.33 per cent of the respondents had fully migrated whereas in the unaffected areas 12.20 per cent of
the respondents had fully migrated. Educational status of the respondents might have adequately contributed towards their migration
behaviour. The study revealed that the education level of an individual increases, more would be his intention to diversify his career
options, instead of relying on agriculture only. The study has stressed on the need for imposition of green taxation on industries and cre-
ating awareness on pollution and its ill effects at community level through various development departments and NGOs.

INTRODUCTION
In recent times, many of the South Asian countries are
experiencing severe environmental problems due to rapid
industrialization. This problem is very common in areas
where the polluting industries viz., textile dyeing, leather
tanning, pulp and paper processing and sugar manufacturing
are located. The effluents discharged by these industries
have led to severe polluted surface, ground water sources
and soils, which has ultimately affected the livelihood of the
poor. Industrial units, in general are functioning in small/
medium scale with high employment generation and foreign
exchange potential. But the pollution control mechanisms
enforced by these units are extremely weak (Appasamy and
Nelliyat, 2006). The dyeing industrial pollution might cause
labour migration, unemployment or change in employment
pattern and decrease in share of farm income to the total
household income. Sivasakthidevi (2005) studied that the
farmers in the unaffected area were not migrating because
of good crop stand and better yield due to good water and
soil. The percentage of migration was more (60.00%) in
highly affected area compared to moderately affected and
less affected areas. It was 33.33 per cent and 20.00 per cent,
respectively. According to Chandrasekaran et al. (2007)
reported that seventy five per cent of the households in the
affected villages at least one family member has migrated,
whereas in the unaffected villages, it was only 11.67 per cent.
In the affected area, among those migrated the permanent
migration was found to be high. The reasons for migration
were poor income, desire to earn more, poor water quality,
and unremunerative crop activities. Among the reasons, poor
income from agricultural operations alone was reported by
71.43 per cent of the sample farmers. Anbarasi (2008) found
that only marginal and small farmers had migrated from the
affected area. In highly affected area about 42 per cent of
the farmers were migrating for about 60 days per year and
67 per cent of the farmers were migrating for about 90 days,
only 40 per cent of the farmers were migrating more than
90 days per year. In moderately affected and less affected
areas, majority of the sample farmers were non- migrant and
number of days of migration was less. Madhusudan et.al.
(2013) noted that more than sixty per cent of the respondents
were migrated from affected areas due to pollution. From
the above findings, it is evident that pollution induced
migration of rural people to cities. Though there are several
empirical studies on impact of pollution, only few studies
had dealt with impact of pollution on migration. The present
study concentrates mainly on the determinants of pollution
induced migration. An assessment of impact results will help
the farmers to analyse the causes and effects of industrial
pollution on socio-economic status. The results will be more
useful to farmers to better understand the problems regarding
dyeing industry effluents and their farm lands.
In Tamil Nadu four districts were having major dyeing
industries viz., as Coimbatore, Erode, Tiruppur and Karur.
Out of these districts, Erode and Tiruppur were having
maximum number of dyeing industries in Tamil Nadu. It
affected the water sources, land, human and livestock in
these four districts. Hence, Erode and Tiruppur districts were
purposively chosen to study the impact of water pollution on
migration of farmers.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the present study, it was contemplated to explore
impact of dyeing industrial pollution on migration. Therefore,
in consultation with the experts involved in the environmental
protection, Public Works Department (PWD), Tamil Nadu
Pollution Control Board (TNPCB), scientists involved in
the environmental research, officials of the development
departments viz., agriculture, animal Husbandry, fisheries
and the experts in the field of agricultural extension and
agricultural economics, it was decided to select the study
area where agriculture is the main occupation with more
proneness towards dyeing industrial pollution. In Tamil
Nadu four major districts Viz., Coimbatore, Erode, Tiruppur
and Karur had major dyeing industries. Out of these districts
Tiruppur and Erode districts were selected purposively,

399
because these two districts had more number of dyeing
industries which affect the water resources, land, human
and livestock. (Industrial Profile of Karur District: 2012-
13). Tiruppur block from Tiruppur district and Chennimalay
block from Erode district were purposively selected for
the study based on the following criteria. Tirupur block
is in the upstream of Noyyal river and consisted of many
dyeing and bleaching industries. Similarly Chennimalay
block is in the downstream of Noyyal river where effluents
were stored in the Orathupalayam dam. These two blocks
were severely affected due to dyeing industrial effluents.
(Source: Department of environmental Science, 2012). From
the selected blocks, six revenue villages were selected and
accordingly, three revenue villages from Tiruppur and Erode
districts were selected. A sample size of 90 farmers from
each category (affected and unaffected) was considered for
the study. Totally 180 farmers were selected. Farmers were
randomly selected for interview from two areas (affected
and unaffected) with similar social and ecological conditions
except pollution intervention. The selection of affected and
unaffected area was based on their distance from industrial
zones and their well water quality standards. The number of
respondents from each of the selected village was fixed based
on the Proportionate Random Sampling (PRS) method. Data
were collected through pre- tested interview schedule. The
data were analyzed by using appropriate statistical tools and
the significant findings are given here under.
Impact of pollution on migration
Migration is a pre-emptive move. It is the survival
instinct that drives human beings to seek better prospects
elsewhere. The household members are moving outside to
earn supplemental crop income. This might be due to poor
land quality and absence of better opportunities within
villages. During the study period, it was observed that the
presence of migrants (at least one of its members) among
the households. It was not seen in few among the selected
sample households. A probit model was employed to
identify the factors responsible for migration. This model is
associated with the cumulative normal probability function
and decision to participate in migration or not depends on
a theoretical continuous index Mi which is determined by
explanatory variables included in the model. The model
developed by Madhusudan et.al (2013) was adopted with
slight modification.
8
Mi= ß0+∑ ßi Fi + ei
Where, M=Dependent Variable (Migration Behaviour)
it takes the value of 1 for participants in migration and 0
for non-migrants (otherwise). ß0, ß1, ß2, ß3, ß4, ß5 , ß6,
ß7 and ß8 = Parameters to be estimated. F1=Age of the
migrant, F2 = Education level of the migrant (No. of years
in formal education), F3 =Farm size in hectare, F4 = House
hold size (number), F5 = Number of dependents in the family,
F6= Water quality index (Good=3, Moderate=2, Poor=1),
F7= Distance from dyeing industry in kilometres and F8 =
Dummy 1 for affected villages, 0 otherwise, ei =Error term.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Migration is considered as an option to mitigate the
effect of pollution. In this study, migration behaviour has
been operationalised as the mobility of the respondents or
his family members from his home place (source) to another
place (destination) due to the influence of psychological,
safety, security and esteem needs. The present study
mainly concentrates on nature, purpose of migration, days
of migration, distance of migration and determinants of
pollution induced migration. The results were analysed and
presented in the following tables.
4.1. Nature of migration
Nature of migration is the temporary or the permanent
movement of respondents from their native destination to
another destination in response to their career prospects.

Table 1. Distribution of respondents based on their nature and work of migration

Nature of migration Nature of work
Non -Migrants
Category Fully migrants Partially migrants Total Agriculture Non-agriculture
Affected (n=90) 12 (13.33%) 46 (51.11%) 58 (64.45%) 32 (35.55%) - 58 (64.45%)
Unaffected (n=90) 11 (12.20%) 32 (35.55%) 43 (47.75%) 47 (52.25%) - 43 (47.75%)
From the above Table1, it could be seen that in the affected areas nearly two-thirds (64.45%) of the respondents
migrated whereas in the unaffected areas, nearly half of the respondents (47.75%) were partially or fully migrated from
their respective places, remain as non-migrants. Among the migrants, in the affected areas, more than fifty per cent of the
respondents (51.11%) had partially migrated. Whereas in the agricultural season (November – February) in the study
the unaffected areas one-third (35.55%) of the respondents area during which sufficient rainfall is available. They stayed
had partially migrated. In the affected areas, (13.33%) of the in their villages till the harvesting festival ‘Pongal’ after
respondents had fully migrated whereas 12.20 per cent of the which they do migrate. Another category of rural was found
respondents had fully migrated in the unaffected areas. Non- to participate only in sowing operations, migrated during the
migrants were old aged. intermediate period and then returned back to participate in the
harvesting operations. Some periodically participated in the
A considerable proportion of migration was recorded intercultural operations too.
in both (affected and unaffected) the areas. The reason
behind it would be that the partially migrated rural people Thus the partially migrated respondents were found to
were either temporary migrants or circular migrants who get involved in agriculture whenever their family required
returned to their place of origin after a time to get involved their labour. In contrast, the fully migrated rural youth
in agriculture on part-time or seasonal basis. One category were permanent migrants who exhibited no involvement in
of rural people had found to get engaged in farming during agriculture.

400
4.2. Nature of work in the migrated destination
Nature of work in the migrated destination is the kind
or class of work the migrants has chosen in the migration
destination.
From the Table 1, it could be observed that all the
migrants (partially and fully) of both the affected (64.45%)
and unaffected (47.75%) areas, the respondents had taken up
non- agricultural jobs in the migrated destinations. It could
be concluded that all of them were found to be engaged in
non-agricultural jobs in the migrated destinations. They were
observed to have taken up jobs like software programming,
accounting, business, working in power loam, construction
works, carpentry, centering, tailoring, mechanical and electrical
works, supervising in industrial premises, tailoring, driving,
cooking, labour in textile industries etc. The mindset of the
respondents to take over a job involving less drudgery would
have made them to move for non-agricultural occupations.
Moreover, the higher wages what they earn with the same
physical strain implied comparatively to agriculture would have
also induced them to choose non-agricultural jobs. They also
preferred the comfortable atmosphere provided by industries,
shops and other business premises rather than working under
scorching sun in the agricultural fields.
4.3. Duration of migration
Distance and duration are important parameters to
determine the trend of migration. The data on distribution of
migrants based on their duration of migration is presented in
Table 2.
Table 2. Distribution of respondents based on their duration
of Migration (n=180)
Affected Unaffected
Duration of Migration
(n=90) (n=90)
0 Man days/ annum 32 (35.55%) 47 (52.22%)
1-60 man days /annum 16 (17.75%) 13 (14.45%)
60-150 man days / annum 30 (33.35%) 19 (21.11%)
> 150 man days / annum 12 (13.35%) 11 (12.22%)
Total 90 (100.00%) 90 (100.00%)
Results from Table 2 portrayed that in the affected
areas more than one-third (35.55%) of the respondents were
not migrated to another places followed by less than one-
third (33.35%) of the respondents migrated to an extent
of 60-150 days/annum, nearly one-fifth (17.75%) of the
respondents migrated 1-60 days/annum and 13.35 per cent
of the respondents migrated more than 150 days.
In the unaffected areas, more than half of the
respondents (52.22%) had not migrated to another places
followed by more than one-fifth (21.11%) of the respondents
migrated for a duration of 60-150 days/annum, more than
one-tenth (14.45%) of the respondents migrated to the
extent of 1-60 days/annum and 12.22 per cent migrated more
than 150 days.
It could be presumed from the results that in the
affected villages (33.35%) and unaffected villages (21.11%),
the earning members had migrated for duration of more than
60-150 days from their native place to nearby areas.
401
The fully migrated respondents had completely
moved out of agriculture and all the farming activities had
been taken over by the family members. They concentrated
on other occupational areas since they might have not felt
contented with the family income from agriculture. On the
other side, the partially migrated respondents got engaged in
farming on part-time or seasonal basis as they might not have
felt secured to take the risk of moving out of agriculture.
Moreover they embraced the risk of shifting to other
occupational areas only, when the income from agriculture
was not sufficient or only during off seasons when farming
is not a prospective venture.
4.4. Distance of work place
Distance of work place is the distance between the
respondents’ residence and the migrated destination or the
work place. The data collected pertinent to the distance of
work place are provided in Table 3.
Table 3. Distribution of respondents based on their dis-
tance of migration (n=180)
Distance of migration (in Unaffected
Affected (n=90)
kms) (n=90)
< 10 32 (35.55%) 47 (52.22%)
10- 25 25(27.77%) 15(16.66%)
25-50 16(17.77%) 14(15.55%)
50-100 5(5.55%) 3(3.33%)
> 100 12 (13.33%) 11(12.22%)
Total 90 (100.00%) 90 (100.00%)
It is evident from the Table 3 that in the affected areas
more than one-fourth (27.77%) of the respondents moved
10-25kms distance followed by 25-50kms (17.77%). A
meagre proportion (5.55%) of the respondents moved out to
50-100 kms distance. People who have migrated more than
100 kms are considered as full migrants (13.33%). Whereas,
in the unaffected areas less than one-fifth (16.66%) of the
respondents moved 10-25kms distance followed by 25-50
kms (15.55%) and a meagre proportion (3.33%) of the
respondents moved out to 50-100 kms distance.
The fully migrated respondents were reported
to have migrated to far away industrialized hubs like
Chennai, Kancheepuram, Perambalur, Hosur, Bangalore,
Vishakapattinam etc., since they have permanently moved out
of agriculture. In contrast, the partially migrated rural youth
were found to work in places that were quite near their villages,
since it would facilitate them to periodically return back to take
part in agriculture and the most desirable destinations being
the industrially concentrated Coimbatore, Tirupur and Erode
districts. Some of the temporary migrants were also found to
work in far away destinations, as the distance of work place is
not a constraint in this era of highly developed road connectivity
and cheap transport facilities.
4.5. Determinants of pollution induced migration
To identify the factors influencing migration as a
consequence of pollution, probit model was employed. The
results are presented in the Table 4.
Table 4. Determinants of pollution induced migration (n=180)
S.No Variables Coefficient Standard error t-value p-value
Constant -0.170 0.506 -0.337 0.736
1. Age of the migrants -0.334949 0.0154823 -1.163 0.0305 *
2. Educational status 0.248531 0.105287 2.361 0.0182 *
3. Farm size -0.0996726 0.0462120 -2.157 0.0310 *
4. Household size 0.131951 0.161080 0.8192 0.4127*
5. Water quality -0.327952 0.219768 -1.492 0.1356
6. Number of dependents -0.327193 0.167348 -1.955 0.0506
7. Dummy -0.239120 0.353081 -0.6772 0.05983*
** Significant at one percent level * Significant at five percent level
The results revealed that determinants like educational employment round the year.
status and household size were found to have positive and
significant contribution at one five per cent level of probability REFERENCES
whereas age of the migrants, farm size, water quality,
number of dependents exhibited a negative and significant Anbarasi ,G. 2008. “Water pollution”. Unpublished M.Sc.
contribution at the same probability level. However, number (Ag) Thesis submitted to the Department
of dependents had shown negative and non-significant of Agricultural Economics, Tamil Nadu
contribution to migration. Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

Thus educational status is positively related to Appasamy, P. and Prakash Nelliyat. 2006. Working Paper on
migration behaviour of an individual. Educational status
of respondents would have adequate contribution toward
their migration behaviour. When the education level of an
individual increases, more would be his intention to diversify
his career options, instead of relying on agriculture only.
Age, farm size, water quality and number of dependent have
negative effect on the migration. This shows that younger
people tend more towards migration; the higher farm size will
absorb all available labours and results in lesser migration
among large and medium farmers. Interestingly, in the study
area the level of pollution has a negative association with the
migration and this indicates that the pollution intensity in
the study area is not to the extent of abandoning the affected
villages and people are opting other pollution mitigation
options over migration.
CONCLUSION
Based on findings of the study, there is an evidence of
high migration in pollution affected villages in comparison
with unaffected villages. Installation of pollution monitoring
units at each factory and high recycling of waste will reduce
discharge of pollutants. Producers of polluted water may
be held responsible to pay for the management of polluted
water. In this connection green tax may be introduced.
The amount of tax levied may be based on quantity of
discharges. ‘Polluter pays principle’ may be advocated based
on the pollutants released in the environment. Organizing
awareness campaigns in the affected areas may be undertaken
by public institutions and NGO’s to inculcate the concept
of resource conservations for optimal mix of productivity
and environmental sustainability. It was quite clear from the
findings that the partially migrated respondents involved in
agriculture on part time or seasonal basis in addition to their
non-farm occupation. In order to motivate this category of
respondents to fully involve in agriculture, they should be
exposed to ancillary agricultural activities such as animal
husbandry (dairy, piggery, poultry and fishery), apiary,
sericulture etc. Thus agricultural diversification would have
tremendous positive impact on the agro-socio-economic
upliftment of rural people as it generates income and
“Compensating the Loss of Ecology Services
Due to Pollution in Noyyal River Basin, Tamil
Nadu. Madras School of Economics, February
2006.
Industrial profile of Karur District.2012-13. MSME (Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises), Government
of India. http://dcmsme.gov.in/
Chandrasekaran, M., N.Raveendaran, C.Sekar and
M.Maheswari. 2007. Effects of Textile Dyeing
Industry Effluents on Ground Water Quality
and Their Consequent Impacts on Human and
Animal Health, Agricultural Production and
Eco-system in Western Tamil Nadu. Centre for
Agricultural and Rural Development Studies
(CARDS series 29).
Department of Environmental Science. 2012. “A Report
on Integrated Remediation for Improving
and Managing Polluted Soils and Water in
Tiruppur, Coimbatore, Erode and Karur
Districts”. The Study conducted by Department
of Environmental Science, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University- Coimbatore-641003.
State Plan scheme 2012, Government of Tamil
Nadu.
Madhusudan, P., Mahin Sharif and M. Krishnadas. 2013.
“Economic Impacts of Water Pollution on
Human Health and Migration in Nanjangud
Industrial Area of Karnataka State”.
Environment & Ecology. 31 (2) : 518—523,
April—June 2013.
Sivasakthidevi, T. 2005. “Assessment of Impact of Dyeing
Industries on Agricultural Sector in Karur
District”. Unpublished M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis
submitted to the Department of Agricultural
Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore.

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 403-405 (2015)

ROLE OF COMMUNITY RADIO IN COASTAL WOMEN DEVELOPMENT IN

PUDUCHERRY STATE
DR. S. SALEEMA RABIYATH* ARIF MOIN**V. THIRUVENI***
*Assistant Professor, Department of Mass Communication, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
**Ph.D., Research Scholar, Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Andra Pradesh.
***Ph.D., Research Scholar, Department of Visual Communication, Mother Teresa Women’s
University, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT
Community Radio(CR)plays its significant role as an effective tool in Development Communication. With its
participatory approach and easy accessibility the Community Radio reaches the nook and corners of the rural areas. The
contribution of Community radio as a valuable tool in development is very much observed in general, the rural areas and
in particular, the coastal areas. The fisher men are getting the information regarding the weather condition, the fishing
areas, wind speed, fish market rate etc., through the CR. Other than the fishing details, the CR is providing the infotainment
programmes to the fisher man community. Puduvai Vaani is a CR run by Pondicherry University since 2009 January 1 and
the target audience from the community aspect is the fishermen group. Puduvai Vaani is concentrating on fisher women
development programmes and imparting training for them. This study focuses to find the role of CR in the development of
coastal women. Among the fisher women audience of Puduvai Vaani 50 random samples have been selected. A questionnaire
has been constructed and the data has been collected and analyzed.
Keywords: Community Radio – Puduvai Vaani – Coastal women development – Puducherry.

INTRODUCTION
Development is a process to improve the life style of a
human being. Efforts made to women’s development in the
country tend much to rely on the mass media and resultantly
media feels a responsibility to share its power to influence
the dynamics of women’s liberation. Media is playing an
important role in developing rural women. The way media
has played its part in portraying about the atrocities faced by
the women and developing women, no other sector has done.
Now the media is providing the space for women not only
to wok but also by providing the information, participation,
accountability and the local governance to empower women.
Community Radio (CR) is allotting space for the uneducated
women, from Programme Production and Transmission to
Management. This study focuses to find the role of CR in the
development of coastal women.
A woman has to play a vital role in life and society.
In fact, she plays many roles in a single lifetime. She is
the creator and protector of a family. She gives birth to a
generation, develops it and thus forms the society. But in
spite of the importance attached to her personality, a woman
is least respected – in the true same of the word in society.
Over thousands of years, she has not been able to be free
of shackles and chains, binding her and confining her to
a limited space to move and act. That is the irony (Buxi,
1989)1.
The principles of gender equality and protection of
the privileges and rights of women are enshrined in the
Constitution of India such as in its Preamble, Fundamental
Rights and Fundamental duties as well as Directive Principles.
The Constitution not only grants equality to women on par
with men, it also advocates positive discrimination in favour
of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, our
laws, development policies, plans and programmes have
aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. Over
the years the focus on women has witnessed a gradual shift
from purely “welfare” oriented schemes and “development
programmes” to their “empowerment” by recognizing them
as equal partners on the road to progress (Hajira Kumar and
Jaiman Varghese, 2005)2.
Radio is the first electronic medium to serve a mass
public. Like the newspaper before it, radio had to await the
development of technology and people who recognized its
potential. Community radio is characterised by the active
participation of the community in creating news, information,
entertainment and culturally-relevant material with an
emphasis on local issues and concerns. With training, local
producers can create programmes using local voices. The
community can also actively participate in the management
of the station both programmes and administrative end.
Secondly, it is essentially a non-profit enterprise. In these
days of highly commercialized broadcasting, the ethos of
community radio remains independence and responsibility to
serve the community and not the advertiser. As the station is
owned by the community it also maintains some responsibility
in the running of the station. Thirdly, community radio
programming is designed by the community to improve
social conditions and the quality of its cultural, economic and
political life.Over the years community radio has become
an essential tool for community development. People can
recognise themselves and identify with community radio, in
addition to communicating among themselves.
Community radio is a process. It is not simply about
producing radio programmes to broadcast on air; it is about
developing the community by using radio. It encourages
women to speak to each other and with their communities.
When we talk about all inclusive development, we need
some instruments, which will act as catalysts for bringing
the change, and it has been ascertained that as against

403
broadcasting the fairly new concept of narrowcasting is going
to emerge as an effective alternative to mainstream media.
Community Radio is envisaged as one such alternative.
The modern concept of development gives emphasis
to human and social development and does not end with
economic development only. It has also been accepted that
there cannot be any sustainable development unless people
can become the agents of their own development and do not
remain just a beneficiary. They are required to participate in
every stage of the development process and in its decision-
making. Empowering the people at the grassroots and
their capacity building are the major concerns for modern
development. Community Radio can emerge as a major tool
for doing both. Community radio can play a significant and
effective role in modern concepts of development like the
Human Development Index and Human Security. Community
Radio can come forward to give development a human face.
It can also be a platform for bringing accountability of the
development process, ultimately making the system more
transparent and ensuring good governance.
Communication media is the most popular means
of women development. Information Technology (IT) is
becoming a very popular social science. Over the years,
the message of empowerment has passed through media.
A judicious mind is required to understand the messages in
the media properly. The role of women in our society has
changed dramatically in last 3-4 decades. It will be erroneous
on our part to accept the traditional role of women in this
modern women; women are now playing a diversified role
in the socio economic context of our society (Kaptan and
Subramanian, 2001)3
Pondicherry University is committed to carry out a
lot of extension and outreach activities all throughout the
year. Puduvai Vaani Community Radiohas been started and
the full time transmission is going on from 1st January 2009
onwards.Puduvai Vaani completed five years transmission
successfully on December 31st, 2014.It works under FM
107.8 MHz a frequency which is currently extended to
a catchment’s area of 20 km radius from the University
campus.
The target audiences are University Students, Staff
members and the people who are residing around the
coastal areas like fishermen, women and children.Special
programmes in standard format both in Tamil and English
are being regularly produced by Puduvai Vaani team. Rural
men and women, children and senior citizens are given
enough opportunities to share their views, experiences and
expectations.
Puduvai Vaani is the public broadcaster to awaken,
inform, enlighten, educate and entertain all section of the
people including the programme on women empowerment,
Results and Discussion
S.No., Questions
1 Are you listening to Puduvai Vaani Radio Programmes?
2 Is it useful for your social development?
3 Is it useful for your economic development?
4 Have you ever participated in Puduvai Vaani programmes?
404
students empowerment, youth development and motivation,
fishermen community empowerment, communal harmony,
literature, agriculture, environment, health, folk music,
languages learning, General Knowledge, Government
programmes and education and Live on regular life styles of
the community
Puduvai Vaani (PV) Community Radio Station has
received two National Awards from Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting and a South Asian level Award.
By the radio programmes community people are
learning the knowledge from the experts. For an example,
from the health programmes the community people know
about the diseases and its remedies. It is creating awareness
about the ill effects of drinking, smoking, AIDS etc.
Puduvai Vaani is creating chances for participating and
exhibiting their talents and views. By participating in CRS
programmes they are getting exposure and increasing their
confidence level. Puduvai Vaani is conducting competitions
for School, College students and Community people every
year. These competitions are enhancing their knowledge,
ideas other than their subject knowledge. By attending
the summer camps the students are usefully utilizing their
holidays. Their radio presentation skills and communication
skills are developed.Puduvai Vaani CR is broadcasting
women programmes regularly. The main concept of CR is
participatory communication. CR makes a trend to give the
space to the community to create their own programmes
for their development and based on their needs. In Puduvai
Vaani a special training has been imparted to the Self Help
Group Women who are not even passed SSLC, at the
areas of Pillaichavady, Periyakalapet, Chinnakalapet and
Kanagachettikulam. Based on the training the presenters
were selected to broadcast the programmes. The programmes
which were the best at the time of training were also used for
broadcasting.
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF)
is running its media information centers at Pillaichavady,
Periyakalapet, Chinnakalapet and Kanagachettikulam. The
data provided by MSSRF regarding the wind speed, fish
available areas, weather etc., is regularly broadcasting by
Puduvai Vaani.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Among the fisher women audience of Puduvai Vaani
50 random samples have been selected. The samples
have been collected from Puduvai Vaani CR reaching
area Pillaichavady, Periyakalapet, Chinnakalapet and
Kanagachettikulam at Puducherry. A questionnaire has been
constructed and the data has been collected. The data has
been analysed with the use of Statistical Package of Social
Sciences (SPSS). Percentage analysis is used to evaluate and
analyse the data.
Yes (in %) No (in %)
74 26
52 48
36 64
24 76
 5 Have you attended the trainings conducted by Puduvai Vaani Community Radio? 31 69
6 Have you participated in the competitions which are conducted by Puduvai Vaani? 14 86
Has the Participation in training and competitions helped you to strengthen your capacity
7 22 78
building?
Do you think that Puduvai Vaani programmes helps to take the decision making in your regular
8 26 74
activities?
9 Do you feel that Puduvai Vaani programmes help to develop your knowledge? 66 34
10 Do you want to attend the trainings, programmes and competitions at Puduvai Vaani in future? 71 29

Among the 50 respondents three fourth of the barriers, which allows and encourages a great number of
respondents (74%) are listening to Puduvai Vaani regularly. women to use it as their primary source of information.
Two fourth of the listeners (52%) have felt that Puduvai
Vaani Programmes are helping for their social development. The important conclusions drawn from the above
They felt that they are getting popularity after presenting the analysis are to empower women is to increase their control
programmes in Puduvai Vaani Community Radio. By the over the decisions that affect their lives both within and
popularity they get social status among their family, friends outside the household. Women should be encouraged to
and society. bring their vision and leadership, knowledge and skills,
views and aspirations into the development agenda from
36% of the listeners are getting economic development the grassroots to international levels. Women should be
from listening to Puduvai Vaani programmes. Puduvai Vaani assisted in conflict situations and their participation in peace
programmes help to inform the weather, fish rate, other processes supported. Emphasis should be given to advocacy
than this education related programmes, entrepreneurship of gender responsive legislation and constitutional revisions
programmes are inducing the women to increase their to increase women’s opportunities to influence the direction
economic status. Some of them are earning a reasonable of society and to remove obstacles to women’s access to
amount by attending transmission duties, producing power.
programmes and presenting live programmes.
Imparting training programmes for Women and REFERENCES:
Children from community for empowering their skills and Buxi LS. (1989). ‘Status of women in India’. Yojana, Jul
economic status. Through its training programmes some 1-15 Vol. 33(12):6-7
of them are getting chances to start entrepreneurship. For
an example, Mrs. Poorani, SHG Member started a “A to Z Hajira Kumar and Jaiman Varghese (2005). “Women
shop” in Pondicherry University Campus4. empowerment Issues, Challenges &
Strategies”, Regency Publications: New Delhi
One fourth of the women respondents (24%) have
participated in Puduvai Vaani programmes. 31% of the Kaptan, Sanjay and Subramanian V.P. (2001). “Women in
respondents have attended the trainings and 14% of the Advertising”,Vedam Books: Madras.
respondents have participated in the competitions conducted
by Puduvai Vaani Community Radio. 22% of the respondents
felt that the Participation in training and competitions helped
them to strengthen their capacity building.
One fourth of the respondents (26%) have expressed
that Puduvai Vaani programmes helps to take the decision
making in your regular activities. The programmes of
Puduvai Vaani is broadcasting the programmes in many
formats like interview, group discussion, features, songs etc.,
Mainly the programmes are giving information on all events
and happenings. So the information provided by Puduvai
Vaani makes the listeners to think and helps to develop their
knowledge. With the support of the knowledge they suggest
or take part in the decision making. 66% of the listeners have
told that Puduvai Vaani programmes helps to develop your
knowledge. 71% of the listeners want to attend the trainings,
programmes and competitions at Puduvai Vaani in future.
Radio media has a number of attributes that makes
it an effective tool in promoting women’s participation in
decision-making processes and governance structures. It is
not controlled corporate and government interests which
allows it to speak to issues independently. It uses local
language that makes the information and the discussions on
issues accessible to local communities. It transcends literacy

405
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 406-410 (2015)
ROLE OF BIO-FERTILIZERS IN HORTICULTURE CROPS-A REVIEW
*HARIKANTH PORIKA1, M. SUCHITHRA2 H.P. SUDEEP1 AND MAHANTESH Y. JOGI1
1
College of Horticulture, UHS Campus, GKVK, Bangalore-560065
2
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, India
INTRODUCTION
The search for alternatives or supplements to fossil fuel
based inorganic fertilizers has been brought not only by the
likelihood of future price increases for chemical fertilizers
but also by the need to maintain long term soil productivity
and ecological sustainability. Bio-fertilizers a cost effective
renewable energy source play a crucial role in reducing the
inorganic fertilizer level and at the same time increasing the crop
yield besides maintaining the soil fertility. The replenishment
of nutrients lost by crop removal through the use of chemical
fertilizers alone is not advisable in the long run, since their
continuous use, impaired the soil health and productivity. Use
of biofertilizer as a supplementary source of nutrient helps to
check the emerging deficiency of the nutrients besides bringing
economy and efficiency in fertilizer use. Biofertilizers can help
in reducing the input of inorganic fertilizers for an extent of 25
per cent for obtaining the same or higher yield.
Biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing live
or latent cells of specific microorganisms to apply to the seed or
soil, so that the cells can multiply and bringing out the activities
of nitrogen fixation or phosphate solubilization / mobilization
in the root region or in association with the root system of crop
plants.
Among the various nutrients, nitrogen is one of the
key elements for higher productivity. Nitrogenous fertilizers
and biological nitrogen fixation represent the major inputs
of nitrogen for crops. Although improved technologies of
fertilizer nitrogen production and increased efficiency of
fertilizer use by plants could make more nitrogen available
for the plants, alternate technologies are being sought to
reduce the dependence of plants on fertilizer nitrogen.
The nitrogen-fixing microorganisms like Rhizobium,
Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Azolla, cyanobacteria etc. fixes
nearly 175 x 106 tonnes of N on the earth surface (Table
1) and it may be possible to meet a large part of nitrogen
demand through proper manipulation of these organisms in
crop production system.
Table 1. Annual Biological Nitrogen Fixation on Earth
N2 fixing system N2 fixed
(X 106 tonnes / year)
Legumes 35
Non-legumes 9
Permanent grass land 45
Forest & Woodland 40
Unused land 10
Total land 139
Sea 36
Total global nitrogen fixation 175
406
Although these microorganisms are available in the soil,
their population, root colonization, efficiency in nitrogen
fixation, survival under adverse condition etc. decides
the necessity of artificial inoculation with selected strains
of bacteria. The work carried out at IIHR, Bangalore
and other agricultural universities for the past several
years resulted in the identification of efficient strains of
Rhizobium, Azospirillum, phosphobacteria and vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) which are used in large-
scale production of biofertilizers. However, the usage and
biofertilizer inoculation studies with horticultural crops are
comparatively meager.
Azospirillum
Generally the nitrogen requirement of non-leguminous
crops such as cereals, grasses and horticultural crops
met partly from the activities of associative symbiotic
bacteria – Azospirillum. Azospirillum is considered to be
more efficient and it has been reported that Azospirillum
inoculation increases the growth, nitrogen uptake and yield
in number of crops. Field trials conducted at many places
with different crops have revealed the significant amount
of nitrogen fixation and there by saving the valuable N
fertilizers. Experiments conducted over several years proved
that 15 to 25 percent of nitrogen requirement could be met
by inoculating Azospirillum.
Number of scientific findings were well documented
that application of Azospirillum and other plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria improve the plant growth and
yield of commercially important crops like Tomato, Brinjal
and Chillies (Sukhada, 1988). Inoculation of Azospirillum
enhanced the length and weight of bunches and also the
number of hands and fingers in poovan banana. The results
showed that inoculation of Azospirillum caused 8.2 to 13.1
per cent increase in the yield of banana. Inoculation also
enhanced the nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium
content of leaves and the reducing, non-reducing and
total sugar content of fruits (Jeeva, 1987). Inoculation of
Azospirillum at 75 per cent of fertilizer nitrogen recorded a
cost benefit ratio of 1:2.84 and it saved a quantity of 68 kg of
fertilizer N per hectare in banana cultivation.
Kumaran et al. (1998) reported that tomato growth,
yield and quality parameters such as TSS, ascorbic acid
and lycopene contents were higher in plants grown with
Phosphobacteria and Azospirillum.
Phosphobacteria
Microorganisms are also involved in the availability
of phosphorus, the second most important nutrient required
by crop plants. The phosphate solubilizing bacteria
(PSB) solubilize the insoluble phosphates and make them
available for crop plants in the rhizosphere region. Several
soil bacteria and fungi notably species of Pseudomonas,
Bacillus, Penicillium and Aspergillus etc. secrete organic
acids and lower the pH in their vicinity to bring about
solubilization of bound phosphates in soil. Increased in the
yield of various crops were demonstrated due to inoculation
of peat based cultures of phosphobacteria and saving up to
50 per cent of recommended level of P2O5 was observed in
many experiments.
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in
Horticultural crops
AM fungi have the widest host range and distribution,
it is estimated that about 90% of vascular plants and normally
establish mutalistic relationship these fungi. The first person
to use the term “mycorrhiza” was the German botanist Frank
(1885). AM mycorrhizae are obligate symbionts and nearly
83 per cent of dicotyledens and 79 per cent monocotyledens
form mutualistic symbiosis (Trappe, 1987). Occurrence
of AM association is common one in several agricultural
crops including horticultural crops like citrus, grapes,
pomegranate, onion, clover, strawberry, cassava, pine apple,
rubber, papaya, coffee, tea, oil palm, carrot, marigold,
cherry and pepper etc. Rekharani and Mukerjee (1988)
have reported seventeen spores type of AM belonging to the
genera Glomus, Acaulospora, Sclerocystis and Endogone
in the field soils collected from different parts of India.
Mycorrhizal association in crop plants generally enhances
the growth and vigour of the host plants. In addition the
mycorrhizal plants have greater tolerance to toxic heavy
metals, root pathogens, drought, soil salinity adverse pH and
to transplantation shock.
Enhanced uptake of phosphorus and increased plant
growth due to inoculation of soil with VAM fungi in
horticultural crops such chilli (Bagyaraj and Sreeramulu,
1982), tomato (Fairweather and Parbery, 1982),
chrysanthemum (Johnson et al., 1982), asparagus (Hussey
et al., 1984), potato (Bhattarai and Mishra, 1984), marigold
(Bagyaraj and Powell, 1985) banana (Iyer et al., 1988),
lettuce (Water and Coltman, 1989) and grapewine (Schubert
et al., 1990) has been observed.
Importance of AM fungi
AM fungi colonization increased overall absorption
capacity of roots due to morphological and physiological
changes in the plant. There is increased absorption surface
area, greater soil area explored (since the fungus acts as
an extension of the root), greater longevity of absorbing
roots, better utilization of low-availability nutrients, and
better retention/storage of soluble nutrients, thus reducing
reaction with soil colloids or leaching losses. Increased
mobilization and translocation of nutrients (P, N, S, Cu,
and Zn) from the soil to the plant. AM fungi contribute
more than 25 % of microbial biomass in the rhizosphere,
which in turn contributes more carbon to the soil. Better
development of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing,
growth promoting and antibiotic producing microbes in the
myco-rhizosphere. Modification of plant-pathogen relations,
mycorrhizae influence the colonization of roots by other
microorganisms, reduce the susceptibility (or increase the
tolerance) of roots to soil-borne pathogens such as nematodes
or phytopathogenic fungi such as Fusarium oxysporum,
Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani and Macrophomina
407
phaseolina. Increased perooxidase and phytoalexins have
been conclusively demonstrated in AM fungal inoculated
plants.
Mycorrhizal lignification of plant roots are reported to
prevent penetration by pathogens and nematodes. AM fungal
colonization may affect qualitative and quantative changes
in root exudates to alter rhizosphere or rhizoplane microbial
population. Increased production of plant growth hormones
such as cytokinins and gibberellins. Modification of soil-
plant-water relations, promoting better adaptation of plant
to adverse environment conditions (drought, heavy metals).
At elevated heavy metal concentrations in soils, mycorrhizal
fungi have been shown to detoxify the environment for plant
growth.
Lin and Fox (1992) observed that application of
Glomus aggregatum increased the plant dry weight of
banana when the plants were fertilized with insoluble rock
phosphate. Onkarayya and Sukhada Mohandas (1993)
reported that inoculation of G. fasciculatum increased the
plant height, root length, shoot dry weight, root dry weight
and reduced mean shoot root ratio in the root stalks of citrus
cultivars viz., Rough lemon, Rangpur lime, Trifoliate orange,
Troyer citrange, Carizo citrange, Citrumelo and Cleopatra
mandrin. In strawberry, VAM inoculation in combination
with different levels of P increased the total fresh and dry
shoot weight; leaf area and leaf number (Khanizadeh et al.,
1995).
Application of VAM inoculum during in vitro / in vivo
rooting of the micropropagated shoots seems an attractive
method for mycorrhization of the plants. Early inoculation
of these plants also improves the plant survival and
subsequent growth. This fact has been documented in fruit
crops like grapevine (Mazzitelli and Schubert, 1989), apple
and avocado (Branzanti et al., 1992 and Vidal et al., 1992),
pineapple (Guilleimin et al., 1992), strawberry (Vesteberg,
1992) raspberry (Varma and Schuepp, 1995) and banana
(Pinochet et al., 1997 and Pragatheswari, 2002).
AM Fungi association in crop plants
A successful mycorrhizal formation depends on the
presence of appropriate hosts, fungus and environment.
Development of mycorrhizal colonization depends on
physical (Temperature and water), Chemical (pH, P,
pesticides, salinity, organic matter) and Biological factor
(host plant, fungal efficiency, and other soil microorganisms).
Flooded conditions and severe soil disturbance reduces the
AM infection rate.The mycorrhizal colonization is governed
by both plant and fungal gene expression. The precise signals
and molecular mechanisms involved in AM symbiosis are
still unclear. AM fungi improve the plant growth under low
fertility condition, confer tolerance to pathogens, improve the
water balance of the plants and contribute to the formation of
soil structure (Jeffries and Barea, 1994). They also improve
the crop growth in numerous plant species. Due to inoculation
of Glomus mosseae, the plant height was increased twice in
rough lemon seedlings than the uninoculated control but had
no effect on the growth of sour orange seedlings (Marz et
al., 1971).
Mycorrhizal fungi added to sour orange seedlings
increased the dry weight than the non mycorrhizal plants in
sterilized soil fertilized (Menge et al., 1978). Manjunath et
al. (1983) reported that inoculation of Glomus fasciculatum
in citrus increased the dry weight of shoot, root and nutrient
content of plants. Padma (1988) reported significant increase
in plant height of papaya plants when VAM was applied with
75 per cent of recommended level of phosphorus. Positive
effect of infection and crop growth due to inoculation of
Glomus epigacum in Citrus sinensis seedlings was observed.
Onkarayya and Sukhada Mohandas (1993) reported
that inoculation of Glomus fasciculatum increased the plant
height, root length, shoot dry weight, root dry weight and
reduced mean shoot / root ratio in the root stocks of citrus
viz., Rough lemon, Rangpurline, Trifoliate orange, Troyer
citrange, Carizo citrange, Citrumelo and Cleopatra mandrin.
Interaction of AM fungi with plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria
Most of the scientific findings well documented that
the combination of AM fungi with other microbial inoculants
like Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Gluconacetobacter
diazotrophicus, Phosphobacteria and P. fluorescens found to
be better response as compared to individual inoculant. AM
and rhizosphere microorganisms can influence their mutual
development which might result in a symbiotic interaction.
AM fungi occupy inter and intracellular spaces inside the
roots and establish a mutualistic association with host plant.
Penetration of cortical cells by AM fungi could provide a
route of entry for bacteria into the endorhizosphere. AM
interactions with rhizosphere microorganisms have focused
mainly on the introduction of organism involved in nutrient
translocations such as free living associative N2 fixing
bacteria viz., Azotobacter, Azospirillum (Barea et al., 1983),
or organism which can solubilise inorganic phosphates (Azcon
– Aguilar and Barea, 1978).
A combined inoculation of Azospirillum
and AM fungi was studied by Barea
et al. (1983), Subba Rao et al. (1985) and Pacovsky (1988))
and reported positive results in improving the growth of
several plant species. Bopaiah and Khadar (1989) reported
that inoculation of Azotobacter, Azospirillum and VAM
in pepper increased plant growth. Their management in
consideration of other soil microorganisms is a challenge
and an opportunity for improving sustainable plant –soil
ecosystem (Statley et al., 1992). AM fungi and rhizosphere
microorganism can also influence their mutual development
which results in synergistic interactions.
Because of their wide spread occurrence in nature
and their numerous benefits to plants. These fungi are
currently attracting much attention in Agricultural as well as
horticultural research. If explore the beneficial effects of AM
fungi in horticultural gardens in south India will be boon for
the farming community in the present situation.
Combined inoculation
Combined inoculation of Azospirillum and VAM in
papaya increased the plant height, plant girth and nutrient
content in leaves under reduced level of N and P with an
increased fruit yield of 10.07 per cent over control (100% N
and P) (Kennady, 1998).
Similarly combined inoculation of phosphobacteria
408
and VAM recorded higher bunch height, bunch weight, hand
number and total number of fingers (Pragatheswari, 2002).
Judicial combination of nitrogen fixer, phosphobacteria and
VAM improved the yield of several crops besides reducing
the requirement of chemical fertilizers. In many experiments
revealed that substantial yield increase was observed (10-
15 per cent) besides saving of 15 to 25 per cent fertilizer N
and P. Recently, a new formulation of biofertilizer namely
‘Azophos’ has been developed by mixing efficient strains
of both Azospirillum and phosphobacteria. This helps the
farmer to derive more benefit by using a single packet of
inoculum containing both the N2 fixer and P solubilizer
which is easy for application.
CONCLUSION
Under the integrated nutrient management system, the
cost of cultivation is held within the reach of the average
farmer since the crop requirement is partly met from organic
sources like farm yard manures, green manures, legumes and
biological fertilizer. The potential nitrogen fixing biological
systems like Azospirillum, phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria
such as Bacillus and Pseudomonas and the vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhizae plays a triggering role in nitrogen and
phosphorus nutrition of horticultural crops under protected
cultivation. It is evidently clear now that the application of
biological fertilizer greatly involved in the accumulation of
soil enzymes, which directly reflects on soil fertility index.
The effective utilization of biofertilizers for crops not only
provide economic benefits to the farmers but also improves
and maintain the soil fertility and sustainability in natural
soil ecosystem.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 411-416 (2015)
EFFECT OF SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI)ON GROWTH PARAMETERS,
YIELD ATTRIBUTES AND YIELD IN RICE GENOTYPES.
L.V. SUBBA RAO, G.KUMAR, R.MAHENDHRA KUMAR AND K.KESHAVULU
Directorate of Rice Research Rajendranagar-500030

ABSTRACT
Field experiment was conducted at Directorate of Rice Research farm, ICRISAT campus located at Patancheru, Hyderabad. The
field experiment was laid out in split - plot design, replicated thrice with two main treatments consisting of two methods of cul-
tivation i.e., System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and conventional transplanting (CT) and sub treatments consisting of fifteen
rice varieties which include three short duration, three medium duration, three long duration, three hybrids and three scent-
ed.SRI method of cultivation significantly increased the growth parameters such as theplant height, dry matter accumulation,
root length and root volume in all the fifteen varieties. Significant improvement was observed in yield attributes and rice yield
viz., total number of seeds per panicle, number of filled seeds per panicle, seed yield, straw yield and harvest index under SRI.

Key words: System of Rice Intensification (SRI), growth, yield attributes, yield

INTRODUCTION:
India is the largest producer of rice (Oryza sativa
L.) next to China in the world. In India, rice is the important
staple food for over two thirds of the population. In India,
rice is produced in an area of 42.86 Mha with a production
of 95.98 Mt and productivity is 2239 kg ha-1. In Andhra
Pradesh, rice is cultivated in an area of 4.751 Mha with a
production of 14.418 Mt and productivity is 3035 kg ha-1
(Ministry of Agriculture, 2010-11). In recent years, water
table has depleted at a very rapid rate throughout the globe,
thus, posing alarming threats and limiting the scope for
cultivation of high water consuming crops especially rice.
Rice is traditionally cultivated mostly in flooded conditions
and requires around 5000 liter per 1kg grain production.
System of Rice Intensification cultivation (SRI) is visualized
as one of the water saving rice cultivation. It is reported
that the rice yields obtained in this method are similar or
higher to the yields obtained under conventional system
with reduced (30-40%) water. SRI cultivation method offers
to minimize water consumption for rice cultivation and to
increase the productivity (Laulanie, 1993). System of rice
intensification, developed in Madagascar in the 1980s, is
a system approach to increase rice productivity with less
external and inexpensive inputs. By adopting this system of
cultivation we could save water, protect soil productivity,
save environment by checking methane gas from water
submerged paddy cultivation practices, bring down the input
cost, besides increasing the production for providing food
to the growing population. Further, there was a differential
response of different duration cultivars for SRI cultivation.
Identification of suitable cultivars which responds well for
SRI and maximize the yields is the paramount importance.
Hence, it is essential to find out the influence of SRI
cultivation on nursery growth, transplanting trauma, tillering
behavior and seed yield.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Field experiment was conducted at Directorate of Rice
Research farm, ICRISAT campus, Patancheru, Hyderabad
during kharif 2013. The farm is geographically situated at
an altitude of 542.7 m above mean sea level on 170 19’ N
latitude and 780 29’ E longitudes. The land was ploughed
thoroughly and after bringing to fine tilth, raised nursery
beds with 2.0 m length and 1.0 m width and 10 cm height
were prepared by adding required quantity of soil and well
decomposed farmyard manure was spread up to 2-3 cm
thickness on the beds. The beds were watered with a rose
can daily in the morning and evening. The main field was
ploughed with tractor-drawn mould board plough followed
by harrowing and puddling. Twelve days old young
seedlings having only two leaves were transplanted in the
main field. At each hill, only one seedling was transplanted.
Alternate wetting and drying was practiced throughout the
vegetative phase. From panicle initiation to flowering, thin
film of water was maintained like that of normal method.
The water can be drained after 70 per cent of the grains in
the panicle get hardened. The rotary weeder was employed
3 times at 15 days interval during the crop growth period.
The weeds around the plants were removed manually and
trampled in the field. After removing the border rows, the net
plots were harvested manually and threshing was done by a
power operated thresher. Threshing was done after proper
drying of the harvested crop. All the data pertaining to
growth parameters, yield attributes and yield were recorded.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth parameters
The data pertaining to plant height as influenced by
method of cultivation and varieties at 30, 60, 90DATand at
harvest (according to duration of crop) are presented in Table
1.1.The rice crop had grown taller with the advancement
of age the increase being more rapid up to 105 DAT. Plant
height was recorded significantly higher in SRI method
(52.65, 92.54, 114.53 and 115.78 cm at 30, 60, 90DAT and
at harvest, respectively) compared to CT method (46.05,
82.41, 95.37 and 96.97 cm at 30, 60, 90DAT and at harvest,
respectively) at all the growth stages. Significant differences
were also observed among all the varieties. Triguna recorded
the highest plant height (55.48, 96.51, 125.50 and 126.57
cm at 30, 60, 90DAT and at harvest, respectively) at all the
growth stages. The lowest plant height was observed in

411
Tulasi (39.44, 78.22, 93.55 and 94.83 cm at 30, 60, 90DAT
and at harvest, respectively) at all growth stages. Interaction
effects were found to be significant at 30 DAT, while it was
non - significant at60, 90DAT and at harvest. Among all the
varieties Triguna recorded the highest plant height under
SRI at 30 DAT (56.07 cm), while the lowest plant height
was recorded by Tulasi under CT (39.00 cm). Similar results
were reported by( Uphoff 1999), Krupakar Reddy (2004),
(Sri Ranjitha 2011)and (Sridevi and Chellamuthu 2012).
The plant height was more in SRI method of cultivation
due to increased availability of space among the plants due
to the planting of single seedling per hill at wider spacing
which ensures maximum utilization of light and nutrients.
These results were also in conformity with the findings of
(Kavitha et al. 2010) and (Singh et al. 2013).The younger
seedlings have more vigor, root growth and lesser transplant
shock resulting in lesser leaf area in initial growth stage
which stimulates increase in cell division causing more
stem elongation resulting in increase plant height. The data
pertaining to dry matter accumulation at 50 % flowering
and at maturity as influenced by method of cultivation and
varieties are presented in Table 1.2.The dry matter production
of the crop increased with increase in the age of the crop.
At 50 % flowering and maturity, dry matter accumulation
was significantly higher in SRI (788.46 and 985.82 g m-2
at 50 % flowering and at maturity, respectively) compared
to CT method (638.20 and 787.50 g m-2at 50 % flowering
and at maturity, respectively).Significant differences were
also observed among all the varieties. US 382 recorded the
highest value of dry matter (836.13 and 1071.60 g m-2at
50 % flowering and at maturity, respectively). The variety
Sugandhamathi, recorded the lowest value of dry matter
(610.76and 751.91 g m-2at 50 % flowering and maturity,
respectively).The interaction effect between the methods of
cultivation and varieties were indicated as non - significant
for dry matter accumulation. The dry matter m-2 was
significantly higher at all the stages of crop growth under SRI
method compared to the traditional method. The magnitude
of such wide differences in the dry matter m-2was perhaps
due to better photosynthesis and reduced competition among
the plants in SRI method compared to traditional method.
The results are in confirmation with the findings of (Ganiet
al 2002) and (Tao et al. 2002) in rice Directorate of Rice
Research Rajendranagar.Dry matter production increased
with advancement of crop growth towards maturity in both the
methods of cultivations. Under SRI, due to profusedtillering
habit in all the varieties, all varieties showed significantly
more dry matter production. Hybrids US382, DRRH 3 and
PA 6444 because of their hybrid vigour showed superiority
in dry matter accumulation, Yamauchi (1994) and Hari Om
et al. (2000)expressed the same about rice hybrids. Simliar
results were reported by Anjani Devi (2007), Sri Ranjitha
(2011) and Hussainet al. (2012). The data pertaining
to root length at maximum tillering stage as influenced by
methods of cultivation and varieties are presented in Table
1.3. Root lengthwas significantly more in SRI (25.34 cm)
compared to CT method (22.98 cm). Significant differences
were also observed among all the varieties. PA6444 recorded
the highest root length (29.26 cm). The lowest root length
was observed in Sugandamathi (21.22 cm). Interaction
effect between methods of cultivation and varieties showed
significant interaction for root length. Among all the varieties
PA 6444 recorded highest root length in SRI (32.33 cm). The
lowest root length were produced by variety Sugandamathi
412
under CT (21.20cm). In SRI method of cultivation greater
root growth to lower depths due to alternate drying and
draining of soil, were capable of developing greater root
penetration (Barison, 2002). One more reason for more
root growth is due to more spacing.Hybrids which already
possess higher root growth responded positively to SRI has
been reported earlierby (Yamauchi 1994).Similar results
were reported by (Anjani Devi 2007),( Barison and Uphoff
2011)and (Thakur et al. 2011).The data pertaining to root
volumeat maximum tillering stage as influenced by methods
of cultivation and varieties are presented in Table 1.3.The
root volume was significantly more in SRI (39.98cm3 plant-1)
comparedtoCT (32.09cm3 plant-1). Significant differences
were also observed among all the varieties. PA 6444 recorded
the highest root volume (47.66cm3 plants-1). The lowest root
volume was observed in Sugandamathi (25.90cm3 plants-1).
The interaction effect between methods of cultivation and
varieties was non - significant for root volume.In SRI,
weeding is carried out with conoweeder which not only helps
in removing weeds but also provides soil aeration which
promotes root growth thereby enhancing plant health and
performance. So, root growth was significantly more in SRI
in all varieties due to more absorption of nutrients, thereby
resulting in higher yields (Satyanarayanaet al. (2007).
Yield attributes
The data pertaining to total number of seeds per
panicle as influenced by methods of cultivation and varieties
are presented in Table 1.3. In both the methods of cultivation,
total number of seeds per panicle was significantly more in
SRI (230) compared to CT (201). Significant differences
were also observed among all the varieties. Among all the
varieties US 382 recorded the highest total number of seeds
per panicle (281.83). The lowest total number of seeds
was observed in Sugandhamathi (169.50). The interaction
effect between methods of cultivation and varieties was
non -significant. Under SRI all varieties reported higher
number of seeds per unit land area which created more
sink and also had high biomass production and helped
in producing increased yields compared to conventional
transplanting. Higher numbers of seeds were produced by
hybrids in both the methods of cultivation. Similar results
were reported by (Singh et al. 2013). The data pertaining to
number of filled seeds per panicle as influenced by methods
of cultivation and varieties are presented in Table 1.3.In
both the methods of cultivation, number of filled seeds per
panicle was significantly more in SRI (187.22) compared
to CT (154.09).Significant differences were also observed
among all the varieties. Among all the varieties US 382
recorded the highest number of filled seeds per panicle
(235.33). The lowest number of filled seeds was recorded for
variety Kasturi (124.17).Interaction effect between methods
of cultivation and varieties showed significant difference in
the production of number of filled seeds per panicle. Among
all the varieties US 382 recorded the highest number of
filled seeds per panicle (251.67) under SRI.Lowest number
of filled seeds per panicle was recorded by variety Kasturi
under CT (101.67).In SRI method, all the varieties produced
more filled grains. This was because of higher biomass
production which is due to more leaf area which is source
of carbohydrate production and more developed sink area
source sink relationship maintained positively in producing
more filled grains. Hybrids recorded highest filled grains
compared to varieties in the study. Similar results were
reported by (Thiyagarajanet al.2002), (Cheraluet al. 2006)
and (Krishna et al.2008 b). The plants in SRI method had
better partitioning of dry matter, which lead to increase
in the number of filled seeds and decrease in the spikelet
sterility(Udaykumar, 2005) and ( Singh et al., 2013).
Seed yield, straw yield and harvest index
The data pertaining to seed yield ha-1as influenced
by methods of cultivation and varieties are presented in Table
1.4. In both the methods of cultivation, seed yield ha-1was
significantly higher in SRI (5851.71 kg ha-1) compared to CT
(5236.76 kg ha-1).Significant differences were also observed
among all the varieties. Variety US 382 recorded the higher
seed yield (6765.72 kg ha-1). The lowest seed yield was
recorded by variety Kasturi (4466.88 kg ha-1).Interaction
effect between methods of cultivation and varieties SRI
and CT showed significant interaction with all the varieties
in the production of seed yieldha-1.Among all the varieties
US 382 recorded highest seed yield under SRI (7340.33 kg
ha-1), while the lowest seed yield was recorded by variety
Kasturiunder CT (4330.89 kg ha-1).SRI method provides
better aeration, more spacing, and less competition, which
enabled the plants to grow vigorously. The increased seed
yield under SRI could be attributed to the higher root growth
which enabled them to access to nutrients from much greater
volume of soils. It helped to capture all the essential nutrient
elements important for plant growth and there by leading
to higher tillering and grain filling has been reported earlier
by (Thiyagarajanet al., 2002; Krupakarreddy, 2004). In SRI
method grown rice plants took up more macronutrients
than did the roots of conventionally managed plants, which
was reflected in the higher SRI yields were reported by
(Barison and Uphoff, 2011). Similar results were reported
(Udaykumar 2005), (Anjanidevi 2007), (Kavithaet al.
Table 1.1: Influence of SRI and conventional transplanting methods on plant height (cm) at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, 90 DAT and
at harvest in rice varieties
2010), (Sridevi and Chellamuthu 2012) and (Thakur et al.
2013).The data pertaining tostraw yield ha-1as influenced by
methods of cultivation and varieties are presented in Table
1.4. In both methods of cultivation, straw yield ha-1was
significantly higher in SRI (7176.84 kg ha-1) compared to CT
(6836.87 kg ha-1). Significant differences were also observed
among all the varieties. Variety US 382 recorded the higher
straw yield(8234.40 kg ha-1). The lowest straw yield was
recorded by variety Kasturi (5678.43 kg ha-1). Interaction
effect between methods of cultivation and varieties were
found to be non - significant. Young seedlings resulted in
highest increase in grain and straw yield over old seedlings.
This might be attributed to increase in plant height, number
of tillers m-2, leaf area index, better rooting ability and finally
the highest dry matter accumulation (DMA) (Kavitha et
al., 2010). Similar results were reported by (Hussain et al.
2012) and (Singh et al.2012).The data pertaining to harvest
indexes influenced by methods of cultivation and varieties
are presented in Table1.4. In both the methods of cultivation,
harvest index was significantly higher in SRI (44.89%)
compared to CT (43.43%). Harvest index had shown non
- significant differences among all the varieties. Interaction
effect between methods of cultivation and varieties were also
found to be non - significant. Harvest index was higher in
SRI compared to conventional transplanting method. These
results are in conformity with the findings of (Singh et al.
2012).
CONCLUSION
The present investigation suggested that agronomic
manipulation like planting of younger seedling (12 days old)
singly planted at 25× 25 cm and using of rotary weeeder had
tremendously contributed for the enhancement of growth
parameters, yield attributes and yield of rice during kharif
season.

Plant height (cm)

Variety 30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT At harvest
SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean
Tulasi 39.89 39.00 39.44 82.67 73.77 78.22 105.55 81.55 93.55 106.55 83.12 94.83
Ravi 54.78 46.46 50.62 97.33 83.54 90.44 118.66 95.33 107.00 119.80 98.21 109.00
Varadhan 54.89 48.78 51.84 97.67 86.20 91.93 118.89 97.78 108.34 119.97 100.20 110.09
Triguna 56.07 54.89 55.48 101.36 91.66 96.51 130.66 120.33 125.50 131.79 121.35 126.57
Jaya 52.78 43.44 48.11 90.93 80.42 85.67 109.11 92.89 101.00 109.87 94.33 102.10
Akshayadhan 54.68 45.01 49.85 95.78 83.53 89.65 117.44 94.66 106.05 118.98 95.45 107.21
Swarnadhan 52.99 43.67 48.33 90.99 81.03 86.01 112.67 93.00 102.83 115.30 94.60 104.95
Phalguna 52.77 43.29 48.03 86.51 79.11 82.81 108.88 92.45 100.67 109.80 93.70 101.75
Dhanrasi 54.63 44.95 49.79 93.33 83.11 88.22 115.33 93.22 104.27 116.59 94.66 105.63
DRRH 3 55.44 50.67 53.06 98.74 86.51 92.62 119.33 98.88 109.11 120.35 100.89 110.62
PA 6444 55.33 49.68 52.51 98.64 86.33 92.49 119.24 98.79 109.01 120.41 100.33 110.37
US 382 55.81 54.22 55.01 99.66 89.55 94.61 121.87 106.55 114.21 123.18 108.17 115.68
Kasturi 45.99 42.10 44.05 83.88 75.11 79.50 105.76 86.44 96.10 107.22 87.95 97.58
Sugandhamathi 52.40 42.35 47.38 85.55 78.88 82.22 108.44 92.44 100.44 109.71 93.64 101.67
Vasumathi 51.33 42.19 46.76 85.05 77.33 81.19 106.11 86.16 96.13 107.14 87.96 97.55

413
Mean 52.65 46.05 49.35 92.54 82.41 87.47 114.53 95.37 104.95 115.78 96.97 106.37
For comparing
SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5%
means of
Methods (M) 0.40 2.46 0.71 4.35 0.91 5.62 1.20 7.39
Varieties (V) 1.03 2.91 1.84 5.20 2.21 6.27 2.26 6.39
M ×V 1.46 4.49 2.60 NS 3.16 NS 3.31 NS
V× M 1.54 4.47 2.73 NS 3.53 NS 4.64 NS

SRI - System of Rice Intensification CT - Conventional transplanting

Table 1.2: Influence of SRI and conventional transplanting methods on dry matter accumulation at 50% flowering and at
maturity in rice varieties

Dry matter accumulation (g m-2)

Variety At 50% flowering At maturity
SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean
Tulasi 667.20 585.71 626.45 874.46 759.02 816.74
Ravi 774.88 608.43 691.65 968.09 759.70 863.89
Varadhan 858.61 659.63 759.12 1134.56 859.90 997.23
Jaya 794.61 615.15 704.88 984.05 756.93 870.49
Akshayadhan 852.21 657.07 754.64 1008.38 773.74 891.06
Swarnadhan 761.71 616.21 688.96 907.68 733.14 820.41
Phalguna 795.31 622.29 708.80 931.79 726.06 828.93
Dhanrasi 812.00 624.43 718.21 979.31 750.00 864.65
DRRH 3 872.85 717.01 794.93 1139.39 924.31 1031.85
PA6444 863.57 715.31 789.44 1127.09 923.73 1025.41
US 382 926.77 745.49 836.13 1196.48 946.72 1071.60
Kasturi 657.63 574.72 616.18 809.52 706.92 758.22
Sugandhamathi 618.40 603.12 610.76 799.88 703.93 751.91
Vasumathi 756.96 600.43 678.69 887.68 702.62 795.15
Mean 788.46 638.20 713.33 985.82 787.50 886.66
For comparing means of SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5%
Methods (M) 11.30 69.74 11.04 68.08
Varieties (V) 25.07 71.04 23.00 65.19
M×V 36.07 NS 33.31 NS
V×M 43.78 NS 42.74 NS

Table 1.3: Influence of SRI and conventional transplanting methods on root length (cm), root volume (cm3 plant-1) at maxi-
mum tillering stge and total number of seeds per panicle, number of filled seeds per panicle in rice varieties

Total number of seeds per

Root length(cm) Root volume ( cm3 plant-1) Number of filled seeds per panicle
Variety panicle
SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean
Tulasi 22.19 21.81 22.00 35.66 27.74 31.70 189.00 164.00 176.50 151.67 131.00 141.33
Ravi 23.44 22.23 22.83 38.99 28.10 33.55 204.67 179.67 192.17 168.00 147.33 157.67
Varadhan 27.29 24.32 25.81 44.77 37.23 41.00 262.00 221.67 241.83 206.67 174.67 190.67
Triguna 24.07 22.45 23.26 39.79 29.33 34.56 241.67 212.00 226.83 198.33 173.33 185.83
Jaya 24.00 22.48 23.24 39.89 32.55 36.22 228.67 197.33 213.00 179.00 154.33 166.67
Akshayadhan 27.19 23.36 25.28 43.77 36.85 40.31 247.67 209.67 228.67 203.00 171.67 187.33
Swarnadhan 23.22 22.22 22.72 37.22 28.00 32.61 202.33 182.33 192.33 163.67 132.33 148.00
Phalguna 25.00 22.88 23.94 39.96 34.00 36.98 214.00 183.33 198.67 168.33 144.00 156.17
Dhanrasi 26.28 23.00 24.64 40.00 35.22 37.61 234.33 209.67 222.00 196.33 167.67 182.00
DRRH 3 28.22 24.89 26.55 47.33 37.29 42.31 274.67 243.00 258.83 222.00 181.33 201.67
PA 6444 32.33 26.18 29.26 49.77 45.55 47.66 280.33 246.33 263.33 246.00 179.67 212.83
US 382 31.33 25.03 28.18 48.22 38.67 43.44 301.00 262.67 281.83 251.67 219.00 235.33
Kasturi 22.21 21.22 21.72 30.22 22.70 26.46 186.67 166.33 176.50 146.67 101.67 124.17

414
 Sugandhamathi 21.25 21.20 21.22 30.00 21.81 25.90 184.00 155.00 169.50 147.33 102.00 124.67
Vasumathi 22.11 21.44 21.78 34.11 26.33 30.22 196.67 177.00 186.83 159.67 131.33 145.50
Mean 25.34 22.98 24.16 39.98 32.09 36.04 229.84 200.67 215.26 187.22 154.09 170.66
SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5%
Methods (M) 0.28 1.73 0.46 2.85 1.71 10.53 2.10 12.94
Varieties (V) 0.54 1.53 2.01 5.70 4.43 12.55 3.87 10.96
M×V 0.79 2.57 2.79 NS 6.29 NS 5.68 18.69
V×M 1.09 2.49 1.79 NS 6.61 NS 8.12 17.98

Table 1.4: Influence of SRI and conventional transplanting methods on seed yield, straw yield and harvest index in rice
varieties

Seed yield (kg ha-1) Straw yield (kg ha-1) Harvest index (%)
Variety
SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean SRI CT Mean
Tulasi 4833.33 4600.00 4716.67 6149.60 5990.28 6069.94 44.03 43.43 43.73
Ravi 5392.00 5054.44 5223.22 7021.33 6652.78 6837.06 43.45 43.20 43.32
Varadhan 6105.00 5780.00 5942.50 7901.67 7567.31 7734.49 43.58 43.40 43.49
Triguna 6080.73 5122.44 5601.59 7570.00 6917.71 7243.85 44.54 42.54 43.54
Jaya 6001.07 5076.67 5538.87 7120.67 6842.36 6981.51 45.85 42.63 44.24
Akshayadhan 6017.40 5761.33 5889.37 7786.33 7479.51 7632.92 43.64 43.51 43.58
Swarnadhan 5281.60 5022.22 5151.91 6868.00 6544.51 6706.26 43.52 43.46 43.49
Phalguna 5867.63 5093.33 5480.48 7057.00 6718.40 6887.70 45.40 43.15 44.27
Dhanrasi 6094.40 5246.67 5670.53 7342.33 6950.00 7146.17 45.29 43.09 44.19
DRRH 3 6900.00 5866.67 6383.33 8286.33 7793.40 8039.87 45.45 43.01 44.23
PA 6444 7303.47 5966.67 6635.07 8456.33 7906.60 8181.47 46.44 43.08 44.76
US 382 7340.33 6191.11 6765.72 8474.00 7994.79 8234.40 46.45 43.72 45.08
Kasturi 4602.87 4330.89 4466.88 5727.00 5629.86 5678.43 44.57 43.48 44.02
Sugandhamathi 4767.47 4500.00 4633.73 5751.33 5698.82 5725.08 45.34 44.10 44.72
Vasumathi 5188.33 4939.00 5063.67 6140.67 5866.67 6003.67 45.76 45.66 45.71
Mean 5851.71 5236.76 5544.24 7176.84 6836.87 7006.85 44.89 43.43 44.16
For comparing
SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5% SEm± CD at 5%
means of
Methods (M) 45.37 279.92 55.65 343.31 0.12 0.75
Varieties (V) 113.92 322.80 205.20 581.45 0.83 NS
M ×V 162.12 501.75 285.82 NS 1.14 NS
V×M 175.73 498.60 215.52 NS 0.47 NS

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 417-419 (2015)
TO FIND OUT THE ADOPTION LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGIES OF MOTH BEAN CROP
BY THE BENEFICIARIES AND NON-BENEFICIARIES FARMERS OF KRISHI VIGYAN
KENDRA, BIKANER, (RAJASTHAN)
HEMANT KUMAR JHINGONIYA1, SUBHASH CHANDRA2, RAJENDRA KUMAR MEENA1 AND AMIT
KUMAR KESHRI3
1Department of Extension Education RCA, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan
2Programme Coordinator, KrishiVigyan Kendra, Lunkarnsar, Bikaner.
3Department of Extension Education COA, SKRAU, Bikaner, Rajasthan.

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in purposely selected Bikaner district of Rajasthan. Two Panchayat Samities namely Bikaner and
Lunkaransar where KrishiVigyan Kendra conducted it’s activities on Moth bean crop was selected. From the above two Panchayat
Samities ten villages were identified and from each village 5 farmers of Moth bean growers who have received the Training, Demon-
stration Exhibition,Farmers fair etc. were selected randomly and were called as Beneficiary farmers. Equal number of Moth bean
growers from the same villages were also selected to make the study comparable. Thus a total sample of 100 farmers were includ-
ed in the study. The data were collected with the help of structured questionnaire & by personal interview method. Collected data
were tabulated &inferences were drawn after subjecting the data to statistical analyses. Various statistical measures viz., mean,
mean score, mean percent score, Standard Deviation, ‘z’ test, ‘t’ test and spearman’s rank correlation tests, multiple linear re-
gression analysis were used for analyzing the data. Majority of the farmers were having medium level of adoption about Moth bean
production technology. Beneficiary farmers had very good adoption level regarding practices like high yielding varieties where-
as Non-Beneficiary farmers possessed very low adoption level about soil and seed treatment of Moth bean production technology.

Key words :Adaption level,meanpercent score, Standard Deviation,KrishiVigyan Kendra, farmes.

INTRODUCTION
KrishiVigyanKendras play a pivotal role in transfer
of agricultural technologies.KrishiVigyan Kendra’s are
conducting the activities on the basis of mandates prescribed
by ICAR. The mandates include conducting On Farm
Testing for the refinement of technologies to make them
locality suitable and the other activities like Front Line
Demonstrations, Trainings, Farmers fair, Exhibitions etc.
for quick transfer of technology to the farmers with the
addition of other aspects like soil and water testing labs,
Model nurseries, Mobile services to the farmers and so on.
The KrishiVigyan Kendra has got the shape of an institution.
The KrishiVigyan Kendra Bikaner has been serving
the farming community of the district since 1983. It has been
also developing the programmes by identifying the needs
of people. The Bikaner is also known for Bikaneribhujia
and papad . The major raw material for preparation of
Bikaneribhujia and papad comes from the Moth bean.Since
the Moth bean is in demand in the district therefore these
crops are grown in larger areas as compared to other crops
grown in the district. Moth bean crop being the important
crops of the district were selected in the present investigation.
The KrishiVigyan Kendra Bikaner has also been trying
to enhance the production and productivity of these crops by
conducting various transfer of technology activities in the
district.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Bikaner district was selected purposely due to the
reason that the major part of Bikaner was under desert and
Government paid more attention for developing it. Moth bean
crop was selected on the basis of highest area in the district
in kharif season. Bikaner district has six Panchayat samities,
namely Bikaner, Lunkaransar, Nokha, Shri Dungargarh,
Khajuwala and Kolayat. Bikaner and Lunkarnsar Panchayat
samities were selected randomly. List of villages where
KrishiVigyan Kendra had conducted its activities in last
five years in both the Panchayat Samities was prepared by
taking the data from the KrishiVigyan Kendra, Bikaner
there were 28 villages in the list. Out of the list ten villages
were selected randomly. Hundred farmers (50 Beneficiary
& 50 Non-Beneficiary) were selected randomly from the
ten randomly selected villages where KrishiVigyan Kendra,
Bikaner and Lunkaransar have conducted its activities for
measuring the adoption of the farmers. The adoption scale
was specially developed to measure the adoption level of
farmers about improved package of practices of Moth bean
production technology. To gather the information related to
adoption level of farmers regarding Moth bean production
technology, 9 major practices of Moth bean production
were included.The responses of farmers were recorded and
weights assigned for adoption of practice and zero score
for non-adoption of practices. Maximum possible adoption
score for each farmer was 100 in Moth bean crop .
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Adoption level of farmers about Moth bean
production technology
If we look at table I as whole irrespective of type of
Beneficiary or Non-Beneficiary, the data revealed that 24
(24.00%) farmers were high adopters, 50 (50.00%) farmers
were medium level adopters and 26 (26.00%) farmers were
in the category of low adopters of Moth bean cultivation
practices in the study area.

417
Table : I Distribution of farmers according to their adoption agreement in awarding the ranks to different practices
level of Moth bean production technology of Moth bean cultivation by the Beneficiaries & Non-
Beneficiaries were found out by applying rank correlation &
S. Extent of Beneficiary Non-Beneficiary Total data have been presented in table II.
No adoption (n=50) (n=50) (N=100)
Table IIExtent of adoption of Beneficiary and Non-Benefi-
F % F % F % ciary farmers about Moth bean cultivation practices
1. Low (<23 Non-
01 2.00 25 50.00 26 26.00 Beneficiary Total
Score) S. Package of Beneficiary
(n=50) (N=100)
No practices (n=50)
2. Medium
MPS Rank MPS Rank MPS Rank
(23 – 73 27 54.00 23 46.00 50 50.00
Score) Soil and field
1. 77.50 II 35.50 II 56.50 II
preparation
3. High (>73
Score) 22 44.00 02 4.00 24 24.00 2. Soil treatment 58.40 IX 19.20 IX 38.80 IX
High yielding
3. 79.80 I 36.00 I 57.90 I
varieties
f = frequency, % = percentage, n = number of farmers 4. Seed treatment 63.80 V 21.60 VIII 42.70 VII
In case of Beneficiary farmers difference was found Sowing time, seed
5. 71.23 III 32.31 III 51.77 III
rate and spacing
among three categories i.e. low, medium and high level
of adoption group with 1.0 (2.00%), 27 (54.00%) and 22 Fertilizer
6. 62.80 VI 27.20 V 45.00 V
application
(44.00%) respectively. Further, in case of Non-Beneficiary
Weed
farmers, i.e. 25 (50.00%) of the farmers belonged to low 7.
management
58.86 VIII 23.14 VII 41.00 VIII
adoption category followed by medium adoption level Plant protection
23 (46.00%). Only 2 (4.00%) Non-Beneficiary farmers 8.
measures
65.20 IV 23.20 VI 44.20 VI
were found with high level of adoption about Moth bean Harvesting,
cultivation practices. 9. threshing and 59.10 VII 31.00 IV 45.05 IV
storage
The extent of adoption of Moth bean cultivation Overall 67.64 29.52 48.58
practices among Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary
rs = 0.80
farmers
t= 3.53**
If we look the data of table II irrespective rs = Rank correlation , * x* = Significant at 1% level of
Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary, it was observed that
significant MPS= Mean percent score
farmers had average amount of adoption level like high
yielding varieties, soil and field preparation, sowing time
seed rate and spacing with 57.90, 56.50 and 51.77 MPS The value of calculated rank order correlation (rs) was
respectively. Remaining package of practices had low level 0.80 which was positive and significant, and it was observed
of adoption like harvesting threshing & storage, fertilizers that ‘t’ value calculated was (3.53) which was higher than
application, plant protection measure, seed treatment, weed it’s table value leading to conclusion that similar trend
management and soil treatment with 45.05, 45.00, 44.20, was observed in awarding ranks to adoption of improved
42.70, 41.70, and 38.80 MPS respectively. Moth bean cultivation practices by the Beneficiary and
Non-Beneficiary farmers, though there were difference
Table II also shows that Beneficiary farmers had very
in magnitude of MPS of Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary
good adoption level regarding practices like high yielding
farmers.
varieties, soil & field preparation and sowing time seed
rate & spacing with 79.80, 77.50, 71.23 MPS respectively. Practice wise Comparison of extent of adoption
Beneficiary farmers had good amount of adoption level between Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary farmers
regarding plant protection measures, seed treatment &
about practices of Moth bean cultivation
fertilizers application, harvesting threshing & storage, weed
management and soil treatment with 65.20, 63.80, 62.80, It is clear from the data in table III that calculated
59.10, 58.86, 58.40 MPS respectively. ‘Z’ value was higher than the tabulated value at 1 per cent
level of significance in all the nine packages of practices
In case of Non-Beneficiary farmers, they possessed of Moth bean cultivation. This calls for rejection of null
very low adoption level of all the package and practices hypothesis and acceptance of alternative hypothesis leading
of Moth bean crop regarding high yielding varieties, soil to conclusion that there was significant difference in level of
and field preparation, sowing time seed rate and spacing, adoption between Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary farmers
harvesting threshing and storage, fertilizers application, plant regarding all the practices of Moth bean cultivation practices
protection measures, weed management, seed treatment and recommended in the study area.Thus, this is proved evidently
soil treatment with 36.00, 35.50, 32.31, 31.00, 27.20, 23.20, that the adoption of Moth bean cultivation practices was more
23.14, 21.60 and 19.20 MPS respectively. among Beneficiary farmers as compared to Non-Beneficiary
The overall extent of adoption level for Moth bean farmers. The significant difference between Beneficiary
cultivation practices by the Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary and Non-Beneficiary farmers about adoption of Moth bean
farmers were 67.64 and 29.52 MPS, respectively. The cultivation practices in the study was not unexpected. It
may be due to the fact that Beneficiary farmers being in

418
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In case of Beneficiary farmers difference was found District of Andhra Pradesh.Journal of Research
among three categories i.e. low, medium and high level ANGRAU, 41(2): 68-73.
of adoption group with 1.0 (2.00%), 27 (54.00%) and 22 Singh, B. and Chouhan T. R. 2006.Factor influencing the
(44.00%) respectively. Further, in case of Non-Beneficiary adoption of moth bean production technology
farmers, i.e. 25 (50.00%) of the farmers belonged to low in arid zone of rajasthan. Journals of Arid
adoption category followed by medium adoption level Legumes.3(1) : 34-38.
23 (46.00%). Only 2 (4.00%) Non-Beneficiary farmers
were found with high level of adoption about Moth bean
cultivation practices.
The practice wise comparison of extent of adoption
between Beneficiaries and Non-Beneficiaries in case of
Moth bean crop was made by calculating the ‘z’ values.
The significant ‘z’ values were observed in all the nine
package of practices of Moth bean cultivation which showed
that there was significant difference between the adoption
level of Beneficiaries and Non-Beneficiaries in adoption of
Moth bean cultivation practices.

419
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 420-423 (2015)
EVALUATION OF PHEROMONE TRAPS FOR THE CAPTURE OF SWEET POTATO
WEEVIL Cylas formicarius Elegantes IMPACT OF WEATHER FACTORS ON TRAP CATCH
LAKSHMI B.K.M., ANITHA G*, RAJASEKHARA RAO. K1 AND SUMALATHA. K2
Vegetable Research Station, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telengana State – 500030
*
AICRP on Biological Control, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030, PJTSAU, Hyderabad, Telengana State
1
Regional Centre, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (ICAR), Bhubaneswar 751019, Orissa
2
Research assistance (DFU), Vegetable Research Station, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telengana State – 500030

ABSTRACT
The weevil, Cylas formicarius Elegantulus is a key pest on sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam. causing losses up to
80% if not managed at the right time. It is rampant in all parts of the country and its internal feeding nature and nocturnal feeding habit
makes its chemical management challenging. Alternative measures like sex pheromones with suitable trap designs, prevailing weather
conditions and cost:benefit can be exploited for monitoring and mass trapping the pest at farmers level. Hence, an experiment was
conducted at Vegetable Research Station, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telengana, India during 2012-13 to compare the performance of
two indigenously developed trap types with the commercially available pheromone traps to trap the male sweet potato weevils. Different
types of commercially available traps such as yellow sticky trap, transparent funnel tap, transparent unitrap, opaque unitrap, delta trap,
universal (or) bucket pheromone trap and open pan type and two indigenously prepared traps by using 1 liter and 2 liter disposable
soft drink bottles were placed in the field at canopy height at the active crop growing stage in kharif (July) and rabi (December) at the
rate of 4 traps/0.1 ha with nine treatments and four replications in a randomized block design. The mean trap catches recorded at an
interval of 48 hours for one month period in kharif and rabi indicated that the mean trap catch in the open pan trap was significantly
higher (579.8/trap) compared to that in the other types followed by the indigenously developed 2 lit and 1 lit soft drink bottle traps 237.5
and 153.3 respectively. But, when the cost of traps were compared, the indigenous traps i.e. 2 lit and 1 lit bottle traps were found to be
the most cost effective for small and marginal sweet potato growing farmers compared to commercially available open pan type traps.
Regression and correlation studies of trap catch with weather parameters suggested that all the weather parameters except maximum
relative humidity and sun shine hours had a negative impact. Among different weather parameters minimum temperature (0C), rainfall
(mm), rainy days and wind speed (kmph) were found to have significant positive influence on the weevil catches in different seasons.

Key words: sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius, pheromone traps, weather

INTRODUCTION
Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.
(Convolvulaceae), is one of the world’s most important
tuber crops especially in developing countries, where it is a
major source of sustenance and food security (Woolfe 1992,
CIP 2004) and is gaining commercially more importance
in recent times as the tubers are a rich source of alcohol.
But the potential to increase production of tubers is limited
by the damage caused by the diseases and insect pests of
them the sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius (F.), is the
most important worldwide insect pest of the sweet potato
(Sutherland 1986). The pest is present in all parts of India
and causes 45-100% damage depending on the prevailing
weather conditions and crop stage (Pillai et al., 1993).
Control strategies like chemicals are constrained by the
internal feeding and nocturnal habitat of the pest. Biocontrol
measures have not gained acceptance among the farmers yet.
Management strategies for the SPW took a pragmatic change,
soon after the discovery of female sex pheromone ((Z)-3-
dodecen-1-ol (E)-2-butenoate.) by Heath et al.(1986).Traps
baited with synthetic sex pheromone proved to be a promising
tool for monitoring population of this pest (Proshold et al.,
1986). Use of pheromones has given good trap efficacy,
which purely depends on trap design, deployment strategy
and lure formulation (Gazit et al., 1998). Several variations
of weevil traps made from recycled plastic containers
have been tested by several workers (Talekar & Lee 1989,
Hwang & Hung 1991, Lawrence & Meyers 1999). The trap
user must consider effectiveness, convenience, and cost.
But pheromone traps available in the market are expensive
and their availability in the market was also limited.
Hence there is an urgent need to develop easily available
indigenous traps with high cost benefit ratio for the benefit
of farmers. Therefore a field trial was planned to evaluate the
performance of two indigenously developed cost-effective
traps from disposable soft drink bottles of one-liter and two-
liter capacity with different types of commercially available
traps. The weevil movement and traps were highly influenced
by weather conditions prevailing during cropping period,
but the information available on this is very meager in A.P
conditions. Hence, the impact of weather on trap catch was
also studied to get a total understanding of the fluctuations of
trap catch in kharif and rabi seasons.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was laid out in the sweet potato
experimental plots at research farms of Vegetable Research
Station, Rajendranagar in both kharif and rabi seasons of
2012-13 in a randomized block design with nine treatments
and four replications. Different types of traps used for
dispensing pheromones were yellow sticky trap, funnel tap,
transparent unitrap, opaque unitrap, universal (or) bucket
pheromone trap, delta trap and open pan type which were
procured from the market. Along with these two indigenously
prepared 1 liter and 2 liter disposable soft drink bottles were
placed in the field and their performance was compared with
the commercially available ones. For preparing indigenous

420
traps make 3 holes on each side of 1 liter and 2 liter recycled
plastic soft drink bottles to allow weevils to enter. Heat a
small piece of metal to make the holes easily. Put a wire from
the lid to suspend the lure. Secure the pheromone dispenser
aligns with the entrance holes inside the trap. Put lure in the
pheromone dispenser or suspend the pheromone capsule
from the lid using string or wire. Close the bottle with lid.
Water mixed with soap powder 10% was poured in all the
traps including the plastic bottles to kill the trapped insects.
Pheromone lure for Cylas formicarius used for the study
was procured from Pherobank, Netherlands. Traps loaded
with lures were placed in the field at canopy height at the
rate of 4 traps/0.1 ha in the first week of July and December
months of 2012. Trap catches of male weevils were recorded
every 48 hours for one month. The data were subjected to
logarithmic transformation and analyses using ANOVA. To
study the impact of weather factors on trap catch, correlation
and regression studies were carried out between trap catch
and weather parameters. Weather data was obtained from the
Meteorology station, ARI , Rajendranagar, Hyderabad for
this study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. FIELD PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF TRAPS
The experiment showed highly significant effect for
trap type and analysis also revealed that there were significant
effects of sampling date. Data recorded during kharif 2012-
13, showed that significantly highest trap catch of 1063.5
weevils/trap was obtained in open pan type trap, followed
by 469.5/trap in the two-liter soft drink bottle which was
on par with the one-liter bottle trap (299.2/trap) and the
delta trap(251.5/trap) (Table.1). The universal hanging trap
(144.0/trap) and opaque unitrap (47.8/trap) fared next better.
The two indigenous traps viz., the one and two liter bottles
stood better than most of the commercial models in attracting
the males. Even though they were kept in the field at rainy
season during that period number of rainy days recorded was
11days with 621.6 mm rainfall, the overflowing of water was
not observed in the 1 lit and 2 lit bottle traps as they were
covered with lids and the lure was dry. The yellow sticky
trap, the transparent funnel trap, transparent unitrap and
other types of traps recorded poor catch (7.0-15.0males/
trap) proving to be inferior. In rabi, the overall Sweet potato
weevil trap catch in all the trap types was less compared
to kharif catches. The weevil trap captures varied widely
between collection seasons (Fig.1).Trap captures were high
in kharif compared to Rabi season. However, open pan type
trap was again the most effective one and trapped 96.3/
males/trap followed by the opaque unitrap (21.8 males),
while catch in the rest of the traps was between 0.2 to 7.5
males/trap. The one and two liter indigenous traps were the
third best treatments and registered a catch between 5.5-7.5
males/trap. The mean capture of weevil population shows
that among different traps evaluated in this study open pan
type (579.8 catches/trap) and indigenous traps 2 lit and1lit
bottles (237.5 and 153.3 catches/trap respectively) were
effective and could be used in the management of Sweet
potato weevils.
However, when choosing a pheromone trap, its
primary purpose must be considered first. Traps for mass
421
trapping, eradication, or auto dissemination are likely to
have different designs than those for population monitoring
(Sugiyama et al. 1996, Yasuda 1999, Komi 2000, Smit et
al. 2001). Certain traps, such as the Yellow sticky trap
,transparent funnel trap and transparent unitrap were
not effective enough for trapping sweetpotato weevils to
merit use. Other traps were effective, but inconvenient. For
example, Delta trap are messy and the sticky panel must be
replaced often as it quickly becomes covered with weevils,
non target organisms, or soil and other debris(Talekar &
Lee 1989, Smit et al. 1997). Some traps may be effective
but relatively expensive to purchase (universal trap) or
construct (funnel trap), especially for sweetpotato growers
in developing countries (Jansson et al. 1991, Smit et al 1997,
Hwang 2000). In present study open pan type trap had the
disadvantage of overflowing during heavy rain events, as
the small cover allowed enough rain to enter and wash out
trapped weevils and lure. Conversely, during sunny periods,
evaporation of water from the reservoir could be a problem;
therefore, routine maintenance of water-pan traps is needed.
These problems can be overcome by using indigenous soft
drink bottle traps of either 1 lit or 2 lit bottle traps which
were statistically on par in their efficiency.
B. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER PARAMETERS
ON TRAP CATCH
To study the influence of weather parameters on trap
catch of male weevils, regression and correlation studies
were carried out between trap catch and the prevailing
weather conditions. Values of correlation co-efficient (r),
regression equations and value of R2 for each weather
parameter are presented in Table 2. These studies revealed
that trap catch was positively correlated with all the weather
parameters except morning relative humidity (-0.83).
Minimum temperature (R2=0.59), rainfall (R2=0.45), rainy
days (R2 = 0.46) and wind speed (R2=0.87) were found to
have significant positive impact on trap catch while the other
parameters did not have substantial influence. The high
values of R2 showed that minimum temperature, rainfall,
rainy days and wind speed could explain variations in trap
catch to the extent of 59.98 %,45.89%,46.15 % and 86.67%
respectively. Thus it could be concluded that a minimum
temperature of 14.00 -22.50C, rainfall of 0-77.9mm,
0-2.3 rainy days and wind speed of 2.5-13.6 kmph were
congenial for obtaining good trap catch. Hwang et al.,
(1989), reported that recapture rates of male weevils were
positively correlated with temperature which agrees with
our result. Jansson et al. (1989) attributed these fluctuations
to environmental conditions, such as temperature, wind
speed and direction, and rainfall. However, no significant
correlations could be found between local temperature data
and trap counts in the study of Jackson and Bohac (2006).
But in our studies we found that minimum temperature and
wind speed had a positive effect on trap catch. Jackson and
Bohac (2006) suggested that poor catches in PET bottles
corresponded to periods of high rainfall when weevils were
apparently washed out of the uncovered PET-bottle traps.
However, in our study since we had used covered bottles,
we found trap catch to be unaffected by rainfall. Our study
was useful to establish the performance of two indigenously
prepared traps in comparison with the available commercial
traps. Also knowledge on the impact of weather factors on
trap catch can help researchers working on pheromones
for the weevils. This information can help the end-user of
research i.e farmer for planning, preparing their own traps 469.5 b 5.5 c 237.5
and installation of the traps in the field in a better way to 9. 2 liter bottle
(2.57) (0.80) (1.68) b
manage the sweet potato weevil in IPM practices. CD (0.05) 0.328 0.326 0.390
SEM + 0.05 0.04 0.15
CONCLUSIONS:
Management of sweet potato weevil C. formicarius
took a tremendous path after the discovery of the sex Table 2. Regression studies of trap catch with weather pa-
pheromones, as it became an important component in the rameters.
control or eradication programmes. Among different traps
Correlation
tested during this study for effective capture of weevils Weather Regression
S.No co-efficient R2 value
Open pan type was most effective. But, when the cost of parameter
(r)
equation
traps were compared, the indigenous traps i.e. 2 lit and 1
lit bottle traps were found to be the most cost effective for Maximum Y=-
1. 0.41* 0.16
temperature (0C) 1585.4+78.73
small and marginal sweet potato growing farmers compared
to commercially available open pan type traps. Regression 2.
Minimum
0.77***
Y=-
0.59
and correlation studies of trap catch with weather parameters temperature (0C) 1580.6+124.6
suggested that all the weather parameters except maximum
3. Morning RH (%) -0.46 ** Y=3109.2 - 28.52 0.21
relative humidity and sun shine hours had a negative
impact. Among different weather parameters minimum
temperature (0C), rainfall, rainy days and wind speed 4. Evening RH (%) 0.37 NS Y=193.9+15.9 0.13
(kmph) were found to have significant positive influence on
the weevil catches in different seasons. Use an integrated 5. Rainfall (mm) 0.67*** Y=670.29+24.0 0.45
pest management approach for managing this weevil.
This includes: planting away from weevil-infested fields; 6. Rainy Days 0.67 ***
Y= 658.33 +
0.46
removing all wild morning-glorys growing around the field 810.53
edges; planting or transplanting only weevil-free material;
dipping planting material in recommended insecticides 6. Sunshine (hrs) 0.06 NS Y=867.8+12.74 0.03
before planting to eradicate weevils from planting material;
Wind speed Y=-123.99 +
hill plants periodically before rows close, in order to help 7.
(kmph)
0.93 ***
170.31
0.87
fill in soil cracks and increase the depth of rooting; and use
the pheromone lures in fields from planting through harvest.
* -Significant at 5% ;** - Significant at 1%; NS – Non-
Acknowledgements significant
This article reports the results of research only.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 424-427 (2015)
ASSESSMENT OF GENETIC DIVERGENCE IN FARMERS’ VARIETIES OF RICE
[ORYZASATIVA L] FROM THE EASTERN REGION OF INDIA
L. V SUBBARAO, LAVANYA K, PADMA C, CHIRANJEEVI M, CHAITANYA U, SURENDER R, JAYASREE B,
SHIVA PRASAD G,SUNEETHA K AND DIPAL R CHOWDHURY
Directorate of Rice Research Rajendranagar-500030

ABSTRACT
Genetic relatedness among 57 Farmers’ varieties of rice from the eastern region of the country was characterized and assessed us-
ing 48 distinct rice microsatellite markers. The number of alleles per microsatellite locus ranged from 2 to 6, averaging 4.04 al-
leles per locus. Polymorphism information content [PIC] values ranged from 0.34 [RM 6057] to 0.81 [RM 15855], with an av-
erage of 0.59. Cluster analyses were used to group cultivars based on molecular markers and morphological characterization.
Cluster analysis was done based on molecular markers and morphological characteristics separately. Dendrogram based on mo-
lecular markers revealed 3 major groups among 57 Farmers’ varieties which are again sub clustered into small groups. The geno-
typeSamudra Bali was found to be a distant cluster in molecular indicating its divergence from the rest of the genotypes. The study
helped to understand the extent of genetic diversity among the Farmers’ varieties which are a potential source that can be exploited.

Keywords: Farmers’ varieties, DUS characterization, SSR markers, polymorphic information content, cluster analysis, ge-
netic divergence.

INTRODUCTION
Rice is the world’s most important food crop and
a primary source for more than one third of World’s
population[1].India has a rich and wide range of genetic
wealth of Rice.Farmers’ varieties are traditionally cultivated,
evolved over generations with proven special features over
wild relatives and serve as a reservoir of useful genes.
These varieties may not possess high yielding potential but
certainly possess resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and
medicinal properties. Farmers prefer to grow these varieties
owing to their special or unique features although most of
them are poor yielders. These are generally non homogenous
but stable with some distinct characters. Improvement in
such varieties has been brought through selection for high
yield stability, low dependence on external inputs and good
storage/ cooking quality, specific preferences for taste. The
large collection of land races/ genetic resources need to be
evaluated for their wealth of useful traits which can form as a
great source of raw material to the breeders to tailor them in
to new varieties that are being developed. Characterization
of such germplasm is important for utilizing the appropriate
attribute based donors and also essential in the present era for
protecting the uniqueness of rice. Characterization should
eventually lead to a system of recording and storing useful
data that can be readily retrieved and made available to
others and help in planning breeding programmes [2]. PPV&
FR act was established in 2001 for providing protection
to plant varieties based on distinctiveness, uniformity,
stability [DUS]. The concept of DUS is fundamental to the
characterization of a variety as unique and provides official
description of a variety for its identity as it is globally
accepted for varietal identification. Genetic diversity in
plants has been traditionally assessed using morphological
or physiological traits. The assessment of phenotype
may not be a reliable measure of genetic differences
as gene expressions were influenced by environment.
Hence DNA markers are predominantly used in molecular
characterization and diversity studies due to their abundance
and repeatability [3]. Among different PCR based markers,
the microsatellite markers based on simple sequence
repeats [SSRs] are preferred over other molecular markers
because they are highly informative, mostly mono locus,
co-dominant, easily analysed and cost effective [4]. These
markers are distributed uniformly throughout genome and
detect a high level of allelic diversity in cultivated varieties
and distantly related species [3].The present investigation
was undertaken with the objective of characterisation of rice
varieties following DUS guidelines and estimating genetic
diversity using morphological characters and SSR markers.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
The material for the present investigation consisted
of 57 Farmers’ varieties which were evaluated for DUS
Characteristics during Kharif 2011 at DRR Farm, ICRISAT,
Hyderabad. Each entry was sown in plot comprising 11
rows of 6m length at spacing of 30cm between rows and
20cm between plants. Observations were recorded on five
randomly chosen plants of each genotype per replication
for 62 agro-morphological traits. The traits studied were
Coleoptile: Colour; Basal leaf: Sheath colour; Leaf:
Intensity of green colour; Leaf: Anthocyanin colouration;
Leaf: Distribution of anthocyanin colouration; Leaf
sheath: Anthocyanin colouration; Leaf sheath: intensity of
anthocyanin colouration; Leaf: Pubescence of blade surface;
Leaf: Auricles; Leaf: Anthocyanin colouration of auricles;
Leaf: Collar; Leaf: Anthocyanin colouration of collar; Leaf:
Ligule; Leaf: Shape of ligule; Leaf: Colour of ligule; Leaf:
Length of blade; Leaf: Width of blade; Culm: Attitude;
Culm: Attitude; Time of heading; Flag leaf: Attitude of
blade ; Spikelet: Density of pubescence of lemma; Male
sterility; Lemma: Anthocyanin colouration of keel; Lemma:
Anthocyanin colouration of area below apex; Lemma:
Anthocyanin colouration of apex; Spikelet: Colour of
stigma; Stem: Thickness; Stem: Length [excluding panicle;
excluding floating rice]; Stem: Anthocyanin colouration of
nodes; Stem: Intensity of anthocyanin coloration of nodes;
stem: Anthocyanin colouration of internodes; Panicle:

424
Length of main axis; Flag leaf: Attitude of blade; Panicle: 15 Sekta Odisha 44 Dengaburi Odisha
Curvature of main axis; Panicle: Number per plant; Spikelet: 16 GovindBhog Odisha 45 Samulei Odisha
Colour of tip of lemma; Lemma and Palea: Colour; Panicle: West
Awns; Panicle: Colour of awns; Panicle: Length of longest 17 KarpurBhog Odisha 46 Banaphul
Bengal
awn; Panicle: Distribution of awns; Panicle: Distribution of 18 Magura Odisha 47 SunaMukhi Odisha
awns; Panicle: Presence of secondary branching; Panicle: 19 LalubodiKoberi Odisha 48 Medi Odisha
Attitude of branches; Panicle: Exertion; Time of maturity;
West
Leaf senescence; Sterile lemma: Colour; Grain: Weight of 20 Shiuli
Bengal
49 Puagli Odisha
1000 fully developed grains; Grain: Length; Grain: Width;
21 Samudra Bali Odisha 50 Senkara Odisha
Grain: Phenol reaction of lemma; Decorticated grain: Length;
West
Decorticated grain: Width; Decorticated grain: Width; 22 Chinger Odisha 51 AsitKalma
Bengal
Decorticated grain: Shape; Decorticated grain: Colour;
23 Nini Odisha 52 BidanSapru Odisha
Endosperm: Presence of amylose; Endosperm: Content of
amylose; Varieties with endosperm of amylose absent only. West West
24 Kelas 53 Jugal
Bengal Bengal
Polished grain: Expression of white core; Gelatinization
25 Likitimachi Odisha 54 Malapatri Odisha
temperature through alkali spreading value; Decorticated
grain: Aroma.The Farmers’ varieties were characterized at West
26 Chamarmani 55 Danisaria Odisha
Bengal
different stages of growth with appropriate procedures as per
the DUS test guidelines of PPV & FR Act, 2001. West
27 Ratanchudi Odisha 56 Kerala Sundari
Bengal
28 Kalabhutia Odisha 57 kantaDumer Odisha
DNA Extraction and SSR Analysis: West
29 Ghoes
Bengal
DNA was extracted from five day old young leaves
using CTAB methodfrom the 57 Farmers’Varieties[Table
1]. The quality of the DNA was checked on an agarose gel Allele scoring and data analysis
[0.8% w/v]. Forty eight SSR markers, covering all the 12 All the genotypes were scored for the presence and
chromosomes of rice, selected from the Genome Databases absence of SSR bands and the data was entered in to a
are used in the present study. PCR reactions were carried binary matrix as discrete variable, 1 for presence and 0 for
out using eppendroff master cycler gradient. The reaction the absence of the allele. Polymorphic information content
volume was 15 μl containing 2 μl of genomic DNA, 1X [PIC] values were estimated using the formula:
assay buffer, 200 μM of dinucleotides, 2 μM MgCl2, 0.2 μM
each primer and 1 unit of Taqpolymerase. The amplification PIC = 1- €pi2
profile was 94oC for 5 min, 94oC for 30 s, 55oC for 1 min,
Wherepi is the frequency of the allele at each locus [5].
72oC for 1 s for 35 cycles and additional temperature of 72oC
A Neighbour joining tree was constructed with the help of
for 10 min for extension and 4oC for cooling. The amplified
Power marker Version 3.25 [6].
products were electrophoretically resolved on a 3% agarose
gel using 0.5x TBE buffer and ethedium bromide stain. DNA
banding patterns were visualised using Alpha imaging gel RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
documentation instrument. Genetic Diversity based on morphological [DUS]
characteristics:
Table 1: List of Farmers’ Varieties used in the present study
The 57 farmers’ varieties under the study showed
Farmer's Farmer's range of variability for some of the morpho- agronomical
S.No Region S.No Region
Varieties Varieties traits studied. The agro- morphological evaluation basically
1 Harishankara Odisha 30 Karani Odisha provides the information on the potential of the land races/
2 Kadalikenda Odisha 31 Jaksaru Odisha farmers’ varieties. It is pre requisite to evaluate the genetic
3 Kathia Odisha 32 Pankapota Odisha stocks before utilizing them in breeding programmes. The
vast germplasm existing in the gene bank i.e., approximately
West
4 BastaBhog Odisha 33 Ranikajal 95000 accessions in the Indian National Gene Bank
Bengal
[NGB], is yet to be evaluated although some part of it
West
5 Nagra 34 Sapori Odisha has been characterised and several of the useful traits are
Bengal
being transferred to the cultivated varieties from these
6 DhabulaBhuta Odisha 35 Kolina Odisha
land races / farmers’ varieties. This preliminary evaluation
Rama
7 Kalia Odisha 36 Odisha throws light on kind of material, duration, grain type, stem
chandraBoita
strength, yielding ability and also on tolerance to various
West
8 Gelei Odisha 37 Kanakchur biotic and abiotic stresses. The frequency distribution for 5
Bengal
morphological characters is shown in the figure 1. A majority
9 Ladari Odisha 38 Geelavathi Odisha
of genotypes were found to possess green basal leaf sheath
10 Sunapani Odisha 39 PoraSenkara Odisha colour [81%], absence of stem anthocyanin colouration of
11 MachaKanta Odisha 40 Sarsonful Odisha nodes [81%], high medium gelatinization through alkali
12 NiniBudhi Odisha 41 Kusuma Odisha sprading value [86%], medium time of heading [61%], short
13 Badi Odisha 42 Haladichudi Odisha stem length [47%]. High diversity was observed in this set of
14 DengerChudi Odisha 43 Kalajira Odisha Farmers varieties’ for 31 essential and additional characters.

425
The characters which recorded high diversity include Leaf: Table:2 Gene diversity and PIC values for SSR Markers
Intensity of green colour, Leaf: Anthocyanin colouration, identified in 57 Farmers’ varieties
Leaf sheath: anthocyanin colouration, Leaf sheath: intensity
of anthocyanin colouration, Leaf: Pubescence of blade Major Allele
Surface, Leaf: anthocyanin colouration of auricles, Leaf: Marker Frequency Allele.No GeneD-iversity PIC
anthocyanin colouration of collar, Leaf: colour of ligule, RM 1359 0.6579 3.0000 0.4883 0.4193
Leaf: Length of blade,Culm: Attitude, Lemma: Anthocyanin RM 403 0.5439 3.0000 0.5115 0.3974
colouration of apex, Stem: Thickness, Stem: anthocyanin RM 23946 0.4211 5.0000 0.6919 0.6389
colouration of nodes, Stem: Intensity of anthocyanin
colouration of nodes, Flag leaf: attitude of blade [late RM 266 0.3947 4.0000 0.6850 0.6251
observation] Panicle: Number per plant, Spikelet: colour RM 228 0.3772 5.0000 0.7002 0.6440
of tip of lemma, Decorticated grain: width, Gelatinization RM 1337 0.3947 4.0000 0.6600 0.5895
temperature through alkali spreading.The high diversity RM 251 0.3860 5.0000 0.6987 0.6416
for the leaf pubescence can be of great help in developing
RM 72 0.3860 5.0000 0.7251 0.6787
the varieties possessing tolerance to sucking pests. The
high diversity for panicle number has got highest economic RM 2006 0.4386 5.0000 0.6839 0.6285
importance. Therfore this kind of characterization is not only RM 122 0.3860 3.0000 0.6624 0.5884
useful in DUS characterization to establish the disticntness of RM 32 0.6316 4.0000 0.5437 0.4963
a genotype but also in utilising them in breeding programmes
RM 234 0.2982 5.0000 0.7512 0.7080
Most of these farmers’ varieties were found to be short bold
types with few varieties varying from short slender to long RM 4 0.3070 4.0000 0.7324 0.6821
bold/ slender type indicating the farmers’ preferences of this RM 12469 0.3860 5.0000 0.6914 0.6357
region .Interestingly, there is wide variation for lemma and RM 23643 0.4211 4.0000 0.6790 0.6180
paleacolour. The hull colour among these farmers’ varieties RM 24989 0.4035 4.0000 0.6851 0.6241
varied from straw colour to purple/black colour indicating
high diversity among these genotypes. With respect to RM15855 0.2105 7.0000 0.8324 0.8100
quality, the amylose content ranged from low to high with RM 28616 0.2982 7.0000 0.7938 0.7653
the genotypes NiniBudhi, Kala Bhutia etc. recording higher RM 494 0.4386 5.0000 0.7031 0.6569
amylose content and the genotype Rani kajal recorded low RM 25754 0.3772 4.0000 0.7074 0.6528
amylose content indicating these genotypes differed for
RM 6843 0.3421 5.0000 0.7293 0.6812
major quality traits ,thus it may be stated that this kind of
variability in the local varieties reflects in the consumer RM 5364 0.3421 5.0000 0.7313 0.6850
preference RM 7424 0.6316 2.0000 0.4654 0.3571
RM 23959 0.5526 3.0000 0.5806 0.5073
Genetic Diversity analysis based on SSR markers
data: RM 16913 0.5263 5.0000 0.6230 0.5641
RM 23175 0.5439 3.0000 0.5877 0.5146
Fortyeight microsatellite or SSR markers covering all
the 12 chromosomes were used to characterize and assess RM 19350 0.2982 4.0000 0.7462 0.6989
genetic diversity among 57 rice genotypes.Out of the 48 RM 1350 0.2368 5.0000 0.7972 0.7647
markers used, 41 markers showed polymorphism [PIC RM 204 0.4561 3.0000 0.6365 0.5620
> 0.5] by revealing 172 alleles. The number of alleles per RM 229 0.4561 4.0000 0.6611 0.5980
locus varied from 2 [RM7424, RM6057] to 7 [RM15855,
RM 6283 0.4825 3.0000 0.6093 0.5297
RM 28616] with an average of 4.04. Many studies have also
RM 10843 0.5614 3.0000 0.5331 0.4366
reported significant differences in allelic diversity among
various microsatellite loci [7]. The Polymorphic Information RM 31 0.4737 3.0000 0.6217 0.5451
Content [PIC]value measures the probability that two RM 12983 0.6316 3.0000 0.5072 0.4315
randomly chosen alleles from a population are distinguished. RM 24217 0.4649 4.0000 0.6487 0.5813
The PIC, averaged 0.593 ranging from 0.345 [RM 6057] RM 18270 0.3860 4.0000 0.6851 0.6232
to 0.81 [RM15855].Markers were highly informative to
RM 3148 0.3947 5.0000 0.7245 0.6790
slightly informative [PIC > 0.5, informative markers]. The
polymorphic banding pattern of RM3148 Marker in 57 rice RM 27034 0.3860 5.0000 0.7233 0.6776
genotypes is presented in Figure 2.The gene diversity [GD] RM 19697 0.4298 4.0000 0.6902 0.6355
ranged from 0.44 to 0.83. The polymorphism Information RM 26643 0.4825 3.0000 0.6093 0.5297
Content [PIC] ranged from 0.34 to 0.81 and Allele
RM 22839 0.4561 4.0000 0.6677 0.6101
Frequencies [AF] ranged from 0.21 to 0.66 [Table 2].The
genetic diversity of each SSR locus appeared to be associated RM 13867 0.4035 3.0000 0.6439 0.5677
with the number of alleles detected per locus. The higher the RM 5689 0.5614 4.0000 0.5737 0.5014
PIC value of the locus, higher the number of alleles detected. RM14378 0.4912 3.0000 0.6279 0.5566
This observed pattern was consistent with report of ( Yu et RM 11111 0.4123 4.0000 0.6699 0.6086
al 2003)[8]. RM 1090 0.5088 3.0000 0.5903 0.5082
RM 247 0.3158 4.0000 0.7302 0.6794
RM 6057 0.6667 2.0000 0.4444 0.3457

426
The microsatellite markers were able to distinguish
between rice genotypes. The high degree of polymorphism
of microsatellite allows rapid and efficient identification
of rice genotypes. The microsatellite markers classified
rice genotypes and the genetic relationships demonstrated
among the genotypes in the neighbour joining tree .The 57
genotypes could be easily categorized into three clusters.
This dendrogram revealed that the genotypes derived from
a genetically similar type clustered together. Sub-divisions
of groups can further reveal sub-sub groups in terms of
similarity.
Cluster III is the major cluster comprising of 54
genotypes and is comprised of two sub clusters. Sub
cluster 1 is again divided in to Sub-Sub clusters A and B
.35 genotypes were grouped into Sub-Sub cluster A and
17 were grouped into Sub-Sub cluster B. The genotypes
Nini and Likitimachi were grouped into Cluster II.Cluster
I consists of only one genotype Samudra Bali. Based on the
similarity coefficient the maximum similarity was recorded
between GovindBhog and KarpurBhog which indicates
that genotypes are closely related. Likewise the genotypes
Dengerchudi&sekta, Ratanchudi& Kala bhutia are closely
related. Based on the similarity coefficient the genotype
Samudra Bali was found to be distantly related with most
of the genotypes. Using 48 polymorphic SSR markers, total
number of alleles [173] and the average number of alleles per
locus [4.04] detected were higher than previously described
for Oryzasativagenotypes [9;10]. Using 37 SSR markers,
Vijaya Lakshmi et al. [9] found 88 alleles with an average
of 2.37, while Narshimuluet al. [10] reported 96 alleles with
an average of alleles per locus 2.67. The PIC values ranged
from 0.345 to 0.81 which are similar [0.12 to 0.83] to those
reported for genetic diversity assessment in rice genotypes
[11]. The PIC values in this study were comparable to those
reported in some studies [12,13,14-16,7] but higher than
those reported by Singh et al.[17] and Joshi and Behera[18].
The alleles revealed by markers showed a high degree of
polymorphism, with most of the markers used producing
polymorphic bands. This amply suggests that the selected
set of SSRs used in this study were extremely informative
and effective for assessing the genetic diversity.
CONCLUSION
DUS Characterization of these farmers’ varieties
will help to identify the genotypes with unique traits
which can be utilized in breeding programmes and also in
understanding the consumer preference in those regions.
The molecular characterization will help to differentiate
extent of variability within these farmers’ Varieties. The
genetic variation identified by morphological characters and
molecular markers, canbe exploited in further studies. The
present study provided insights into the extent of diversity
existing in the farmers’ varieties from the states of Odisha and
West Bengal. The characterization of these farmers’ varieties
by following DUS descriptors revealed that moderate to
high diversity existed for some characters and this type of
characterization is necessary for the traditional varieties to
prevent unregulated exploitation of genetic resources.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 428-430 (2015)
EFFECT OF SOWING DATES ON THE INCIDENCE OF ONION THRIPS, THRIPS TABACI
LINDEMAN IN NORTH REGIONS OF KARNATAKA
MALLINATH NEERGUDE., BIRADAR A.P. AND VEERENDRA A.C
College of Agriculture, Bijapur
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT
Studies on different dates of sowing and thrips incidence, indicate that, the maximum population of thrips was recorded when the crop
was sown on15/06/2012 and 25/06/2012 while it was minimum in the crop sown on 25/07/2012. Number of predators viz., spiders and
coccinellid beetles were high in the crop sown on 15/06/2012 and minimum population of spiders and coccinellid beetles was noticed in
the crop sown on 25/07/2012. Percent leaf curl was higher in the crop sown on 15/06/2012. While, it was minimum in 25/07/2012 sown
crop. Again, during physiological maturity stage, percent leaf curl gradually increased reaching a peak of 37.55 on 15/06/2012 sown crop.

Key words: Thrips tabaci Lindeman, dates of sowing, incidence, onion

INTRODUCTION
Onion (Allium cepa. L.) is one of the most important
vegetable crops of Alliaceae family originated from Central
Asia (Brewster, 1994) and it is growing mainly for its bulb,
which is used almost daily in every home (Sani and Jaliya,
2009). It has been considered as rich source of carbohydrates,
protein, vitamin C and minerals like phosphorus and calcium.
Onion is grown in an area of 10.15 lakh ha with a production
of 247.63 lakh mt and productivity of 24.39 t/ ha in India.
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh are the major onion growing states of the
country. In Karnataka, four major districts viz., Dharwad,
Chitradurga, Gadag and Bijapur contribute59% of the total
production and drill sowing is a common practice in these
districts. In Bijapur, onion occupied an area of 11,383 ha with
an annual production of 2, 78,326 tonnes at a productivity of
24.45 tonnes / ha. Thrips tabaci is considered an indirect pest
of onion because, damage was seen on leaves rather than the
marketable portion of the crop, (the bulb). Thrips feeding on
onion causes silvery leaf spots that turn into white blotches
along the leaves due to removal of cellular content followed
by the development of silvery patches, curling of leaves and
finally reduced weight of onion bulb (Bailey, 1938 and Rueda
et al., 2007). This injury reduces the photosynthetic ability of
the plant by destroying chlorophyll-rich leaf mesophyll and
interferes with transportation of nutrients to the bulb causing
up to 60% yield loss (Lewis, 1997 and Molenaar, 1984).
Therefore to combat the insect pests, farmers are solely
dependent on chemical pesticides. Onion growers typically
apply insecticides regularly on weekly basis, resulting
in 9-12 insecticides applications per crop irrespective of
knowing the time and incidence of this pest in right time
and right manner during the seasons. This might be due to
varied stage wise (eggs, larvae. adults) incidence of thrips in
a chronological order over period which seems to be holds
good or congenial condition for incidence survivability of
this pest. Also, the date of sowing is responsible about the
variation in thrips population.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
A field experiment was conducted on the effect of
dates of sowing on the incidence of onion thrips at Regional
Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during kharif 2012. Totally
five dates of sowing were made (Variety: Nashik Red) at
10 days interval starting from 15-06-2012 to 25-07-2012
with a plot size of 3 m x 3 m and a plant spacing of 30 cm
between rows and 5 cm between plants within a row. The
design followed was Randomized Block Design (RBD) with
four replications. Observations recorded as number of thrips/
five plants (nymphs and adults) at seedling, vegetative and
physiological maturity stage and per cent leaf curling was
calculated by counting 100 randomly selected plants in each
treatment. Simultaneously observations the natural enemies
present in the field were recorded.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of thrips population per five plants
During the present study, the observations made on
thrips population by under taking different date of sowing at
ten days interval from five randomly selected plants in each
treatment, indicated that The data obtained in Table 1 show
that during the seedling stage the lower population of thrips
(12.62 / 5 plants) was noticed in the crop sown on 25/07/2012
followed by 15/07/2012 sown crop (12.25 thrips/ 5 plants) .
The higher population of thrips (45.50 /plants) was recorded
on 15/06/2012 sown crop followed by 25/06/2012 (42.25 /
plants) and 05/07/2012 (23.00 /5 plants) sown crop. During
vegetative stage, higher population of thrips gradually reached
a peak level of 366.50 /5 plants on 15/06/2012 sown crop
followed by 25/06/2012 (237.75 / 5 plants) and 15/07/2012
(237.50 / plants). Lower population of thrips (128.50/ 5 plants)
was noticed in crop sown on 27/07/2012. During physiological
maturity stage, the population of thrips reached the highest
peak of 5157.25 thrips / 5 plants on 15/06/2012, whereas, the
lowest population of thrips was recorded in the crop sown on
25/07/2012 (2123.75 / 5 plants). During crop sown on June
months coupled with higher temperature, relative humidity and
prolonged dry spell during last year (2012) helps in buildup of
thrips populations. The above results are in conformity with
the findings of Upendhar et al. (2006) reported a positive
correlation of thrips population with maximum temperature
and negative correlation with minimum temperature, relative
humidity (morning and evening) and rainfall. The overall

428
results showed that, the weather parameters like maximum and coccinellid beetles per 5 plants, respectively). The
temperature favors the buildup of thrips population and their occurrence of natural enemies (spiders and coccinellids) were
activity resulted in the increase of thrips population.Onion low during the early stage of the crop and increased population
crop which was sown either on 15th July or before 25th July was noticed during vegetative and physiological maturity
emerged as better optimum date of sowing against onion stage of the crop. This was coinciding with the occurrence of
thrips. These dates of sowing recorded the lowest population of more population of thrips during vegetative and physiological
thrips compared to other three dates of sowing (15th June, 25th maturity stage of onion crop.
June and 5th July). However, higher population of thrips was
recorded between 15th July and 25th July sown crop.This may Percent leaf curl due to onion thrips
be because of dry weather accomplished during that period The results obtained in table 3 show the percent
which might have helped in the buildup of thrips population leaf curl due to onion thrips at different dates of sowing at
and hence, higher population of thrips was noticed in onion ten days intervals on five randomly selected plants in each
crop. Pramod and Naganagoud (2007) who also reported that, treatment, indicated that, the maximum percent leaf curl (13.20
thrips population recorded was peak during 23rd June sowing / 5 plants) was noticed in crop sown on 15/06/2012 followed
with the higher population spread over between 9thJune to by crop sown on 25/06/2012 (5.10 / plants). Whereas, lower
23rdJuly during 2005-06. Mean of observations during 2006- percent leaf curl (0.45 / plants) was noticed in crop sown on
07 indicated peak incidence during 9th July sowing with a 25/07/2012 followed by crop sown on 15/07/2012 (0.80),
maximum population during 9th June to 23rd July sowings. The this might be due to the higher population of thrips and lower
data on mean incidence of two years indicated peak population the thrips population lower per cent leaf curl was recorded
of thrips during 23rd June with maximum population between during seedling stage. During vegetative stage of the onion
9thJune to 23rd July sowing. It was cleared that the population crop, maximum leaf curl of 52.95 per cent was noticed in
of thrips to be at the higher side during June to August 15/06/2012 sown crop followed by 25/06/2012 sown crop
sowings. Linga and Nagaraju (2006) also reported lower thrips (29.30 / 5 plants) while, minimum percent leaf curl (6.70 / 5
incidence on the fifth day of August sowing (7.41 numbers/ plants) was noticed in crop sown on 25/07/2012 followed by
plant) and in 15th August sowing (5.36 numbers/ plant). The crop sown on 15/07/2012 (11.60 %). During physiological
higher thrips infestation was recorded in 5th July sown crop maturity stage, maximum leaf curl of 37.55 was recorded
and finally concluded that, sowing the crop during 5th to 25th in crop sown on 15/06/2012 followed by crop sown on
August is advantageous for thrips control with higher bulb 25/06/2012 (23.85 %). Whereas, minimum leaf curl (2.15%)
yields. Bagle (1993) reported that, planting of chilli from 30th was noticed in crop sown on 25/07/2012 followed by crop
June to 15th July could escape the thrips damage.Similarly, sown on 15/07/2012 (6.65%). This might be because of higher
Hosmani (1982) reported that, chilli crop transplanted in early the thrips population higher will be per cent leaf curl. Due to
June and July escapes incidences of thrips and mites than the Lack of related reviews with respect to this aspect, the present
crop transplanted in late July and early August. Two peaks of investigation was compared with chilli. Bagle, (1993) reported
thrips populations were recorded during third week of August that, low incidence of leaf curl was observed in chilli crop,
and fourth week of September coinciding with the dry spell in Maharashtra planted until 15th July, while late-planted crop
after moderate rainfall (Harvir, 2005) and he reported a strong (15th August and 30th August) was severally attacked by leaf
positive correlation with maximum temperature. curl.
Number of natural enemies per five plants
Table 1.Effect of dates of sowing on the incidence of onion
Table 2 shows that during the seedling stage the natural thrips, Thrips tabaci
enemies viz., spiders and coccinellid beetles found during
different dates of sowing indicated that the maximum population Population of thrips/5 plants
of spiders (5.25 / 5 plants) and coccinellid beetles (4.75/ 5 Date of sowing Seedling Vegetative Physiological
plants) were noticed in crop sown on 15/06/2012 followed by
stage stage maturity stage
(4.25 and4.25/ 5 plants) crop sown on 25/06/2012. Minimum
45.25 366.50a 5157.25
population of spiders (1.75 / 5 plants) and coccinellid beetles T1- 15/06/2012
(6.79)a (19.15) (71.80)a
(0.75 / 5 plants) were reported in crop sown on 25/07/2012,
followed by 15/07/2012 (2.00 and 2.75/ 5 plants). During the 42.50 237.75 3701.00
T2- 25/06/2012 b
vegetative stage of onion crop, higher population of spiders (6.56)a (15.03) (60.84)b
and coccinellid beetles of 6.75 and 8.00, respectively were 23.00 195.25b 2905.25
T3- 05/07/2012
noticed in the crop sown in 15/06/2012, followed by crop (4.75)b (13.78) (53.90)c
sown on 25/06/2012 (6.25 and 5.25 / plants), respectively. 12.25 237.50b 2589.75
T4- 15/07/2012
Lower population of spiders (2.50) and coccinellid beetles (3.63)c (15.02) (50.89)d
(1.75) were observed in crop sown on 25/07/2012 followed by 10.62 128.50b 2123.75
T5- 25/07/2012
the crop sown on 15/07/2012 having 4.25 and 4.00 spiders and (3.36)c (10.14) (46.08)e
coccinellid beetles, respectively.During physiological maturity S.Em± 0.35 0.82 0.38
stage the mean population of spiders and coccinellid beetles C.D @ 5 % 1.08 2.52 1.18
reached a peak of 11.50 and 10.25 on 15/06/2012 sown crop, C.V (%) 14.02 10.42 1.35
respectively followed by 25/06/2012 sown crop and which
recorded 7.25 and 7.50 adults per 5 plants, respectively. Lower Figures in the parentheses are square root transformed values
population of spiders (1.75 / 5 plants) and coccinellid beetles
(1.00 / 5 plants) were noticed in crop sown on 25/07/2012 Means followed by similar alphabets in the column do not
followed by crop sown on15/07/2012 (3.75 and 4.00 spiders differ significantly at 0.05% by DMRT

429
Table 2. Population of natural enemies found in different dates of sowing.
Seedling stage Vegetative stage Physiological maturity stage
Date of sowing No. of Spider/5 No. of CB /5 No. of Spider/5 No. of CB /5 No. of Spider/5 No. of CB /5
plants plants plants plants plants plants
5.25 4.75 6.75 8.00 11.50 10.25
T1- 15/06/2012
(2.49) (2.36) (2.76) (2.99) (3.53) (3.33)
4.25 4.25 6.25 5.25 7.25 7.50
T2- 25/06/2012
(2.25) (2.28) (2.67) (2.49) (2.86) (2.90)
3.50 3.25 4.25 4.50 5.25 5.50
T3- 05/07/2012
(2.10) (2.05) (2.26) (2.22) (2.47) (2.51)
2.00 2.75 4.25 4.00 3.75 4.00
T4- 15/07/2012
(1.71) (1.91) (2.28) (2.19) (2.15) (2.22)
1.75 0.75 2.50 1.75 1.75 1.00
T5- 25/07/2012
(1.64) (1.28) (1.84) (1.61) (1.65) (1.35)
S.Em+ 0.14 0.17 0.17 0.24 0.16 0.20
C.D @5% 0.45 0.54 0.53 0.76 0.50 0.64
C.V% 14.32 18.01 14.60 21.43 12.85 16.92
CB –Coccinellid Beetle, Figures in the parentheses are square root transformed values

Table 3: Per cent leaf curled plants by thrips in different (Edit. Hosmani, M.M.), Rajashri Printing Press,
dates of sowing in onion. Tadakod Oni, Dharwad, pp. 100-128.
Per cent leaf curl (N- 5plants) Lewis, T., 1997, Pest thrips in perspective, Thrips as crop
Date of sowing Seedling Vegetative Physiological pests. CAB International, New York. pp. 1-13.
stage stage maturity stage
Linga, R. G. and Nagaraju, 2006, Serological detection of
13.20 52.95 37.55
T1- 15/06/2012 sunflower necrosis virusdisease. Environment
(21.27)a (46.70)a (37.78)a
and Ecology, 24: 52-54.
5.10 29.30 23.85
T2- 25/06/2012
(13.02)b (32.75)b (29.23)b Molenaar, N. D., 1984, Genetics, thrips (Thrips tabaci L.)
3.10 19.80 12.65 resistance and epicuticular wax characteristics
T3- 05/07/2012
(10.12)c (26.39)c (20.83)c of nonglossy and glossy onions (Allium
0.80 11.60 6.65 cepa L.). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
T4- 15/07/2012 Wisconsin, Madison.annuus L. Journal of
(4.90)d (19.88)d (14.92)d
0.45 6.70 2.15 Oilseeds Research, 22(1): 90-92.
T5- 25/07/2012
(3.76)d (14.97)e (8.41)e
Pramod, k. and Naganagoud., 2007, Sucking pests of
S.Em± 0.49 1.46 0.26 sunflower with special reference toThrips
C.D @ 5% 1.53 4.49 0.82 palmiKarny, its relationwith necrosis virus and
C.V (%) 9.36 10.37 2.41 management PhD.(Agri.) Thesis, University of
Figures in the parentheses are square root transformed values Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, pp-116- 132.
Rueda, A., Badenes, P. F. R., and Shelton, A. M., 2007,
Means followed by similar alphabets in the column do not Developing economic thresholds for onion
differ significantly at 0.05% by DMRT thrips in Honduras. Crop Prot., 26: 1099 -1107.
REFERENCE: Sani, B. M. and Jaliya, M. M., 2009, Onion production
Bagle, B. G., 1993, Effect of date of planting on the incidence and management under irrigation. Extension
caused by thrips Scirtothripsdorsalis in chilli bulletin No. 204:02-04.
and its effect on yield. Indian Journal of Plant Upendhar, S., Singh, T.V.K. and Prasad Rao, R.D.V.J.,
Protection, 21(2):132-134. 2006, Relationship between thrips population,
Bailey, S. F., 1938, Thrips of economic importance in sunflower necrosis disease (SND) incidence
California. Univ. Calif. Coll. Agric. Exp. Stn. and weather parameters. Journal of Oilseeds
346. Research, 23(2): 267-269.

Brewster, J. L., 1994, Onion and other vegetable alliums.

CABI Int. Publ., pp. 236.
Harvir,S., 2005, Thrips incidence and necrosis disease in
sunflower, Helianthus annuus L. Journal of
Oilseeds Research, 22(1): 90-92.
Hosmani, M.M., 1982, Cultural practices for chilli. In: Chilli

430
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 431- 432 (2015)
GENETIC VARIABILITY PARAMETERS CORRELATION STUDIES IN BREAD WHEAT
(Triticum aestivum L.)
MUNISH KUMAR SINGH* SHAILESH MARKER, VIDYAPATI VIDYAKAR, RAVI KANT, A. PAUL AND
D.N.SINGH
Department of Genetic and Plant Breeding
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, technology and Sciences
(Deemed to be University), Allahabad-211007, Uttar Pradesh.

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out with 20 wheat genotype during rabi 2009-10 in RBD having three replication at field experiment
Centre of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS, Allahabad. The data were recorded on 13
quantitative characters to study the variability, heritability, genetic advance and correlation. Analysis of variance revealed considerable
variability among the genotypes for all characters. On the basis of mean performance highest grain yield per plant was exhibited by geno-
type K-8020 (23.42g). A perusal of coefficient of variation showed that PCV was higher than GCV for all the characters studied indicating
less effect of environment on the expression of these characters. The phenotype and genotype coefficient of variation (PCV and GCV) was
high for grain yield per plant followed by number of grain per spike and effective tillers per plant. High estimate of heritability were observed
for grain yield per plot, biological yield, number of grain per spike, grain yield per plant and days to 50% flowering. Moderate estimate
of genetic advance were exhibited by days to 50% flowering harvest index, test weight and grain yield per plant. The grain yield exhibited
positive and significant correlation with biological yield per plant, harvest index and test weight both at genotypic and phenotypic level.

Key words: Wheat, genetic variability, correlation, heritability and genetic advance

INTRODUCTION field experimentation centre of the Department of Genetics and

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the major grain crop
in the world. It provides food to 36% of the global population
and contributes 20% of food calories. The increasing yield
potential has indisputable importance and solving hunger
issue. The wheat requirement by 2020 would be about 105-109
million tons (Jogshoron, 2005). More of this increase in the
production will have to come from increased productivity as the
land area under wheat is expected to be decreased.The study of
genetic variability is the perquisite for any crop improvement
programme. Variation in any character in a segregating
population is due to genetic and environmental factors. The
genetic factor is more important in plant breeding since it can
be useful to improve the population of crop plant. Heritability
estimate provides information about index of transmissibility
of the quantitative characters of economic importance which
are essential for an effective crop breeding strategy. The
magnitude of heritability also helps in predicting the behavior
of succeeding generation by devising the appropriate selection
criteria and assessing the level of genetic improvement.In
general genotypic correlation coefficient was higher than the
corresponding phenotypic values (Vaishnvi, Bural 1996 and
Singh et al. 2002). In grain yield exhibited positive correlation
with grain per spike, spike length and 1000 gram weight while
grain weight per spike was positively correlated with 1000 grain
weight and harvest index (Singh et al., 2002). The major yield
contributing characters were grain per spike, spike length and
1000 grain weight. However in wheat the grain yield showed
positive correlation with biological yield, grain per spike, and
tiller per unit area and harvest index (Rana and Sharma 1947). The analysis of variance for mean squares was
Keeping this view in mind this investigation has designed
to study the genetic variability for various important traits
associated to crop yield and its correlation.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This experiment was conducted during 2009-10 at the
Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, Sam Higgin
Bottom Institute of Agriculture Technology and Science,
Allahabad India. Twenty wheat cultivars and advance generation
materials viz. (PBW-524,PBW-373,PBW-343,K-816,K-
9423,K-8962,K-8020,HD2385,HD2380,HD2687,HD2894,H
UW-234,HUW-510,HUW-318,RAJ 4047,UP2594,VEERI,AA-
2,AAI-12 were sown in randomized block design with three
replications. “The experimental field was divided into 3 blocks
of equal size and each block possesses 20 plots. Each genotype
was accommodated in a two row of 2 meter length spaced at
25cm with an approximate plant to plant distance of 5cm. The
Showing was done on December 8th 2009”. All the recommended
agronomic practices were followed to raise a healthy crop. The
data were recorded for thirteen charters including days to 50%
flowering, days to maturity, numbers of tillers per plant, grain
yield per plot, test weight and harvest index.The data for all
these attributes were subjected to analysis of variance following
Stul and Torriel (1980) to evaluate the significant differences
among the genotypes. Phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of
variation and heritability estimate (Broad Sense) were computed
out according to the method described by Hansen et al.(1956).
Genetic advance was computed following the procedure
elaborated by Singh and Chaudhary (2004). Association of
various traits with grain yield and among themselves was
worked out at phenotypic and genotypic levels according to the
method given by Kwon and Torrie (1964).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
highly significant for all traits under study. Hence estimation
of phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variations become
necessary from the present investigation It become apparent
that all the characters except flag leaf length, effective tillers
per plant and spike length had less pronounced differences
between the value of phenotypic coefficient of variation and

431
genotypic coefficient of variation (Table 1) implying variability Fig:2 Histogram depicting estimates of heritability and ge-
due genetic constitution . In general phenotypic coefficient of netic advance for thirteen characters in wheat
variation was higher than genotypic coefficient of variation.
“The genotypic coefficient of variation was higher for grain
yield per plant, no. of grain per spike and effective tiller per
plant”. “These result indicated that higher magnitude of genetic
coefficient of variation for the above traits a better opportunity
for improvement through selection”. These results are
consonance with those of Chaturvedi et al. (1980) and Pandey
and Bist (1998).However characters like grain yield per plot
(99.27,0.10) effective tiller per plant (80.30,2.23) spike length
(79.00,1.91) and flag leaf width (70.10,0.11) possessed high
heritability with low genetic advance suggesting non-additive
give action in the expression of the traits. The high heritability
of the traits was due to favorable influence of environment
rather than genotypic and selection for these traits may not be
rewarding similar result was reported by Panwar et al. (2000)
for plant height, number of tiller exhibited higher heritability. Fig:1 Histogram depicting estimates of GCV and PCV for
Characters exhibiting high heritability may not be necessarily thirteen quantitative characters in wheat.
gives high genetic advance. Jhonson et al .(1935) showed that
high heritability should be accompanied by a high genetic REFERENCES
advance to arrive and were reliable conclusion. Selection based
on heritability as it includes both additive and non-additive gene Ahmad, Z.J.C. Sharma, R.P. Katiyar and R.S. Bhatia 1978.
effect. In general, correlation coefficients at genotypic level Path analysis of productivity in wheat. Indian J.Genet,
were higher than those of phenotypic level (Table 3). It might be Plant Breed .28:299-303
due to depressing effect of environment on character association Burton,G.W.(1952). Estimating heritability in tall fesus from
as reported earlier for wheat crop (Ahmad et al. (1978), Paroda replicated clonal material. J.Agron . 45(30:474-481.
and Joshi 1970). The correlation of grain yield showed positive
significantly genotypic correlation with biological yield per Chaturvedi KN,Rai J.N. and Guha DB. 1980. Variability in
plant (rg 0.85), harvest index (rg 0.69) and test weight (rg grape Indian General of Horticulture 37:262-4
0.54) but non significantly positive correlation with effective
Hansen, W.D., H.F. Robinson and R.E. Comstock 1956.
tillers per plant (rg 0.32), flag leaf length (rg 0.28), plant height
Biomatric studies of Yield in segregating population
(rg 0.22) and number of grains per spike (0.01) and negative
of Korean lespedeza. Agron.J.48:268-272.
significant correlation with flag leaf width (rg -0.44) but non
significant negative correlation with days to maturity (rg -0.30), Johnson,H.W.,Robinson, H.F. and Comstock, R.E.(1955).
spike length (rg -0.28) and days to 50% flowering (rg -0.22). Estimate of genetic and environmental variability
High estimate of heritability (Broad Sense) were obtained for all in Soybean and their implication in selection Agron.
the characters except, flag leaf length flag leaf width and spike J.47:477-483.
length.While perusal of genetic advance (Table1) revealed that
it was high for number of grain per spike followed by plant Kwon,S.H. and J.H. Torrie.1964. Heritability and
height, biological yield, days to 50% flowering ,harvest index, interrelationship of traits of two Soybean populations.
and test weight and low genetic advance was observed for grain Crop Sci.4:196-198.
yield per plant ,flag leaf width, spike length and effective tillers
Mohsin,T.Khan, N. and Naqvi,F.N.(2009). Heritability
per plant. The heritability estimated coupled with expected
phenotypic correlation and path coefficient studies for
genetic advance indicate the mode of gave action in the
some agronomic characters in synthetic elite lines of
expression of traits which help choosing an appropriate breeding
wheat.J. of food, Agric.7 Env., 7(3&4):278-282.
methodology. High heritability with high genetic advance was
registered for number of grain per spike (98.18, 16.63), plant Parodha, R.S. and A.B. Joshi. 1970. Correlation and path
height (97.94, 16.35) and biological yield (98.30, 10.20) which coefficient and discriminate function for selection in
revealed that predominance of additive gene action was found wheat. Heredity 25:383-392.
in the expression of these traits.
Panwar. 2008. Vaishnavi, R. and J.S. Bural,(1996). Impact of bi
parental mating on the association among grain yield
traits in bread wheat.(Triticum aestivum L.em. Thell).
Ann. Agric. Bio.Res. India, 1:61-5.
Rana V.K. and S.C. Sharma (1997). Correlation among some
morphological characters associated with drought
tolerance in wheat .Crop Improvement 24:194-8.
Singh, R.K.and B.D. Chaudhary. 2004. Biometrical methods
in Quantitative Genetic Analysis. Kalyani Publisher,
New Dehli, India.
Steel,R. G.D. and J.H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and procedures
of statistics. M.C. Graw Hile Bok Inc. New York.
432
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 433-437 (2015)
YIELD, IRRIGATION PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMIC RETURN OF
TOMATO UNDER VARIABLE IRRIGATION AND LATERAL SPACING
S. V. TIRKEY1, M.IMTIYAZ2, KUMAR. J.L.G 3, MANISH KUMAR4*, A. KUJUR5
1,2,3
Vaugh School of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, SHIATS Allahabad
4
School of Forestry and Environment, SHIATS Allahabad
5
Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS Allahabad

ABSTRACT
Field study was carried out during the winter crop growing season of 2012-2013 (Nov to April) on clay loam soil to examine the effect of
variable irrigation (50, 75, 100, 125 & 150% of pan evaporation replenishment ) and lateral spacing (0.5 and1.0m) on yield, irrigation pro-
duction-efficiency and economic return of tomato. The crop was irrigated by drip irrigation system. Irrigation at 125% of pan evaporation
replenishment and 0.5m lateral spacing (laterals in every row) resulted in higher marketable yield. A further increase in irrigation level resulted
from 150% pan evaporation replenishment reduced marketable yield significantly. The higher irrigation production efficiency was record-
ed at 50% of pan evaporation replenishment and 0.5m lateral spacing (laterals in every row) and it decreased significantly with an increase
in irrigation level and lateral spacing. Irrigation at 125% of Pan Evaporation replenishment resulted in higher gross return, net return and
benefit cost ratio. The seasonal water applied and marketable yield, gross return, net return and benefit cost ratio showed strong quadratic
relationship for both 0.5 m and 1.0 m lateral spacing, which in turn can be used for optimizing tomato production under variable irrigation
and lateral spacing. The results revealed that drip irrigation sys-tem is profitable for broccoli production inspite of high initial investment.

Keywords: Drip Irrigation, Variable irrigation, Lateral spacing, yield and tomato

INTRODUCTION
Water is the greatest resource to humanity. It not
only helps in survival but also make life comfortable and
luxurious. Although water is a renewable resource, its
availability in appropriate quantity and quantity is under
severe stress due to increasing demand from various sectors.
Agriculture is the largest user of water, which consumes
more than 80% of the exploitable water resource. Growing
population, intensifying agriculture industrial development
and increasing urbanization are leading to higher demands
of water.
Irrigation scheduling is a critical management input to
insure to ensure adequate soil moisture for optimum plant
growth, yield, quality, water use efficiency and economic
return. Irrigation scheduling which determine the timing and
amount of irrigation water is governed by many complex
factors, but microclimate plays the most vital role. Therefore
it is important to develop irrigation scheduling techniques
under prevailing vital conditions in order to utilize scare
and expensive water efficiently and effectively for crop
production. Numerous studies were carried out in the past
on the development and evacuation of irrigation scheduling
techniques under a wide range of irrigation system and
management, soil crop and climate conditions (Mgadla et
al.1995; Tiwari and reddy 1998; Imtiyaz et al. 1996, 2000d;
Amer 2011).
Appropriate irrigation scheduling is to increase
irrigation efficiencies by applying the exact amount of water
needed to replenish the soil moisture to desire level, save
water resources and energy. Therefore, it is important to
develop scheduling techniques under prevailing climatic
conditions in order to utilize scare water resources effectively
for crop production.
Surface irrigation is the most common method
for vegetable, fruit and flower crops in this region. The
meteorological approach of scheduling irrigation is relating
the evapotranspiration from crop to evaporation from an open
pan, as it is well known that the rate of evapotranspiration
is related to open pan evaporation. The meteorological
approach such as pan evaporation replenishment, cumulative
pan evaporation and ration between irrigation water and
cumulative pan evaporation play a very important role
in scheduling (Singh et al 1997; Imtiyaz et al. 2000a,c,e;
Thakur et al. 2005; Thakur and Spehia 2005; Wanga et al.
2007; Badr and Abuarab 2013). In spite of some limitations,
evaporation from USWB class-A open pan is the most
common and simplest approach for scheduling of irrigation.
The daily weather data can be used to estimate reference
evapotranspiration using Penman equation.
The Drip irrigation with its ability for small but
frequent water application has been found superior in terms
of water economy, yield and water use irrigation production
efficiency. Efficient use of water by irrigation system is
becoming increasingly important particularly in arid and
semi-arid regions. The drip irrigation systems with its
ability to apply small but frequent irrigation have numerous
advantages over methods in terms of water economy, yield
and quality. Water application efficiency in the drip irrigation
is higher than other methods of irrigation (Hanson et al.
1997; Fekadu and Teshome 1998; Imtiyaz et al. 2007, 2009;
Boseveld et al. 2011; Dingre et al. 2012).
Tomato (Lycopersicon ecculentum Mill.) is one of the
important vegetable extensively grown in India. Tomato is
regarded as a cash crop. Tomato is rich source of vitamins A,
C, potassium, minerals and fibers. Drip irrigation is popular
in several agro-climatic zones in India except in the state
of Uttar Pradesh mainly due to the lack of information on
irrigation scheduling techniques and economic viability of
the system. Therefore, the objective of the present study
was to investigate the effect of variable irrigation and lateral
spacing of drip irrigation on marketable yield, irrigation

433
production efficiency and economic return of broccoli in a
semi-arid climate.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field experiments was conducted at the irrigation
research farm of Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture,
technology and Sciences; Allahabad (25˚27’N, 81˚44’E,
98m above mean sea level) during Rabi season of 2012-
2013 in order to examine the effect of variable irrigation
and lateral spacing on yield, irrigation production efficiency
and economic return of tomato. The climate in this part of
the country has been classified as semi-arid. The soil of the
experimental field was fertile clay loam (35.5% sand, 25.8%
silt and 36.6% clay) with average bulk density of 1.31 g cm-
3
. The soil moisture content at field capacity (-1/3 bar) and
wilting point (-15 bar) were 19.5% and 9.1% on dry weight
basis. The plant avail-able soil moisture was 136.2mm m-1.
The experiment was laid out in two factor randomized
block design with three replications. The area of experimental
plot was 9m2. Prior to transplanting, the experimental field of
tomato received 68 kg ha-1 N, 94.3 kg ha-1 P2O5 and 62.9 kg
ha-1 K2O. The experimental plot of tomato received 66 kg ha-1
N after 5 and 8 weeks of transplanting. Tomato (F1-Hybrid
var.SHESHADRI-4226) seeds were sown on 22nd October
2012 in the nursery at a depth of 0.05m with a spacing of
10cm between the rows. Tomato seedlings were transplanted
on 26th November 2012 at a plant spacing of 0.5m x 0.5m.
The experiment consisted of five irrigation levels i.e.
the amount of water in different treatment was 50, 75, 100,
125 and 150% USWB class A pan evaporation replenishment
and three lateral spacing i.e. 0.5m (lateral at every row) , 1.0m
(lateral at every alternate rows) and 0.5m (laterals between
the rows). Crop was irrigated when the sum of the daily
mean (5 years) of pan evaporation reached approximately
a pre-determined value of 16.3mm (rooting depth in m x
plant available soil moisture in mm/m x readily available
soil moisture in fraction). The crops were irrigated by the
surface drip irrigation method. The drip irrigation system
was designed and installed to meet the objectives of the
experiment. The irrigation water was pumped directly from
tube-well to the concrete tank and thereafter it was pumped
from the tank to the drip irrigation system. Screen filter was
installed on the main line to minimize dripper blockage. The
50mm diameter PVC pipes and 12mm diameter Low Density
Polyethylene pipes were used for the sub-main and laterals
respectively. The tomato was watered by 3 l/h non-pressure
compensated on-line drippers. The spacing between drippers
was 0.5m. The experimental plot was connected by a control
valve in order to deliver the desired amount of water. The
sub-main was connected to a water meter and control valve.
The crop was harvested from 14th march 2013 to 8th April
2013. Further irrigation production efficiency was obtained
by the formula
Irrigation Production Efficiency, Kg m-3
= (1)
In order to assess the economic viability of drip
irrigation system under variable irrigation and lateral
434
spacing, both fixed and operating cost are included. Total
cost of production, gross return and net return under
different irrigation levels will be estimated on the following
assumptions.
Salvage value of the components =0
Useful life of tube well, pump, motor and pump house = 25 years.
Useful life of drip irrigation systems = 8 years.
Useful life of weeding and spraying equipments = 7 years.
Interest rate = 14%
Repair and maintenance = 2.5%
No. of crops/year =2
The fixed cost including water development (tube
well, pump, motor, pump-house and other accessories) and
irrigation system poly vinyl chloride (PVC) and low density
polyethylene pipes (LDPE) for main, sub-main and laterals,
filters, fertilizer unit, pressure gauges, control valves, water
meter, drippers and other accessories was calculated for
different irrigation levels and lateral spacing by the following
approach (James and Lee 1971)
CRF = ……… (2)
Where,
CRF= capital recovery factor
I= interest rate (fraction)
n= useful life of the component (years)
Annual fixed cost/ha = CRF × fixed cost ha-1 …. (3)
Annual fixed cost/ha = ...……. (4)
The operating cost which includes labour (system
installation, fertilizer, chemical application and harvesting
etc.); land preparation, seeds, fertilizer, chemicals
(insecticides and pesticides) and water pumping (electricity)
and repair and maintenance (tube well pump, motor,
pump house, irrigation systems and pipe conveyance
system etc.) was estimated. The gross return for different
irrigation methods and schedules was calculated taking into
consideration of marketable yield and wholesome price of
cabbage. Subsequently, the net return for the tomato was
calculated considering total cost of production (fixed and
operating costs) and gross return.
Net return (Rs ha-1) = Gross return (Rs ha-1) – Total cost of
production (Rs ha-1) …. (5)
The benefit cost ratio B/C was calculated as follows:
B/C= .. (6)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yield and irrigation production efficiency
Yield and irrigation production efficiency of tomato
influenced by irrigation methods and irrigation schedules
(Table 1).The highest mean marketable yield is 58.85 t ha-1
was observed when irrigation during crop growing season
performed at 125% of pan evaporation replenishment. A
further increase in irrigation level resulting from 150 %
of pan evaporation replenishment reduced the mean crop
yield (56.67 t ha-1) significantly. Irrigation at 50 % of pan
evaporation replenishment resulted minimum crop yield of
37.28t ha-1. Lateral spacing also influenced the mean crop
yield of tomato significantly. Among the three irrigation
methods applied LS1 gave highest mean crop yield of 55.70t
ha-1 followed by LS3 (53.57 t ha-1) and LS2 with minimum
mean crop yield of 42.79t ha-1. The irrigation production
efficiency of tomato was significantly influenced by
irrigation levels and lateral spacing (Table 1). The highest
mean irrigation production efficiency of 15.67 kg m-3 was
recorded when crop growing season was applied at 50 %
of pan evaporation replenishment, because yield reduction
was less as compared with seasonal water applied. The
irrigation production efficiency decreased significantly with
the increase in seasonal water applied because increase
marketable yield was less than seasonal water applied.
Irrigation at 150% of pan evaporation replenishment resulted
in significantly minimum irrigation production efficiency
(7.93 kg m-3). This is because with the increase in irrigation
level seasonal water application is increased while mean crop
yield decreases. Lateral spacing had significant effect on
irrigation production efficiency. From Table 1 it is shown that
irrigation methods also influenced the irrigation production
efficiency. The mean irrigation production efficiency values
of tomato for all three irrigation methods i.e. LS1, LS2 and
LS3 were 12.72, 12.24, 9.79 kg m-3 respectively. Among
all the irrigation levels the maximum irrigation production
efficiency was obtained when lateral spacing were provided
in every crop rows (LS1).
three methods of irrigation because from 125 % of pan
evaporation replenishment the mean crop yield is reduced.
The gross return of tomato for LS1, LS2 and LS3 irrigation
methods varied from 408100 to 646400 Rs ha-1, 320733 to
499500 Rs ha-1 and 389600 to 619633 Rs ha-1 respectively. It
is observed that maximum gross return is observed at 125 %
of pan evaporation replenishment and minimum at 50 % of
pan evaporation replenishment for each method of irrigation.
Same trend as described in gross return is observed for net
return too. The net return of tomato for LS1, LS2 and LS3
irrigation methods varied from 286221 to 519166 Rs ha-1,
237446 to 410858 Rs ha-1 and 269585 to 494263 Rs ha-1
respectively. The net return of tomato is highest for LS1
followed by LS3 and LS2 for each level of irrigation due to
fact that highest crop yield is obtained from LS1 method of
irrigation as compared to LS2 and LS3. The benefit cost ratio
for all lateral spacing increased considerably from 50 to
150% of pan evaporation replenishment (irrigation levels)
due to sharp increase in gross return. Irrigation at 150% of
pan evaporation replenishment decreased the benefit cost
ratio because it increased the total cost of production (fixed
and operating costs) but decreased in gross return. The
irrigation at 125% of pan evaporation replenishment resulted
the maximum benefit cost ratio for LS1, LS2 and LS3 (lateral
spacing) are 5.07, 5.63, 4.93 respectively because increase
in gross return was higher as compared to total cost of
production. However the benefit cost ratio for LS2 was higher
than both LS1 and LS3 mainly due to higher reduction in total
cost of production (fixed and operating costs) as compared
with gross return. The overall results under different lateral
spacing revealed that irrigation at 125% of pan evaporation
replenishment gave the maximum gross return, net return
and benefit cost ratio.

WATER SUPPLY AND MARKETABLE YIELD Treatments

Mean irrigation
The relationship between seasonal water applied and Irrigation sched- Mean yield of
production
marketable yield of tomato for three lateral spacing (Fig ule (pan evapo- Tomato, t
Efficiency, kg
1). The seasonal water applied varied from 238 to 714 ration Replenish- ha-1
m-3
mm where as crop yield for LS1, LS2 and LS3 irrigation ment, %)
method ranged from 40.81 to 64.64 t ha-1, 32.07 to 49.95 50 37.28 15.67
t ha-1 and 38.96 to 61.96 t ha-1 respectively. The seasonal
water applied and crop yield of tomato for LS1 (R² = 0.990), 75 46.82 13.14
LS2 (R² = 0.984) and LS3 (R² = 0.996) irrigation methods 100 53.82 11.18
exhibited a strong quadratic relationship. The result revealed
125 58.85 9.88
that higher seasonal water applied did not increase the
evapotranspiration as well as crop yield however it increased 150 56.67 7.93
deep percolation. The crop yield of tomato increased with CD (0.05) 0.55 0.13
the increase in pan evaporation replenishment and attained
its maximum value for LS1, LS2 and LS3 irrigation method Irrigation Meth-
at 125 % of pan evaporation replenishment and thereafter it ods
started to decline. LS1 55.70 12..72
Economic return LS 42.79 9.79
LS3 53.57 12.24
The total cost of production, gross return, net
return and benefit cost of tomato in relation to irrigation CD (0.05) 0.42 0.10
methods and irrigation schedules (Table 2). The total cost
of production (Fixed and operating costs) increased with
increase in irrigation levels. The total cost of production of
tomato for LS1, LS2 and LS3 under different irrigation levels
ranged from 121879 to Rs. 129019 t ha-1, 83287 to Rs. 90427
t ha-1 and 120015 to Rs. 127155 t ha-1 respectively. Gross
return increases sharply from 50 to 125 % of pan evaporation
replenishment and its value decreases after that for all the

435
Table 2- Economic return of tomato under different irrigation schedules and lateral spacing.

Treatments
Total cost of production
(Pan evapora-
Gross return (Rs ha-1) Net return (Rs ha-1) Benefit cost ratio
tion replenish-
(Rs ha-1)
ment), (%)
LS1 LS2 LS3 LS1 LS2 LS3 LS1 LS2 LS3 LS1 LS2 LS3
50 121879 83287 120015 408100 320733 389600 286221 237446 269585 3.34 3.84 3.24
75 123664 85072 121800 51020 393333 501200 386536 308261 379400 4.12 4.61 4.10
100 125449 86857 123585 594266 448666 572166 468817 361809 448581 4.73 5.16 4.62
125 127234 88642 125370 646400 499500 619633 519166 410858 469245 5.07 5.63 4.93
150 129019 90427 127155 626800 477600 596400 497781 387173 469245 4.85 5.27 4.68

Note: - the price of tomato is taken Rs. 10 Kg

Fig 3 -Relationship between seasonal water applied and net
return of tomato for 0.5 m (®), 1.0 m (n) and 0.5 m ()
lateral spacing.

Fig 1 - Relationship between seasonal water applied and

marketable yield of tomato for 0.5 m (®), 1.0 m (n) and 0.5
m () lateral spacing

Fig 4 - Relationship between seasonal water applied and

Fig 2 - Relationship between seasonal water applied and
Gross return of tomato for 0.5 m (®), 1.0 m (n) and 0.5 m
() lateral spacing
benefit cost ratio of tomato for 0.5 m (®), 1.0 m (n) and 0.5
m () lateral spacing.
Water Supply and Economic Return
The relationship between seasonal water applied and
gross return of tomato for all three lateral spacing (Fig 2).
The seasonal water applied varied from 238 to 714 mm
where as gross return for LS1, LS2 and LS3 irrigation method
ranged from 408100 to 646400 Rs ha-1, 320733 to 499500 Rs
ha-1 and 389600 to 619633 Rs ha-1 respectively. The seasonal
water applied and gross return of tomato for LS1 (R² =
0.992), LS2 (R² = 0.977) and LS3 (R² = 0.995) lateral spacing
exhibited a strong quadratic relationship. It is revealed from
the figure that higher seasonal water applied beyond the
above mentioned value did not increase the gross return.
The fitted regression method can be used for optimizing
gross return of tomato under different irrigation methods
and levels. The relationship between seasonal water applied
and net return of tomato. The seasonal water applied varied
from 238 to 714 mm and pan evaporation replenishment
ranged between 50 and 150 %. It is found that net return
for LS1, LS2 and LS3 irrigation method ranged from 286221
to 519166 Rs ha-1, 237446 to 410858 Rs ha-1 and 269585 to
494263 Rs ha-1 respectively. Seasonal water applied exhibit
a strong quadratic relationship with net return and developed
equation can be used for optimizing net return of tomato

436
under different irrigation levels and lateral spacing (Fig.
3). Similarly graph is also plotted between seasonal water
applied and benefit cost ratio of tomato for all three lateral
spacing (Fig 4). It is found that benefit cost ratio for LS1, LS2
and LS3 (lateral spacing) ranged from 3.34 to 5.07, 3.84 to
5.63 and 3.24 to 4.93 respectively. From graph it is observed
that seasonal water applied exhibit a strong quadratic
relationship with benefit cost ratio having R² = 0.992 for LS1,
R² = 0.973 for LS2 and R² = 0.995 for LS3.
Table 1- Effect of different irrigation schedules and
irrigation methods on marketable yield, yield components
and irrigation production efficiency of tomato.
CONCLUSION
The experimental results showed that irrigation with
125% evaporation replenishment resulted in the highest
marketable yield of winter tomato. Irrigation at 50% pan
evaporation replenishment produced higher irrigation
production efficiency. Irrigation with 150% pan evaporation
replenishment reduced the irrigation production efficiency
because it increased the seasonal water application
considerably without a significant improvement in marketable
yield. Seasonal water applied and marketable yield of tomato
for 0.5m and 1.0m lateral spacing exhibited strong quadratic
relationship. Finally the overall results clearly suggest that
in order to obtain an optimum yield, irrigation production
efficiency and net return of tomato in the northern plain of
India, crops during the winter season should be irrigated
at 125% of pan evaporation replenishment and the lateral
spacing. Further it is also observed that among the three
methods of irrigation LS1 gives highest gross return, net
return. Thus it can be concluded that in order to procure the
higher crop yield, irrigation production efficiency and net
return of tomato during the winter growing season, the crop
should be irrigated at 125% of pan evaporation replenishment
with LS1 drip irrigation method.
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irrigation production efficiency and economic
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Thakur M C, Lal S and Joshi A. 2005. Effect of different
training systems and spacing on yield and quality
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irrigation system considering planting geometry.
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 438-441 (2015)
PREDICTION OF COMBINING ABILITY AND HETEROSIS IN THREE LINE RICE
HYBRIDS FOR SALINITY TOLERANCE
P.SENGUTTUVEL1, 4*, K.THIYAGARAJAN1, C.VIJAYALAKSHMI2, S.GEETHA1, J.R.KANNANBAPU1,
BRAJENDRA4, B.C.VIRAKTAMATH4, VP BHADANA4, SRAVAN RAJU4, LV SUBBARAO4, G PADMAVATHI4
AND V.RAVINDRABABU4
Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India-641 003
Department of Plant Physiology, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India- 641 003
Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India-500 030

ABSTRACT
With steady increase in population and reaching a plateau in yield level and other side with biotic and abiotic stress is a herculean task
before us to breed for new varieties suited for adverse conditions. Among the stress related problems, salinity is one among them gaining
momentum in last few years and the best way is to breed new hybrids and varieties especially suitable for saline conditions, A study was
carried out to identify the best combiners for heterosis and potential hybrid under salinity condition. In salt affected soil condition the
hybrid IR 70369A / IR 73104-B-1-1-3-2-1 recorded high standard heterosis for SES for visual salt injury, hundred grain weight and Na+:
K+ ratio. The hybrid IR 79156A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 recorded high standard heterosis for panicle length, number of grains per panicle
and single plant yield. The hybrid IR 79156A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 performs well for days to fifty per cent flowering, number of produc-
tive tillers, and number of grains per panicle, single plant yield, SPAD readings and Na+ /K+ ratio. From this experiment, it is clear that
the hybrid IR 79156A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 performs well for many important traits and could be exploited for future breeding work.

Key words: Rice, salt tolerance, combining ability, heterosis, line x tester, hybrids

INTRODUCTION
Salinity is one of the major obstacles to increase
production in rice growing areas worldwide. Rice is rated
as salt-sensitive crop and it is estimated that threshold level
of salinity for rice is 1.9 dSm-1 Grattan et al. (2002). Soil
salinity and alkalinity (sodicity) seriously affect about 932
million hectares of land globally, reducing productivity in
about 100 million hectares in south and south-east Asia. Rice
(Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food of this region, and while
populations are increasing, global rice production rates are
declining (Van Nguyen and Ferrero, 2006). The grain yield
is very much reduced due to salinity and is now considered
as important problem in agriculture of south and south
East Asia. Hence, there is keen interest in development of
rice varieties and hybrids deploying resistance to salinity.
Breeding for salt tolerance offers more promising, energy
efficient, economical, and socially acceptable approach to
solving these problems than that of other processes of soil
amelioration. Most of the best crosses were obtained from
susceptible parents crossed with tolerant parents. Transfer
of salinity tolerant traits from these varieties to modern
varieties may offer potential for increasing the level of
salinity tolerance in rice (Saha Ray and Islam, 2007).
Successful development and extensive adoption of
hybrid rice technology in India prompted augmentation of
hybrid rice breeding since 1980. The selection of parents
and hybrids based on combining ability and heterosis
studies will be useful in exploring novel genes responsible
for salt tolerance and can perform well at any situation
including abiotic stresses. Studies on heterosis in rice under
salinity are very limited. With the availability of many types
of CGMS lines and no restrictions of restorers, it is relatively
easier to utilize them for developing high yielding and
adaptable salt tolerant hybrids. Therefore the present study
was conducted to identify the best performing hybrids and
their heterotic yield potential under salinity condition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Based on the diversity analysis, resistant,
moderately resistant and susceptible lines were selected and
crossing work was carried out. The experimental material
comprised of four CGMS lines viz., IR 68897 A, IR 68888
A, IR 70369 A and IR 79156 A which were used as lines
and twenty four diverse lines which were used as testers.
The details of the materials used are furnished in Table 1.
Four lines and twenty four testers were raised in a crossing
block with three staggered sowings. Staggering was done
to synchronize the flowering. The lines were planted in a
paired row with 20 x 20 cm spacing between rows with 60
cm spacing between the paired rows which was used for
performing the crossing operation. Testers were planted in a
normal spacing of 15 x 15 cm. Ninety six crosses were made
by adopting “line x tester” mating design. The seedlings of
25 days old were uprooted and transplanted in the main field
in a randomized block design with three replications. Both
hybrids and parents were planted in three rows at spacing of
20 x 15 cm. All the recommended cultural practices were
adopted. Observations in each replication were recorded on
five randomly selected plants in each hybrid and parent.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Parents with good mean performance may yield
better hybrids in most occasions. In the choice of parents,
high mean value has been the main criterion among breeders
for a long time. Analysis of variance showed significance
variation in traits studied (Table1). In general, the results
show that the line IR 79156A performed well in terms of
SES for visual salt injury, 100 grain weight, grain yield
per plant and SPAD value, and IR 68888A recorded better
performance for days to flowering, panicle length, and
grains per panicle, and IR 70369 A performed well for plant
height, spikelet fertility and Na+: K+ ratio, whereas in case

438
of testers IR 74802-3R-7-1-2 performed well for days to
flowering, and grain yield per plant, IR 73104-B-1-1-3-2-1
had recorded for plant height, panicle length and Na+: K+
ratio, IR 66401-2B-6-1-3 for productive tillers, Pokkali for
SES for visual salt injury, and 100 grain weight, and CSR 23
for grains per panicle and spikelet fertility in salt affected
soil condition. Similar reports on selection of parents based
on mean performance has been given by Babu (2002).
The general combining ability is used to designate
the average performance of a line in hybrid rice combination
and the mean performance of a line can be statistically
expressed as a deviation from the mean of all F1`s involving
line as a common parent (Singh, 2004). Using this approach,
many scientists have evaluated the genetic potential of
genotypes for the development of high yielding varieties
(Munhot et al., 2000), F1 hybrids utilizing CMS system
(Banumathy et al., 2003) in rice. The line IR 70369 A showed
good combining ability for SES for visual salt injury, days
to fifty per cent flowering, plant height, 100 grain weight
and Na+: K+ ratio, line IR 688897 A for productive tillers,
number of grains per panicle, IR 68888 A for panicle length,
and IR 79156 A for spikelet fertility, grain yield per plant and
SPAD values. The tester Pokkali showed less SES for visual
salt injury, spikelet fertility, and 100 grain weight. CSR 23
showed early flowering and Na+:/K+ ratio, IR 72593-B-1-
1-3-2 for reduced plant height, highest productive tillers,
panicle length, and grain yield per plant, SPAD readings and
IR 74802-3R-7-1-2 for grains per panicle, performed well
under salt affected condition. Utilizing the lines IR 72593-
B-1-1-3-2 and IR 74802-3R-7-1-2 as parents in the breeding
programmes may be useful in producing good combiners for
salt tolerance.
It is obvious that none of the lines or testers were
found to be good for all the traits. Desirable parents can
be chosen for improvement of the specific traits. Among
the lines, IR 79156A performs well for grain yield. While
in tester IR 74802-3R-7-1-2 and IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1
showed good mean and gca effects in salt affected condition
for the trait grain yield per plant and hence these lines may
help in improving yield in salt affected environments. The
tester Pokkali had significantly low mean Na+/K+ ratio and
significantly negative gca effects under salt affected soil
condition and hence can be utilized in breeding programmes
for producing good combiners with salt tolerance.
One of the most important criteria chosen for
evaluation of hybrids is the degree of mean expression of the
hybrids for different characters. The hybrid IR 79156A / IR
74802-3R-7-1-2 had the lowest SES for visual salt injury, IR
68888A / CSR 23 showed early flowering and lowest SPAD
value, IR 68888A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 and IR 70369A
/ IR 73104-B-1-1-3-2-1 showed reduced plant height, IR
70369A / IR 74105 -3R-2-2 had the highest productive
tillers, IR 79156A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 for number of
439
grains per panicle, spikelet fertility, single plant yield, IR
70369A / CSR 23 for 100 grain weight , and IR 68888A /
Pokkali recorded lowest Na+/ K+ ratio.
A high sca effects was observed for SES for visual
salt injury by the Hybrid IR 68897A/ Pokkali similarly higher
sca effects for plant height was recorded by IR 79156 A / IR
66401-2B-6-1-3, for productive tillers it was IR 68897A/
CSR 23 and for panicle length it was IR 70369A/ IR 74802-
3R-7-1-2. The hybrid IR 68888A / CSR 23 recorded high sca
effects for spikelet fertility. IR 79156A/ IR 72593-B-19-2-3-
1 have recorded high sca effects for 100 grain weight, single
plant yield and IR 68897A / IR 74802-3R-7-1-2 recorded
highest sca effects for Na+/K+ ratio. Pradhan et al. (2006)
suggested the importance of multiple crosses or recurrent
selection allowing random mating facilitated by CMS
system. Selection of hybrids based on sca effects in rice under
saline conditions have been reported Rogbell and Subbaraman
(1997).
In salt affected soil condition the hybrid IR 70369A /
IR 73104-B-1-1-3-2-1 recorded high standard heterosis for
SES for visual salt injury, hundred grain weight and Na+:
K+ ratio. The hybrid IR 68888A/ IR 73104-B-1-1-3-2-1
recorded high heterosis for days to fifty per cent flowering.
The hybrids IR 68888A / Pokkali recorded high heterosis for
plant height, whereas the hybrids, IR 79156A / IR 73104-B-
1-1-3-2-1 and IR 79156A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 recorded
high heterosis for number of productive tillers per plant.
The hybrid IR 79156A / IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1
recorded high standard heterosis for panicle length, number
of grains per panicle and single plant yield. The hybrid IR
79156A / IR 73104-B-1-1-3-2-1 recorded high heterosis for
spikelet fertility. The hybrid IR 68888A / CSR 23 recorded
high standard heterosis for chlorophyll meter readings
(SPAD). Selection of hybrids based on standard heterosis in
saline environments has been suggested by Thirumeni and
Subramanian (2000) and Mishra et al. (2003).
Literatures abound with references and it has
now become almost an established fact that larger the sca
effects, the greater is the heterotic effect within the cross
(Sharma, 1994). This in turn implies the fact that non-
allelic interactions (non-fixable components) tend to create
heterosis; but surely this is based on interaction among all
possible genes involved Arunachalam (1977). The hybrids
suitable for heterosis breeding based on good mean, high sca
effects and high standard heterosis for various traits in salt
affected soil are given in Table 2. The hybrid IR 79156A /
IR 72593-B-19-2-3-1 performs well for days to fifty per cent
flowering, number of productive tillers, number of grains
per panicle, single plant yield, SPAD readings and Na+/K+
ratio, whereas IR 68888A / CSR 23 showed best results for
spikelet fertility and SPAD readings. Similarly IR 70369A /
IR 74802 performed well for panicle length.
 Table 1.Analysis of variance for line x tester for different biometrical traits in salt affected field condition
Mean Squares
SES for
Source of vari- Days Productive Filled Grain
df visual Plant Panicle Spikelet 100 grain SPAD Na+/K+
ation to 50% tillers per grains per yield per
salt height length fertility weight Value ratio
flowering plant panicle plant
injury
Replication 2 0.054 0.88 14.0 1.17 0.38 45.05 7.95 0.0238 30.94 14.08 0.0006
Genotypes
(Parents and 33 3.04** 273.2** 962.7** 6.71** 12.31** 1379.0** 186.07** 0.232** 175.79** 24.64** 0.0092**
Cross)
Hybrids 23 3.34** 275.7** 1025.9** 5.29** 10.70** 1721.4** 221.78** 0.28** 221.81** 23.37** 0.0077**
Lines (cross) 3 6.31** 37.61** 1107.4** 12.92** 9.00** 3554.9** 218.91** 0.24** 550.26** 16.98** 0.004**
Testers (cross) 5 2.02** 400.91** 2483.3** 7.28** 6.65** 1219.6** 183.08** 0.62** 178.92** 21.67** 0.0086**
Lines vs testers
15 3.19** 281.65** 523.8** 3.10** 12.40** 1522.0** 235.25** 0.18** 170.41** 25.22** 0.0082**
(cross)
Parents 9 1.93** 293.42** 906.0** 8.12** 17.60** 454.53** 78.93** 0.12** 52.88** 19.61** 0.0141**
Line (parent) 3 1.11** 91.0** 18.0** 2.9** 4.09** 147.0** 120.29** 0.037** 18.70** 19.81** 0.0007**
Testers (parent) 5 1.45** 463.33** 834.2** 12.2** 10.83** 713.96** 63.40** 0.19** 76.53** 22.75** 0.0227**
Lines vs testers (p) 15 6.84** 51.2** 3929.3** 3.3** 92.02** 80.0** 32.43** 0.015** 37.16** 3.32** 0.012**
Hybrids vs parents 15 6.21** 32.57** 17.3** 26.73** 1.47** 1823.7** 329.26** 0.0006** 223.55** 98.90** 0.0001**
Error 66 0.07 1.52 6.53 0.75 0.66 27.58 22.33 0.0074 5.74 4.69 0.0003
GCA variance 0.0039 -0.149 12.6 0.055 -0.042 5.0 -0.339 0.0026 1.29 -0.046 0.0002
SCA variance 1.043 93.28 172.8 0.79 3.9409 498.1 75.6 0.0592 54.99 6.818 0.0026
GCA:SCA 0.0037 -0.0016 0.073 0.069 -0.010 0.010 -0.0044 0.0439 0.0235 -0.0067 0.076

* Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level

Table 2. Hybrids with high per se performance, sca and heterosis for different trait

Character Per se sca Standard heterosis Selected hybrids

SES for visual salt IR 79156A / IR 74802
injury IR 79156A / IR 72593
Days to 50 per cent IR 68888A / CSR 23
flowering IR 68897A / IR 73104
IR 68888A / IR 72593
Plant height
IR 68888A / IR 66401
Number of IR 79156A / IR 72593
productive tillers IR 79156A / 73104
IR 70369A / IR 74802
Panicle length
IR 79156A / IR 72593
Number of grains IR 79156A / IR 72593
per panicle IR 79156A / 73104
100 grain weight IR 70369A / CSR 23
IR 68888A / Pokkali
IR 79156A / 73104
Spikelet fertility
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / IR 72593
Single plant yield
IR 79156A / 73104
IR 79156A / IR 72593
SPAD readings
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / IR 72593
Na+:K+ ratio
IR 70369A / CSR 23
IR 70369A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 70369A /Pokkali
IR 68897A / Pokkali
IR 68897A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 70369A / IR 74802
IR 68888A / IR 73104
IR 70369A / IR 66401
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 70369A / IR 74802
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 70369A / IR 74802
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 68888A / IR 66401
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 70369A / IR 74802
IR 79156A / IR 74802
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 68888A / CSR 23
-
IR 68897A / IR 73104
IR 68888A / IR 72593
-
IR 70369A / IR 73104
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / 73104
IR 79156A / IR 72593 IR 70369A / IR 74802
IR 70369A / IR 74802
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / 73104
IR 70369A / CSR 23
-
IR 68888A / Pokkali
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / 73104
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / 73104
IR 79156A / IR 72593 IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 68888A / CSR 23 IR 68888A / CSR 23
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 79156A / IR 72593
IR 68888A / Pokkali

440
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 442-448 (2015)
AN ANALYSIS OF GROWTH IN MILK PRODUCTION DURING OPERATION FLOOD
PROGRAMME IN MAJOR STATES OF INDIA
PRADEEP JOLIYA1, SHILPI1 AND V.KAMALVANSHI2
1
Research scholar at Department of Agricultural Economics, 2Assistant Professor at Department of Agricultural Economics,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, B.H.U., Varanasi (U.P.) -221005

ABSTRACT
India continued to be the largest milk producing country in 2012-13 with an estimated milk production of 132.4 million tonnes. The
country’s share in world milk production stands at 17 per cent (NDDB 2012-13). Making a per capita availability of 290 gms per
day against 285 gms per day per capita recommended by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in 2012-13. The study
was based on secondary data on milk production in major state of India compound growth rate was performed to achieve the above
stated objectives. To estimate the growth rate log linier function (Exponential Function) was used. During the overall study pe-
riod (1970-71 to 2010-11), milk production in India was augmenting with a compound growth rate of 4.46 per cent per annum.

KEYWORDS: - Dairy, Milk, Production, Growth and Operation Flood.

INTRODUCTION
1 change in their lives (Aneja,1991).The bedrock of Operation
In India about 61 per cent population of country is
engaged in agriculture and allied sector such as dairy farming,
poultry, fisheries etc. The livestock (cattle and buffaloes)
rearing is a complementary to agriculture. The gap between
achievable and achieved productivity in livestock enterprises
with existing resources and infrastructure is wider than any
other enterprise. Total milk production of world is 782
million tonnes and it is growing at the rate of 2.2 per cent per
annum. Most of the increase in milk production is coming
from developing countries like particular Argentina, China
and India and developed countries like European Union,
New Zealand and the United States (www.dairymarkets.
org). Increase in economic status of the common people
leads to diversify their food bosket and they incorporate
more and more milk and milk products resulting milk and
milk product import to cater the domestic demand in the
developing countries. It is expected that to sustain import
demand in 2011 to 49.5 million tonnes of milk equivalent,
an increase of 5.4 per cent. Increased trade is anticipated
for all major dairy products, although growth in butter will
be muted, as some processors switch to more remunerative
products. Overall, most of the main trading countries are
likely to record an increase in sales, especially Argentina,
Belarus, the EU, New Zealand and the United States.
Development in the country is mainly attributed to
the Operation Flood (OF) Programme which is considered
as the largest dairy development programme in the world
The Operation Flood programme was launch by the National
Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1970 with the basic
objective of replicating the Anand pattern dairy cooperatives
throughout the country (Singh et al., 1989). The Anand pattern
of dairy cooperative has a three-tier organization structure
consisting a milk producer cooperative society at village
level, a cooperative milk producers’ union at the district
level, and a cooperative milk producers’ federation at the
state level ((Mittal,1990) . This structure has been observed
as the most successful one in realizing the economies of
the scale in all the dairy development activities in the states
through the use of the modern technology. Operation Flood
heralded the beginning of the White Revolution that brought
tangible profits to milk farmers and initiated a dramatic
Flood has been village milk producers’ cooperatives, which
procure milk and provide inputs and services, making
modern management and technology available to members.
Operation Flood’s objectives included (Mahadeven ,1991):
• Increase milk production (“a flood of
milk”)
• Augment rural incomes
• Fair prices for consumers
RESEARCH METHDOLOGY
The study is based purely on secondary data. The data was
collected from different sources like Integrated Sample Sur-
vey Report, Animal Husbandry Department. Growth rate are
worked out to examine the tendency of variable to increase,
decrease or stagnant over a period of time. It also indicates
the magnitude of the rate of change in the variable under
consideration per unit of time. The period of study is 1970-
71 to 2010-11. Due to convenience and clarity in study the
whole study period was divided into four periods i.e. Op-
eration Flood – I (1970-71 to 1980-81), Operation Flood
II (1980-81 to 1984-85), Operation Flood -III (1985-86 to
2000-01), and after Operation Flood (2001-02 to 2010-11)
for the analysis of growth trend in milk production.
The rate change of ‘Yt’ per unit of time to express
as a function of the magnitude of ‘Yt’ itself is usually termed
as the compound growth rate (CGR) which can be expressed
mathematically as:
The above expression if multiplied by 100 gives the
compound growth rate of ‘Yt’ in percentage term.
There are many alternative forms of growth function viz.,
linear, exponential, modified exponential, Cobb-Douglas
etc. which have been developed and used by the researcher.
The Mathematical form of log linear function (also known as
exponential function) is as follows:
Yt = Aebt ....................... (2)

442
The log transformation of this function is as follows: The same expression can be put as-
Log Yt = log A+bt
Loge Yt = Loge A+bt From the log-linear form, CGR can be worked out as follows:
Differentiating it with reference to‘t’ gives, By differentiating,

OR d (log Yt )
The formula for calculating Compound Growth Rate (CGR) = b
dt
from the log-linear equation can be derived as follows:
But, the estimate of ‘b’ In the log-linear function is in semi-
Let “Y0” be the value of variable under study in the base log terms (Kaushik, 1993). Therefore, to convert it into the
period. original form of Yt following transformation is done-
‘Yt’ be the value of variable in time ‘t’. ‘Y’ be the Value of Since b = log (1 + r )
Compound Growth Rate (CGR) then using the compound- Antilog (b) = 1 + r
ing formula, r = (Antilog ‘b’) – 1
CGR in Percentage = [(Antilog ‘b’) – 1 ] x 100
We get
Yt = Y0 (1 + r)t
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Log – transformation of the above i.e.
Dairy development in the country is mainly attributed
Log Yt = t log ( 1+ r ). to the Operation Flood (OF) Programme which is considered
Assuming , as the largest dairy development programme in the world
Log Y0 = log A. 2010-11).
Log (1 + r ) = b,
Table: Compound Growth Trend or Milk Production in Major States of India.
OF-I OF-II OF-III After OF (2000- Overall (1970-
State Particulars (1970-71 to 1980- (1981-82 to (1985-86 to 01 to 71 to
81) 1984-85) 1999-10) 2010-11) 2010-11)
CGR 1.51 5.13* 234 5.40 4.32
Gujarat R2 18.4 98.0 92.8 99.5 97.3
F. Value 2.03 100.42 168.03 1848.69 1389.78
CGR 0.21* 4.38* 18 4.03 13
U.P
R2 1.6 92.8 99.1 99.8 97.2
F. Value 0.15 25.62 1486.53 4283.24 1369.94
CGR 3.30 1.48 4.80 6.90 4.59
A.P R2 97.9 31.0 90.3 98.9 96.2
F. Value 417.90 0.90 120.64 786.06 995.79
CGR 2.37 4.78 1.78 9.57 3.85
Bihar R2 92.2 100 93.8 90.3 92.6
F. Value 106.75 7195.47 196.20 83.40 489.04
CGR 4.75 1.62 4.69 2.26 20
Haryana R2 90.4 77.1 94.9 92.2 97.5
F. Value 85.12 6.74 242.11 106.09 1525.11

CGR 20.12 15* 3.93 3.88 6.83

H.P
R2 76.7 98.9 96.3 92.8 80.4
F. Value 29.70 181.33 341.51 115.41 160.10

CGR 3.18 110** 5.66 0.72 4.96

Karnataka R2 95.00 86.9 94.5 0.66 94.7
F. Value 170.33 13.22 222.48 0.64 700.09
CGR 10.53 6.81* 5.19 -0.04 5.12
Kerala R2 93.4 97.4 97.2 .000 85.9
F. Value 126.97 74.99 450.75 .003 238.48
Contd…

443
 OF-I OF-III After OF (2000- Overall (1970-
OF-II (1981-82 to
State Particulars (1970-71 to (1985-86 to 01 to 71 to
1984-85)
1980-81) 1999-10) 2010-11) 2010-11)
CGR 3.86 5.08 21 11 4.43
M.P R2 96.7 100 77.5 97.2 96.9
F. Value 261.15 6000.12 44.74 310.19 1204.57
CGR 2.54 6.08* 6.59 3.05 5.60
Maharashtra
R2 26.2 98.4 96.3 99.5 96.1
F. Value 3.20 120.65 333.68 1932.14 970.02
CGR 3.97 1.85 5.36 7.46 5.87
Odessa R2 77.0 100 98.1 92.8 98.7
F. Value 30.08 29326.9 686.34 116.47 3056.34
CGR 5.09 2.87 4.60 2.11 23
Punjab R2 96.8 100 99.5 94.5 98.2
F. Value 267.95 12610.5 2548.08 154.74 2125.16
CGR 3.80 2.06** 4.32 6.82 24
Rajasthan
R2 88.1 88.9 90.0 92 97.6
F. Value 66.32 16.10 117.28 146.10 1556.51
CGR 7.33 10.37 2.49 4.44 5.06
Tamil Nadu R2 89.9 67.6 90.8 82.6 94.6
F. Value 80.16 17 128.54 42.65 678.54
CGR 4.38 6.48* 2.56 2.52 4.31
West Bengal R2 99.8 91.7 96.4 99.5 89.7
F. Value 1920.08 22.02 343.48 1796.8 341.30
All India CGR 3.51 3.96* 4.27 4.23 4.46
Total R2 92.6 99.8 99.6 99.1 99.5
F. Value 113.16 1314.31 3435.46 1031.18 7671.89
CGR: Compound Growth Rate (per cent per annum)
* : Significant at 5 per cent level of significance
** : Significant at 10 per cent level of significance
Gujarat after operation flood (6.09 per cent per annum) and lowest
during Operation Flood – II (1.78 per cent per annum).
Table -1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Gujarat for four sub-periods and overall period Bihar
of the study. Table 1 indicates that milk production registered
a significant and positive growth rate in study period (1970- Table-1 represents compound growth rate of milk
71 to 2010-11) as well as four different sub-periods. During production in Bihar during the overall period of study as
the overall period of study (1970-71 to 2010-11), the milk well as for four sub-periods. Table 1 indicates that milk
production in the state was growing with a compound growth production registered a significant and positive growth rate
rate of 4.32 per cent per annum. during study period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as well as four
different sub-periods. During the overall period of study
Uttar Pradesh (1970-71 to 2010-11), milk production in the state was
growing with a compound growth rate of 9.57 per cent per
The milk production registered a significant and annum. The highest compound growth of milk production
positive growth rate in study period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as was observed during the After Operation Flood (9.57 percent
well as four different sub-periods (Table-1) in Uttar Pradesh. per annum) and the lowest in Operation Flood – III (1.78 per
During the overall study period (1970-71 to 2010-11), milk cent per annum).
production in Uttar Pradesh was growing with a compound
growth rate of 13 per cent per annum. The highest growth of Haryana
milk production was observed during the Operation Flood-
II programme (4.38 per cent per annum) and the lowest in Table-1 represents compound growth rate of milk
Operation Flood – I (0.21 per cent per annum). production in Haryana for four sub-periods and overall
period of the study. Table 1 indicates that milk production
Andhra Pradesh registered a significant and positive growth rate in study
period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as well as four different
Table-1 indicates that milk production in Andhra sub-periods. During the overall study period (1970-71 to
Pradesh was registered a significant and positive growth rate 2010-11), milk production in the state was growing with a
during overall period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as well as four compound growth rate of 13 per cent per annum. The highest
different sub-periods. During overall period of study (1970- compound growth of milk production was observed during
71 to 2010-11), milk production in the state was augmenting the Operation Flood –II (4.38 per cent per annum) and the
with a compound growth rate of 4.59 per cent per annum. The lowest in Operation Flood – I (0.21 per cent per annum).
highest growth of milk production was observed during the

444
Himachal Pradesh
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Himachal Pradesh for four sub-periods and
overall period of the study. Table 1 indicates that milk
production in the state registered significant and positive
growth rate in study period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as well as
four different sub-periods. During the overall study period
(1970-71 to 2010-11), milk production in the state was
growing with a compound growth rate of 6.83 per cent per
annum. The highest compound growth of milk production
was observed during the Operation Flood –I (20.12 per cent
per annum) and the lowest in after Operation Flood (3.88 per
cent per annum).
Karnataka
Table 1 indicates that milk production in the Karnataka
state was registered a significant and positive growth rate
during study period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as well as four
different sub-periods of the study. During the overall study
period (1970-71 to 2010-11), milk production in the state was
expanding with a compound growth rate of 4.96 per cent per
annum. The highest compound growth of milk production
was observed during the Operation Flood –II (110 per cent
per annum) and the lowest in after operation flood (0.72 per
cent per annum).
Kerala
Table 1 indicates that growth of milk production
in Kerala State during overall study period (1970-71 to
2010-11) as well as four different sub-periods. During the
overall study period (1970-71 to 2010-11), milk production
in the state was registering a compound growth rate of
milk production is 5.12 per cent per annum. The highest
compound growth of milk production was observed during
the Operation Flood –I (4.38 per cent per annum) and the
lowest in After Operation Flood (-0.04 per cent per annum).
Madhya Pradesh
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in M.P four sub-periods and overall period of the
study. During the overall study period (1970-71 to 2010-11),
milk production in Madhya Pradesh was registering positive
compound growth and it was growing with a compound
growth rate of 4.43 per cent per annum. The highest
compound growth of milk production was observed during
the Operation Flood –II (5.08 per cent per annum) and the
lowest in Operation Flood – I (3.86 per cent per annum)..
Maharashtra
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Maharashtra during overall period and four
sub-periods. During the overall study period (1970-71 to
2010-11), milk production in the state was growing with
a compound growth rate of 5.60 per cent per annum. The
highest compound growth of milk production was observed
during the Operation Flood –III (6.59 per cent per annum)
and the lowest in Operation Flood – I (2.54 per cent per
annum).
Odessa
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Odessa four sub-periods and overall period
445
of the study. During the overall study period (1970-71 to
2010-11), milk production in the state was augmenting with
a compound growth rate of 5.87 per cent per annum. The
highest compound growth of milk production was observed
during the After Operation Flood (6.59 per cent per annum)
and the lowest in Operation Flood – II (1.85 per cent per
annum).
Punjab
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Maharashtra four sub-periods and overall
period of the study. During the overall study period (1970-71
to 2010-11), milk production in the Punjab state was growing
with a compound growth rate of 23 per cent per annum. The
highest compound growth of milk production was observed
during the Operation Flood –I (5.09 per cent per annum) and
the lowest in Operation Flood -II (2.87 per cent per annum).
Rajasthan
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Rajasthan for four sub-periods and overall
period of the study. During the overall study period (1970-71
to 2010-11), milk production in the state was growing with a
compound growth rate of 24 per cent per annum. The highest
compound growth of milk production was observed during
the after Operation Flood (6.28 per cent per annum) and the
lowest in Operation Flood –II (2.06 per cent per annum).
Tamil Nadu
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in Tamil Nadu four sub-periods and overall
period of the study. During the overall study period (1970-
71 to 2010-11), milk production in the state was augmenting
with a compound growth rate of 5.06 per cent per annum.
The highest compound growth of milk production was
observed during the Operation Flood –II (10.37 per cent per
annum) and the lowest in Operation Flood –III (2.49 per cent
per annum).
West Bengal
Table 1 represents compound growth rate of milk
production in West Bengal for four sub-periods and overall
period of the study. During the overall study period (1970-
71 to 2010-11), milk production in the state was growing
with a compound growth rate of milk production is 4.31
per cent per annum. The highest compound growth of milk
production was observed during the Operation Flood –II
(6.48 per cent per annum) and the lowest in after Operation
Flood – (2.52 per cent per annum) and in Operation Flood
–I, and Operation flood –III compound growth of milk
production was 4.38, 2.56 per cent per annum, respectively.
All India
The milk production registered a significant and
positive growth rate in study period (1970-71 to 2010-11) as
well as four different sub-periods (Table 1) in Major States
of India. During the overall study period (1970-71 to 2010-
11), milk production was growing with a compound growth
rate of 4.46 per cent per annum. The highest growth of milk
production was observed during the Operation Flood-III
programme (4.27 per cent per annum) and the lowest in
Operation Flood – I (3.51 per cent per annum). The milk
production in Major States of India was growing during
study period of Operation Flood –II and After Operation
Flood, with a compound growth rate of 4.03, 18 per cent per
annum, respectively.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Dairy development in the country is mainly attributed
to the Operation Flood (OF) Programme which is considered
as the largest dairy development programme in the world
The Operation Flood programme was launch by the National
Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1970 with the basic
objective of increasing milk production and replicating the
Anand pattern dairy cooperatives throughout the country.
During the overall study period (1970-71 to 2010-11),
milk production in India was augmenting with a compound
growth rate of 4.46 per cent per annum. The highest
compound growth of milk production was observed during
the Operation Flood - III (4.27 per cent per annum) and the
lowest in Operation Flood – I (3.51 per cent per annum).
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): page number (2015)
SUSCEPTIBLE STAGES OF CHILLI (CAPSICUM ANNUUM L.) VAR. PHULE JYOTI TO
ROOT ROT DISEASE CAUSED BY SCLEROTIUM ROLFSII SACC.
PRASHANTH KUMAR1, SURESH LENKANNAVAR2, *P. VASUDEV NAIK2, SHIVANAND HONGAL3 P.
HARIKANTH4 AND T. MANJUNATH4
Mahatmaphule Krishi Vidyapeeth, College of Agriculture, Pune-411 005
1

2
Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Bheemarayanagudi (UAS, Raichur)
3
Assistant Professor, College of Horticultire, Sirsi (UHS, Bagalkot)
4
College of Horticulture, GKVK, Bangalore-560065

ABSTRACT
The studies on susceptible stages of chilli to Root rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. were carried out at the De-
partment of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Pune. In Phule jyoti variety of chilli seedlings under the sus-
ceptible stages to root rot disease were noticed at just emerged and 30 days after soil inoculation with test fungus.

Key words: Chilli, Root rot, Sclerotium rolfsii, Susceptible, Phule jyoti

INTRODUCTION
Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most
important commercial vegetable crop cultivated in
Maharashtra. Chilli forms an indispensable adjunct in every
home of tropical world as it provides a spicy taste, pungency
and adds appealing colour to the food. Commercially, chilli is
of great importance to the Pharma Industry. It acts as source
of proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, ascorbic acids, Vitamin
A and sugars. Chilli finds its place in several food products
of commercial value. From economical point of view yield
of chillies, both quantity and quality wise are reducing day
by day as chilli crop suffers from number of fungal diseases
like damping off, anthracnose or die back or fruit rot, wilt,
murda complex, leaf-spots and powdery mildew. Among
the fungal diseases, root rot of chilli caused by important
pathogenic fungus Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. has attained
economic importance in Maharashtra. In recent years this
disease is in the increasing trend causing economic losses
(Kalmesh and Gurjar, 2001).
In India, the root rot caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. was
first time reported by Shaw and Ajrekar (1915) who were
isolated the pathogen from rotting potatoes which they
identified as Rhizoctonia destruens Tassi. Later studies
convinced Ajrekar that the fungus involved in rotting of
potato was S. rolfsii Sacc. but not R. destruens. An out
break of collar and root rot was observed on chilli during
first week of October, 1985 in Maharashtra in Vidharbha
region. The disease was more severe on Jwala and CA 960
varieties of chilli (Wangihar et al., 1988). In the year 2001,
root rot chilli of caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. was also first
time reported from Rajasthan near Jaipur chilli growing
areas in 2001, where the sever mortality of chilli plant during
March – April was observed (Kalmesh and Gurjar, 2001).
Recently, chemical control measures for root rot disease of
chilli were recommended based on the previous studies on
Sclerotium spp. However, indiscriminate use of fungicides
posed negative impact on biological control of soil borne
pathogens. Inorder to reduce the hazards to the human beings
and environment and to minimize the cost of cultivation and
considering the importance of chilli crop as a vegetable, an
integrated approach in the effective management of root rot
disease of chilli, present investigations on root rot disease of
chilli.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Five hundred grams of sterilized soil was filled in
15 cm diameter earthen pots. Thirty day old culture grown
on sand corn meal medium was mixed thoroughly at 4 per
cent weight basis. Then apparently healthy, surface washed
seedlings were transplanted in to the pots filled with culture
as described above. A set of pots filled with sterilized soil
were planted with seedlings without inoculum served as
control. After 10 days of inoculation, the plants showing
typical root rot symptoms were taken out from the soil,
washed thoroughly with distilled water and photographs
were taken. Re-isolation was made from such affected roots
and culture so obtained was compared with that of original
culture. Periodical observations are taken with just emerged,
30 Days, 60Days, 90 Days and 120 Days.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results revealed that there were significant
differences in per cent disease incidence among the different
age groups of plants. The significantly highest per cent
disease incidence of (50.51 per cent) was recorded in 30
days old plants. This was followed by stage just emerged
with (47.09 per cent )disease incidence, whereas, 60 days
old plants (25.03 per cent) and 90 days old plants (20.72
per cent) disease incidence were recorded, respectively.
Least per cent disease incidence of (15.08 per cent) was
recorded in 120 days old plants. In the present studies, it
was observed that S. rolfsii Sacc. can infect chilli crop at
all the stages while, the susceptible stages of the crop can
be identified based on stages which shows the maximum
symptoms of root rot caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. Further it was
observed that, after thirty days of inoculations, thirty days
after emergence stage showed maximum mortality and it
was identified as the most susceptible stage. Similar findings
were also reported by Singh and Dwivedi (1988) in the
barley seedlings where they found that, the most susceptible
stage to the attack of S. rolfsii Sacc. was during first fifteen
days of the seedling growth. Further they reported that, per
cent infection of the plants reduced with aging. Similarly,

447
while studying the groundnut diseases, Kulkarni (1995) and REFERENCES
his associates reported that, the most susceptible stage of Kalmesh, M. and Gurjar, R.B.S. (2001) Sclerotium rolfsii
groundnut crop for S. rolfsii Sacc. infection, colonization, Sacc. A new threat to chilli in Rajasthan.
disease development and maximum mortality was recorded Mycology and plant pathology 31(2): 261.
at fifteen days old plants whereas, least mortality was
recorded in hundred and five days old plants. Kulkarni, S., Hiremath, R.V. and Padaganur, G.M. (1995)
Diseases of potato and their management.
Table 1. Susceptible stages of chilli crop to root rot disease Research Highlights on potato, Department
caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural
Science, Dharwad. 7: 367-368.
Per cent susceptibility of
Sr.NO Number of days
chilli crop Shaw, F.J.P. and Ajrekar, S.L. (1915) The genus Rhizoctonia
1 120 15.08
in India. Mem. Department of Agriculture
Indian Bot. Ser. 7: 177-194.
2 90 20.72
3 60 25.03 Singh, R.K. and Dwivedi, R.S. (1988) Effect of age on disease
4 30 50.51 development in barley. National Academy of
Science Letters, India. 10: 263-266.
5 Just emerged 47.09
S.Ed 1.134
 
CD at 0.05 2.473

448
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 449-451 (2015)

IN VITRO EVALUATION OF FUNGICIDES AND BIOAGENTS AGAINST SCLEROTIUM

ROLFSII SACC. CAUSING ROOT ROT OF CHILLI
PRASHANTH KUMAR1, SURESH LENKANNAVAR, SHIVANAND HONGAL2, *P. VASUDEV NAIK3 P.
HARIKANTH4 AND T. MANJUNATH4
1
Mahatmaphule Krishi Vidyapeeth, College of Agriculture, Pune-411 005
2
Assistant Professor, College of Horticultire, Sirsi (UHS, Bagalkot)
3
Assistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Bheemarayanagudi (UAS, Raichur)
4
College of Horticulture, GKVK, Bangalore-560065

ABSTRACT
The studies on In vitro evaluation of fungicides and bioagents against Sclerotium rolfsii root rot of chilli were carried out at College of Agriculture,
Pune. Among the four bioagent tested Trichoderma harzianum recorded maximum growth inhibition of S. rolfsii, followed by T. viride evaluat-
ed, Carboxin and Propineb were found to be the most effective fungicides in inhibiting the mycelial growth of test fungus at 0.2% concentration.

Keywords: Bio-agents, Chilli, Fungicide, Root rot, Sclerotium rolfsii.

INTRODUCTION
Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most
important commercial vegetable crop cultivated in
Maharashtra. Chilli forms an indispensable adjunct in every
home of tropical world as it provides a spicy taste, pungency
and adds appealing colour to the food. Commercially, chilli is
of great importance to the Pharma Industry. The quantitative
and qualitative yield of chillies is reducing day by day as
chilli crop suffers from number of diseases like damping off,
anthracnose or die back or fruit rot, wilt, murda complex,
leaf-spots and powdery mildew. Among the diseases, root rot
of chilli caused by the pathogenic fungus Sclerotium rolfsii
Sacc. has attained economic importance in Maharashtra. In
recent years this disease is in the increasing trend causing
economic losses (Kalmesh and Gurjar, 2001).
In India, the root rot caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. was
first time reported by Shaw and Ajrekar (1915) who isolated
the pathogen from rotting potatoes which they identified as
Rhizoctonia destruens Tassi. Later studies convinced Ajrekar
that the fungus involved in rotting of potato was S. rolfsii
Sacc. but not R. destruens.
An out break of collar and root rot was observed
on chilli during first week of October, 1985 in Maharashtra
in Vidharbha region. The disease was more severe on Jwala
and CA 960 varieties of chilli (Wangihar et al, 1988). Root rot
chilli of caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. was also reported for first
time from Rajasthan near Jaipur chilli growing areas in 2001,
where the sever mortality of chilli plant during March – April
was observed (Kalmesh and Gurjar, 2001).Chemical control
measures for root rot disease of chilli were recommended
based on the previous studies on Sclerotium spp. However,
indiscriminate use of fungicides posed negative impact on
biological suppression of soil borne pathogens. In order
to reduce the hazards to the human beings, conserve the
native antagonistsst and to minimize the cost of cultivation
considering the importance of chilli crop as a vegetable, an
integrated approach in the effective management of root rot
disease of chilli, present investigations were carried out.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
All the glass wares were sterilized in an autoclave at
1.1 Kg/cm² pressure for 20 minutes. The solid media were
sterilized at 1.1 Kg/cm² pressure for 15 minutes. Soil used
for pot culture experiments was sterilized in an autoclave at
1.4 Kg/cm² pressure for 2 hours. In most of the experimental
studies, the standard Potato dextrose agar medium was used.
In vitro evaluation of fungicides against S. rolfsii
Sacc.
The effect of four fungicides on the growth of S. rolfsii
Sacc. was studied by using poison food technique (Nene and
Thapliyal, 1993). The different concentrations of fungicides
were used for evaluation studies against S. rolfsii Sacc. In
vitro conditions. Potato dextrose agar was prepared and 100
ml of medium was taken in 250 ml flasks and sterilized. To
the molten cooled sterilized medium requisite quantity of
fungicides were added separately and thoroughly mixed so
as to get the required concentration for each of the fungicide.
Twenty ml of poison medium was poured into each of
the 90 mm sterilized Petri plates. Each plate was inoculated
with 7 mm of mycelial disc at the centre and incubated at
temperature 27±1ºC. Triplicates were maintained for each
treatment. Potato dextrose agar medium without fungicide
served as control. The Petri plates were then incubated at
room temperature for seven days. The percentage inhibition
over control was worked out according to the equation given
Vincent (1927).
I = C-T/C x 100
In vitro evaluation of bioagents against S. rolfsii
Sacc.
For in vitro evaluation of antagonists, twenty ml of
sterilized and cooled Potato dextrose agar was poured into
sterilized Petri plates. The fungal antagonists were evaluated
by inoculating the pathogen at the one side of the Petri plates
and antagonist at exactly opposite side of the same plate by
leaving 3-4 cm gap. For this purpose freshly growing cultures
were used. In case of bacterial antagonist evaluation, two
mycelial discs of pathogen were inoculated and bacterial
antagonist was streaked in the centre of the Petri plate.

449
After required period of incubation i.e. when the growth in followed by T. viride (66.06 per cent) and G. virens (64.37
control plate reached 90 mm diameter the radial growth of per cent). But they did not differed significantly. The least
the pathogen was measured. The percentage inhibition over per cent inhibition of mycelial growth was recorded by P.
control was worked out according to the equation given fluorescens (30.84 per cent).
Vincent (1927).
Table 2. In vitro Evaluation of Bio-agents
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Per cent Disease
In vitro evaluation of fungicides Sr.No. Bioagents
Inhibition
The systemic and non-systemic fungicides were 1 Trichoderma harzianum 77.82
evaluated in vitro against S. rolfsii Sacc.at different
concentrations by poisoned food technique as explained 2 Trichoderma viride 66.06
under cMaterial and Methods. The per cent inhibition over 3 Gliocladium virens 64.37
control was worked out based on the test fungus growth in
control plates. The results thus obtained are presented in 4 Pseudomonas fluorescens 30.84
Table 1. SE± 3.341
 
CD at 0.05 7.282
The experimental results revealed that, there was
highly significant per cent inhibition of mycelial growth The biological control of any disease caused by
of S. rolfsii Sacc. with the fungicides which were tested. pathogen in plants is the eco-friendly means for plant disease
It was clear that increased inhibition was observed with management. In the present investigations, four bioagents
increased concentrations, (98.33 per cent) disease inhibition were evaluated in vitro conditions for their antagonistic
was recorded in Carboxin at 0.20 per cent concentration. effect against S. rolfsii Sacc. It was noticed that T. harzianum
Least per cent inhibition of (24.12 per cent) was recorded in inhibited maximum mycelial growth (77.82 per cent) of S.
Carbendazim at 0.05 per cent concentration. rolfsii Sacc. fungus and was found to be superior over other
antagonists evaluated. The present results, are in confirmity
Table 1. In vitro Evaluation of Fungicides and Per cent inhi- with those observations made by Virupaksha prabhu (1994)
bition at Different Concentrations. working with collar rot of cotton caused by S. rolfsii Sacc.
Pseudomonas fluorescens was not found to be effective in
reducing the incidence of root rot of chilli in the present
Fungicides Concentrations investigations. Laha et al. (1996) reported that, fluorescent
Sr. No. pseudomonas isolates were antagonistic to S. rolfsii Sacc.
Per cent Disease Inhibition
0.05% 0.10% 0.20% The maximum inhibition zones of the pathogen
1 Carboxin 98.01 98.08 98.33 causing root rot disease of chilli were recorded by T.
2 Carbendazim 24.12 32.85 74.85 harzianum (77.82 per cent), T. viride (66.06 per cent)
3 Copper-Oxychloride 27.80 52.94 70.73 and G. virens (64.37 per cent). This might be due to the
production of antibiotics, which diffused air filled pores and
4 Propineb 61.59 68.49 89.79 were determine responsible to the growth of S. rolfsii Sacc.
SE± 1.978 1.251 0.550 (Upadhyay and Mukhopadhya, 1983).
CD at 0.05 4.312 2.728 1.200
CONCLUSION
The evaluation of fungicides was also under taken
to know their antifungal activity against S. rolfsii Sacc. In Assessment studies of fungicides and bioagents on S.
the present investigations, Carboxin (98.33 per cent) and rolfsii Sacc. indicated that Carboxin inhibited (98.33 per cent)
Propineb (89.79 per cent) were found to reduce the disease and Propineb inhibited (89.79 per cent) mycelial growth of
root rot incidence of chilli at 0.2 per cent concentration. test fungus at 0.2% concentration. These two fungicides are
Similar results in reducing the root rot disease incidence found to be most effective and T. harzianum, G. virens were
were also reported by Vyas and Joshi, (1977), Waterfield and proved to be the best and competent antagonists in inhibiting
Sisler (1990) reported that Propineb and Propiconazole were the growth of test fungus. Among these, T. harzianum was
found to be highly effective in inhibiting the growth of S. found most superior and recorded maximum inhibition of
rolfsii Sacc. the mycelial growth of S. rolfsii Sacc. (77.82 per cent) in
vitro conditions.
In vitro Evaluation of Bio-agents
REFERENCES
The competitive ability of antagonists against S.
rolfsii Sacc. was studied by dual culture method as described Kalmesh, M. and Gurjar, R.B.S. (2001) Sclerotium rolfsii
in chapter Material and Methods. The results were presented Sacc. A new threat to chilli in Rajasthan.
in the Table 2. Mycology and plant pathology 31(2): 261.

The results revealed that, fungal bioagents were Laha, J.P. Verma and Singh, R.P. (1996) Effectiveness of
retarded the growth of S. rolfsii Sacc. significantly. The Fluroscent pseudomonas in the management of
highest per cent disease inhibition of mycelial growth of S. sclerotium wilt of cotton. Indian phytopathology
rolfsii Sacc. was observed in T. harzianum (77.82 per cent), 49: 3-8.

450
 Nene, Y.L. and Thaplial, P.N. (1982) Fungicides in plant
disease control. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Vyas, S.C. and Joshi, L.K. (1977) Laboratory evaluation of
Shaw, F.J.P. and Ajrekar, S.L. (1915) The genus Rhizoctonia
in India. Mem. Department of Agric. Indian
Bot. Ser. 7: 177-194.
Upadhyay, J.P. and Mukhopadhyay, A.N. (1983) Effect of non
volatile and volatile antibiotics of Trichoderma
harzianum on the growth of Sclerotium rolfsii
Sacc. Indian Journal of Mycology and Plant
Pathology 13: 232-233.
Vincent, J.M. (1927) Distoration of fungal sac hyphae in the
presence of certain inhibitors. Nature 159: 850.
Virupaksha prabhu (1994) Studies on collar rot of cotton,
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Research Highlights
on cotton, Department of Plant Pathology,
451
University of Agricultural Science, Dharwad.
3: 13
systemic and non systemic fungicides against
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. causing collar rot of
wheat. Pesticides 11: 55-56.
Wangihar, P.D., Somani, R.B. and Bobade, K.P. (1988)
Sclerotium collar rot a new menace to chilli in
Vidarbha. PKV. Research Journal 12(1): 88-89.
Waterfield, W.F. and Sisler, H.D. (1990) Effect of
propiconazole on growth and sterol biosynthesis
by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc Netherland Journal
of Plant pathology 95: 187-195.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 452-454 (2015)
ECONOMIC LOSSES OF SALINITY INDUCED SOIL DEGRADATION IN
RICE PRODUCTIVITY IN TAMIL NADU
R.PARIMALARANGAN1 S. SELVAM2 S. GURUNATHAN3 D.PERIYAR RAMASAMY4 AND K C SIVABALAN5
1, 3, 4 Asst. Professors and 2. Professor(Ag. Economics), 5. Ph.D Research scholar
Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute, Trichy
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India, PIN: 620 009

ABSTRACT
A study on cost and returns and externalities of soil degradation on paddy productivity was conducted in Tiruchirappalli, Pudukottai
and Nagapattinam districts of Tamil Nadu. The study covered two villages of each district and data on constraints and cost-return
aspects of paddy cultivation were collected. The present study was conducted to assess the economic impact of soil salinity on paddy
production. The crop yields in degraded soils were significantly lower over normal soils. The reduction in yield of paddy over normal
soils was very high due to degradation and thereby resulting in negative returns. The yield varied considerably in these firms. The farm-
ers had to leave their villages by abandoning the only productive land resource they owned and inherited from forefathers which was
once productive to support the entire family. Land degradation due to salinity threatens the sustainability of irrigated agriculture and
the very subsistence of farm families with marginal and small holdings who constituted the major proportion in the rural households.

Key words: Salinity, Costs, Returns; Welfare loss; Migration

INTRODUCTION

About 86 million hectares of irrigated land at the global
level was affected due to salinity induced soil degradation.
Grain output declined about 1.1 million tonnes each year due
to waterlogging and salinity in developed and developing
countries together (Brown and Young, 1990). In India, about
150 million hectares of land area was affected by different
forms of land degradation, which accounted for 45.60 per
cent of the total geographical area (Samra and Sharma,
2002). Tamil Nadu has a total geographical area of 129.98
lakh hectares, of which 23.30 lakh hectares accounting for
17.93 per cent suffer from some sort of degradation. Out of
these 5.14 lakh hectares are affected by salinity, alkalinity
and acidity. Rice is largely cultivated in the study area and it
was found that increased soil salinity levels were associated
with reduced rice stands and yield. Unlike other major field
crops, Rice is grown in fields under continuously water
stagnant condition.
Rice is moderately sensitive to salt in the field as
almost all other crop species (Neumann, 1997). Even after
a long period of technological advancement, yield gap still
exists in many of the crops including rice. More than 50 per
cent of the potential farm yield in the country is not realized
yet in the case of rice. The yield works out to 3022 kg per
ha, while the potential farm yield is 5781 kg/hectare (Siddiq,
2000).
Productivity of important crops, viz., cotton, paddy and
sugarcane, declined as the level of soil degradation increased
(Gajja et al., 1994). At farm level, the negative effects
have been reported as reduction in farm income, restricted
choice of crops and land abandonment (Mani, 2001). The
relationship between crop yield and soil salinity has been
quantified for many crops under typical growing conditions,
which had revealed that salinity typically reduces crop yields
( Quirk, 2004). The reduction in yield of paddy over normal
soils was high (50 to 60 per cent) due to degradation. The
aggregate annual monetary loss due to loss in production
for the entire command was estimated at Rs. 201.10 crores.
(Kulkarni., 2007). Among different technologies followed
by the farmers, adoption of leaching was found least costly
and could result in an incremental output of 14 quintals per
hectare on saline soil. (Chinnappa., 2005). In addition to
initial reclamation cost, an annual operational cost of Rs.
18000 and Rs 15000 were also required for rice and wheat
cultivation, respectively. (Tripathi., 2009).
Keeping this in view, the present study was conducted
with the objective of analyzing Economic losses due to
soil degradation in paddy production in salinity affected
production environments of Tamil Nadu.
METHODOLOGY
Stratified multi stage random sampling was adopted to
select the sample farmers. At first stage, all the Taluks were
arranged in ascending order based on area under salinity.
Taluks such as Musuri, Illupur, Sirkali of Tiruchirapalli,
Pudukottai and Nagappattinam districts were purposively
selected for the present study. The same procedure was
adopted in the third stage for the selection of villages from
each taluk. Two villages from each taluk were selected.
The ultimate sampling units were randomly selected from
each selected village. In each of the selected villages, 20
farmers each under salt affected and non affected production
environment were chosen by adopting simple random
sampling method. Thus, a total of 80 farmers were selected
as sample farmers from each district, which includes 40
farmers each under salt affected and non affected production
environment. Thus, the total sample size was 240 farmers
which comprises 120 farmers each under salt affected and
non affected production environment. The data collected
through pre tested interview schedule. The data collected
pertained to the year 2012-2013 was subjected to statistical
analysis.

452
TOOLS OF ANALYSIS
In this study, the cost of cultivation of paddy at
salinity affected and non affected farm were calculated
using cost concepts. The cost concept approach used was
of Commission for Agricultural Cost and Prices (CACP)
viz., (Cost A1, Cost A2, Cost B1 and Cost B2, Cost C1 and
Cost C2) which is widely used in India for evaluating crop
profitability. Tabular analyses were also employed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Keeping the objectives of the study in view, results
are presented and discussed here under the following sub
headings.
Net return and welfare loss
The annual net returns from cultivation of crops and
welfare loss on normal and degraded soils are provided in
Table 1. The results revealed that, there was a wide difference
in the net returns in degraded soils over normal soils. The
net return over cost A1 was higher in non affected farms
with Rs. 24719 per hectare and the same was worked out
Rs.15072 per hectare in affected category of sample farmers.
It was varied between Rs. 17434 and Rs. 12004 per hectare
among the different affected categories of sample farmers.
The net return of paddy over total cost was highest in non
affected category of sample farmers, which was worked out
to Rs.11132 per hectare and the same was worked out Rs.
5554 per hectare in affected category of sample farmers.
It was varied between Rs. 3208 and Rs. 7433 per hectare
among the different categories of affected sample farmers.
The results of welfare loss in terms of net returns
across different degraded soils over normal soils showed
that, profits earned by farmers in degraded soils for every one
rupee earned in normal soils were very low and it increased
marginally with increase in level of salinity. The welfare
loss in high level of salinity affected sample farmers was
very high and was Rs. 0.80 followed by, Rs.0.68 in medium
level, Rs.0.32 on low level of salinity affected farms. It
was Rs.0.60 in pooled category of salinity affected sample
farmers. These findings were in agreement with the results
obtained in the studies conducted by Kulkarni (2007).
Table 1 Net return and welfare loss
S.No Particulars Salinity affected
Low Medium High Pooled
Net return over
1 variable costs 17434.61 14852.44 12004.87 15072.04 24719.05
(Cost A1) (Rs/ha)
Net return over
2 total cost (Cost C) 7433.06 5321.70 3208.02 5554.79
(Rs/ha)
3 Welfare loss 0.32 0.68 0.80 0.60
Labour employment pattern in pady cultivation
The total employment pattern in paddy cultivation
is provided in Table 2. The total labour employed for all
cultural operations was worked out and expressed in man
days/hectare. It was evident from the table that on an average
107.42 and 95.90 man days of labour was employed in non
affected and affected pooled category of sample farmers
and the same was varied between 91.47 and 99.54 among
different categories of salinity affected sample farmers.
There was a declining trend in labour absorption in paddy
cultivation from non affected and affected category of
sample farmers. These findings were in agreement with the
results obtained in the studies conducted by Kulkarni (2007)
Table 2 Labour employment pattern in paddy cultivation
Salinity affected Non
S.No Particulars affected
Low Medium High Pooled pooled
 1
Human labour
99.54 95.16 91.47 95.90 107.42
(Man days)
Economic losses due to soil degradation among
sample farms
A perusal of Table 3 showed that, there was a decrease
in rental value of land over non affected category. The rental
value of land in non affected category was Rs. 12093 per
hectare and the was Rs. 7522 per hectare salinity affected
pooled category of sample farmers. It was ranged between
Rs.6583 per hectare and Rs. 8215 per hectare among the
different affected category of sample farmers. The percentage
reduction in rental value over non affected soil was 37. 80
per cent in affected category pooled sample farmers and the
same was ranged between 32.07 and 45.56 per cent among
the different affected category of sample farmers.
The market price of land in the salinity affected and
non affected soil are presented in the table. There was a
considerable decline in the land value on account of soil
degradation. The prevailing market price of one hectare of
non affected land in the study area was around Rs.1036.76
thousand rupees per hectare while, the market price of
salinity affected pooled category of sample farmers was
estimated to be around Rs.339.40 thousand rupees per ha
and the same was ranged between Rs. 210.75 and Rs. 475.79
thousand rupees per hectare. Thus, percentage reduction in
the market price of land over normal land was 67.26 per
cent in affected category of pooled sample farmers and the
same was ranged between 54.11 per cent and 79.67 per cent
among the different salinity affected categories of sample
farmers. Among the sample farmers of affected category, the
abandoned land was estimated to 93.87 ha and the same was
ranged between 22.24 ha and 38.17 ha among the different
affected category of sample farmers.
Non
affected
These findings of the present study were in agreement
with similar findings made with respect to loss in crop
production by Chinappa (2002), Kulkarni (2007).
Table 3 Economic losses due to soil degradation among sam-
11132.71 ple farms
Salinity affected
S.
Particulars Non
No Low Medium High
Pooled affected
Rental value of
 1 8215.58 7464.03 6583.18 7522.42 12093.62
land(Rs/ha)
Reduction in
 2 rental value over - 32.07 - 38.28 - 45.56 - 37.80 -
normal
Market value of
 3 475.79 331.67 210.75 339.40 1036.76
land(‘000 Rs)
453
 Reduction in Permanently migrated
 3 0 2 4 6 0
market value of families (%)
 4 - 54.11 - 68.01 - 79.67 - 67.26 -
land over normal
 4 Total Families migrated (%) 9 14 19 42 6
(%)
Abandoned land  II Distance of migration
 5 22.24 33.46 38.17 93.87 17.65
(ha)
 1 less than 20 km 9 21 33 63 6

Manifestation of Yield loss
Manifestation of yield loss is presented in Table 4. Among
the sample farmers of affected categories, grain shedding was
observed by almost 90 per cent of high level of salinity affected
farmers and the same was 66.67 per cent and 47.92 per cent,
respectively in medium and low level of salinity affected.
Eighty per cent of the farmers of high level salinity observed
chaffy grain and the same was 43.75 per cent and 56.41 per cent
in low and medium level of affected category. Stunted growth
was observed by 87.88 per cent of the farmers of high level of
affected category followed by medium and low level accounted
for 79.49 per cent and 52.08 per cent, respectively.
Table 4. Manifestation of Yield loss
S. Salinity affected
No
Particulars Low Medium
1 Grain shedding 23(47.92) 26(66.67)
2 Chaffy grain 21(43.75) 22(56.41)
3 Stunted growth 25(52.08) 31(79.49)
4 others 10(20.83) 7(17.95)
Note : Figure in the parenthesis indicate percentage to total
Migration of farm families among sample farmers
due to land degradation
Land deterioration induced farm family migration is
presented in Table 5. The development of land degradation
problems led to labour migration. The results indicated that,
with increased land degradation, the number of farm families
temporarily migrated was 36 per cent of the sample farmers
and it was ranged between 9 per cent and 15 per cent among
the different categories of salinity affected sample farmers. The
total migrated family was 42 per cent. However, the families
that permanently migrated were recorded very low and it was
only 6 per cent. Majority of the sample farmers were migrated
with in 20 km radius to work as non-agricultural labourers to
seek family living in hard working environment especially in
the construction industry. Migration also took place to distant
cities like Tirupur, Coimbatore and Chennai. Land degradation
due to salinity threaten the sustainability of irrigated agriculture
and the very subsistence of farm families with marginal and
small holdings who constituted the major proportion in the rural
households. Similar instances of offfarm employment in non-
farm sector were reported in the study conducted by Kulkarni
(2007).
Table 5 Migration of farm families among sample farmers
due to land degradation
Salinity affected
S.No Particulars
Low Medium High Pooled
 2 More than 20 km 3 3 4 10 0
CONCLUSION
The welfare loss in high level of salinity affected sample
farmers was very high and was Rs. 0.71 followed by, Rs.0.53 in
medium level, Rs.0.33 on low level of salinity affected farms.
It was Rs.0.50 in pooled category of salinity affected sample
farmers. It is revealed that, profits earned by farmers in degraded
soils for every one rupee earned in non affected farms were very
low and this variation increased marginally with increase in
level of soil salinity. The profits earned in salinity affected farms
for every rupee earned in non affected farms observed to be in
the declining. There was a considerable decline in the land value
on account of soil degradation. It will also not be economically
viable to cultivate rice in the high saline areas. Therefore, soil
salinity should be controlled to realize the benefit from any
increase in crop production.
high
30(90.91) REFERENCES:
27(81.82) Brown, L.R. and Young, J.E., (1990), Feeding the world in
29(87.88) nineties, State of the World,(Ed) W.W. Norton and
Co., New York.
5(15.15)
Chinnappa, B., (2005), ‘An Economic Analysis of land
reclamation technologies for amelioration of
irrigation induced soil degradation’ Agricultural
Economics Research Review, 18: 103-116.
Gajja, B.L., Sharma, Vijay Paul and P.K. Joshi., (1994),
“Productivity Variation and Land Irrigability
Class in Kakrapar Canal Command Area in
Gujarat State”, Indian Journal of Agricultural
Economics, 49(4): 609-616.
Kulkarni, G.N., (2007), ‘Economics of Irrigation induced
land degradation and its reclamation in Upper
Krishna Project Command Area’, Unpublished
Thesis Ph.D, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharward.
Neumann, P., (1997), Salinity resistance and plant growth
revisited. Plant, cell and environment, 20, pp:
1193 – 1198
Mani, K., Chandran, K. and Sivanathan, M., (2001), Problem
Soil Management — Prospects and Issues,
Vol. 2. A special publication released at 22nd
Convocation, TNAU,Coimbatore.
Quirk, J.P., (2004), Sodic Soils. Australian Academy of
Science, www/Google search.com.
Samra, J.S., and Sharma, P.D., (2002), Safeguarding natural
resources and environment. Indian Farming, 52
(8):34-41.
Non
affected Siddiq, E.A., (2000), Rice: Yawning Productivity Gaps, Survey
of Indian Agriculture, p.39

 1 Total no of migrant 11 24 38 73 9
Triputhi, (2009), ‘Alkali land Reclamation technology:
An Economic Analysis’ Bhartiya Krishi
 2
Temporarily migrated
9 12 15 36 6 Anusandhan Patrika, 24(1):25-30
families (%)

454
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 455-458 (2015)
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT WEED MANAGEMENT STUDIES ON WEED AND GROWTH
INDICES OF DIRECT WET SEEDED RICE SOWN THROUGH DRUM SEEDER
*RAGHAVENDRA B.M., SUSHEELA, R., PRAVEEN RAO V, GANGAIAH B., LAKSHMAN K. AND
SUDHAKAR T.M.
Department of Agronomy, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad-30.

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during kharif season of 2012 at college farm, college of agriculture, Acharya N.G. Ranga agricul-
tural university, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad to know the effect of different weed management studies on weed and growth indices of
direct wet seeded rice sown through drum seeder. Eight weed control treatments were tested in randomized block design replicated
thrice. All the weed control treatments significantly influenced on weed and growth indices over weedy check. The weed free treat-
ment reported higher crop growth indices and weed indices (viz., Crop growth rate (24.93 g m-2 day-1), absolute growth rate (0.49 g
plant-1 day-1), relative growth rate (2.83 g-1 g-1day-1), biomass duration (286.81 g. days) and weed persistent index (2.64), crop resis-
tant index (16.40), treatment efficiency index (11.98) and lower weed index (0.00), weed growth rate (0.14 g m-2) respectively, than
all other treatments. Among the herbicides bispyribac sodium @ 25 g a.i. ha-1 at 25 DAS as PoE not only reduced weed index (7.47),
weed growth rate (0.70 g m-2) but also increased the other growth indices of weed (weed persistent index (1.93), crop resistant in-
dex (13.44), herbicide efficiency index (4.07), treatment efficiency index (9.20)) and rice crop (Crop growth rate (24.93 g m-2 day-
1
), absolute growth rate (0.49 g plant-1 day-1), relative growth rate (2.83 g-1 g-1day-1), biomass duration (284.60 g. days)) and which
was on par with tank mixture of cyhalofop-butyl @ 100 g a.i ha-1 + Chlorimuron-ethyl + metsulfuron-methyl (@ 4 g a.i ha-1) at 15
DAS as PoE, pretilachlor + safener (0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 days after seeding) + Hand weeding at 40 DAS and two hand weeding at
20 and 40 DAS. Hence these four treatments were found to be effective weed management practices for improving crop growth and
development by eliminating weed interference in growth and development of direct wet-seeded rice sown through drum seeder.

INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the dominant staple food for
nearly half of the world’s seven billion population (Mobasser
et. al. 2007). However, more than 90 per cent of rice is
consumed in Asia, where it is a staple food for a majority
of the population, including the 560 million hungry people
in the region and Globally, India stands first in rice area and
second in production after China (Mohanty, 2013). It is also a
staple food for more than 65 percent of the Indian population
and accounts for more than 42 per cent of food production
(Nayak et al., 2014). The area under direct seeded rice is
increasing as expansion in irrigated area, introduction of short
duration rice cultivars, availability of drum seeders, selective
herbicides for weed management together with increasing
transplanting cost and declining profitability of transplanted
rice production system have encouraged rice farmers to
shift from transplanting to direct seeding (Balasubramanian
and Krishnarajan 2001). The drum seeders have brought
out many advantages like cost reduction, faster growth and
establishment, easiness in interculture, lesser seed rate and
higher yield compared to broadcasting (Sangeetha et al.,
2011). Direct wet seeded rice sown through drum seeder,
a potential wise rice establishment system in the present-
day scenario but is subject to severe weed infestation and,
therefore, development of a sustainable weed management
strategy is crucial for its wide spread adoption. Hence the
present study was undertaken to know the effect of different
weed management studies on weed and growth indices of
direct seeded rice sown through drum seeder.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted during Kharif
season 2012 at the college farm, college of agriculture,
Acharya N.G. Ranga agricultural university, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad. The soil tested sandy clay loam in texture
(Bouyoucos hydrometer method, Piper, 1966), with pH 8.2
(Glass electrode pH meter, Jackson, 1973), low in organic
carbon (Walkley and Black, 1934) 0.47%, low in available
nitrogen (Subbiah and Asija, 1956) 225.75 kg ha-1, high in
phosphorus (Olsen et al. 1954) 33.65 kg ha-1 and available
potassium (Stanford and English, 1949) 429.3 kg ha-1.
Vegetable-fallow rotation was followed at the experimental
site for the previous two seasons. The sowing was done
through 8 row drum seeder by using sprouted seeds under
puddled condition with a row to row spacing of 20 cm. Eight
weed control treatments were laid out in randomized block
design with three replications. The treatments like T1 – Weed
free check (repeated hand weeding at 10 days intervals), T2
– Un weedy check, T3 – Two hand weeding at 20 and 40
DAS, T4 – Metamifop (100 g a.i ha-1 at 3rd leaf stage) as PoE,
T5 – Pretilachlor + safener (0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 days after
seeding) as PE, T6 – Bispyribac sodium ( @ 25g a.i ha-1 at 25
DAS) as PoE, T7 – Cyhalofop-butyl (100 g a.i ha-1) +
Chlorimuron-ethyl + metsulfuron-methyl (@ 4g a.i ha-1) at
15 days after seeding as PoE and T8 – Pretilachlor + safener
(0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 days after seeding) + Hand weeding at 40
DAS were taken for the study. A uniform fertilizer dose of
120-60-60-25 kg N-P2O5-K2O-ZnSo4 ha-1 was applied. Half
dose of N and whole of P2O5, K2O and ZnSo4 were applied as
basal before sowing. Remaining N was top-dressed in 2
equal splits at active tillering and panicle-initiation stage.
Rice MTU-1010 of 110-120 days duration was used as test
variety. Pre-germinated seed @ 38 kg ha-1 was used for wet
drum seeding of rice. The total rainfall received during crop
season was 579.8 mm. Pre-emergence and post-emergence
herbicides were applied with the help of a sand mixture and
hand-operated knapsack sprayer fitted with flat-fan nozzle
respectively and water as a carrier at 600 litters ha-1 for post
emergent herbicide application. Observations on weed dry

455
matter was recorded with the help of a quadrate 0.5 m × 0.5
m placed randomly at two spots in each plot at 60 and 90
DAS and expressed in gram per meter square (g m-2).
Similarly crop dry matter was recorded as per the guidelines
given by the All India Co-ordinated Rice Improvement
Project (Haveten, 1997). The weed dry matter data was
subjected to square root transformation (X + 1to)
normalize their distribution and statistical
analysis was done as suggested by Gomez and Gomez
(1984).
Weed and growth indices were calculated by using the fal-
lowing formulas
I. Weed indices:
1. Gill and Vijayakumar (1969)
2. Mishra and Misra (1997)
3. Crop Resistance
4. Krishnamurthy et al. (1975)
Where, Yt=Yield from treated plot, Yc= Yield from control
plot,
WDMt= Weed dry matter in treated plot, WDMc= Weed dry
matter in control plot
5. Treatment
Where, Yt=Yield from treated plot, Yc= Yield from control
plot,
Wt= Weed dry matter in treated plot, Wc= Weed dry matter
in control plot
6. Where W1= Weed dry weight/area at time t1 and
W2= Weed dry weight/ area at time t2
Unit: g m-2
II. Growth indices: Acc. to Radford (1967)
1. Where W1= Crop dry weight /area at time t1 and
 W2= Crop dry weight/ area at time t2
Unit: g-1m-2 day-1
Where W1= Per plant crop dry weight /area at time t1 and
W2= Per plant crop dry weight /area at time t2
Unit: g-1plant-1 day-1
3.
Where W1 and W2 are the plant dry weight at time
t1 and t2 respectively.
Unit: g-1g-1 day-1
4. Biomass Duration (BMD) =
Where, BMD= Biomass duration between t2 and t1
TDM1= Total dry matter at time t1
TDM2= Total dry matter at time t2 ,
Unit: g. days
456
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Weed indices:
Weed indices are the ideal parameter to know the
effectiveness different weed management practices to
control weeds, analyse yield loss caused by weed infestation
in comparison with weed free plots (Khaliq et al., 2014).
Weed index reflects the effectiveness of applied herbicide
in securing yield loss against weed competition and a lower
value of weed index means high herbicide efficiency. The
study of data pertaining to weed indices and weed growth
rate revealed that the weed free check reported the lowest
weed dry matter at 60 and 90 DAS (9.33 and 13.39 g m-2
resp.), weed index (0.00) and weed growth rate (0.14 g
m-2) (Table 1) and among different herbicide treatments
bispyribac sodium @ 25 g a.i ha-1 at 25 DAS as PoE (T6)
recorded the lowest weed dry matter (10.83 & 31.87 g m-2
at 60 and DAS rep.), weed index (7.47), weed growth rate
(0.70 g m-2) and highest weed persistent index (1.93), crop
resistant index (13.44), herbicide efficiency index (4.07),
treatment efficiency index (9.20)) fb Cyhalofop-butyl @ 100
g a.i ha-1 + (Chlorimuron-ethyl + metsulfuron-methyl) @ 4
g a.i ha-1 at 15 DAS as PoE (T7), indicating that superiority
over the other treatments. Next toT6 and T7 the Pretilachlor
+ safener (@ 0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 DAS) + Hand weeding at 40
DAS (T8), two hand weedings at 20 and 40 DAS (T3) had
also sown no difference with respect to weed indices. The
pre emergent application of pretilachlor+ safener (T5) and
metamifop @ 100 g a.i ha-1 at 3 leaf stage as PoE (T4) were
found to be moderate expression of weed dry matter (35.53
& 65.60 and 44.57 & 73.33 g m-2 at 60 and 90 DAS resp.),
weed index (32.60 and 40.22 rep.), weed growth rate (1.00
and 0.96 g m-2 resp.), weed persistent index (1.27 and 1.09
resp.), crop resistant index (2.86 and 2.33 resp.), herbicide
efficiency index (0.85 and 0.55 resp.), treatment efficiency
index (1.41 and 0.84 resp.). The highest values of weed dry
matter at 60 and 90 DAS (77.67 and 123.67 g m-2 resp.),
weed index (59), weed growth rate (1.53 g m-2) and lowest
weed persistent index (1.00), crop resistant index (1.00),
treatment efficiency index (0.00) were associated with
weedy check (T1). This may be due to the fact that herbicide
significantly reduced weed dry matter and had an effective
and excellent control of weeds influenced favourable weed
indices, similarly Khaliq et al. (2014) was also reported the
lower herbicide efficiency index and higher weed index in
weedy check as compared to herbicide treated plots in wheat
crop.
Growth indices:
Different weed control treatments depicted a positive
influence on rice crop growth and development. Growth
indices viz., crop growth rate, absolute growth rate, relative
growth rate, biomass duration was affected by different weed
management treatments and were high during active tillering
to panicle initiation stage (90-60 DAS) rather than panicle
initiation stage to harvest stage (120-90 DAT). Weed free
check (T1) recorded highest crop dry matter at 60 and 90 DAS
(104.10 & 851.94 g m-2 resp.) and crop growth rate (24.93 g
m-2 day-1), absolute growth rate (0.49 g plant-1 day-1), relative
growth rate (2.83 g-1 g-1day-1), biomass duration (286.81 g.
days) and which was on par with bispyribac sodium @ 25 g
a.i ha-1 at 25 DAS as PoE (T6), cyhalofop-butyl @ 100 g a.i
ha-1 + (Chlorimuron-ethyl metsulfuron-methyl) @ 4 g a.i ha-1
at 15 DAS as PoE (T7), Pretilachlor + safener @ 0.4 kg a.i
ha-1 at 3 DAS + Hand weeding at 40 DAS (T8) and two hand
weedings at 20 and 40 DAS (T3). Pre-emergence application
of pretilachlor + safener @ 0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 DAS as PE (T5)
and post emergent application of metamifop @ 100 g a.i ha-1
at 3 leaf stage as PoE (T4 ) were recorded comparatively lower
crop growth indices. Better weed control and subsequent
enhanced nutrient availability had resulted in higher dry
matter production which had positive influence on CGR,
AGR, RGR and biomass duration. Dry matter production
(53.33 and 506.93 g m-2 at 60 and 90 DAS resp.) CGR(15.12
g m-2 day-1), AGR(0.30 g plant-1 day-1), RGR(2.31 g-1 g-1day-1)
and biomass duration (168.08 g. days) were significantly
lowest in unweeded check. Bhargavi and Yallamanda Reddy
Table 1. Effect of different weed management practices on weed indices and total dry matter of weeds in direct wet seeded
rice crop sown through drum seeder.
(1994) also reported that crop growth rate was reduced in
unweeded plots.
CONCLUSION:
The present study concluded that post-emergence
application of bispyribac sodium @ 25 g a.i ha-1 at 25 DAS as
PoE (T6), cyhalofop-butyl @ 100 g a.i ha-1 + (Chlorimuron-
ethyl metsulfuron-methyl) @ 4 g a.i ha-1 at 15 DAS as
PoE (T7) or integration of pre emergent herbicide with one
manual weeding i.e. Pretilachlor + safener @ 0.4 kg a.i ha-1
at 3 DAS + Hand weeding at 40 DAS (T8) were an effective
weed control tactic to reduce weed competition and better
growth indices of direct wet seeded rice sown through drum
seeder.

Total dry matter of weeds

*Crop *Herbicide *Treatment * Weed
*Weed index *Weed persistent (g m-2)
Treatment resistance Efficiency Efficiency Growth
(%) index 60 90
index Index Index Rate (g m-2)
DAS DAS
3.20 3.78
T1 0.00 2.64 16.40 - 11.98 0.14
(9.33) (13.39)
8.83 11.12
T2 59.00 1.00 1.00 - 0.00 1.53
(77.67) (123.67)
4.39 6.83
T3 13.79 2.26 7.48 - 4.96 0.91
(18.33) (45.67)
6.75 8.62
T4 40.22 1.09 2.23 0.55 0.84 0.96
(44.57) (73.33)
6.04 8.16
T5 32.60 1.27 2.86 0.85 1.41 1.00
(35.53) (65.60)
3.43 5.73
T6 7.47 1.93 13.44 4.07 9.20 0.70
(10.83) (31.87)
3.82 6.04
T7 9.78 1.60 10.51 3.09 6.81 0.73
(13.61) (35.50)
4.31 6.64
T8 12.07 2.48 7.95 2.35 5.05 0.86
(17.60) (43.37)
S.Em. 0.22 0.98
CD (p=0.05) 0.66 0.32

T1 – Weed free check (repeated hand weeding at 10 days
intervals), T2 – Unweedy check, T3 – Two hand weeding at
20 and 40 DAS ,T4 – Metamifop @100 g a.i ha-1 at 3rd
stage as PoE, T5 – Pretilachlor + safener @ 0.4 kg a.i ha-1
at 3 days after seeding as PE, T6 – Bispyribac sodium @ 25g
a.i ha-1 25 days after seeding as PoE, T7 – Cyhalofop-butyl
@ 100 g a.i ha-1 + (Chlorimuron-ethyl +metsulfuron meth-
yl) @ 4g a.i. ha-1 at 15 days after seeding as PoE, T8 – Pre-
tilachlor + safener @ 0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 days after seeding +
Hand weeding at 40 DAS , Figures in parenthesis are means
of original value that is transformed by (X + 1)
and giv-
en outside parenthesis, DAS- Days after sowing,
PE- Pre emergent, PoE- Post emer
gent and * Data not statistically analysed

Table 2. Effect of different weed management practices on growth indices and total dry matter of direct wet seeded rice
sown through drum seeder.
Total Dry matter of crop
Crop growth rate Absolute growth rate Relative growth rate Biomass duration (g m-2)
Treatment
(g m-2 day-1) (g plant-1 day-1) (g-1 g-1day-1) (g. days) 60 90
DAS DAS
T1 24.96 0.49 2.83 286.81 104.10 851.94
T2 15.12 0.30 2.31 168.08 53.33 506.93
T3 24.43 0.48 2.80 275.70 93.00 826.00
T4 20.08 0.40 2.59 221.70 68.33 670.67

457
 T5 20.32 0.40 2.60 224.90 70.00 679.67
T6 24.93 0.49 2.83 284.60 100.00 848.67
T7 24.86 0.49 2.82 282.50 98.00 843.67
T8 24.63 0.49 2.81 279.49 96.43 835.2
S.Em. 0.88 0.02 0.04 8.01 3.13 26.42
CD (p=0.05) 2.68 0.05 0.11 24.3 9.48 80.13

T1 – Weed free check (repeated hand weeding at 10 days intervals), T2 – Unweedy check, T3 – Two hand weeding at 20 and
40 DAS ,T4 – Metamifop @100 g a.i ha-1 at 3rd stage as PoE, T5 – Pretilachlor + safener @ 0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 days after
seeding as PE, T6 – Bispyribac sodium @ 25g a.i ha-1 25 days after seeding as PoE, T7 – Cyhalofop-butyl @ 100 g a.i ha-1
+ (Chlorimuron-ethyl +metsulfuron methyl) @ 4g a.i. ha-1 at 15 days after seeding as PoE, T8 – Pretilachlor + safener @
0.4 kg a.i ha-1 at 3 days after seeding + Hand weeding at 40 DAS , DAS- Days after sowing, PE- Pre emergent, PoE- Post
emergent

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Zamir, I., Afzal, and Farhena, A. (2014) Weed
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458
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 459-461 (2015)

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF TRADITIONAL SWEETENERS FOR LIVELIHOOD

GENERATION - A TECHNICAL REPORT
RAVI SHANKAR PRASAD & MALABIKA RAY
Forest Physiology and Molecular Biology Division
Institute of Forest Productivity, Lalgutwa, Ranchi-835303

ABSTRACT
Stevia rebaudiana (Bert.) belong to Asteraceae family is an emerging sugar alternative and anti-diabetic plant in India. That is
why people did not know the exact methods of propagation. The main objective of the present study was to establish feasible propa-
gation methods for healthy biomass production. In the present study stem cuttings were investigated for higher productivity. A great
variation in survival of stem cutting was observed in different mediums. November and December months were found the most suit-
able months for stem cutting survival (91%) during research duration 2010-2013. The experiment is being repeated for three year
seasonal variations. Stem cuttings were also dipped in plant growth regulators (PGRs) solution. Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) 300 ppm
showed a higher rooting percentage with sand and FYM (50:50) under mist chamber ranging temperature 21-350 C and relative hu-
midity from 70-80%. This paper deals the ex-situ conservation of traditional sweetener by vegetative propagation, which in-turn en-
sure the availability of materials for resource base utilization without affecting natural populations of these species in the long run.

Key Words: Stevia rebaudiana, anti- diabetic, propagation, biomass, enhance, humidity.

INTRODUCTION
Stevia rebaudiana of Asteraceae family is an emerging
economical species throughout the world due to natural
sweetener with zero calories has recently found widespread
use in the food and pharmaceutical industries and considered
as an important plant due to its active compound present in
the leaves known as steviol glycosides. The purified form of
steviol glycoside is known as stevioside which is 300 times
sweeter than commercially available sucrose (Hwang, 2006).
Stevia species are specially used for the treatment of diabetic
patients. The natural steviosides cannot enter into the blood
stream due to the absence of receptor for absorbance. Still
today there are no reports that a single patient is completely
recovered from diabetes after using different synthetic drugs.
It is expected that 57 million people would be affected by
diabetes in the year of 2025. Stevia extracts have no reported
side effects and can be used as an alternative to sugar and
other synthetic sweeteners.
This species originated from Paraguay and Brazil,
and currently considered as an alternate substitute of cane
and beet sugar (Ahmad et. al., 2011a and Ahmad et. al.,
2011b). In 1964 this crop was cultivated commercially for
the first time in Paraguay and later on it has been introduced
in a number of countries (Lewis, 1992). The leaves of this
sweet herb have been used for centuries as sweetener to
counteract the bitter taste of various plant based medicines
and beverages by indigenous Guarani Indians of the
Paraguay (Brandle, 1998). Leaves of Stevia accumulate
sweet tasting diterpene glycosides such as stevioside and
rebaudiosides which are up to 100-300 times sweeter than
sucrose (Tanaka, 1982; Alaam, 2007). Shade dried leaves of
Stevia are 10 to 15 times sweeter than sucrose. Glycemic
index of sweetening compounds of this plant is zero with no
caloric value. The worldwide demand for zero calorie natural
sweeteners is increasing because of consumer awareness
about harmful effects of artificial sweeteners on human
health (Jae-Yong, 2011). Most of the artificial sweeteners are
produced from synthetic ingredients by chemical synthesis
in the laboratory. In last few decades, consumption of food
products enriched with sugars and artificial sweeteners
has favored the development of various chronic diseases
endangering the human health. Obesity and diabetes are
the main characteristic diseases developed due to excessive
intake of sugars having high calorific values (Burke et. al.,
2003). Steviodal glycosides from Stevia offer a solution for
prevention of complex diabetic problems and obesity in
modern mankind. Stevioside and rebaudioside of Stevia are
stable under wide range of temperatures and pH conditions
in different food and pharmaceutical products (Abou-Arab
et. al., 2010; Tanaka, 1988). They do not alter the flavour
and taste of a food product in which they are used and are
also non-fermentative. Stevia rebaudiana is commercially
cultivated in China, Japan, Brazil, Canada, USA, UK,
Spain, Belgium, Australia, South Korea, Thailand, Israel
and Taiwan (Jain et. al., 2009). China and Japan are
the world’s major producers and exporters of diterpene
glycosides. Japan has approved use of stevioside in many
food products including cereals, teas, and soft drinks. In
India, Stevia has been introduced in the last decade because
of high demand potentials particularly considering the huge
diabetic population. It has been successfully cultivated in
many Indian states like Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Kerala and Orissa. High demands for natural sweeteners as
compared to artificial ones have driven the farmers in India
toward large-scale Stevia cultivation (Goyal et. al., 2010).
In this article we discussed about some important aspects of
Stevia cultivation, production and utilization of zero calorie
natural sweeteners.
Stevia rebaudiana is now successfully growing under
different cultivation conditions and climatic locations of the
world. Seeds produced by Stevia plants remain viable for a
limited period and have very low germination rate because
of their small size. Being highly heterozygous species, there
is also variation in plants raised from seeds. They do not
produce true to type plant and constant re-selection for type
is required in mother-seed plots (Rank & Midmore, 2006).
Stevia is mainly propagated vegetative by stem cuttings

459
although it is a labour intensive procedure. Careful selection
of plant is required to get more productivity and profitability.
Cutting should be obtained from a plant variety which
have reduced tendency to flower. Stem cuttings of selected
plant variety should be 3-4 inches long with at least one or
two buds arising from leaf axils. Rooting can be enhanced
by using rooting hormones. Treatment of cuttings with
synthetic auxins was found beneficial for root formation by
Stevia growers. Stevia prefers a well-drained fertile sandy loam
or loam soil high in organic matter. It prefers lighter acidic to
neutral (pH 6-8) soil for better growth. It requires a consistent
supply of water but excessive irrigation in water logging soils
can cause stem rot disease. Stevia requires partial shade during
very hot and long summer days. Photoperiod is more critical than
intensity of light for Stevia cultivation. Long spring and summer
days favour leaf growth and short days trigger blossoming in
Stevia plant. Temperature in the range of 24 to 35 degrees with
appropriate soil moisture is required during first two weeks to
obtain plantlets from stem cuttings. Initial growth from cuttings
is extremely slow and requires good nursery hygiene to prevent
disease infection. Stevia plants produce two to three shoots
depending on the number of buds available on stem segments.
These shoots then produce multiple shoots, which is essential
for production of good number of leaves for harvest. 20oC to
35oC temperature are required for proliferation of shoots from
cuttings after field transfer. High temperature and water stress is
unfavorable for vegetative growth as it induces flowering during
the expected growing season. Fertilizer requirement for Stevia is
moderate and varies according to the environment and soil type.
Stevia plants respond well to fertilizers. Plant prefers low levels
of nitrogen but high phosphorus and potassium. Under average
climatic conditions and soil type 60 kg N, 25 kg Phosphorus
and 35 kg Potassium per hectare is recommended. The distance
between plants should be 20-25 cm. This would give a plant
population of around 28 to 30 thousand per acre. Katayama et.
al., (1976) have tried planting densities ranging from 40000 to
400000 plants per hectare in experiments conducted at Japan.
They found that leaf yield increases with increasing planting
density up to 83,000 and 111,000 plants per hectare. For Stevia
cultivation, land should be initially harrowed and then ploughed
to get fairly smooth and firm planting surface. Fields should be
divided into plots of convenient size for proper drainage and
irrigation Formation of raised beds is the most economical way
to grow Stevia plants as it saves water and avoid the damages
caused due to water logging. The raised beds should be of 15 cm
in height and 60 cm in width.
S. rebaudiana plants are conventionally propagated
through cuttings, but this traditional method cannot produce a
large number of plants. The seeds of this species are smaller in
size and the germination % age is very low. Therefore modern
techniques of propagation such as in vitro regeneration are
needed to enhance the production of this important species.
For these reasons tissue culture techniques are widely used
to produce maximum mass from a single plant in a short
span of time and also provide opportunities for germplasm
conservation of important plants (Jagatheeswari and
Ranganathan, 2012, Anbajhagan et. al., 2010, Taware et. al.,
2010 and Sabah and Rasha, 2013). The main objective of
the present study was to improve the production of Stevia
rebaudiana using different propagation methods. This is an
emerging species in India and most of the researchers are
unaware regarding the exact time of seed sowing and cutting.
In this study seed germination (irradiated) and stem cuttings
460
were compared with micro propagation. So, we established
simple micro propagation system via indirect regeneration for
healthy and consistent plantlets production from leaf explants.
These results will provide an opportunity for selection of the
best method of propagation for future studies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Stevia rebaudiana cuttings were collected from
different forest area including Jharkhand, West Bengal
and Orissa and planted in Osupvan medicinal plant garden
in Institute of Forest Productivity, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
During experiment three different media were used to study
development of root and shoot with controlled. For this
purpose cuttings of Stevia 4-6 cm length were collected from
the mother bed of the institute the cutting were prepared with
at least two nodes. All cuttings were dipping in 0.2% Bavistin
to protect from fungal effect for 1/2 an hours. After that all
cuttings were treated with IBA 300ppm for two minute only.
One hundred (100) cuttings were placed for rooting without
application of hormones as a controlled in hycopot filled
with three composition.
Only sand, fifty percent sand and fifty percent soil and
fifty percent sand with fifty percent FYM and sand, soil and
FYM in equal proportion. All cuttings were planted in mist
chamber in randomized block design with three replication
of each composition. Times to time cuttings were moistened
through sprinkler system under mist chamber. After 50 day
plants were transferred to the field condition for estimate
there survival percentage in field condition and there growth
performance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
After 10-15 days leaves were sprouted and rooting
were initiated after 20-25 days of sowing. In control condition
of all three different combinations of sand, soil and FYM, sand
plus FYM showed better result. Number of root and maximum
root length were also found better in same composition. Lower
end of cuttings were dipped in 300 ppm IBA two minutes.
Treated cuttings with IBA were sowing in combination of
sand and FYM show better performance in compare to other
two combinations only sand, sand with soil (50:50) and sand,
soil and FYM (1:1:1). Maximum numbers of root were found
36 with maximum root length 19 cm in sand with fifty percent
FYM combination under mist chamber. In field condition
plants treated with IBA 300ppm with sand: FYM media (50:50)
performed better performance in all aspects like survival
percentage as well as number of shoots per plants and total
biomass.
Table 1 - Rooting percentage of Stevia rebaudiana in dif-
ferent media with control
Mean
2010- 2012-
Treatments 2011-2012 average
2011 2013
(%)
Control 55 55 58 54.33
Sand+Soil 60 64 66 63.33
Sand+FYM 92 90 91 91.00
Sand+Soil+FYM 80 88 82 83.33
Figure 1 - Rooting percentage of Stevia rebaudiana in Bar
chart
REFERENCES:
Abou-Arab, A.E., Abou-Arab, A. A. & Abu-Salem, M. F.
(2010). Physico-chemical assessment of natural
sweeteners steviosides produced from Stevia
rebaudiana Bertoni plant. African Journal of
Food Science, 4 (5): 269- 281
Ahmad, N., Fazal, H., Abbasi, B.H. & Iqbal, M.
(2011b). In vitro larvicidal potential
against  Anopheles stephensi and antioxidative
enzyme activities of Ginkgo biloba, Stevia
rebaudiana and Parthenium hysterophorous.
Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med., 4 (2011):169–175.
Ahmad, N., Fazal, H., Zamir, R., Khalil, S.A. & Abbasi, B.H.
(2011a). Callogenesis and shoot organogenesis
from flowers of  Stevia rebaudiana (Bert.).
Sugar Tech., 13 (2011):174–177
Alaam, A.I. (2007). Sugar crops council: Future view. The
Proceeding of Thirty-eight Annual Conference,
Egyptian Sugar Expertese Society Hawamdia.
Egypt Botany, 46: 336–337.
Anbajhagan, M., Kalpana, M., Rajendran, R., Natarajan,
V. & Dhanavel, D. (2010). In vitro production
of Stevia rebaudiana Bert. Emir. J. Food Agric.,
22 (2010):216–222.
Brandle, J.E., Starratt, A.N. & Gijzen, M. (1998). Stevia
rebaudiana: Its agricultural, biological, and
chemical properties. Canadian Journal of Plant
Science, 78: 527–536.
Burke, J.P., Williams, K., Narayan, K.M.V., Leibson,
C., Haffner, S.M. & Stern, M.P. (2003). A
population perspective on diabetes prevention:
whom should be we target for preventing
weight gain? Diabetes care, 26 (7): 1999-2000.
461
Goyal S., Samsher, Goyal, R. (2010). Stevia (Stevia
rebaudiana) a biosweetener: A review.
International Journal of Food Sciences and
Nutrition, 61 (1): 1-10.
Hwang, S.J. (2006). Rapid in vitro propagation and enhanced
stevioside accumulation in Stevia rebaudiana
Bert. J. Plant Biol., 49 (2006):267–270.
Jae-Yong, K., Juyi, S. & Kyung-Hyun, C. (2011). Aspartame-
fed zebrafish exhibit acute deaths with
swimming defects and saccharin-fed zebrafi
sh have elevation of cholesteryl ester transfer
protein activity in hypercholesterolemia. Food
and Chemical Toxicology, 49 (11): 2899-2905.
Jagatheeswari, D. & Ranganathan, P. (2012) Studies on
micropropagation of Stevia rebaudiana Bert.
Inter. J. Pharm. Biol. Arch., 3 (2012):315–320.
Jain, P., Kachhwaha, S. & Kothari, S.L. (2009) Improved
micro propagation protocol and enhancement
in biomass and chlorophyll content in Stevia
rebaudiana (Bert.) Bertoni by using high
copper levels in the culture medium. Scientia
Horticulturae, 119: 315–319.
Katayama, O., Sumida, T., Hayashi, H. & Mitsuhashi, H.
(1976). The practical application of Stevia
and research and development data (English
translation). I.S.U. Company, Japan. 747 pp.
Lewis, W.H. (1992). Early uses of Stevia rebaudiana
(Asteraceae) leaves as a sweetener in Paraguay.
Economic Biotechnology Advances, 29: 781-
791.
Rank, A.H. & Midmore, J.D. (2006). An intense natural
sweetenerlaying the ground work for a new
rural industry; May 2006 RIRDC Publication
No 06/020 RIRDC Project No UCQ-17A
Sabah, A.H., Rasha, M.A.K. (2013). Biotechnological
studies for improving of stevia (Stevia
rebaudiana Bertoni) in vitroplantlets Middle-
East J. Sci. Res., 14 (2013):93–106.
Tanaka, O. (1988). Isolation of sweetener from Stevia
rebaudiana. Japanese Kokai, 63:177-764.
Tanaka, O. (1982) Steviol-glycosides: new natural
sweeteners. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 1:
246–248.
Taware, A.S., Mukadam, D.S., Chavan, A.M. & Tawar, S.D.
(2010) Comparative studies of in vitro and in
vivo grown plants and callus of stevia
rebaudiana (Bertoni). Inter. J. Integr. Biol., 9
(2010):10–15.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 462-463 (2015)
STUDY ON CONSERVATION, MASS MULTIPLICATION AND PROPAGATION THROUGH
SHOOT CUTTING OF Gymnema Sylvestre
RAVI SHANKAR PRASAD & MALABIKA RAY
Forest Physiology and Molecular Biology Division
Institute of Forest Productivity, Lalgutwa, Ranchi-835303

ABSTRACT
Gymnema sylvestre (Gurmar) is an important medicinal plant which grows all over India especially in tropical forest, western and south-
ern India and in the tropical area of Australia, Africa and China. Now a day peoples are more believed in ayurvedic medicine in compare
to allopathic because ayurvedic medicine have no side effect. Most of the ayurvedic medicine raw materials still collected from natural
forest. Due to unsustainable harvesting of medicinal plants, number of medicinal plants are comes under RED data book. To standardize
vegetative propagation of Gymnema sylvestre, experiments were carried out at Institute of Forest Productivity, Lalgutwa, Ranchi during
2010-13. Different types of root hormones such as IAA, IBA and NAA with 500 ppm solution have been used. Basal portion of cuttings
were dipped in 500 ppm solution of above mentioned root hormones for 10 minutes and 500 ppm of IBA solution found suitable for
maximum rooting percentage. Hence it may be concluded that Gymnema sylvestre can be successfully propagated through stem cuttings.

Key Words: Gymnema sylvestre, Ayurvedic, vegetative propagation, RED data, root hormones

INTRODUCTION
From prehistoric days, plants are used for shelter, food
and medicine. The use of plants for medicinal purposes is
as old as our civilization. The first known written record
of curative plants was of Sumerian herbal of 2200 BC. In
the 5th century BC, the Greek doctor Hippocrates listed out
some 400 herbs in common use. Herbs have been used for
uncounted time for various purposes like healing the sick
and infirm. Most of the people still continue to use herbs
to ours ailment. The books on ayurvedic medicine such as
Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita refer to the use of
more than 700 herbs (Jain, 1968). According to the World
Health Organization “a medicinal plant” is any plant, which
in one or more of its organ contains substances that can be
used for the therapeutic purposes or which, are precursors
for the synthesis of useful drugs. Medicinal plants are plants
containing inherent active ingredients used to cure disease
or relieve pain (Okigbo et. al., 2008). The term “herbal
drug” determines the part/parts of a plant (leaves, flowers,
seeds, roots, barks, stems) used for preparing medicines.
Vegetative propagation is the most vital component of clonal
forestry ensuring quick genetic gain in terms of quality and
production. Gymnima sylvestre is an important medicinal
plant belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae used to
control diabetic. In India it is mostly found in the forest of
Jharkhand, Odissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra, Kerala,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh. The leaves are
dark green in colour, simple, opposite, elliptic and hairy and
the flowers are small and yellow in colour. It is extensively
used in almost all the Indian system of medicine as a remedy
for cough, ulcer, jaundice, asthma, bronchitis, leucoderma
(Nandkarni, 1993). The use of traditional medicines and
medicinal plants in most developing countries as therapeutic
agents for the maintenance of good health has been widely
observed (UNESCO, 1996). WHO also prescribe general
guidelines for good cultivation and collection practices
(GACP) for supply of quality medicinal herb (WHO, 2003).
Continuous erosion in the traditional knowledge of many
valuable plants for medicine in the past and the renewal
interest currently, the need existed to review the valuable
knowledge with the expectation of developing the medicinal
plants sector (Kala et. al., 2006). The plant-based, traditional
medicine systems continue to play an essential role in health
care, with about 80% of the world’s inhabitants relying
mainly on traditional medicines for their primary health care.
World Health Organization consider that the quality of raw
material and final product depend on many factor including
cultivation technique, collection method harvesting method,
post harvest in harvesting method, processing, transporting
and storage practice. Gymnema sylvestre is second best
selling medicinal plant in the world market requiring a
cost- effective and simple method of cultivation to make it
growing demand. The availability of the species in natural
forest is decreasing very fast due to over exploitation and
unsustainable harvesting form natural forest. Current
demand is mostly made from illegal collection from forest
area. So it is very difficult to conserve it in forest area in-situ
conservation. The present study was, therefore undertaken
to scientific cultivation technique of Gymnema sylvestre
through cuttings with at least two nodes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Gymnema sylvestre cuttings were collected from
different forest area including Jharkhand, West Bengal and
Orissa and planted in IFP medicinal plant garden. Three
different experiments were conducted to study development
of root with application of IAA, IBA, and NAA root
hormones and controlled. For this purpose hard wood cutting
(10-16 mm diameter) and 14-18 length with at least two
nodes were collected. 50 cuttings were placed for rooting
without application of any hormones as control in hycopot
filled with vermiculite in mist chamber under Randomized
Block Design. Lower end of Gymnima sylvestre hard
wood cuttings of (10-16 mm diameter) and 14-18 length
were dipped for 10 min in IAA, IBA, and NAA 500 ppm
solutions. The upper end of cuttings was sealed with paraffin
wax to reduce evaporation. The treated cuttings were planted
in hycopot filled with vermiculite in mist chamber with
three replications. Periodic data were recorded to observe
development of root from different treatment. The rooting
and survival percentage was calculated on completion of two

462
months all data were collected.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this experiment, higher rooting percentage was
observed in IBA treatment in compare to other hormones
IAA and NAA in hard wood cuttings of Gymnema sylvestre
including control (Table 1). Propagation of Gymnema
sylvestre through cuttings having at least three nodes was
higher rooting percentage with 500 ppm of IBA solution.

Table 1 - Effect of hormones on rooting of Gymnema syl-

vestre
Treatments Sprouting (%) Rooting (%) Survival (%)
Control 46.00 34.34 21.00
IAA 72.14 59.16 52.00
IBA 86.50 82.00 80.00
NAA 42.00 35.00 33.76

Leaves were sprouted after 7-8 days from sowing

while root initiation was observed after 14-21 days from
sowing in mist chamber. After one month maximum cutting
were found rooted. Finding revealed that cuttings having
three nodes dipped in 500 ppm IBA solution for 10 min
exhibited higher sprouting (86.50%), rooting (82.00%)
and survival (80.00%). Karoshi and Hedge (2001) have
suggested 500 ppm IBA treatment to improve the rooting
ability of apical shoot cuttings in Gymnema sylvestre.
Hence it may be concluded that Gymnima sylvestre hard
wood cuttings of diameter (10-16 mm) and 14-18 cm length
having three nodes is most suitable with 500 ppm of IBA
solution for 10 min for maximum sprouting, rooting and
survival percentage.
REFERENCES
Jain, S.K. (1968). Medicinal Plants. National Book Trust,
India, pp:1-216.
Kala, C.P., Dhyani, P.P. & Sajwan, B.S. (2006). Developing
the medicinal plants sector in northern India:
challenges and opportunities. Journal of
Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. (2): http.//
www. ethnobiomed.com/content/ 2/1/32.
Karoshi, V.R. & G.V. Hedge. (2001).Vegetative propagation
of Gymnema sylvestre: An Important Medicinal
Plant-A Research Report. Indian Forester,
127:1067-1068.
Nadkarni, K.M. (1993). Indian Materia Medica, Vol.1,
Popular Prakashan, Bombay, India.
Okigbo, R.N., Eme, U.E. & Ogbogu, S. (2008). Biodiversity
and conservation of medicinal and aromatic
plants in Africa. Biotechnology and Molecular
Biology Reviews. 3 (6):127–134.
UNESCO. (1996). Culture and Health, Orientation texts-
World Decade for cultural Development
Documents CLT/DEC. PRO-1996, Paris,
France, pp:29.
World Health Organization, (2003).WHO guidelines on
Good Agricultural and collection Practices
(GACP) for Medicinal Plants, WHO, Geneva.

463
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 464-467 (2015)
ANALYSIS OF PHYTOCHEMICAL PROFILE OF ANNONA MURICATA FRUIT PULP EXTRACT: A
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROFILE OF SOME IMPORTANT LEADS

*S. MANIGANDAN1, R.RAMAMOORTHY2, S. SHANMUGA PACKIAM3 S. and R. M. VIJAYAKUMAR4

1
Department of Spices and Plantation crops, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India- 641 003
2
Department of Sericulture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India- 641 003
3
Department of Plant Pathology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India- 641 003
4
Department of Fruit Crops, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India- 641 003

ABSTRACT
Phytochemical techniques played a significant role in searching raw materials and resources for pharmaceutical industry. Pre-
liminary Phytochemical tests are helpful in finding and locating chemical constituents which are source of pharmacologically ac-
tive principles. The aim of this study was to investigate the phytochemical composition and separation of compounds through TLC.
The fruit pulp extract of Annona muricata with different solvents were investigated. The phytochemical composition was carried on
the fruit pulp extracts of Annona muricata, revealed the presence of active ingredients such as alkaloids, flavonoids, carbohydrates,
glycosides, proteins, amino acid, saponin, tannins, phenols, terpenoids, anthraquinones, steriods, phytosterols and cardiac glyco-
sides. Methanol extract of fruit pulp contained maximum number of active constituents than other solvent extracts followed by eth-
yl acetate extract. Minimum number of active constituent was noticed in petroleum ether extract. TLC separation, methanol ex-
tract of fruit pulp with giving maximum numbers of well resolved as 10 spots with Rf values 0.05, 0.10, 0.18, 0.28, 0.33, 0.43, 0.57,
0.63, 0.77 and 0.82 respectively followed by acetone extract. The phytochemicals evaluated in the fruit pulp extract of Annona mu-
ricata and its biological activities validates its folkloric use and prospects its future use towards isolation of therapeutic agents.

Keywords: A. muricata, screening, phytochemicals, fruit, pulp extract.

INTRODUCTION
Plants are very expedient and self-generating
machines, producing a range of active poisonous and
medicinal compounds. These active constituents are actually
plant secondary metabolites and a particular combination of
such metabolites may be taxonomically distinct attributing
uniqueness of medicinal actions to particular plant species
or even higher taxa Ahmad et al. (2011). The better
understanding of the plant derived medicine depends mainly
on two factors that have gone hand in hand. One criterion
involves the proof to show that the formulated medicine
does what it is claimed to do and other is the identification
of the active compound by means of the chemical analysis
Soumya et al. (2009).
Phytochemicals have been recognized as the basis
for traditional herbal medicine practiced in the past and
currently vogue in parts of the world. In the search for
phytochemicals that may be of benefit to the pharmaceutical
industry, researchers sometimes follow leads provided by
local healers in a region. Following such leads, plant parts
are usually screened for phytochemicals that may be present.
The presence of a phytochemical of interest may lead to its
further isolation, purification and characterization. Then it
can be used as the basis for a new pharmaceutical product.
Soursop (Annona muricata) from the Annonaceae
family is found to be the most important tropical fruit that
contributes much to the wider economic growth of some of
the tropical countries such as tropical America, Australia,
Africa and Malaysia. The Annona muricata fruit pulp tested
are found to be potential due to the presence of various active
principles is found to be constituted of various primary &
secondary metabolites which can be quantified for application
in pharmaceutical industry. The flesh of the fruit consists of
an edible, white pulp, some fiber, and a core of indigestible,
black seeds Arumugam and Manikandan, (2011). Soursop
flavor possess a maximum of 114 volatile compounds that
is found to be responsible for the whole aroma profile, 44
esters, 25 terpenes, 10 alcohols, 9 aldehydes and ketones, 7
aromatic compounds, 5hydrocarbons, 3 acids, 3 lactones and
8 other miscellaneous compounds Padma et al. (1998). With
this background an attempt has been made to establish the
phytochemical constituents present in the Annona muricata
fruit through TLC techniques. These studies helpful for the
scientific verification of folklore claim with regard to the
utility of this plant.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fresh fruits Annona muricata were collected from
Southern Western Ghats, South India. Botanical Survey of
India Coimbatore for authentication of plant. Fruits were
collected in bulk, washed, shade dried, macerated and
extracted with Petroleum ether Ethyl acetate, chloroform,
methanol and Acetone for 48 hrs sequentially in a Soxhlet
assembly.
Qualitative method of Phytochemical screening:
Phytochemical examinations were carried out for all
the extracts as per the standard methods Harborne (1998)
and Trease and Evans (1989).
Data Collected: The change of colour was observed
when the test reagent was added to the prepared sample for
the phytochemical test. The result was recorded as present
(+) or absent (-) depending on the outcome of the test.
Data Analysis: The calculated t value was obtained
by comparing the sum of positive (+) and negative (-) results.
The critical t value is obtained from significant test table

464
using number of samples. Differences between the critical
t-value and calculated t-values of the bioactive compounds
of the extracts were computed. For all the five solvent extract
investigated, the null hypothesis was retained because the
calculated t-value was more than the critical t-value at p =
0.05
TLC analysis
TLC was carried out on 10 X 20 cm silica gel plates
(Merck, Germany). The phytochemical compounds present
in A.muricata were qualitatively detected by TLC. The
chloroform and methanol in the ratio (9.9:0.1) ratio was
served as mobile phase. Spots were visualized by spraying
with various spraying reagents to find different compounds
present in the extract. Compounds were detected by spraying
with 1% per cent Ferric chloride reagent, for flavonoids,
Dragendeoff’s reagent for alkaloids, Liebermann-Burchard
reagent for steroids and Anisaldehyde- sulphuric acid for
sugars. Presence of compound was indicated by specific
colour spots.
The relation to front (Rf) of the spots developed on
the TLC plate were recorded using the formula given below.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phytochemical Screening:
Phytochemical aspects of Annona muricata have
been known and used since time memorial. Ethanobotanical
advantages conferred by these plant based products have
surpassed the chemical counter parts owing to their lesser
side effect and more potent therapeutic effect. Natural
products continue to play the most significant role in the drug
discovery and development process. Hence it is a demanding
need of the hour to study the various pharmacologically
valuable aspects of these Annona muricata plants.
The preliminary phytochemical screening results
of Annona muricata fruit extract, showed the presence of
various secondary metabolites constituents (Table1) revealed
that fruit pulp showed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids,
carbohydrates, glycosides, proteins, amino acid, saponin,
tannins, phenols, terpenoids, anthraquinones, steriods,
phytosterols and cardiac glycosides. This shows high level
of its possible medicinal and dietary values Oloyed (2005).
Flavonoids and carbohydrates were found in methanol
extract. Tannins were found only in chloroform extract.
Coumarins, oil, gum and mucilage were found to be absent
in all the extracts. Glycosides were found to be present in
all the extracts. Methanol extract of fruit pulp contained
maximum number of active constituents than other solvent
extracts followed by ethyl acetate extract. Minimum number
of active constituents were noticed in petroleum ether extract.
The medicinal value of the herbal secondary metabolites is
due to the presence of chemical substances that produce a
definite physiological action on the human body Tirupathi
Rao et al. (2011). Saponin is used as mild detergents and
in intracellular histochemistry staining to allow antibody
access to intracellular proteins. In medicine, it is used in
hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycemia, antioxidant, anti-
cancer, anti-inflammatory, central nervous system activities
Malairajan et al. (2006).
Plant steroids are known to be important for their
465
cardiotonic activities, possession of insecticidal, anti-
inflammatory, analgesic properties, central nervous system
activities and antimicrobial properties Argal and Pathak
(2006). They are also used in nutrition, herbal medicine and
cosmetics. In this study the steroids are present in methanol
extract. Tannins exhibit antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial and antitumor activities Argal and Pathak,
(2006).
Tannins were able to inhibit HIV replication
selectively besides use as diuretics have been recognized for
their pharmacological properties. Glycosides were reported
to exhibit anti-diabetic characteristics and cardiac glycosides
are known to hamper the Na+ /K+ pump Ogbonnnia et al.
(2008). This results in an increase in the level of sodium ions
in the myocytes which then enhance the level of calcium
ions. This consequently increases the amount of Ca2+ ions
available for contraction of the heart muscle, which improves
cardiac output and reduces distention of heart and thus is
used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and cardiac
arrhythmia.
Thin layer chromatographic studies
A large number of solvent systems were tried to
achieve a good resolution. Finally, the solvents chloroform
and methanol in the ratio (9.9:0.1) was used. Thin layer
chromatographic studies of the methanol extract, giving
maximum numbers of well resolved spots with Rf values
0.05, 0.10, 0.18, 0.28, 0.33, 0.43, 0.57, 0.63, 0.77 and 0.82
respectively followed by acetone extract. Petroleum ether
extract resolved as 6 well resolved spots of Rf values 0.04,
0.07, 0.12, 0.18, 0.20 and 0.28 respectively (Table 2). TLC
profiling of all 5 extracts gives an impressive result that
directing towards the presence of number of phytochemicals.
Secondary compounds present in the plants may play a role
in plants’ defense through cytotoxicity towards pathogenic
microorganisms Briskin (2000) and this could prove the
usefulness of these as antimicrobial medicines for humans
Bandaranayake (1995).
This result indicated the presence of anthraquinones,
steriods, phytosterols, cardiac glycosides and phenolic
compounds. Various phytochemicals gives different Rf
values in different solvent. This variation in Rf values
of the phytochemicals provides a very important clue in
understanding of their polarity and also helps in selection
of appropriate solvent for separation of pure compounds
by column chromatography. The selection of appropriate
solvent for a particular extracts can only be achieved by
analyzing the Rf values of compounds in different solvent.
Different Rf values of the compound also reflect an idea
about their polarity. This information will help in selection of
appropriate solvent for further separation of compound from
these plant extracts. The active compounds will be identified
through further advanced chromatographic techniques in
future.
CONCLUSION
The plant screened for phytochemical constituents
seemed to have the potential to act as a source of useful
drugs and also to improve the health status of the consumers
as a result of the presence of various compounds that are
vital for good health. These findings suggested that Annona
muricata could be a potential source of natural antioxidant
having great importance as therapeutic agent and preventing oxidative stress related degenerative diseases. The fruit of
Annona muricata can provide lead molecules which could be useful substrate for the synthesis of new broad spectrum
antibiotics for the treatment of infections caused by the organisms. Further purification, identification and characterization
of the active compounds would be our priority in future studies.

Table 1. Qualitative phytochemical screening of the various extracts of the fruit pulp of Annona muricata
Petroleum Ethyl
Chloroform Acetone Methanol
S. No Plant constituent Test/Reagent ether acetate
extract extract extract
extract extract
a) Mayer’s test - - + - +
1 Alkaloids b) Wagner’s test + - - - -
c) Dragendorff’s test - - - - -
a) Lead test - - + - +
2 Flavonoids
b) Alkaline reagent test - - - - -
3 Coumarins - - - - -
a) Benedict’s test - - - - +
4 Carbohydrates
b) Berfoed’s test - - - - -
a) Legal’s test - + + - +
5 Glycosides
b) Modified Borntrager’s test + - - + -
a) Millon’s test + - - - +
6 Proteins
b) Biuret test - + - - -
7 Amino acid a) a) Ninhydrin test - - + + -
a) Froth test - - + - -
8 Saponin
b) Foam test - - - + +
a) Ferric chloride test - - - -
9 Tannins
b) Gelatin test - + - - -
a) Lead acetate test + - + - +
10 Phenols
b) Ferric chloride test + - - + -
11 Terpenoids a) Salkowski test - + - - +
12 Anthraquinones a) Borntrager’s test - - - + +
13 Steriods a)Liebermann–Burchard test - - + + +
14 Phytosterols a)Liebermann–Burchard test - + + - +
15 Cardiac glycosides - + + + +
16 Gum & mucilage - - - - -
17 Oil - - - - -
Abbreviations: (+):- Found to be present (-):- Found to be absent

Table 2. TLC profile of Annona muricata pulp extracts

S.No Test extract Solvent system Number of spots Rf Values

Petroleum ether 06 0.04,0.07,0.12,0.18,0.20, 0.28
Chloroform 07 0.15,0.21,0.28,0.35,0.38, 0.45,0.63
Ethyl acetate 07 0.07,0.12,0.18,0.28, 0.33, 0.43,0.77
Chloroform : Methanol (9.9:0.1) 0.13,0.18,0.25,0.29, 0.34,0.41, 0.45,
Acetone 09
0.51,0.56
0.05,0.10,0.18,0.28,0.33,
Methanol extracts 10
0.43,0.57,0.63,0.77,0.82
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467
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 468-473 (2015)
INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC SOURCES OF
NUTRIENTS ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULATA L.)
CV. CP-4
SAURABH SHARMA*1, S.K. SENGUPTA, SUNIL PRAJAPATI, S.K. SHARMA2, AVTAR SINGH DANGI,
DHARMENDRA SINGH DANGI AND VIPIN VERMA
1
Department of Horticulture, J.N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (M.P.) 482004, India
2
Department of Horticulture, M. G.C. Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot (M.P.) India

ABSTRACT
The study entitled individual assessment of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients on growth and yield of cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata L.) cv. CP-4 was carried out at Vegetable Research Farm, Department of Horticulture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (M.P.) during the
year 2009-10. The experiment was conducted with 12 treatment combinations of organic and inorganic fertilizers in factorial Random-
ized Block Design (RBD) with 3 replications. On the basis of present investigation, it is resulted that treatment O3 (Vermicompost 5 t/ha)
was recorded maximum (10.15) seeds pod-1. While the lowest (7.14) was found in O1 (FYM 20 t/ha).With respect to inorganic fertilizers,
the maximum (9.56) seeds pod-1 was obtained in I3 (60:80:75 kg NPK/ha). Pod yield plant-1 was observed that O3 (Vermicompost 5 t/ha)
was exhibited higher pod yield (203.55g) plant. The maximum (198.41g) pod yield plant-1 was observed in the application of treatment I3
(60:80:75 kg NPK/ha) and lowest 165.25 g was recorded in treatment I1 (No fertilizers). Significantly maximum (88.63 q/ha) and (86.25 q/
ha) pod yield were recorded under the treatment O3 (Vermicompost 5 t/ha) and O4 (Poultry manure 5 t/ha) respectively. However the lowest
78.87 q/ha pod yield was observed in treatment O1 (FYM 20 t/ha). In cases of inorganic fertilizers, the treatment I3 (60:80:75 kg NPK/ha)
was recorded maximum 87.54 q/ha pod yield. Whereas the lowest 79.64 q/ha pod yield was noted in I1 (No fertilizers). The nitrogen content
(%) in cowpea pod was the maximum (4.34%) and (4.27%) nitrogen content were recorded under the treatment O2 (Neem cake 5 q/ha)
and O3 (Vermicompost 5 t/ha) respectively and at par with each other. While, lowest 4.16% nitrogen content was recorded in treatment
O1 (FYM 20 t/ha).As regards to inorganic fertilizers the maximum 4.31% and 4.30% were recorded under the treatment I3 (60:80:75 kg
NPK/ha) and I2 (30:40:37.5 kg NPK/ha) respectively and which were at par. Significantly maximum (0.032%) phosphorus was recorded
in O3 (Vermicompost 5 t/ha) treatments. The treatment I3 (60:80:75 kg NPK/ha) was recorded maximum (0.047%) phosphorus and the
lowest (0.025%) phosphorus in I1 ( no fertilizers).The maximum (0.531%) and (0.743%) potassium content were recorded under the
treatment O3 (Vermicompost 5 t/ha) and I3 (60:80:75 kg NPK/ha) respectively. the protein content in cowpea pod was highest (24.71%)
and (24.50%) of protein content were recorded under the treatment O2 (Neem cake 5 q/ha) and I2 (30:40:37.5 kg NPK/ha) respectively.

Key words: Cowpea, Organic manures, Inorganic fertilizers, Nutrient uptake and Correlation coefficients, growth
and yield.

INTRODUCTION
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.), a legume is one of
the most ancient crops known to man. It belongs to family
Papilionaceae and sub-family fabaceae. Its primary center of
origin is in Africa. It is widely adopted and grown all over the
world. Immature cowpea green pods are commonly referred
to as southern pea, black eye pea, crowder pea, lobia. This
crop can be grown in Kharif and summer season in North
India, while in South India it is grown throughout the year.
Cowpea is grown in small scale throughout the country for
long green pods as a vegetable, seeds as pulses and foliage
as fodder for milch animal. Green pod of cowpea contains
85 g moisture, 3.0 g protein, 1.0 g minerals, 2.0 g fiber, 8.0
g carbohydrates, 72 mg calcium, 59 mg phosphorus, 2.0 mg
iron, 0.09 mg riboflavin and 0.07 mg thiamin per 100 g of
edible portion (Ananomus, 2011).
There is a need to seek alternative nutrient sources
which could be cheap and eco-friendly so that farmers may
be able to reduce the investment made on fertilizer along
with maintaining good soil environmental conditions
leading to ecological sustainable farming. Organic fertilizer
like vermicompost, compost, FYM, poultry manure is very
popular among the farmers and can easily be produced.
During the last decades, agricultural production has
increased due to use of high yielding varieties and enhanced
consumption of chemical fertilizer. This has however, been
accompanied by exponential increased in the consumption of
non-renewable form of energy in view of escalating energy
costs. It is essential for use to evolve and adopt a strategy of
using organic manures. Organic manures enhances the soil
fertility and yield of crops by rendering unviable sources of
elemental nitrogen bound, phosphate and decomposed plant
residues into available form in order to facilitate the plant to
absorb the nutrients.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field investigation was carried out to study the
individual assessment of organic and inorganic sources
of nutrients on growth and yield of cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata L.) cv. CP-4, during the Kharif season of
2009-10 at Vegetable Research Farm, Department of
Horticulture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (M.P.). The experiment
was laid out in the 4X3 Factorial Randomized Block
Design (FRBD) with 3 replications. The soil of the
experimental plot was clay loam, uniform texture with
medium NPK status (Table1). Standard agronomic
and plant protection practices were adopted for grow
healthy crop, ten tagged plants taken for fallowing
observations as growth parameters viz., plant height at

468
30, 60 and 90 DAS (cm), number of branches plant-1
at 30, 60 and 90 DAS, number of leaves plant-1 at 30,
60 and 90 DAS, nodules count plant-1 at 30, 60 and
90 DAS, phenological characters viz., days to first
flowering, days to 50% flowering, number of flowers
cluster-1, days to first picking, Leaf area and Leaf area
index. yield attributes viz., number of pods cluster-1,
number of pods plant-1, pod length (cm), pod girth
(cm), pod weight (gm), number of seeds pod-1, pod
yield plant-1 (gm), pod yield plot-1 (kg.) and pod yield
ha-1(q.). Quality traits viz., NPK assessment in the plant
and protein assessment in pod, the nitrogen content of
seeds was estimated by Mikrokjeldhal digestion and
distillation methods as suggested by (AOAC, 1980)
and Protein content in pod was estimated after the
estimation of nitrogen of nitrogen percentage in seed by
kjeldahl method. Analysis of variance and correlation
coefficients were calculated in all possible combinations
taking all the characters in to consideration by Panse
and Sukhatme (1963). Present study will estimate viz.,
effect of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and
correlation coefficients.
Normality of H2SO4 X Volume of H2SO4
Percent nitrogen = ----------------------------------- x100
Weight of sample X 1000
Crude protein % = Nitrogen% x 5.68
The investigation comprises 7 treatment are given
below;
(A) Organic manure (Four)
O1 - FYM @ 20 t/ha.
O2 - Neem cake @ 5 q/ha.
O3 - Vermicompost 5 t/ha.
O4 - Poultry Manure @ 5 t/ha.
(B) Inorganic fertilizers (Three)
I1 - No fertilizers
I2 - Half RDF dose of NPK (30:40:37.5 kg)
I3 - Full RDF dose of NPK (60:80:75 kg)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Growth parameters
Under growth parameters, the plant height, number
of branches, number of leaves and number of nodules plant-1
were studies in cowpea and resulted data presented in (Table
2). It was observed that the plant height was significantly
increased by various treatments of integrated nutrient
management at all the growth stages (i.e. at 30, 60 and 90
DAS).
At 30, 60 and 90 days after sowing, the treatment
O3 (vermicompost 5 t/ha) was found significantly superior as
compared to O2 (neem cake 5 q/ha) and O4 (poultry manure
5 t/ha) and O1 (FYM 20 t/ha). Maximum plant height was
469
recorded in O3 (application of vermicompost 5 t/ha) and
was lowest in treatment O1 (FYM 20 t/ha) at all the growth
stages. The findings is also in agreement with the findings of
Gavjion Wen et al. (1995), Naidu et al. (1999), Sannigrahi
and Borah (2001), Naidu et al. (2001) and Chandrakar et
al. (2001). Application of 60:80:75 kg NPK/ha was recorded
the significantly highest plant-height at 30, 60 and 90 days,
while it was observed lowest in I1 (i.e. 0% inorganic or
without NPK through inorganic) at all the growth stages.
Similar results have been reported by Kalyan et al. (1996)
and Ahmed et al. (1999).
The treatment O3 (vermicompost 5 t/ha) increased
the number of leaves at 30, 60 and 90 DAS, and was at
par with O2 (Neem cake 5 q/ha). The lowest number of
leaves plant-1 was observed in O1 (FYM 20 t/ha). It has
been also reported by Naidu et al. (1999) and Naidu et al.
(2001). Significantly maximum number of leaves plant-1
was observed in treatment I3 i.e. application of full dose of
recommended 60:80:75 kg NPK/ha at 30 DAS, while it was
lowest in I1 (without fertilizer).
Maximum branches plant-1 was observed in treatments
I3. However, treatment I1 was exhibited lowest branches
plant-1 at 60 and 90 DAS. At 30 DAS the doses of inorganic
fertilizer did not exhibit any significant effect on number
of branches plant-1. The findings are in agreement with
findings of Bisht and Chandel (1996), Naidu et al. (2001)
and Chandrakar et al. (2001). It was minimum in O4 (poultry
manure 5 t/ha). Nodules plant-1 was decreased with increase
in crop growth stages. Treatment I3 (application of 60:80:75
kg NPK/ha) was significantly superior and exhibited
maximum nodules plant-1 over other treatment at 30, 60 and
90 DAS.
Phenological Characters
Phenological characters viz., days taken to first
flowering, days taken to 50% flowering, days taken to first
picking and number of flowers cluster-1 were studies in
cowpea (Table 3).
Results revealed that the earliest first flowering, 50%
flowering and first picking was recorded in treatment O1
(application of 20 t FYM/ha), while late flowering (first
and 50%) and picking was observed in O3 (plot receiving
vermicompost 5 t/ha). Amongst inorganic fertilizers, early
first flowering, 50% flowering and first picking was noted
in I1 (without fertilizers), whereas the application of full
recommended dose 60:80:75 kg NPK/ha resulted in late
flowering. Interaction of organic and inorganic fertilizers
clearly indicates that there is no significant variation. The
higher levels of nitrogen delayed flowering and also first
picking. Similar results have been reported by Renuka and
Sankar (2001); he reported that early flowering could be
obtained with the application of FYM + biogas slurry. Kumar
et al. (1998) for minimum period of maturity, Sharma (1995)
he reported that combined application of biofertilizers +
compost and chemical fertilizer first flowering and days to
first picking. Chandrakar et al. (2001) he found that earliness
in flowering and days to first harvest were observed under
the treatments containing FYM.
Results indicated that the treatment O3 (application of
vermicompost 5 t/ha) was recorded the maximum flowers
per cluster and was superior over other treatments. Among
inorganic fertilizers maximum flowers per cluster was
observed in I3 (i.e. 60:80:75 kg NPK/ha). Similar results
have been reported by Patil et al. (1995), Sharma (1995) and
Naidu et al. (2001).
Results revealed that the maximum leaf area and leaf
area index was recorded in O3 (application of vermicompost
5 t/ha) at 60 and 90 DAS. However, the lowest leaf area and
leaf area index was noted in O1 (application of 20 t/ha FYM).
Full recommended dose of NPK i.e. 60:80:75 kg/ha was
exhibited maximum leaf area and leaf area index as compare
to other treatment, while it was minimum In I1 (without
fertilizers). These findings are in also agreement with the
finding of Guvjion Wen et al. (1995), Ndag et al. (1999) and
Chandrakar et al. (2001).
Yield attributes
organic manure O3 (vermicompost 5 t/ha) and doses of
inorganic fertilizer I3 (application of 60:80:75 kg NPK/ha).
Results indicated that the highest value of protein content
percentage were recorded in O2 (neem cake 5 q/ha) and I2
(30:40:37.5 kg NPK/ha). Findings corroborates with their
results obtained by Baboo and Sharma (1995) and Meena et
al. (2007).
Correlation Studies
The findings of correlation coefficients studies (Table
6) clearly indicate that pod yield plant-1 was highly significant
and positively associated with number of leaves plant-1 at 30
and 60 DAS. It gives an indication that an increase in number
of leaves plant-1 ultimately leads to more photosynthetic
activities which gives the higher yield. The finding is also
in agreement with the findings of Dongi and Paroda (1974).

The results on yield attributing parameters viz., Similarly pod yield plot-1 and pod yield hectare-1 was
number of pods cluster-1, number of pods plant-1, pod also recorded highly significant and positive association
with number of leaves plant-1 and pod yield plant-1. Similar
length, pod girth, pod weight and number of seeds pod-1 was
results have been reported by Dongi and Paroda (1974), Jain
recorded in Cowpea (Table 4). (1990). Number of leaves plant-1 at 30 DAS was significant
The results on yield attributing parameters viz., and positive associated with number of leaves at 60 and 90
number of pods per cluster, number of pods per plant, pod DAS. The findings are also in agreement with the findings
length, pod girth, pod weight and number of seeds per of Pandey et al. (1981). Number of leaves plant-1 at 60
pod was recorded maximum in O3 (vermicompost 5 t/ha), DAS was found to have significantly positively associated
followed by poultry manure 5 t/ha and it was minimum with number of leaves per plant at 90 DAS, leaf area at 60
in FYM 20 t/ha Increase of inorganic fertilizer, it was and 90 DAS and leaf area index at 60 and 90 DAS. The
exhibited maximum in I3 (i.e. 60:80:75 kg NPK/ha was findings corroborated the reports of Pandey et al. (1981).
The correlation of leaf area at 60 and 90 days after sowing
applied), whereas it was lowest in I1 (without fertilizer). The
was significant and positive with leaf area index at 60 and
findings are in agreement with the findings of Sharma et al. 90 DAS and themselves. The findings are also in agreement
(1996), Bisht and Chandel (1996), Ahmed and Tanki (1997). with the findings of Pandey et al. (1981), Sajikumar et al.
Samnotra et al. (1998), Parmar et al. (1999), Samawat and (1996) and Prakash et al. (2004).
Borah (2001), Naidu et al. (2001), Ali et al. (2003), Negi et
al. (2004), Meena et al. (2007), Nandi (2008), Singh et al. Table 1: Initial fertility status of the experiment soil
(2005), Chandrakar et al. (2001).
Electrical Organic Available nutrient
Soil
Quality Parameters Sym. conductivity carbon (kg/ha.)
pH
(dS/m) (gm/kg) N P K
Quality characters viz., nutrient % in NPK and O1 I1 6.7 0.12 5.3 208 22.0 210
protein content in pods presented in (Table 5).Nitrogen O1 I2 6.9 0.18 4.5 190 19.2 184
content percentage in cowpea pod was influence due to O1 I3 7.1 0.20 5.1 201 21.6 198
different treatments of organic and inorganic fertilizers. The
O2 I1 7.1 0.21 5.9 215 23.0 208
maximum nitrogen content were recorded under O2 (neem
O2 I2 7.2 0.26 5.6 209 21.8 210
cake 5 q/ha) and O3 (vermicompost 5 t/ha) and it was minimum
under O1 (FYM 20 t/ha). Application of inorganic fertilizers O2 I3 7.1 0.18 6.1 228 24.6 198
the maximum were recorded in I3 (60:80:75 kg NPK/ha) O3 I1 7.1 0.12 5.4 206 20.0 202
and I2 (30:40:37.5 kg NPK/ha).Significantly maximum O3 I2 7.1 0.20 5.0 199 19.0 188
phosphorus content was recorded in O3 (vermicompost 5 t/ O3 I3 7.3 0.18 6.2 230 21.0 190
ha) and it was lowest in O4 (poultry manure 5 t/ha). Similarly O4 I1 7.4 0.17 4.8 196 18.3 210
I3 (60:80:75 kg NPK/ha) was recorded maximum phosphorus O4 I2 7.3 0.15 5.3 210 20.0 184
and it was lowest in I1 (without fertilizer). These results are O4 I3 7.2 0.18 6.1 225 21.8 196
in agreement with the findings of Baboo and Sharma (1995).
Potassium content was significantly affected by different
treatments of organic and inorganic fertilizers on cowpea
pod. The maximum potassium content were recorded in
Table 2: Individual effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on different growth parameters

Number of Number of leaves Number Nodules

Treat. Plant height (cm)
branches plant-1 plant-1 plant-1
30 60 90 30 60 90 30 60 90 30 60 90
O1 17.77 47.08 88.40 4.23 10.94 18.95 9.87 20.14 30.02 7.17 6.07 4.69

470
 O2 20.55 65.01 91.00 3.96 10.80 19.17 14.40 22.07 37.15 5.03 5.18 3.02
O3 21.21 67.66 100.87 5.38 13.60 19.83 15.21 25.57 39.73 5.28 5.74 4.09
O4 19.20 59.48 96.05 3.82 9.51 17.86 13.06 19.79 35.96 4.00 4.31 2.95
SEm± 0.216 0.387 1.801 0.221 0.301 0.327 0.474 0.336 0.661 0.371 0.142 0.062
CD at 5% 0.63 1.136 5.284 0.650 0.885 0.959 1.391 0.988 1.94 1.090 0.419 0.182
I1 18.49 51.85 83.68 4.08 10.31 18.09 11.97 21.04 34.07 4.75 5.00 2.99
I2 19.59 61.74 93.79 4.31 11.54 18.98 13.17 21.75 35.74 5.38 5.20 3.84
I3 20.97 66.10 104.77 4.66 11.78 19.79 14.26 22.89 37.33 5.98 5.77 4.24
SEm± 0.187 0.335 2.080 0.192 0.261 0.283 0.410 0.291 0.573 0.322 0.123 0.054
CD at 5% 0.55 0.984 6.101 NS 0.766 0.830 1.204 0.855 1.68 0.944 0.363 0.158

Table 3: Individual influence of organic and inorganic fertilizers on different phenological parameters

Days taken Number

to Days taken of flowers Days taken
Leaf area Leaf area
Treat. Sign to 50% cluster-1 to
first (cm2) index
flowering first picking
flowering
60 90 60 90
O1 47.77 53.11 2.76 57.835 1123.51 1895.82 0.831 1.403
O2 52.88 57.22 2.82 54.077 1146.50 1929.56 0.848 1.428
O3 53.00 59.66 3.54 51.833 1404.94 2239.46 1.040 1.658

O4 50.00 55.11 3.36 56.737 1321.74 2084.02 0.978 1.544

SEm± 1.156 0.877 0.050 0.723 34.640 51.46 0.023 0.038

CD at 5% 3.392 2.574 0.149 2.122 101.604 150.93 0.069 0.111

I1 46.83 52.33 2.80 53.283 1179.50 1949.27 0.873 1.444
I2 50.00 55.41 3.08 55.527 1208.96 1987.13 0.895 1.471
I3 55.91 61.08 3.48 56.552 1359.07 2175.26 1.006 1.610
SEm± 1.001 0.760 0.044 0.626 29.99 44.56 0.020 0.032
CD at 5% 2.937 2.229 0.129 1.838 87.99 130.71 0.059 0.096

Table 4: Individual influence of organic and inorganic fertilizers on different yield attributes parameters
Number Number Number
Pod Pod yield Pod yield Pod yield
Treat. of pods of pods Pod length Pod girth of seeds
weight plant -1 plot-1 hectare-1
Sign cluster-1 plant -1 (cm) (cm) pod-1
(g) (g) (kg) (q)

O1 2.73 22.81 14.50 0.91 6.34 7.14 156.66 6.395 78.87

O2 2.76 25.20 14.74 0.97 6.41 7.46 165.11 6.426 79.30
O3 3.50 31.16 19.13 1.14 7.26 10.15 203.55 7.182 88.63

O4 3.29 29.46 18.36 1.09 7.03 9.38 193.33 6.990 86.25

SEm± 0.078 0.610 0.255 0.024 0.104 0.257 1.352 0.146 1.811
CD at 5% 0.231 1.790 0.749 0.071 0.306 0.738 3.967 0.428 5.314

I1 2.74 24.51 14.77 0.97 6.51 7.52 165.25 6.454 79.64

I2 3.04 26.26 16.84 1.10 6.69 8.43 175.33 6.697 82.61

I3 3.43 30.70 18.44 1.10 7.07 9.56 198.41 7.094 87.54

SEm± 0.068 0.528 0.221 0.021 0.090 0.217 1.171 0.126 1.569

CD at 5% 0.200 1.550 0.649 0.062 0.265 0.639 3.436 0.371 4.602

471
Table 6: Estimates of correlation coefficient between yield and photosynthetic area of cowpea

No. of leaves plant-1 Leaf area (cm2) Leaf area index Pod yield Pod yield Pod yield
Characters
plant-1 (g) plot-1(kg) ha-1 (q)
60 DAS 90 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS
No. of leaves plant-1 30 DAS 0.725** 0.960** 0.237 0.708** 0.237 0.711** 0.262 0.676** 0.679**
No. of leaves plant-1 60 DAS 0.729** 0.472 0.442 0472 0.445 0.437 0.618* 0.621**
No. of leaves plant-1 90 DAS -0.084 0.285 -0.084 0.28 0.360 0.761** 0.765**
Leaf area (cm2) 60 DAS 0.799** 0.998** 0.799** 0.088 -0.194 -0.195
Leaf area (cm2) 90 DAS 0.798** 0.999** 0.008 -0.057 -0.057
Leaf area index 60 DAS 0.799** 0.087 -0.195 -0.196
Leaf area index 90 DAS 0.010 -0.055 -0.054
Pod yield plant-1 t (g) 0.661** 0.661**
Pod yield plot-1 (kg) 0.999**
* Significant at 5% probability level ** Significant at 5% probability level
Table 5: Individual effect of organic manure and inorganic L.) as affected by nitrogen, phosphorus cutting
fertilizers on Quality parameters management. Vegetable Science 22(2) : 77-80.

Protein Bisht, J.K. and Chandel, A.S. (1996) Effects of integrated

Treat. Nutrient nutrient management on yield attributes,
content (%)
Sign Content (%) yield and quality of soya bean [Glycine max
in pod
L.(Merill.)]. Annals of Agriculture Research 17
N P K (4): 360-365.
O1 4.16 0.028 0.467 23.69 Chandraker, A., Sarnaik, D.A. and Gupta, B. (2001) Effect
O2 4.34 0.026 0.466 24.71 of organic, chemical and liquid manuring in
garden pea (Pisum sativum L.). Journal of
O3 4.27 0.032 0.531 24.26
Agriculture Issues 6(2): 79-82.
O4 4.22 0.024 0.487 24.02
SEm± 0.036 0.00022 0.0102 0.176 Dangi, G.P. and Paroda, R.S. (1974) Correlation and path
coefficient in fodder cowpea (Vigna sinensis
CD at 5% 0.107 0.0065 0.030 0.518
Endl.) Experiment Agriculture 34(4): 23-31.
I1 4.14 0.025 0.533 23.59
Fageria, M.S., Arya, P.S., Jagmohan Kumar and Singh, A.K.
I2 4.30 0.039 0.675 24.50 (1992) Effect of nitrogen levels on growth and
I3 4.31 0.047 0.743 24.42 yields of okra. Vegetable Science 19 (1): 25-29.

SEm± 0.031 0.0019 0.008 0.153 Guvjion Wen; Tai Chenyang and Isai Yifang (1995) Effects
of organic and inorganic manure on growth and
CD at 5% 0.092 0.0056 0.029 0.448 yield of common bean at fall region. Agriculture
Bulletin No. 49, 41-48.

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fertilization on growth and yield of okra.
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levels of potash on growth and yield of
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yield of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-gracum
Jain, P.C. (1990) Effect of nitrogen and NAA doses on growth
and seed yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
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Fertilizers studied on growth and yield of french
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41 (5): 39-42.
Kumar, H., Singh, J.V. and Singh, M. (1998) Studies on the
influence of nitrogen on growth and yield of
onion (Allium cepa L.) cv. ‘Patna Red’. Indian
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Meena, R.N., Singh, Yogeshwar, Singh, S.P., Singh, J.P.
and Singh, K. (2007) Effect of sources and
level of organic manures on yield, quality and
economics of garden pea (Pisum sativum L.). In
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 474-476 (2015)
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) INITIATIVE FOR
DISSEMINATION OF FARM TECHNOLOGIES
IN EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH
SAURABH VERMA, S.P. GIRI, D.K. VERMA AND D.P. SINGH
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Crop Research Station, Masodha
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj - 224229, Faizabad (UP)

ABSTRACT
The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) offer immense opportunities through a variety of initiatives that foster ICT - en-
abled agricultural information services to all agriculture research and deveopment stakeholders to undertake their roles more efficiently.
The potential of ICTs is significant in providing highly targeted and location specific services with the help of emerging technologies,
3G/4G technologies, cloud computing, semantic technologies, web 2.0, social networking, GIS and precision farming applications etc.
Different types of ICT technologies and channels have been implemented which range from electronic mass media like television, com-
munity radio, mobile phone technologies, web-based information services etc., in order to address specific needs of farming community
and other stakeholder in agricultural development process. Mass media support to agricultural extension is important in any devel-
oping country especially when there are barriers like illiteracy and poor extension mechanism. The agri-based television programme
has become very popular means of dissemination of agricultural information on technologies, markets, farmers’ innovations and non-
farm activities in the rural areas of the country. Though the advances in mobile technologies and internet are encouraging, access
to these technologies is still limited to people in rural areas. It is true in case of countries with varied geographic situations where
ICT related infrastructure is poor or even absent. The Information and Communication Technologies can offer immense opportuni-
ties to the farming communities in the rural areas to update their knowledge and bridge the gap between farmers and the researchers.

Keywords: e-Agriculture, ICTs, Portal, KVKs, ATIC, Community Radio Station, e-choupal, Kisan call centre, Mobile ad-
visory

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture continues to be the most important sector
of Indian Economy. Research, extension and farmers efforts are all
contributed significantly from 50 million tonnes in 1950-51 to land
mark achievement of an estimated production of 241 million tonnes
of food production in 2010 – 11. Meeting the demand for feeding
growing population, agriculture sector need to grow targeted more
than 4.0% per annum (Singh, 2011). Hence, there is an immediate
need of vibrant, dynamic and innovative approach to be adopted
for agricultural extension in order to achieve targeted growth rate
and serve the farmers better. Further, Land and water resources are
almost reaching their limits; hence achieving food security heavily
relies on “Knowledge Resource”. Various estimates indicated that
60 per cent of farmers do not access any source of information for
advanced agricultural technologies resulting in huge technological
and adoption gap (NSSO, 2005). In India, there are about 120
million farm holdings and the number is growing year by year.
At least to provide one village extension personnel for 800-1000
farm families, the requirement of field level extension personnel
is estimated to be about 13-15 lakhs, against which the present
availability is only about 1.0 lakh personnel (PC, GoI, 2007). In
this existing scenario, it is expected that integration of ICTs in
agricultural extension will provide needed impetus to agricultural
sector and ICTs can complement the traditional extension system
for “Knowledge Resource” delivery to the millions of the farmers
(Saravanan, 2010).
Strategic reforms in telecommunications sector since 1990’s,
facilitates strong ICT infrastructure in India. As on June, 2012, total
telephone subscribers 965.52 million (31.43 million fixed land line
telephones, 934.09 million wireless) and 14.50 million broadband
subscribers were estimated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority
of India (TRAI, 2012). The tele-density has reached 76.99 (number
of telephone subscribers per 100 individuals). However, there is
huge gap between urban and rural tele-density, 162.46 and 39.80,
respectively. Despite several policy initiatives to promote rural
ICT penetration, growth in tele-density continues to be skewed in
favour of urban India (TARI, 2012).
Document of ICAR outlined the need for the construction
of Agri – India knowledge portal – A single electronic gateway
to be developed through a peer review process with the help of
15 content accreditation centres from 15 agro – climatic regions
of the country. Each accreditation centres will be coordinate with
other Agricultural Universities and agricultural institutions in their
region for development of content in regional language as well as
in English and also do its validation, which will be collected in
the central data warehouse integrated in the knowledge portal. The
portal will also serve as a platform for facilitation of interaction
among researchers and extension personnel in the KVKs through
high speed server intranet (ICAR-FFTDDSA, 2008).
National e-Governance Plan indicated that the typical services
envisaged in Agriculture as a Mission Mode Projects (MMP) to
provide information to the farmers on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides,
Govt. Schemes, Soil recommendations, Crop management, Weather
and marketing of agriculture produce. Several projects such as
ASHA in Assam, KISSAN and e-Krishi in Kerala and Krishi
Maratha Vahini in Karnataka have been initiated by the Department
of Agriculture and Cooperation (DoA&C), Government of India.
To spearhead implementation of MMP in Agriculture, DoA&C
has adopted twin strategy through AGRISNET & two portals
AGMARKNET & DACNET (Mathur et al., 2009).
ICT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION INITIATIVES
IN INDIA
The reports indicated that 45 per cent of the world’s ICT
projects implemented in India. And also Asia’s highest number

474
of information kiosks implemented across rural India. However,
the most of the rural ICT projects are implemented in the socio-
economically developed states of South and North India. Numbers
of ICT initiatives are documented in the literature (Saravanan,
2010 and Sulaiman, 2012) and also available in online www.
ekrishinaip.in. Some of the e-Agriculture initiatives in India are
aAQUA, KISSAN Kerala, TNAU AGRITECH portal, AGRISNET,
DACNET, e-Krishi, ASHA, InDG portal, Rice Knowledge
Management Portal, Agropedia, AGMARKNET, ITC-e-Choupal,
Eid Parry Indiagriline, Mahindra Kisan Mitra, IFFCO Agri portal,
iKissan, Village Knowledge Centres – M.S. Swaminathan Research
Foundation, Village Resource Centres – ISRO, Community
Information Centres, Common Service Centres, Kissan Call
Centre, Lifelines India, IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited, Fisher
Friend, Reuters Market Light and Mobile Advisory Services by
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR).
ICT INITIATIVES IN EASTERN UP THROUGH
KVKs
The present extension system in Krishi Vigyan Kendra
incorporates the use of traditional methods of undertaking various
skill based training, demonstrations, on-farm trials and other
extension activities through personal contact or through use of
various group-based approaches. Technology dissemination
through these means took immense labour, time and energy of
scientists, thus limiting scope to grass root level. The access of
information through newer generation technology dissemination
means had made it possible to extend the outreach of services
available at KVK to those farmers who were earlier finding it
difficult to avail them.
The farming in the eastern Uttar Pradesh is primarily
traditional. The innovator and progressive farmers were ready
for adoption of new and modern methods of farming provided
they get continuous information regarding newer and modern
technology. The transfer of latest technologies to the remote areas
was only with the dissemination services of the Prasar Bharti’s
All India Radio (AIR) established in different districts of eastern
Uttar Pradesh, agriculture based programmes on Doordarshan
Faizabad, Gorakhpur, Mau, Varanasi, Lucknow, New Delhi,
private channels like E TV, local channels; and also with the print
media like newspaper, pamphlets, leaflets, bulletins, etc. However,
these means were the one way process of communication and the
technological information provided through these dissemination
services only acquainted the farmers about the modern and recent
technologies, but couldn’t solve their curiosity, queries and doubts.
Krishi Vigyan Kendras at the District level and Directorate
of Extension at University level took new initiative of Information
and Communication Technology for the dissemination of farm
technologies in eastern Uttar Pradesh. With a view to facilitate
services to the visiting farmers through “Single Window System”
named Agricultural Technology Information Centre, popularly
known as ATIC, has been established with the financial support of
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi (ICAR) in 2002
at the main gate of the University. The major objectives of the ATIC
are providing diagnostic and advisory services to the farmers, and
other clients in the area of soil testing, plants health care and animal
husbandry services; providing technological recommendations
through publication and by producing video-cassettes on various
aspects of production technology as per the clients need; sale of
seeds of improved varieties, plant saplings, vermi-compost, poultry
strains, honey, etc.; providing opportunity for easy access of
475
technological products and providing technological solutions under
one roof and; strengthening research–extension–farmers linkages
and creating the confidence towards technological progress and
their impact to raise the socio-economic status of the farmers.
The University has established a “Krishak Help Line
Service” at ATIC with the financial support of State Government.
The service is available since September, 2000 providing toll free
telephone facilities for asking questions from University experts
during all working days. The subject matter specialists of various
disciplines like crop production, soil and nutrient management,
horticulture, agro-forestry, vegetable production, plant protection,
bee keeping, animal husbandry and fisheries etc. provide immediate
reply/advice to the queries raised by the farmers on telephone
number. Similarly the Hon’ble Ex Prime Minister Sriyut Atal Bihari
Vajpayee inaugurated Kisan Call Centre at National Level on 21st
January, 2004 by identifying 18001801551 as uniform number for
whole country. The University is also providing Toll free technical
advice to the farmers, extension worker and needy student under
the umbrella of ATIC. The number of calls during recent years went
down as seen in the graphical presentation, it was due to lower call
came from toll free number of Kisan Call Centre as the administrator
maintained the records of call and repeated queries answered from
the administrators directly. In order to disseminate the latest
technology to the farmers, the Directorate of Extension arranges for
radio talk/discussions by the University expert on All India Radio
Lucknow, Faizabad, Gorakhpur and Varanasi. The broadcasting
of radio and TV talks are being done after recording the same by
scientists of KVKs, KGKs and headquarter for benefit of the farming
community. The radio and doordarshan also cover special activities
carried out by the university such as Kisan Mela, Agriculture officer’s
workshop, training, field days and kisan gosthi, etc. The University
took a step forward to establish Community Radio Station (CRS).
In order to create awareness about agriculture and allied field for
rural livelihood in the rural mass a CRS was established in 2008
under the supervision of Directorate of Extension with the financial
assistantship of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
Lectures on different aspects of agriculture and allied subjects is being
recorded and broadcasted for the benefit and awareness of rural mass
with the help of Scientist/Agriculture Officers/Extension specialists
from different respective fields. The programmes of Narendra Deva
Community Radio Station Kumarganj are being aired/broadcasted in
three shifts, i.e. morning (7:30 to 8:30 am), afternoon (1:30 to 2:30
pm) and evening (6:30 to 7:30 pm) from radio frequency at 90.4
MHz FM. The area of coverage of this radio station is in the radius
of 25 km (aerial distance) from the university. In very short span
of time from the establishment, 220 programs were recorded and
245 programmes were broadcasted in a year on different aspects
mentioned in the table.
Table: Category wise programme recorded and broadcasted
by CRS in a year
Sl. Name of the Programme
No. Program Recorded Broadcasted
1 Krishak manch 77 52
2 Pashu swasthya 13 14
3 Swasthya charcha 21 21
4 Ghar-gharaiteen 11 12
5 Swarojgar 11 11
6 Manoranjan 87 135
7 Total 220 245
 Video conferencing technology is also available at University
which was established with the help of ISRO under Village
Resource Centre project. As a result of which a VRC-DA Expert
Centre Agriculture was established during 2008 in the university.
The expert centre was designed in such a way that experts and
scientists from the university can interact with large number of
centres through video conferencing system. Benefit of this system
was that an expert can recommend particular course of action by
identifying the sample (diseased or insect infestation) presented by
the farmers online through video conferencing. A unique bandwidth
through satellite was set by ISRO for broadcasting and interacting
with the farmers of village resource centers, established in various
districts of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh.
The broadcasting and interaction of university expert centre was
scheduled on every Friday from 10:00AM to 01:00 PM which was
directly being monitored by the ISRO. Six to ten village resource
centres with six to eight progressive farmers/producers per centre
per schedule were interacting with the experts. On an average 100
to 125 farmers/producers were being benefited with the experts of
this university through this interaction.
Krishi Vigyan Kendras of the various district of
eastern Uttar Pradesh also took initiative of ICT for technology
dissemination. KVK delivered voice messages to thousand of
progressive farmers of their respective districts twice weekly
provided latest and recent technologies to them. This facility was
established at each district of the State with the collaboration of
ICAR and IIT, Kanpur. Voice messages provided contemporary and
latest information of agriculture and allied sectors to the farmers
which help in better utilization of resources at their farms. In
quantitative terms, KVKs under the jurisdiction of the University
provided on an average 1768 voice messages aired in a year
benefitting 1,76,800 progressive farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh
directly (KVK Report, 2012).
Recently Indian Council of Agriculture research, New
Delhi collected thousand farmers list alongwith mobile number
from each districts separately with of help of KVKs to launch
SMS Portal for farmers. SMSs to be sent to the farmers can be
broadly classified into three categories, viz. information, services
and advisories. Similarly Uttar Pradesh Council of Agriculture
Research, Lucknow also collected thousand farmers list with
mobile number for providing recent technologies through SMSs.
As a part of application of ICT in KVK system, Kisan Mobile
Advisory (KMA) was initiated by the ICAR during 2010-11 to
provide timely and need-based information to farming community.
Thousands of short text messages were sent to one lakh farmers
every year on various aspects of agriculture, horticulture and
animal husbandry, weather forecast and pest and disease control.
KVK scientists also disseminate technologies and farmers
queries and curiosity through personal contact basis through mobile
networking. Scientists provided their personnel mobile numbers to
all farmers/participants attended during trainings, gosthies, kisan
melas, exhibitions and other extension means for solving their
agricultural queries and providing latest technologies. All India
Radio Lucknow and Faizabad also broadcasted/aired scientist
mobile numbers to their broadcasting regions thus provided
opportunities to the farmers of remotest areas for solving their
problems through telecommunication services.
The rural poor are the engines of agricultural production
in developing countries. Agricultural production and post-harvest
activities account for the primary livelihood assets and strategies
available to the rural poor. Any bottlenecks to the general livelihood
476
of the rural poor - health, disaster, education, lack of infrastructure,
lack of financial services, and many others - will have significant
impacts on agricultural production at the household, regional
and national levels. ICT interventions that improve the general
livelihoods of the rural poor may also yield significant agricultural
development investments on the part of rural families. ICTs can
be harnessed to have a direct impact on enhancing both rural
livelihoods and the agricultural sector in which the rural poor
are immersed. A variety of fairly straight forward rural ICT
interventions may have greater impact on agricultural production
and post-harvest activities then those that are strictly focused on
agriculture. This is especially true of ICT interventions focused on
extension of various financial services, provision of basic telephone
access, and improved multi-stakeholder dialogue and louder rural/
agricultural voices in the national policy and program context.
If extensionists equip themselves with analysis and arguments
to bolster the case for agricultural extension playing a broader
role in helping harness ICTs, they will be better able to harness
information and communication technologies (ICTs) to improve
rural livelihoods.
REFERNCES
ICAR-FFTDDSA (2008) ICAR framework for technology
development and delivery system in agriculture.
www.icar.org.in/miscell/tdd_final.pdf
KVK Annual Report (2012)
Mathur, Dhrupad; Gupta, Piyush and Sridevi, A. (2009)
e-Governance approach in India - The National
e-Governance Plan (NeGP), In: R K Bagga and
Piyush Gupta (Eds.) Transforming Government:
e-Government initiatives in India, The ICFAI
University Press, Hyderabad
NSSO (2005) Access to modern technology for farming, situation
assessment survey of farmers, 59th Round, Report
No. 499, National Sample Survey Organisation
(NSSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation, Government of India, New Delhi.
PC, GoI, (2007), Recommendations of working group on agricultural
extension for formulation of eleventh five year plan
(2007-12), Planning Commission, Government of
India, New Delhi. http://planningcommission.nic.in/
plans/planrel/11thf.htm
Saravanan, R. (2010) ICTs for Agricultural Extension: Global
Experiments, Innovations and Experiences. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Singh, Manmohan (2011) ICAR-83rd Foundation Day Address.
ICAR press release dated 16th July, 2011, www.icar.
org.in
Sulaiman, Rasheed V; Andy Hall; Kalaivani, N.J.; Kumuda Dorai
and Vamsidhar Reddy, T.S. (2012) Necessary, but
not sufficient: Critiquing the role of information and
communication technology in putting knowledge
into use. Journal of Agricultural Education and
Extension, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp 331-346
TRAI (2012) Information note to the press (Press Release No.
171/2012), Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
(TARI)
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 477-478 (2015)
FACTOR PRODUCTIVITY, NUTRIENT AND HARVEST STATUS OF RICE IN FARMERS’
FIELDS OF GHAGRAGHAT
TEJENDRA KUMAR,VINOD KUMAR, R V SINGH 1BRAJENDRA AND KV RAO
CRS,Ghaghraghat,Bahraich
1
ICAR-IIRR,Hyderabad

ABSTRACT
Temporal and spatial variability of the major nutrients in farmers field are the important factors leading to skewed paddy produc-
tivity in the farmers’ fields. The results of this exploratory study organized in 40 farm sites around Ghagraghat representing Indo
gangetic plains indicated variability among farm sites for productivity, soil nutrient supply and nutrient use efficiency by geno-
types. Rice productivity across different agro ecosystems varied widely. Nutrient harvest index calculated across farmers’ field at
these sites indicated steep variation for all the nutrients due to poor nutrient concentration in the grain and straw. To find out the
contribution of a single fertilizer factor in the productivity of rice, the partial factor factor protucitvity was calculated. At Ghagra-
ghat PFP was found to be 44.86% for N,115.53% for P2O5. At Mandya, The values of IE and nutrient ratios indicated sharp dif-
ferences among farm sites with regard to nutrient uptake, genotypes indicating highly imbalanced nutrition which do not match
with the crop nutrient requirements. This suggests for refinement of the current fertilizer practice being followed by the farmer.

KEY WORDS: Factor Productivity, Nutrient ,Harvest, Rice,Farmers’ Fields, Ghagraghat

INTRODUCTION
Temporal and spatial variability of the major nutrients
in farmers field are the important factors leading to skewed
paddy productivity in the farmers’ fields (Chauhan and
Kumar, 2003). Crop management over the past four
decades has been driven by increasing use of external inputs
(Katyal, et al.,1995). Fertilizer nutrients played a stellar
role in improving crop productivity and production (Malik
et al.,2008). A study was, therefore, was conducted
in kharif, 2011 at few locations representing major rice
growing agro ecosystems to assess the nutritional status and
productivity of the crop under farmers’ current management
practices. The study involved survey and record of all the
package of fertilizer and crop management practices of the
farmer, besides information about the nutrient status of the
soils before cropping and the crop at maximum tillering
stage including crop productivity and dry matter yield.
Simultaneously the nutrient supply potential of the soil was
also assessed at the research farm representing the area of
study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In about 40 farmer sites out of the identified farms
including the frontline demonstrations representing the
region / rice ecosystem in the district fields were selected
among the survey sites and farmers fertilizer practice
(FFP) were recorded for estimating soil nutrient supply
and fertilizer efficiency parameters. These filed sites truly
represented the district/rice growing region covering major
and dominant rice ecosystem / soil types and representing
all strata of farmers (Small, marginal and large) and crop
management levels recording low to high productivity levels.
GPS coordinates (longitude, latitude and altitude data) of the
selected farm sites were also collected for use in mapping.
Bulk/composite soil sample (0-15 cm) from each of the
selected farm holdings before land preparation and analyse
for all physico chemical characters (available N, P2O5, K2O,
pH and organic carbon content) on air dried, processed soil
were performed. Recorded all package of practices followed
by the farmer particularly with regard to manures applied
(quantity/ha), nutrient (NPK) contents in the manures,
fertilizer practices, timing, and plant protection measures
followed by each farmer. Informations were collected
regarding the variety planted/sown, date of sowing nursery,
nursery management, date of planting, age of seedlings at
transplanting, 50% flowering, harvest date and duration of
the crop in each farmer’s field.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Important soil fertility characteristics (pH, SOC,
available N, P and K) analysed prior to planting from the
farmers’ fields is presented in the Table 1.The parameters
assessed showed a fairly wide range of variability. Soils at
Ghagraghat were sandy loam in texture with pH 7.2 to 8.6,
0.23-0.55% soil organic carbon, 165- 291 kg/ha available N,
19.30-54.60 kg/ha available P and 123 to 285 kg/ha available
K. Hybrids, in general, recorded higher yields than HYVs.
The yields ranged from 3.47 t/ha to 7.50t/ha at Ghaghraghat
indicating substantial variability among the farm sites 2.
Grain and straw nutrient concentration varied considerably
at the test locations. Higher nutrient concentration in grain
and straw were recorded in the samples at Ghagraghat.
indicating wide variations in the nutritional status of the
crop as also reflected by low soil nutrient availability and
highly imbalanced fertilizer use by the farmers. Nutrient
accumulation in grain indicated an average harvest index
(translocation) of 85.09, 82.59 and 19.25 per cent at
Ghagraghat, broadly reflecting the dry matter yields at these
locations 4. Nutrient harvest index calculated across farmers’
field at Ghaghraghat, indicated steep variation for all the
nutrients. Unlike the grain yields, the nutrient harvest index
recorded at Ghagraghat was substantially higher. Internal
efficiency (IE, kg grain/kg nutrient accumulation) varied
between the sites and genotypes. Average IE for hybrids
at Ghaghraghat was 79.99, 241.45 and 285.41 kg grain/kg
N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. This works out to a nutrient
accumulation ratio of 17.82 kg N at Ghagraghat, 4.93 kg P2O5

477
at Ghagraghat per ton of grain. Soil efficiency worked out Table 4 Nutrient uptake and harvest index
at Ghagraghat varied from 43.73% for nitrogen to 66.66%
for phosphorus and 47.01% for potassium. At Ghagraghat Parameters Grain Straw NHI Sd
FUE was found to be 87.72% for N,23.94% for P2O5 and Ghaghraghat,UP*
88.14% for K2O respectively. To find out the contribution of N(kg/ha) 62.11 26.41 85.09 25.56
a single fertilizer factor in the productivity of rice, the partial P2O5 (kg/ha) 20.24 4.26 82.59 41.38
factor factor protucitvity was calculated. At Ghagraghat K2O (kg/ha) 17.41 72.99 19.25 31.57
PFP was found to be 44.86% for N,115.53% for P2O5. At
Mandya, The values of IE and nutrient ratios indicated
sharp differences among farm sites with regard to nutrient Table 5 Internal efficiency of nutrients in hybrids and HYVs
uptake, genotypes indicating highly imbalanced nutrition Kharif 2012
which do not match with the crop nutrient requirements. Fertilizer Partial
This suggests for refinement of the current fertilizer practice Nutrient
Para- Internal Soil efficiency use factor
requ-
being followed by the farmer. meters efficiency (%) efficiency produ-
irement
(%) ctivity
Table 1 Soil characteristics in the farmers field prior to plant- Ghaghraghat,UP*
ing during Kharif 2012 N 79.99 43.73 87.72 44.86 17.82
P 2O 5 241.45 66.86 23.94 115.63 4.93
Parameters Min Max Average Sd
K 2O 285.41 47.01 88.14 124.22 18.19
Ghaghraghat,
31.18
UP* SD 12.51 36.94 43.55 7.55
pH 7.20 8.60 7.92 0.39
SOC% 0.23 0.55 0.35 0.08
REFERENCES
Avail. N(kg/ha) 165.00 291.00 202.40 32.08
Chauhan, R.P.S. and Kumar, R. (2003) Effect of integrated
Avail.P2O5 (kg/ha) 19.30 54.60 36.65 9.81
nitrogen supply with and without zinc on rice
Avail.K2O (kg/ha) 123.00 285.00 191.98 36.67 in alkali soil. Annals of Plant and Soil Research
5(1): 112-113.

Table2 Grain and straw yield, % variations during Kharif Katyal, J.C. and Rattan, R.K. (1995) Genetic variations in
tolerance to nutrient deficiencies. In Genetic
2012
Research and Education: Current Trends and
Parameters Min Max Average Sd the Next Fifty Years, Sharma, B. et al (Eds.)
Ghaghraghat,UP* Indian Society of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
Grain(t/ha) 3.47 7.50 4.96 1.28
New Delhi, pp. 468-479.
Straw(t/ha) 4.23 9.78 6.27 1.79 Malik, R.S., Narwal, R.P. Ram Kala, Singh, M.V. and
Dahiya, R.R. (2008) Secondary and micro
Parameters N(%) P(%) K(%) Sd nutrients status and response to crops in soils
Ghaghraghat,UP* of Haryana. Indian Journal of Fertilizers 4(2):
Grain 1.23 0.39 0.33 0.05 53.58.
Straw 0.40 0.06 1.14 0.06

478
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 479-481 (2015)
EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT ON GROWTH, YIELD AND
YIELD ATTRIBUTES OF BRINJAL (SOLANUMMELONGENA L.) HY. PHULE ARJUN”
1
VIDHATE S. B.*,2TAMBOLKAR B.B. AND 2SIDARAY ALLOLLI
1
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Kolhapur - 416004, Maharashtra
2
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Latur - 413512, Maharashtra

ABSTRACT

The present experiment entitled “Integrated nutrient management in Brinjal (Solanummelongena L.) Hy. Phule Arjun’’ was
carried out at research farm of Horticulture section, College of Agriculture, Kolhapur during summer, 2013. The experiment
was laid out in randomized block design with eight treatments and three replications. The highest plant height (99.80 cm),
spread of plant (131.13 cm2), number of branches per plant (14.73), fruit length (7.94 cm), fruit diameter (7.44 cm), average
fruit weight (70.63 g), number of fruits per plant (41.55), average fruit yield per plant (2.94 kg), yield per plot (35.22 kg),
yield per hectare (434.80 q) and marketable yield (326.13 q ha-1) was recorded in the treatment T2 which comprised of GRDF
i.e. 150:75:75 NPK kg ha-1 + FYM @ 20 t ha-1. The treatment T2 was at par with treatment T8 (50% N through Vermicompost
+ 50% N through inorganic fertilizers) Which recorded 95.60 cm plant height, 125.40 cm plant spread, 13.40 number of
branches, 7.90 cm fruit length, 7.36 cm fruit diameter, 69.73 g average fruit weight, 40.95 number of fruits per plant, 2.83
kg average fruit yield per plant, 33.99 kg yield per plot, 419.63 q yield per hectare and 325.03 q ha-1 total marketable yield.

Key words:Brinjal, Integrated Nutrient Management, Growth and Yield

INTRODUCTION
Brinjal fruit contains high amount of carbohydrates
(6.4%), protein (1.3%), fat (0.3%), calcium (0.02%),
phosphorus (0.02%), iron (0.0013%) and other mineral
matters. Apart from these, it also contains carotene (34 mg),
riboflavin (0.05 mg), thiamine (0.05 mg), niacin (0.5 mg)
and ascorbic acid (12 mg) per 100 g of fruit (Choudhary,
1976).
The fruit yield of Brinjal per unit area is very low in
India compared to western countries. Some studies conducted
at another place have indicated the beneficial effects of
chemical fertilizers, biofertilizers and micronutrients on
growth, fruit yield, seed yield and quality in solanaceous
crops. The intensive crop cultivation requires the use of
chemical fertilizers. The fertilizers are not only in short
supply, but they are expensive in developing countries like
India.
Continuous use of chemical fertilizer affects the
soil health and lead to environmental hazards. Therefore,
current trend is to explore the possibility of supplementing
chemical fertilizers with biofertilizers of microbial origin.
By using biofertilizers to supplement part of nutrient needs
of plant not only reduce cost of inputs and environmental
hazards associated with chemical fertilizers can be avoided.
The beneficial effects of combined application of
chemical fertilizers with organic manures viz.,Farmyard
manure, Vermicompost, Biofertilizers, and many more of
such materials are universally known. The maintenance
of soil fertility is a prerequisite for long-term sustainable
agriculture where organic farming plays a vital role in the
sustenance of soil fertility and crop production. Use of
organic manures to meet the nutrient requirement of crop
would be an inevitable practice in the years to come for
sustainable agriculture since organic manures generally
improve the soil physical, chemical and biological properties
along with conserving the moisture holding capacity of soil
and thus resulting in enhanced crop productivity along with
maintaining the quality of crop produce (Math, et al., 2013).
A balanced application of both organic and in organics
and biofertilizers appear to be an ideal proposition to meet
nutrient requirements of dry land crops rather than single
application.
Keeping all the points in view, the present
investigation on “Integrated nutrient management on yield
and quality of hybrid Brinjal Phule Arjun” was undertaken
at the Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture
Kolhapur during the summer season of 2013.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during
summerseason of the year 2013 on medium black soil at
Horticulture Farm, College of Agriculture, Kolhapur. The
soil of experimental plot was alkaline and low in organic
carbon content.
The available nutrient content in the soil was
nitrogen (197.56 kg ha-1), phosphorus (38.48kg ha-1) and
potassium (336 kg ha-1). The experiment was laid out in
a randomized block design with eighttreatments viz,T1:
Absolute control, T2: GRDF (150:75:75) NPK kg ha-1+
FYM @ 20 t ha-1, T3: RDF (150:75:75) NPK kg ha-1through
inorganic fertilizers, T4: 25% N through Vermicompost
+75% N through inorganic fertilizers, T5: 25% N through
FYM + 75% N through inorganic fertilizers, T6: 25%N
through Vermicompost + 25%N through FYM+50% N
through inorganic fertilizers, T7: 50% N through FYM +
50% N through inorganic fertilizers and T8: 50% N through
Vermicompost + 50% N through inorganic fertilizers. (P and
K common to all, except T1).
The recommended fertilizer dose of 150 kg N, 75 kg
P2O5 and 75 kg K2O per hectare was applied to the brinjal

479
crop. The full dose of FYM, Vermicompost, P, K and half C.D.at 5% 4.765 6.558 1.644
dose of N at the time of transplanting and the remaining
half dose of N according to the treatments. Nitrogen was Table 2: Effects of various treatments on the yield and yield
supplied through urea containing 46 per cent nitrogen, while contributing characters of Brinjal
phosphorus and potash were supplied through Single super No. of Length Diameter Total Marketable
phosphate and Murateof potash containing 16 per cent P2O5 fruits/ of fruit of fruit yield (q) Yield (q)
Treatments
and 60 per cent K2O, respectively. (cm) (cm) ha-1 ha-1
plant
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION T1: Absolute control 21.00 6.95 6.55 153.06 87.23
T2: RDF (150:75:75)
Effect of integrated nutrient management on NPK kg ha-1+ 41.55 7.94 7.44 434.80 326.13
growth of Brinjal (Hy. Phule Arjun) FYM @ 20 t ha-1
The maximum plant height (99.80 cm) and number of T3: RDF (150:75:75)
branches (14.73) plant spread was recorded (131.13 cm2)in NPK kg ha-1
40.00 7.68 7.16 386.96 258.96
treatment in GRDF (150:75:75) NPK kg ha-1+ FYM@ 20 t ha-1 through inorganic
which was at par on 50% N through Vermicompost + 50% N fertilizers
through inorganic fertilizers.These result corroborated with T4: 25% N through
those reported byKadam et al. (2007), Kiranet al. (2010), Vermicompost +75%
38.82 7.42 7.14 371.70 267.10
Vijaya and Seethalakshmi (2011), and Math et al. (2013). N through inorganic
fertilizers
Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield T5: 25%N through
and yield attributes of Brinjal (Hy. Phule Arjun) FYM + 75% N
37.51 7.34 7.07 350.03 238.90
The significantly maximum number of fruits per through inorganic
plant (41.55), fruit length (7.94 cm), average weight of fruit fertilizers
(70.63 g), total weight of fruits per plant (2.94 kg), yield per T6: 25%N through
plot (35.22 kg) and total yield per hectare (434.80 q) and Vermicompost +
marketable yield per hectare (326.13 q) was recorded in the 25% N through
36.80 7.21 6.92 333.26 241.06
treatment GRDF (150:75:75) NPK kg ha-1+ FYM @ 20 t FYM+ 50% N
ha-1.However, this treatment was at par with the treatment- through inorganic
50% N through Vermicompost + 50% N through inorganic fertilizers
fertilizers. The similar results was in accordance with the T7: 50% N through
findings of Anburani and Manivannan (2002) in Brinjal, FYM + 50% N
35.78 7.17 6.71 315.80 244.16
Thakreet al. (2005), Prubhuet al. (2006), Adagale (2007) and through inorganic
Kiranet al. (2010). fertilizers
T8: 50% N through
Vermicompost +
Table 1: Effects of various treatments on the growth pa- 40.95 7.90 7.36 419.63 325.03
50%N through inor-
rameters of Brinjal
ganic fertilizers
Plant Plant No. of Mean 36.55 7.45 7.04 345.66 248.57
Treatments height Spread branches
S.E. ± 0.398 0.051 0.056 5.117 1.8459
(cm) (cm) per plant
C.D.at 5% 1.208 0.155 NS 15.522 5.599
T1: Absolute control 61.40 65.87 4.60
T2: GRDF (150:75:75) NPK kg ha-1+ REFERENCES
99.80 131.13 14.73
FYM @ 20 t ha-1 Adagale, S. V. 2007. Effect of organic, inorganic and
T3: RDF (150:75:75)NPK kg ha-
89.93 122.87 12.93
biofertilizers on seed yield of onion (Allium
1
through inorganic fertilizers cepaL.) cv. Phule Samarth. A M.Sc. (Agri.)
T4: 25% N through Vermicompost Thesis submitted to Mahatma Phule Krishi
89.26 120.60 12.06
+75% N through inorganic fertilizers Vidyapeeth, Rahuri (M.S) India.
T5: 25%N through FYM + 75% N Anburani, A. and Manivannan, K. 2002. Effect of integrated
88.33 118.40 11.86
through inorganic fertilizers nutrient management on growth of brinjal
T6: 25%N through Vermicompost + (Solanummelongena L.) cv. Annamalai.South
25%N through FYM+50% N through 86.66 117.36 11.20 Indian Hort., 50(4-6):377-380.
inorganic fertilizers
Chaudhary, B. 1976.Brinjal in Vegetables. 4th Edn., National
T7: 50% N through FYM + 50% N Book Trust, New Delhi, 50-58.
85.06 114.13 10.80
through inorganic fertilizers
Kadam, J. R., Bhingardeve, S. D. and Wattamwar, M. J.
T8: 50% N through Vermicompost + 2007a. Nutrient concentration, plant height
95.60 125.40 13.40
50% N through inorganic fertilizers and dry matter yield of brinjal as influenced by
Mean 87.00 114.47 11.44 saline water and urea N fertilizer through drip
irrigation. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 32 (1):
S.E. ± 1.571 2.162 0.542
4-6.

480
Kiran, J., Vyakaranahal, B. S., Raikar, S. D., Ravikumar, G. Thakre, C. M., Badole, W. P., Tiwari, T. K. and Sarode, P.
H. and Deshpande, V.K. 2010. Seed yield and B., 2005.Effect of different levels of sulphur,
quality of brinjal as influenced by crop nutrition phosphorus and potassium on yield and quality
Department of Seed Science and Technology. of brinjal.J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 30 (3):
Indian J. Agric. Res., 44 (1):1-7, University of 352-353.
Agric. Sci., Dharwad – 580005, India.
Vijaya, K. S. and Seethalakshmi, S. 2011. Response
Math, K. K., Babalad, H. B., Jyothi, T. V. and Bhat, S. N. of eggplant (SolanummelongenaL.) to
2013.Growth, yield and nutrient uptake of integrated nutrient management amended soil.
brinjal (Solanummelongena L.) as influenced by International J. Scientific and Engineering Res.
organic nutrient management practices.Institute 2 (8):1-6.
of Organic Farming, University of Agric. Sci.,
Dharwad- 580005 (Karnataka), India.Plant
Archives13 (1): 363-367.
Prabhu, M., Veeraragavathatham, D., Srinivasan, K. and
Natarajan S. 2006. Effect of nitrogen and
phosphorus on earliness and yield of brinjal
hybrid cobh 1. Department of vegetable
crops, Horticultural college and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003, Indian Agric. Sci. Digest,
26 (3): 218 – 220.

481
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 482-485 (2015)
PERSISTANCE AND RELATIVE TOXICITY OF DIFFERENT INSECTICIDES AGAINST
CUSTARD APPLE MEALY BUG, (MACONELLICOCUS HIRSUTUS)
V. K. BHAMARE, R. B. DAKE AND P. V. PATIL
Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Latur-413 512 (MS),
Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani

ABSTRACT
Ten different insecticides were tested for their persistence and residual toxicity against third instar nymphs of mealy bug on custard
apple fruits. During the investigation all the insecticides except azadiractin @ 0.03 per cent proved toxic to third instar nymphs of
mealy bug on custard apple. Imidacloprid @ 0.005 per cent and imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent exhibited comparatively higher per-
centage mortality of third instar nymphs of mealy bug on custard apple fruits (22.22 and 18.56) at 10 days after spraying. The de-
scending order of residual efficacy on the basis of PT values was imidacloprid @ 0.005 per cent (637.11), imidacloprid @ 0.004 per
cent (607.33), diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (548.00), imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (548.00), thiamethoxam @ 0.005 per cent
(533.33), acetamiprid @ 0.002 per cent (518.44), dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent (466.67), clothianidin @ 0.01 (444.44), fipronil @
0.02 per cent (444.42) and azadiractin @ 0.03 per cent (378.00). Highest LT50 value to the extent of 6.91 days was obtained when
the third instar nymphs of mealy bug were exposed to custard apple fruits sprayed with imidacloprid 70 WS @ 0.005 per cent fol-
lowed by imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (6.45 days), diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (5.45 days), imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (5.40
days), thiamethoxam @ 0.005 per cent (5.17 days), acetamiprid @ 0.002 per cent (4.91 days), dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent (4.59
days), clothianidin @ 0.01 per cent (3.70 days), fipronil @ 0.02 per cent (3.67 days) and azadiractin @ 0.03 per cent (2.77 days).

KEY WORDS: Custard apple mealy bug, Maconellicocus hirsutus, persistence, residual toxicity

INTRODUCTION
Custard apple or sugar apple (Annona squamosa L) is
considered as the new super fruit of 21st century belonging to
the family Annonaceae. It is one of the important minor fruit
crops in India, commonly known as sitaphal, sita palam,
sharifa, sita pazham, sita phalmu, katal, ata and sweet sop
depending upon the region. Fruits can be called as a delicacy
of dry region due to its very sweet delicate flesh and are rich
in carbohydrate mainly in the form of sugar, protein, calcium,
phosphorus and iron. The major custard apple growing
states in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Rajasthan,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Approximately 55,000 hectares
are dedicated to custard apple cultivation (Anonymous,
2014). In Maharashtra, custard apple is grown in Pune,
Beed, Aurangabad, Nanded, Dhule, Jalgaon, Nandurbar,
Osmanabad, Latur, Ahmednagar, Solapur, Bhandara and
Wardha districts. Balaghat hills of Marathwada are famous
for natural occurrence of custard apple plantation. The
fruit tolerates a variety of conditions, from saline soils to
droughts. In fact, farmers usually cultivate the fruits on hills
in barren lands.
In custard apple cultivation, insect pests remain as a
major constrains in India. About 20 species of insect pests
has been reported to attack the crop (Butani, 1979), of which
the mealy bug species viz, Striped mealy bug, Ferrisia
virgata (Cockerell), Pink mealy bug, Maconellicoccus
hirstus (Green), Citrus mealy bug, Planococcus citri
(Risso), Passion vine mealy bug, Planococcus pacificus
Cox (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and Mango mealy bug,
Perissopneumon ferox Newstead are the major one causing
significant fruit yield loss. Recently, heavy infestation
of mealy bug (Maconellicocus hirsutus) is evidenced on
custard apple orchards during fruiting stage from October
to December in different parts of Maharashtra. The heavy
infestation upto 40-80% occurs during November (Kapadia
et al., 2009).
Mealy bugs are small soft bodied insects, pink in
colour and covered with white mealy wax coating. Both
nymphs and adults are damageable, they fasten their mouth
at fissure and furrow of rounded fleshy tubercles of the green
fruits and suck the sap through piercing and sucking action.
If the infestation occurs on developing stage, the fruit size
becomes diminished, shrivelled and undergo premature
dropping. These mealy bugs also infest at fruit stalks, leaves
and terminal shoots causing, yellowing and drying symptoms.
Bugs excretion contains honeydew which encourages the
growth of sooty mold on leaves and fruits and also attracts
black ants which help in the spread of these mealy bugs. The
sooty mould also reduces the photosynthetic efficiency of
the plant (Maruthadurai and Karuppaiah, 2014). Once the
mealy bug load is increased on fruits it is very difficult to
manage the pest with conventional insecticides. The residual
toxicity resulting from foliar spray of insecticides could be
of great significance in indicating an effective periods over
which an insecticide could persist in biologically active
stage and their periodic evaluation for the effectiveness is
also essential under field condition. Keeping this in view, the
present investigation was undertaken to study the persistence
and relative toxicity of different newer insecticides along
with conventional and botanical insecticide against mealy
bug on custard apple.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted on custard apple
(variety Dharur-6) orchard at Custard apple Research
Station, Ambajogai, (VNMKV, Parbhani) Maharashtra
during Mrig Bahar of 2014. The experiment was conducted
in randomly block design with three replications. There were
eleven treatments viz., imidacloprid 70 WS @ 0.005 per

482
cent, imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.004 per cent, imidacloprid
30.5 SC @ 0.004 per cent, thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 0.005
per cent, acetamiprid 20 SP @ 0.002 per cent, clothianidin
50 WDG @ 0.01 per cent, diafenthiuron 50 WP @ 0.07
per cent, dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.04 per cent, fipronil 5 SC
@ 0.02 per cent, azadirachtin 0.03 WSV @ 0.03 per cent
and untreated control. Persistence and residual toxicity of
ten different insecticides was investigated against third
instar nymphs of mealy bug at 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10 days after
application of insecticides. Due care was taken to cover the
entire plant while application of insecticides. The required
numbers of fruits receiving application of insecticides were
tagged for investigations on residual toxicity of insecticides.
The number of test insects used for the bioassay studies
was ten for each treatment in each replication. The tagged
fruits were brought into the laboratory at the prescribed day
intervals. The treated fruits were kept into petri plate. The
petiole of fruit was covered with moistened cotton wool in
order to retain their turgidity for 24 hours. The third instar
nymphs of mealy bugs were slightly disturbed allowing them
to draw their proboscis from the untreated fruits and then
released on treated fruits which was kept in the petri plate.
The numbers of dead or moribund test insects were counted
after 24 hours of exposure. Similarly control mortality of test
insects was also observed by releasing them on untreated
fruits of custard apple.
Data obtained on mortality of test insects were
converted in to percentages mortality. The average
percentage mortality was calculated from the observations
in three replications. The observations on percentage
mortality thus obtained were corrected with Abbott’s (1925)
formula. The values of LT50 (time required to give 50 per cent
mortality) for different insecticides applied on custard apple
fruits were calculated by using software of Probit Analysis
as suggested by Finney (1971). The product (PT) of average
residual toxicity (T) and the period (P) for which the toxicity
persisted was used as an index of persistent toxicity. The
values of corrected percentage mortalities at various specified
periods were added. This sum was then divided by number
of observations in order to obtain residual toxicity (T). The
procedure followed by Saini (1959) and elaborated further
by Pradhan (1967) and Sarup et al. (1970) was utilized.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data (Table 1) evidenced that all the insecticides
except azadiractin @ 0.03 per cent proved toxic against
third instar nymphs of mealy bug on custard apple fruit for
the period of 10 days. At one day after spray, highest per
cent mortality of third instar nymphs of mealy bug (96.33)
was registered on the fruit treatment with imidacloprid @
0.005 per cent followed by imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent
(92.56), diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (85.22), imidacloprid
@ 0.004 per cent (85.22), thiamethoxam @ 0.005 per cent
(85.22), acetamiprid @ 0.002 per cent (81.44), dimethoate
@ 0.04 per cent (77.76), clothianidin @ 0.01 per cent
(74.11), fipronil @ 0.02 per cent (74.11) and azadirachtin @
0.03 per cent (66.67). At three days after spray, imidacloprid
@ 0.005 per cent recorded highest per cent mortality of third
instar nymphs of mealy bug on custard apple fruit to the
tune of 81.44 followed by imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent
(77.78), diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (70.33), imidacloprid
@ 0.004 per cent (70.33), thiamethoxam @ 0.005 per cent
483
(66.67), acetamiprid @ 0.002 per cent (66.67), dimethoate
@ 0.04 per cent (63.00), clothianidin @ 0.01 per cent
(59.22), fipronil @ 0.02 per cent (59.22) and azadirachtin @
0.03 per cent (51.49). At five days after spray, imidacloprid
@ 0.005 per cent and imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent noted
highest per cent mortality of third instar nymphs of mealy
bug on custard apple fruit to the extent of 66.67. The next
effective treatments in recording per cent mortality at five
days after spray were diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (59.22),
imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (59.22), thiamethoxam
@ 0.005 per cent (55.56), acetamiprid @ 0.002 per cent
(55.56), dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent (48.11), clothianidin @
0.01 per cent (48.11), fipronil @ 0.02 per cent (48.11) and
azadirachtin @ 0.03 per cent (40.76). At seven days after
spray, maximum per cent mortality of third instar nymphs
of mealy bug (51.89) was observed on fruit treated with
imidacloprid @ 0.005 per cent. The subsequently effective
insecticides were diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (44.44),
imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (44.44), thiamethoxam
@ 0.005 per cent (44.44), acetamiprid @ 0.002 per cent
(44.44), dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent (37.00), fipronil @ 0.02
per cent (37.00), clothianidin @ 0.01 per cent (33.33) and
azadirachtin @ 0.03 per cent (29.67). At ten days after spray,
imidacloprid @ 0.005 per cent achieved maximum per cent
mortality of third instar nymphs of mealy bug on custard
apple fruit (22.22). However, imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent,
diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent, imidacloprid @ 0.004 per
cent, thiamethoxam @ 0.005 per cent, acetamiprid @ 0.002
per cent, dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent, clothianidin @ 0.01
per cent and fipronil @ 0.02 per cent showed 18.56, 14.78,
14.76, 14.76, 11.11, 7.44, 7.44 and 3.67 per cent mortality
of third instar nymphs of mealy bug on custard apple fruit.
It is also evident that based on PT values the descending
order of residual toxicity of insecticides was imidacloprid
@ 0.005 per cent (637.11) > imidacloprid @ 0.004 per
cent (607.33) > diafenthiuron @ 0.07 per cent (548.00) >
imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (548.00) > thiamethoxam
@ 0.005 per cent (533.33) > acetamiprid @ 0.002 per
cent (518.44) > dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent (466.67) >
clothianidin @ 0.01 per cent (444.44) > fipronil @ 0.02 per
cent (444.22) > azadiractin @ 0.03 per cent (378.00).
The data pertaining to LT50 values of different
insecticides against third instar nymphs of mealy bug on
custard apple fruit are presented in Table 2. It is evident that
imidacloprid @ 0.005 per cent showed highest LT50 value
(6.91 days) against the third instar nymphs of mealy bug
on custard apple fruit receiving application of insecticides.
The descending order of relative efficacy of insecticides in
days was found to be imidacloprid @ 0.005 per cent (6.91)
> imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (6.45) > diafenthiuron @
0.07 per cent (5.45) > imidacloprid @ 0.004 per cent (5.40)
> thiamethoxam @ 0.005 per cent (5.17) > acetamiprid @
0.002 per cent (4.91) > dimethoate @ 0.04 per cent (4.59)
> clothianidin @ 0.01 per cent (3.70) > fipronil @ 0.02 per
cent (3.67) > azadiractin @ 0.03 per cent (2.77).
Thus, it indicates that all the neo-necotinoid
insecticides exhibited higher percentage mortality of mealy
bugs on custard apple fruit. Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 0.005
per cent followed by imidacloprid 30.5 SC @ 0.004 per cent
evidenced higher residual toxicity to third instar nymphs
of mealy bug on custard apple fruits as compared to other
insecticides. This could be due to their chemical nature. The
present results finds the support from the findings of Sunitha ACKNOWLEGMENT
et al. (2009) who documented neonicotinoid insecticides The authors are grateful to Incharge, Custard Apple
significantly superior in recording per cent reduction in Research Station, Ambajogai Dist: Beed and Associate
mealy bugs, Maconcellicoccus hirsutus (Green) at 10 days Dean & Principal, College of Agriculture, Ambajogai and
after first spray. The treatments acetamaprid 20 SP @ 0.30 (VNMKV, Parbhani) for proving necessary facilities during
g/l, imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.30 ml/l and thiamethoxam 25 the course of investigation.
WG @ 0.30 g/l recorded 88.08., 87.88 and 84.87 per cent
after second spray; 93.72, 95.52, 95.30 per cent after third
spray and 97.37, 96.57 and 93.53 per cent reduction in mealy
bug population after fourth spray, respectively. Similarly Fig. 1. Persistence of different insecticides in / on fruits of
Patil and Sathe (2011) reported LC50 values of neem oil custard apple applied as spray against mealy bug.
0.32 per cent and thiamethoxam 0.01 per cent were effective
against Maconcellicoccus hirsutus (Green). Kerar et al.
(2010) observed maximum mortality of 1st instar mango
mealy bug in acetamiprid 20 SP to the extent of 80, 85 and
91 per cent after 24, 72 and 168 hr of spray. Similar results
on the effectiveness of neonicotinoids on sucking insects in
general and mealy bugs in particular are reported by many
workers. Daane et al. (2006) reported that imidacloprid was
significantly superior in reducing the mealy bug infestation.
Grape mealy bug was managed by using a foliar application
of a neonicotinoid in California (Daane, 2006). Imidacloprid
applied through the irrigation system was effective in
suppressing the mealy bug (Gubler et al., 1999). The
results of present investigation inferred that neonicotinoid
insecticides can be effectively used in the management of
custard apple mealy bugs.

Table 1. Persistence of different insecticides in / on fruits of custard apple applied as spray against mealy bug.
Insecticides Concentration Corrected percentage mortality after P T PT R.E. O.R.E.
Different intervals (days)
1 3 5 7 10
Imidacloprid 70 WS 0.005 per cent 96.33 81.44 66.67 51.89 22.22 63.71 10 637.11 1.69 1
Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 0.004 per cent 85.22 70.33 59.22 44.44 14.76 54.80 10 548.00 1.45 3

Imidacloprid 30.5 SC 0.004 per cent 92.56 77.78 66.67 48.11 18.56 60.73 10 607.33 1.61 2
Thiamethoxam 25 WG 0.005 per cent 85.22 66.67 55.56 44.44 14.76 53.33 10 533.33 1.41 4
Acetamiprid 20 SP 0.002 per cent 81.44 66.67 55.56 44.44 11.11 51.84 10 518.44 1.37 5
Clothianidin 50 WDG 0.01 per cent 74.11 59.22 48.11 33.33 7.44 44.44 10 444.44 1.17 7
Diafenthiuron 50 WP 0.07 per cent 85.22 70.33 59.22 44.44 14.78 54.80 10 548.00 1.45 3
Dimethoate 30 EC 0.04 per cent 77.76 63.00 48.11 37.00 7.44 46.67 10 466.67 1.23 6
Fipronil 5 SC 0.02 per cent 74.11 59.22 48.11 37.00 3.67 44.42 10 444.22 1.17 7
8
Azadiractin 0.03 WSV 0.03 per cent 66.67 51.89 40.76 29.67 00.00 37.80 10 378.00 1.00

Table 2. Relative efficacy of different insecticides against Mealy bug on custard apple.
Concen- Heterogeneity Fiducial
Regression Equation LT50 O.R.E.
Insecticides tration Log LT50+S.Em Limit R.E.
d.f. c2 (y=……) (days)
(days)
0.005 per 4.65
Imidacloprid 70 WS 3 0.563
cent y = 0.2342 − 2.4888 x0.8397+0.9392 6.91
15.75
2.49 1

0.004 per 3.03

Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 3 1.244
cent y = 0.1436 − 1.7686 x0.7330+0.1167 5.40
14.16
1.94 4

Imidacloprid 30.5 0.004 per 4.13

3 1.102
SC cent y = 0.2246 − 2.1792 x0.8099+0.1026 6.45
15.38
2.33 2

Thiamethoxam 25 0.005 per 2.83

3 1.025
WG cent y = 0.1133 − 1.7493 x0.7141+0.1166 5.17
13.09
1.86 5

484
 0.002 per 2.83
Acetamiprid 20 SP 3 1.682
cent y = 0.1095 − 1.6577 x0.6913+0.1212 4.91
12.80
1.77 6

Clothianidin 50 1.38
0.01 per cent 3 1.441
WDG y = −0.0310 − 1.55730.5650+0.1279
x 3.70
7.86
1.33 8

3.07
Diafenthiuron 50 WP 0.07 per cent 3 1.324
y = 0.1504 − 1.7754 x0.7362+0.1166 5.45
14.30
1.96 3

2.08
Dimethoate 30 EC 0.04 per cent 3 1.674
y = 0.0779 − 1.5287 x0.6618+0.1292 4.59
13.00
1.65 7

1.43
Fipronil 5 SC 0.02 per cent 3 2.143 0.5654+0.1258 3.67 1.32 9
y = −0.0155 − 1.5853 x 7.69
Azadiractin 0.03 0.62
0.03 per cent 3 2.095 0.4428+0.1431 2.77 1.00 10
WSV y = −0.1427 − 1.5052 x 5.35

REFERENCES Maruthadurai, R. and Karuppaiah, V. 2014. Managing

Abott, W.S. 1925. A method of computing the effectiveness
of a insecticide. Journal of Economic
Entomology, 18 (4): 265-267.
Anonymous 2014. AESA based IPM package for custard
apple. Dept. of Agriculture and Co-operation,
Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India: 08.
Butani, D. K. 1979. Insect and fruits. Periodical expert book
agency, New Delhi: 415.
Daane, K. M, Bentley W. J and Walton V. M., 2006, New
controls investigated for the vine mealy bug.
California Agric., 60: 31-38.
Daane, K. M., 2006, Integrated management of mealybugs
in California vineyards. Proc. Internation.
Symp. Grape Production and Procedure, 2006,
Baramathi, India.
Finney, D.J. 1971. Probit Analysis, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge: 333.
Gubler, D., Stapleton, J, Leavitt, G, Purcell, A, Varela, L. and
Smith, R. J., 1999, UC IPM Pest management
guidelines: Grapes. UC DANR Publication No.
3339.
Kapadia, M. N., Butani, P.G., Jethva, D.M, Virani,V. R. and
Beria, N.N. 2009. Integrated management of
mealy bugs in custard apple. Annals of Plant
Protection Sciences, 17 (2): 459-526.
Karar, Haider, Jalal Arif, M., Sayyed, H.A., Ashfaq, M. and
Aslam Khan, M. 2010. Comparative efficacy
of new and old insecticides for the control of
mango mealybug (Drosicha mangiferae) in
Mango orchards. International Journal of
Agriculture & Biology, 12 (3): 443-446.
menace of insect pests on custard apple.
Popular Kheti, 2 (3): 108-111.
Patil, A.B. and Sathe, T.V. 2011 Bio-efficacy of different
insecticides and bio-pesticides against grape
mealybugs Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green).
International Journal of Plant Protection, 4
(2): 340-344.
Pradhan, S. 1967. Strategy of integrated pest control. Indian
Journal Entomology, 29 (1): 105-122.
Saini, M.L. 1959. Bioassay of persistence of spray residues
on leaf surface of maize using just hatched
larvae of Chilo zonellus (Swinhoe) as test insect.
Assoc. I.A.R.I. Thesis, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi (Unpublished).
Sarup, P., Singh, D.S., Amarpuri, S. and Rattan, Lal. 1970.
Persistent and relative residual toxicity to some
important pesticides to the adults of sugarcane
leaf-hopper, Pyrilla perpusilla Walker
(Lophopidae : Homoptera). Indian Journal of
Entomology, 32 (3): 256-267.
Sunitha, N. D., Jagginavar, S. B. and Biradar, A. P. 2009.
Bioefficacy botanicals and newer insecticides
against grape vine mealy bug, Maconellicoccus
hirsutus (Green). Karnataka Journal of
Agriculture Sciences, 22(3) : 710-711

485
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 486-488 (2015)
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF SUCKING INSECT-PESTS INFESTING SUNFLOWER
AND IT’S RELATIONSHIP WITH WEATHER PARAMETERS
S.M. JADHAO, S.S. SHETGAR AND V.K. BHAMARE
Department of Entomology,
College of Agriculture, Latur-413 512 (MS),
Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani (MS) India.

ABSTRACT
The investigation revealed that the first and peak incidence of Amrasca biguttula biguttula and Bemisia tabaci to the tune of 3.1 and 2.7 nymphs/
leaf was recorded in the fourth fortnight of February (09th standard meteorological week), respectively. However, the population of Coccinella
septempunctata was found to be highest to the extent of 0.7/leaf each in the 14th and 15th standard meteorological week. There was non-significant
correlation between the population of jassids and lady bird beetle with weather parameters. While the population of whitefly was significantly
and negatively correlated with maximum temperature (-0.819) and significantly and positively correlated with number of rainy days (0.810).

Key Words: Population dynamics, sunflower, jassid, whitefly, lady bird beetle, weather parameters.

INTRODUCTION
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) belongs to family
compositae is one of the most important oilseed crop
contains 32 to 44 per cent oil, 20 to 24 per cent vitamins, 18
to 22 per cent carbohydrates and 4 to 6 per cent salts. Its oil is
considered as premium because of its high polyunsaturated
fatty acid content with high level of linoleic acid and absence
of linolenic acid. Among the four major oilseed crops in the
world viz.,soybean, brassicas, sunflower and groundnut,
sunflower ranked third in the total area cultivated and fourth
in total production. In India, during 2012-13 sunflower
was cultivated in an area of 8.22 lakh ha with 0.58 MT of
production and 705 kg per ha of productivity. The major
states growing sunflower are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Tamil Nadu
and West Bengal. Karnataka was leading state in sunflower
production (52.16 per cent) followed by Andhra Pradesh
(17.93 per cent) and Maharashtra (3.44 per cent). But highest
productivity of 1198 kg per ha was evidenced from Tamil
Nadu. Maharashtra ranked third in area and production of
sunflower. In Maharashtra, during 2012-2013 sunflower was
grown in an area of 0.51 lakh ha with 0.02 MT of production
and 382 kg per ha of productivity (Anonymous, 2014).
Sunflower serves as host for more than fifty insect-
pests in India. However, twenty insect-pests were reported
to feed on sunflower in Marathwada (Bilapate et al., 1994).
The number and species of major insect-pests requiring
management strategy vary from region to region. The
major insect-pests which drew the attention of both farmers
and scientists are capitulum borer Helicoverpa armigera
(Hubner), defoliator such as Spilosima oblique (Walker),
Spodoptera litura (Fab.), Amsacta moorie (Buttler); sucking
pests like jassid (Amrasca biguttula biguttula), white fly
(Bemisia tabaci) and aphid (Aphis gossypii). Incidence of
sucking insect-pests may appear on the crop round the year,
it is serious during certain months at different places. Jassid
infested plants showed symptoms like stunted growth, cupped
and crinkled leaves, burning of leaf margins. In severe case
if infestation occurs, characteristic “hopper burn” symptoms
are noticed. However, whitefly infested plants showed
stunted growth and yellowing in leaves. Besides this sucking
insect-pests are known as vector for carrying different
diseases. The prevalence and build up of these insect-pests
of sunflower is mostly governed by weather parameters like
temperature, related humidity, rainfall and sunshine hours.
Furthermore, the weather parameters vary greatly from place
to place and season to season. Thus, the knowledge of the
influence of weather parameters on sucking insect-pest of
sunflower will help to develop a forecasting system. Scanty
work has been done on sucking pest’s population dynamics
and it’s correlation with weather parameters. Keeping this in
view, the present investigation was conducted to study the
relationship between population dynamics of sucking pests
in sunflower and weather parameters.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The non-replicated field experiment on population
dynamics of sucking pests infesting sunflower was conducted
at the Research Farm of Department of Entomology, College of
Agriculture, Latur (MS) during summer 2014. The sunflower
cultivar viz., LSFH-171 was sown on 20th January, 2014 at
the spacing of 60 x 30 cm. The gross plot (quadrate) size was
1.8 x 1.8 m2. There were 80 quadrates of sunflower. The field
experiment was conducted under pesticide free conditions.
Weekly observations on population counts on nymphal stage
of insects were taken from last week of February to second
week of April when crop turned yellow. Five quadrates of
crop were observed twice in each meteorological week for
observations on sucking pests infesting sunflower and for the
presence of lady bird beetles. For this purpose two plants
in a quadrate were selected randomly and population was
counted on their leaves of a plant, one each from top, middle
and bottom portion. The population thus counted was pooled
together and average population per leaf was calculated for
each meteorological week. Average weekly meteorological
data during the observation period, such as temperature,
relative humidity, rainfall and number of rainy days were
also recorded. The statistical analysis of data on population
of jassid, whitefly, lady bird beetle and weather parameters
were worked out by simple correlation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

486
Population dynamics of sucking pests infesting
sunflower
The population dynamics of sucking pests infesting
sunflower was studied during summer season 2014. During
the course of investigations the weather parameters viz.,
maximum temperature, minimum temperature, before noon
relative humidity, afternoon relative humidity, rainfall and
number of rainy days varied from 27.10C to 36.90C, 15.40C
to 31.20C, 41 to 88 per cent, 33 to 59 per cent, 0 to 65.6
mm and 0 to 4 days, respectively. The data pertaining to the
nymphal population of sucking pests infesting sunflower in
relation to weather parameters during summer season 2014
are presented in Table 1 and depicted graphically in Fig. 1.
Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida)
The first and peak incidence of A. biguttula biguttula
on sunflower was recorded in 09th standard meteorological
week (3.1 per leaf). At maximum level of pest population
the prevailing weather factors viz., maximum temperature,
minimum temperature, before noon relative humidity,
afternoon relative humidity, rainfall and number of rainy
days were 27.80C, 15.70C, 69 per cent, 52 per cent, 23.2 mm
and 3 day, respectively.
Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)
The first and peak incidence of B. tabaci on
sunflower was recorded in 09th standard meteorological week
(2.7 per quadrate). At maximum level of pest population
the prevailing weather factors viz., maximum temperature,
minimum temperature, beforenoon relative humidity,
afternoon relative humidity, rainfall and number of rainy
days were 27.80C, 15.70C, 69 per cent, 52 per cent, 23.2 mm
and 3 day, respectively.
Population dynamics of predator of sucking insect-
pests of sunflower
Coccinella septempunctata
The first prevalence of C. septempunctata on
sunflower was recorded in 09th standard meteorological
week (0.5 C. septempunctata per leaf) with its peak
population level (0.7 C. septempunctata per quadrate) in 14th
& 15th standard meteorological week. At maximum level
of predator population the prevailing weather factors viz.,
maximum temperature, minimum temperature, before noon
relative humidity, afternoon relative humidity, rainfall and
number of rainy days were 36.90C, 20.90C, 41 per cent, 33
per cent, 0 mm and 0 day & 36.80C, 31.20C, 51 per cent, 38
per cent, 0 mm and 0 day, respectively.
Correlation between incidence of sucking insect-
pests and weather parameters
Effect of weather parameters on jassid
It is obvious from the data (Table 2) that there was
non-significant correlation between nymphal population of
A. biguttula biguttula and weather factors on sunflower crop
during summer 2014. The present findings drew the support
from the results of Mahto (1990) who documented non
significant correlation of A. biguttula biguttula population
infesting sunflower with temperature and relative humidity.
Effect of weather parameters on white fly
The data on correlation between white fly population
and weather factors revealed that there was significant
negative impact on incidence of B. tabaci due to maximum
temperature (r= -0.819). However, significant positive
correlation was depicted between whitefly population
and number of rainy days (r= 0.810). Whereas, all other
parameters were non-significantly correlated with whitefly
population. The present findings are in conformity with
the findings of Dhaka and Pareek (2008) who illustrated
non significant effect of minimum temperature, morning
humidity and rainfall on the population of whitefly infesting
cotton.
Effect of weather parameters on lady bird beetle
The impact of various abiotic factors on the activity
of C. septempuntata in sunflower crop was also worked
out. The environmental factors under investigation showed
non-significant correlation impact on the incidence of C.
septempunctata on sunflower crop.

Table 1. Population dynamics of A. biguttula biguttula, B. tabaci and C. Septempunctata on sunflower (LSFH-171) in rela-
tion to weather parameters.
Standard meteo- Temperature Relative humid- Rainfall Number Mean number of nymphs per Mean number of
rological week ity (mm) of rainy adults per
Month (°C) quadrate
days
(%) quadrate

Maximum Minimum Before After A. biguttula B. tabaci C. septempunc-

noon noon biguttula tata
February 09 27.8 15.7 69 52 23.2 3 3.1 2.7 0.5
2014
March 10 27.1 15.4 88 59 65.6 4 1.9 1.6 0.3
2014 11 33.0 18.7 55 33 0 0 1.1 0.7 0.5
12 35.0 20.1 41 33 0 0 1.5 0.8 0.4
13 36.1 21.9 47 42 0 0 1.6 0.7 0.2
April 14 36.9 20.9 41 33 0 0 1.1 1 0.7
15 36.8 31.2 51 38 0 0 0.7 0.5 0.7
2014

487
Fig. 1: Population dynamics of sunflower sucking pests and REFERENCES
predator in relation to weather parameters Anonymous, 2014. Annual group meeting on sunflower,
Agriculture University, Jodhpur. Project
Director’s Report, AICRP on Sunflower, DOR,
Hyderabad: Annexure IV.
Bilapate, G.G., Reddy, V.G., Puri, S.N. and Jadhav, R.N.
1994. Information bulletin on pest management
in sunflower and research on Heliothis in
Marathwada, MAU, Parbhani: 47.
Dhaka, S.R. and Pareek, B.L. 2008. Weather factors
influencing population dynamics of major
insect pests of cotton under semi arid agro-
ecosystem. Indian Journal of Entomology, 70
(2): 157-163.
Mahto, Y. 1990. A note on population dynamics of Amrasca
biguttula biguttula on sunflower. Indian Journal
Table 2: Relationship between weather parameters and
of Entomology, 47 (4): 721-722.
population of sucking pests and predator in sunflower
during summer- 2014.
correlation co-efficient (r)
Weather Parameters Lady bird
Jassid White fly
beetle
Maximum Temperature (0C) -0.772 -0.819* 0.346
Minimum Temperature,(0C) -0.708 -0.668 0.477
Morning Relative Humidity
0.539 0.629 -0.320
(%)
Evening Relative Humidity
0.689 0.713 -0.443
(%)
Rainfall (mm ) 0.489 0.574 -0.375

Number of Rainy Days 0.727 0.810* -0.306

(r= (r= 0.755) (r= 0.755)
* Significant at 5% level 0.755)
(r= 0.875) (r= 0.875)
** Significant at 1% level (r=
0.875)

488
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 489-493 (2015)
STRATEGIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF POWDERY MILDEW
(Erysiphe cruciferarum) IN MUSTARD CROP
A.S.VATS, SAURABH VERMA AND D.P. SINGH
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Directorate of Extension
N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad – 224229 (UP)

ABSTRACT
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cruciferarum) is of great importance for late sown mustard because the disease general-
ly appears in the month of February or March. For the management of the disease, different experiment such as, man-
agement through manipulation of irrigations, fertilizer doses, date of sowing and different fungicides application
were conducted on mustard var. Varuna during Rabi 2012-13 and 2013-14 at Crop Research Station, Masodha, Faiz-
abad. No significant interaction effect of number of irrigations and fertilizer levels were recorded, while their individ-
ual effect was significant. Number of irrigations increased disease severity, test weight and seed yield. Maximum aver-
age severity of disease was recorded with fertilizer dose 130:50:50 kg NPK/ha, while higher test weight and seed yield
were recorded with 120:40:40 kg NPK/ha. Disease severity increased with delayed in of sowing date while reverse is
true for test weight and seed yield. Among the chemicals, all the fungicides were found significantly effective in reduc-
ing the disease severity and enhancing seed yield in comparison to untreated control. Among all the tested fungicides
Bayleton @ 0.2% was found most effective in controlling the disease followed by Karathane @ 0.05% and Sulfex @
0.25%. The maximum seed yield was obtained with Bayleton treatment followed by Calixin and Foltof, which were at par.

INTRODUCTION
Rapeseed and mustard are the second most important
group of oilseed crops in India, after groundnut, and
contribute a major share to the vegetable fat economy of the
country. India is one of the largest producers of rapeseed-
mustard in the world and contributes 21.7% and 12.0% of the
total hectarage and production, respectively. But the average
productivity remained 1142 kg/ha which is far below the
world’s average of 1950 kg/ha. In India, it is grown in 26
states and union territories. Of the total production (5.08
m tonnes) of the country, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and
Haryana accounts for over 71 per cent. This crop accounts
for nearly one-third of the oil produced in India, making
it the country’s key edible oilseed crop. Due to the gap
between domestic availability and actual consumption of
edible oils, India has to resort to import of edible oils. Since
these crops are cultivated mainly in the rain-fed and resource
scarce regions of the country, their contribution to livelihood
security of the small and marginal farmers in these regions
is also very important. Nearly 30.7% area under rapeseed
mustard is under rain-fed farming.
Despite the high quality of oil and meal and also its
wide adaptability for varied agro-climatic conditions, the
area, production and yield of rapeseed-mustard in India have
been fluctuating due to various biotic and abiotic stresses
coupled with India’s domestic price support programme.
Disease management is the most important single needed
to improve crop stability in sub-humid and humid-tropics.
The crop suffers from a number of devastating diseases viz.,
fungal, bacterial and viral which are considered economically
important (Kolte, 1985). Among all the diseases (Alternaria
blight, White rust, Downy mildew, Powdery mildew) of
mustard, powdery mildew (Erysiphe cruciferarum) is of
great importance for late sown mustard because the disease
generally appears in the month of February or March, and
now a days farmers cultivating the mustard crop generally
late, after the harvest of long duration paddy varieties.
Previously, this disease was identified as minor problem,
but in recent years it has been assumed in epidemic form
in some rapeseed and mustard growing areas. The damage
to the crops was more when infection took place in early
stage of crop growth. Saharan (1992) reported 17.5% low
yield and 6.47% reduction of oil content in powdery mildew
infected plants.
With the change in climate, cropping system, cropping
intensity, crop management and varietal spread, the
powdery mildew is becoming serious problem and causing
considerable losses to mustard crop in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
In view of importance of disease and look of information on
many vital issues the present investigations were undertaken
to study the symptoms, epidemiology and different aspects
of disease management.
METHODOLOGY
Field experiment on different sowing dates on disease
incidence, number of irrigations and fertilizer levels on the
severity of diseases and chemical control of the disease were
conducted at Crop Research Station, Masodha of Narendra
Deva University of Agriculture and Technology in the
Rabi season of 2012-13 and 2013-14. In order to study the
symptoms of the disease, the powdery mildew affected plant
part showing different types of disease symptoms under
natural conditions were observed in the field and samples
were collected. For epidemiological studies, after the
germination, the crop was regularly watched for appearance
of the disease. The observations on disease severity were
recorded on leaves by selecting ten plants randomly from
each plot. The disease severity was recorded by using the
scale (0 - 5). The rate of disease development/unit/day was
estimated according to the methods of Vanderplank (1963).
The apparent infection rate (r) for the total period was
calculated by using following formula:

489

1 X2 (1 – X1)
r = log
T2 - T1 X1 (1 – X2)
where,
r - rate of disease development
T1 - date of first observation
T2 - date of second observation
X1 - disease severity in first observation
X2 - disease severity in second observation
For the management of the disease, different
experiment such as, management through manipulation of
number of irrigations (I0 – no irrigation, I1 – one irrigation
at peak flowering, I2 – Two irrigation at flowering and
peak siliqua formation, I3 – three irrigation at branching,
peak flowering and seed setting stage), levels of fertilizer
doses (F1 – 120:40:40, F2 – 130:50:50, F3 – 110:30:30 NPK
kg/ha) and management through manipulation in date of
sowing were conducted during Rabi 2012-13 and 2013-14
at experimental plot. The trial was planted on 30th November
during both the crop season in split plot design with three
replications. The variety Varuna were taken under studies
and all the recommended agronomical practices were
Sum of total numerical ratings
Per cent disease intensity = Total number of leaves examined X
highest grade
Seed yield per plot was recorded in each treatment
separately and yield per hectare calculated. Statistical
analysis was done by the method analysis of variance
described by the Fisher and Yates (1963).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study only on species Erysiphe
cruciferarum causing powdery mildew disease could be
observed in mustard field. The pathogen attacks all the green
parts of the plant. The symptoms of the disease appeared in the
form of dirty white floury patches on both the sides of lower
leaves of the infected plants in the second and third week
of February. Under favourable condition patches increased
in size and coalesced to cover entire leaves and stem. The
severely diseased plants were poor in growth and produced
less siliquae. The green siliquae showed white patches in the
initial stage later with the progress of disease such siliquae
completely covered with mass of mycelium and conidia. The
siliquae heavily covered with powdery mass remained either
empty or produced few seeds at the base with twisted sterile
tips. In later stages of the disease development cleistothicia
appeared on both sides of infected leaves, stem and siliquae
in the form of black scattered bodies. Similar type of
symptom was also reported by Sharma (1979) and Saharan
and Kaushik (1981).
Epidemiological studies:
During both the years, 25th October sown
crop completely escaped the disease and remained free
throughout the crop period. During 2012-13 crop season,
powdery mildew appeared in third week of February when
temperature ranged between 9.6 to 22.79 0C and relative
490
followed for raising the good crop. For the management
through manipulation in date of sowing the crop was sown
on different dates starting from 25 October to 10 January in
both the years at 15 days of intervals.
Fungicidal application for the management of powdery
mildew experiment was also conducted on the same field
during both the Rabi crop seasons in 2012-13 and 2013-14 in
randomized block design with three replications. A susceptible
mustard variety Varuna was sown on 30th December during
both the crop seasons. All the recommended agronomical
and cultural practices were done for raising the good crop.
Spraying of fungicides (control, water spray, Karathane
0.05%, Sulfex 0.25%, Bayleton 0.20%, Ridomil MZ 0.25%,
Foltaf 0.20%, Kawach 0.20%, Calixin 0.10%) were initiated
at first appearance of the disease, second and third sprays
were given at 15 days intervals. The required amount of each
fungicide were calculated with keeping in mind their active
ingredients and spray solution was prepared with water.
Eight hundred litres of water was used for one hectare of
crop. Each fungicide was dissolved in a small amount of
water and then the volume was made up to desired level and
sprayed by using high volume knapsack sprayer of 15 litre
capacity. The disease intensity was recorded after one week
of each spray by using 0-5 point scale.
X 100
humidity was 77.0%. Similar trends were also found in the
year 2013-14. The first appearance of the disease in 10th Nov
sown crops was recorded 90 to 100 days after sowing (DAS).
In 25th Nov sown crops the first appearance of disease was
recorded 80 to 90 DAS, while in 10th Dec sown crop 65 to 75
DAS, 25th Dec sown crop 50 to 60 DAS and 10th Jan sown
crop after 35 to 45 DAS, respectively during both the years
of experimentation. In general, severity of disease during
2012-13 was little higher than 2013-14. During both the
crop season the disease progressed slowly up to first week
of March after that it developed rapidly and became severe
from 11th March to 1st April. The maximum and minimum
temperature during this period ranged between 29.53 to
34.75 and 13.61 to 16.93 0C, respectively in the year 2012-
13. Relative humidity varied from 44.00 to 64.85% and sun
shine hours 6.60 to 9.72 hours/day. Similar trend was also
observed in 2013-14. In general, rate of disease development
was recorded higher during first week after the first
appearance, then it gradually declined and again increased
between 11th to 18th March, while in some cases 18th to 25th
March (Table 1) and the disease appeared in early stage of
crop growth. The growth stage of plant may be an important
factor for powdery mildew development (Shivaprakasam et
al. 1981 and Sharma 1992). This might be due to increased
respiration and metabolic activity of host plant. During this
period complex compound breakdown into simple form,
which can be easily available to pathogen for their nutrition
and facilitate the rapid multiplication of inoculum and hence
more severity results.
Table 1: Apparent rate of powdery mildew development on different sowing dates of mustard (mean pooled data of two
years)
Apparent rate of disease development (r) between
Date of sowing 25 Mar – 01
25 Feb – 04 Mar 04 – 11 Mar 11 – 18 Mar 18 – 25 Mar 01 – 08 Apr 08 – 15 Apr
Apr
D1 (25 Oct) + + + + + + +
D2 (10 Nov) 0.068 0.085 0.067 0.002 * * *
D3 (25 Nov) 0.135 0.033 0.114 0.110 0.027 * *
D4 (10 Dec) 0.118 0.074 0.118 0.089 0.056 0.024 *
D5 (25 Dec) 0.159 0.102 0.127 1.117 0.017 0.006 *
D6 (10 Jan) 0.115 0.100 0.096 0.120 0.037 0.038 0.003
Note: + indicates free from disease & * indicate crop harvested from the field
Managements: irrigations significantly increased the seed yield (11.83 q/ha)
For the management of the disease, different in comparison to unirrigated crop. Karakaya et al. (1993)
experiments such as management through manipulation also reported powdery mildew disease on different Brassica
of number of irrigations and levels of fertilizer doses, spp. in irrigated field, while Kumar and Thakur (1997)
management through manipulation in date of sowing and reported higher disease intensity in unirrigated crop from
management through chemicals were conducted during Rabi Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
season in both the years and results are depicted below:
Maximum average severity of disease was recorded
with fertilizer dose of 130:50:50 kg NPK/ha followed by
Through manipulation of number of irrigation 110:30:30 kg/ha and 120:40:40 kg/ha. Higher level of
and fertilizer levels fertilizer significantly increased the disease severity in
Different number of irrigations in combination with comparison with lower levels. Maximum test weight and
three fertilizer levels were evaluated against powdery seed yield were recorded with 120:40:40 kg NPK/ha and
mildew severity, test weight and seed yield of mustard. minimum with 130:50:50 kg/ha. Kumar and Thakur (1997)
No significant interaction effect of number of irrigations also worked on powdery mildew development in mustard
and fertilizer levels were recorded, while their individual under different production factors and reported minimum
effect was significant (Table 2). Number of irrigations disease severity with zero level of NPK. In present findings
increased disease severity, test weight and seed yield. Three less disease intensity with low level of fertilizer
irrigations significantly increased disease severity (73-91%) supports the view.
significantly over others which were at par. The number of

Table 2: Effect of number of irrigation and levels of fertilizers on disease severity, test weight and seed yield during 2012-
13 and 2013-14
Treatments Disease severity Test weight (g) Yield (q/ha)
2012-13 2013-14 Mean 2012-13 2013-14 Mean 2012-13 2013-14 Mean
Irrigation levels
50.36 47.16 48.76
I0 2.90 2.94 2.92 5.35 5.62 5.48
(45.84) (43.36) (44.60)
57.50 54.48 55.99
I1 3.32 3.34 3.33 11.39 11.73 11.56
(49.43) (47.58) (48.50)
64.51 61.51 63.01
I2 3.32 3.34 3.33 11.39 11.73 11.56
(53.48) (51.68) (52.58)
75.63 72.19 73.91
I3 3.45 3.49 3.47 11.77 11.89 11.83
(60.62) (58.29) (59.45)
SEm± 1.63 1.54 - 0.075 0.082 - 0.33 0.24 -
CD at 5% 5.64 5.33 - 0.28 0.28 - 1.14 0.83 -
Fertilizer level
56.98 54.33 55.65
F1 3.26 3.22 3.24 10.56 10.26 10.41
(49.08) (47.52) (48.30)
68.29 64.66 66.47
F2 3.16 3.19 3.18 9.24 9.76 9.50
(56.06) (53.75) (54.90)
60.72 57.52 59.12
F3 3.21 3.23 3.22 9.32 9.96 9.67
(51.80) (49.40) (50.60)
SEm± 1.29 1.23 - 0.026 - - 0.27 0.11 -
CD at 5% 3.89 3.71 - 0.08 NS - 0.80 0.33 -
Value in parenthesis is after angular transformation

491
Through manipulation of date of sowing
The disease appeared in all the dates of sowing except
25th Oct but differed in its time of appearance (Table 3).
Appearance of disease was recorded after 2nd and 3rd week
of Feb during 2012-13 and 2013-14, respectively in 10th Nov
sown crop, while in late sown crop, disease appeared on
early stages of plant growth. The average minimum severity
of disease was recorded in 10th Nov sown crop (15.04%)
which increased with increase of date of sowing and became
maximum in 10th Jan sown crop (85.63%). The maximum
test weight (4.15 g) and seed yield (17.71 q/ha) was recorded
with 15th October sown crop followed by 10th November and
25th November. The minimum test weight (2.83 g) and seed
yield (2.26 q/ha) were recorded in 10th January sown crop.
Sharma (1992) also reported that appearance of disease
differed in all dates of sowings. In early sown crop either
disease escaped or severity was very less and appeared
when crop was already at advance stages of growth and
disease was unable to spread, hence damage was less. On the
contrary, the disease appeared in late sown crop in second
and third week of February and spread fast, while the crop
was still at flowering or pod initiation stage, hence damage
was more. Age or growth stage of plants also seems to be an
important factor in disease initiation. The more decrease in
yield under 10th Dec and 10th Jan sown crop might be due to
cumulative effect of disease severity and higher temperature,
which forced the crop to mature early, leading to sudden
decrease in yield.

Table 3: Effect of date of sowing on disease severity, test weight and seed yield of mustard
Disease severity % (PDI) Test weight (g) Yield (q/ha)
Treatment
2012-13 2013-14 Mean 2012-13 2013-14 Mean 2012-13 2013-14 Mean
0.00 0.00 0.00
D1 (25 Oct) 4.15 4.22 4.19 17.77 17.95 17.86
(0.00) (0.00) (0.00)
15.04 14.13 14.59
D2 (10 Nov) 3.93 4.00 3.97 16.37 16.78 16.58
(12.91) (11.71) (12.31)
43.83 39.08 41.46
D3 (25 Nov) 3.67 3.76 3.72 13.53 14.12 13.83
(41.45) (38.67) (40.06)
65.24 59.39 62.32
D4 (10 Dec) 3.49 3.61 3.55 7.54 8.11 7.83
(53.91) (56.66) (52.17)
75.62 69.74 72.68
D5 (25 Dec) 3.35 3.45 3.40 4.78 5.20 4.99
(60.66) (56.66) (58.55)
85.63 80.18 82.91
D6 (10 Jan) 2.83 2.94 2.89 2.26 2.48 2.37
(67.88) (63.89) (65.89)
SEm± 0.88 1.20 - 0.04 0.03 - 0.08 0.27 -
CD at 5% 2.65 3.63 - 0.13 0.10 - 0.25 0.82 -
Value in parenthesis is after angular transformation

Management through chemicals q/ha). Bayleton was significantly superior to Karathane,

Among the chemicals, seven fungicides, viz.,
Karathane, Sulfex, Bayleton, Ridomil MZ, Foltof, Kawach
and Calixin were evaluated for their effectiveness against
powdery mildew of mustard. It is evident from the Table
4 that all the fungicides were found significantly effective
in reducing the disease severity and enhancing seed yield
in comparison to untreated control. The intensity of the
disease after last spray was found minimum in Bayleton
(16.30%) treated plots followed by Karathane (20.45%),
Sulfex (29.40%), Calixin (32.70%), Kawach (35.49%),
Foltaf (39.05%), Ridomil MZ (40.74%) and water spray
(55.98%), respectively during 2012-13. Maximum severity
of the disease in untreated plots was recorded as 72.72% and
58.48% during the year 2012-13 and 2013-14, respectively.
Regarding the performance of yield, all
the treatments significantly increased the seed yield and
test weight over untreated control, except water spray.
During 2012-13 maximum yield (13.58 q/ha) was recorded
in Bayleton treated plots followed by Calixin (13.11 q/
ha), Foltaf (12.29 q/ha), Kawach (11.75 q/ha), Ridomil
MZ (11.27 q/ha), Karathane (11.18 q/ha), Sulfex (10.26
q/ha), water spray (8.36 q/ha) and untreated control (7.35
Sulfex, Ridomil MZ, and Kawach, while at par with Foltaf
and Calixin. Similar trend was recorded during 2013-14
in reducing the disease severity and seed yield. Similar to
present findings, maximum effectiveness of Bayleton against
powdery mildew was also recorded in reducing the disease
severity and enhancing the seed yield by several worker time
to time indifferent crops viz., Ahmad et al. (1995) and Gupta
and Shyam (1998) in peas and Rathore and Rathore (1995)
in fenugreek, respectively. Patel et al. (1992) tested 11
fungicides against powdery mildew of mustard and reported
best control of the disease with Karathane followed Calixin
and wettable sulphur. Singh and Singh (2003) also reported
that Bayleton, Calixin, Karathane and Sulfex controlled
the powdery mildew disease in mustard effectively and
increased seed yields.
Table 4: Effect of fungicides on disease intensity, test weight
and seed yield of mustard
Percent disease Test weight Grain yield
intensity (g) (q/ha)
Treatment
2012- 2013- 2012- 2013-
2012-13 2013-14
13 14 13 14

492
 72.72 58.48 development in mustard under different
T0 (Control) 3.06 3.18 7.35 7.77 production factors. Journal of Oilseed
(58.58) (49.89) Research 14: 111-112
55.98 51.30
T1 (Water spray) 3.23 3.35 8.36 8.90 Patel, V.A.; Vaishnav, K.A.; Dhedhi, B.M. and Kikani, B.K.
(48.71) (45.75) (1992) Fungicidal management of powdery
T2 (Kaerathane 20.45 13.34 mildew of mustard. Indian Journal of
3.45 3.57 11.18 11.69
0.05%) (26.87) (21.41) Mycology and Plant Pathology, 22: 209-210
29.40 25.46
T3 (Sulfex 0.25%) 3.44 3.49 10.26 10.85 Rathore, B.S. and Rathore, R.S. (1995) Studies on vertical
(32.82) (30.29) resistance and chemical control of powdery
T4 (Bayleton 16.30 10.60 mildew on fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-
0.20%)
3.97 4.03 13.58 14.15 graceum). Indian Journal of Mycology and
(23.81) (18.99) Plant Pathology, 25: 260-262
T5 (Ridomil MZ 40.74 40.07
3.61 3.65 11.27 11.80 Saharan, G.S. (1992) Management of rapeseed and mustard
0.20%) (39.66) (39.27)
diseases. In: Advances in Oilseed Research Vol.
39.05 38.23 1 Rapeseed and Mustard (Eds., Kumar, D. and
T6 (Foltaf 0.20%) 3.72 3.78 12.29 12.82
(38.68) (38.19) Rai, M.), pp. 151-188. Scientific Publishers,
35.49 34.32 15A, New Pali Road, Jodhpur, India
T7 (Kawach
3.69 3.74 11.75 12.24
0.20%) (36.56) (35.86) Saharan, G.S. and Kaushik, J.C. (1981) Occurrence and
T8 (Calixin 32.70 30.21 epidemiology of powdery mildew of Brasicca.
0.10%)
3.84 3.89 13.11 13.59 Indian Phytopathology, 34: 54-57
(34.87) (33.34)
SEm± 0.97 0.59 0.10 0.15 0.53 0.45 Sharma, A.K. (1979) Powdery mildew disease of some
CD at 5% 2.92 1.77 0.30 0.44 1.60 1.36 crucifers from Jammu and Kashmir State.
Indian Journal of Mycology and Plant
Value in parenthesis is after angular transformation Pathology. 09: 29-32
Among the various factors responsible for lowering
down the yields, powdery mildew plays a major role. Dry Sharma, A.K. (1992) Effect of planting dates and weather
season with low rainfall favoured the rapid development on powdery mildew of pea. Indian Journal of
of the disease. Disease severity, test weight and seed yield Mycology and Plant Pathology. 22: 291-293
increased with increase in number of irrigations. Minimum Shivaprakasam, K.; Marimuthu, T.; Radhakrishanan and
disease severity and maximum seed yield were recorded with Vrivan, K. (1981) Influence of date of sowing
the fertilizer dose 120:40:40 kg NPK/ha. Disease severity and spacing on the incidence of powdery
increased with increase in date of sowing, while reverse mildew of green gram and black gram. Madras
is true for test weight and seed yield. Among chemicals Agriculture Journal, 68: 65-67
Bayleton was found most effective in reducing the disease
severity followed by Karathane and Sulfex. Singh, R.B. and Singh, R.N. (2003) Management of powdery
mildew of mustard. Indian Phytopathology,
56 (2): 147-150

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of fungicide against conidial germination of
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Fisher and Yates (1963) Statistical table for biological,
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Gupta, S.K. and Shyam, K.R. (1998) Control of powdery
mildew and rust of pea by fungicides. Indian
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Karakaya, W.; Gray, F.A. and Koch, D.W. (1993) Powdery
mildew of Brassica spp. in Wyoming. Plant
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Kumar, A. and Thakur, K.S. (1997) Powdery mildew

493
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 494-496 (2015)
IMPROVING SALT TOLERANCE IN PLANT THROUGH MOLECULAR AND
BIOCHEMICAL METHODS IN RICE MAPPING POPULATION
AKANKSHA SINGH, D.K. DWIVEDI, ANURAG VERMA, GAURAV KUMAR,GYANANDRA KUMAR VINAY
MISHRA AND K.N.SINGH
Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj,
Faizabad

ABSTRACT
Soil salinity is a limiting factor for rice cultivation, especially in the early stages of development and the flowering period. The use of
sources of poor quality water for irrigation results in the accumulation of salts in the soil, causing major toxicity. A solution to the
problem would be the introduction of varieties with tolerance to high salinity. Thus the aim of this work is to evaluate genetic diver-
gence among rice genotypes, aiming at the selection of genotypes tolerant to salinity during the vegetative and Reprodutive phase.
Seeds of 25 rice genotypes were grown in field supplemented with 0 and 136 mM NaCl. After 21 days, eleven morphological characters
were evaluated and the results subjected to multivariate analysis. Determining the level of salinity tolerance during Vegetative and
Reproductive stages is difficult. Plant height, Panicle bearing tillers per plant , spikelet fertility, Grain per panicle, Test weight, Bio-
logical yield, Harvest index, and Na+/K+ ratio when affected by salinity. Salinity also reduces Days to 50% flowering, panicle length,
number of tillers and spikelet per panicle, thus reducing grain yield. Protein profiling was done of RILs, resulting showed novel band
obtain at the upper portion of the 12% acrylamide gel, these bands are salt tolerant lines and regarded as salt responsible protein.

Key words: Genetic divergence, Nacl, Rice

INTRODUCTION
Rice belongs to the genus Oryza and has two cultivated
and 22 wild species. The cultivated species are Oryza sativa
L. and Oryza glaberrima L. Oryza sativa L. is grown all over
world, while Oryza glaberrima L. has been cultivated in West
Africa for the last 3500 year. Rice is grown under different
climatic condition and production system, but submerged in
water is the most common method used worldwide. Rice is
only cereals crop and that can grow for long period of time
in standing water. Rice is the second most widely consumed
cereal in the world next to wheat. It is the staple food for
two thirds of the world’s population. Over 2 billion people
in Asia alone derive 80% of their energy needs from rice,
which contains 80% carbohydrates, 7–8% protein, 3% fat,
and 3% fiber . Until recently, rice was considered only a
starchy food and a source of carbohydrates and some amount
of protein. Rice protein, though small in amount, is of high
nutritional value. Recent estimates indicated that the more
than 1.5 million hectare salt affected area has been reclaimed
which is contributing about 10 million tonne additional food
grains to the central pool. At present in indogangatic plains
in India, total 2.348 million hectare area is salt affected in
which U.P. shaire 1.37 millions hectare. Hence, the present
study was focused to assess the chemical characters Na+/K+
ratio using Flame photometer and protein profiling of the
selected RILs under salt condition.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The material for this study consisted of 25 RILs
developed by crossing of CSR-27 × MI-48 produced from
the Department of Genetics and plant breeding, N.D.U.A.
& T. Kumarganj, Faizabad. The seeds of rice varieties were
sown on 1 June, 2010 in nursery bed. After 25 days single
seedling per hill were transplanted with 20 cm row to row and
15 cm plant to plant spacing in randomized complete block
(RBD) design with three replications under salinity stress
condition. The crop was maintained properly at 120: 60: 60
kg/ha NPK level. The experiment was initially grown under
irrigated conditions. The material for this study consisted 23
RILs developed with two check varieties namely CSR-27
and MI-48 under salt condition.
Standard evaluation system for salt tolerant
evaluation (SES)
Number will be give as for following observations
Score Symptoms
1 Growth and tillering nearly normal.
3 Growth nearly normal but there is some reduction in tiller-
ing and some leaves discolored (Alkali)/ whitish and rolled
(salt)
5 Growth and tillering reduced: most leaves discolored (Al-
kali)/ rolled (salt); only a few elongating.
7 Growth completely ceases; most leaves fry; some plants
dying.
9 Almost all plants dead of dying.
Protein profiling of rice leaf
The rice leaf protein was isolated as method described
by Laemmli et al., 1970. The fresh rice leaf were cut into small
pieces using razor and crushed in sodium phosphate buffer
( 0.25M, pH 7.0) containing 0.15 N. It was homogenized
mechanically and centrifuged at 10,000 g at 40C for 20
minutes. This process was done twice. After centrifugation
the supernatant was collected. This supernatant was crude
rice leaf protein.
Gel electrophoresis of rice leaf protein
Apparatus used vertical slab gel type
electrophoresis unit (Glass plate 18 x 9 x 0.1 cm)

494
including power pac RESULT AND DISCUSSION
1X Running Gel Solution Salinity screening (SES)
The polyacrylamide gel was prepared by the following The recombinant inbred lines were evaluated at 1 to 9
method. The following solution was mixed serially as scale according to SES (1996), at 60 days, 67 days and 74
described in Table 1 and Table 2. After adding TEMED and days. All the entries shows highly resistant to salinity at 60
APS gel was polymerize fairly quickly. days (score 1). At 67 days all entries exhibited score of 3
which indicated resistance except RILs- 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
16, 17 and 22 including parents CSR-27 and MI-48, which
Table 1: Separating Gel Solution exhibited moderately tolerance to salinity with SES score
Solutions 12% 15 % of 5. In the third observation at 74 days most of the RILs
H 2O 5.1 ml 4.6 ml showed resistance namely RILs 2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 17 and 19.
1.875M Tris-HCl pH 8.8 3.8 ml 5.0 ml RILs 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 including
10 % SDS 122 µl 200 µl parent CSR-27 and MI-48 and RILs 23, 24, 25 exhibited
Acrylamide, Bis-acrylamide (30 %) 6.0 ml 10.0 ml
susceptibility response to salinity at vegetative stage with
SES score (Table 3).
10% Ammonium per Sulphate 122 µl 200 µl
TEMED 6.2 µl 8.0 µl Evaluation at reproductive stage
Total volume 20 ml 20 ml
The SES were recorded at the flowering stage 3 times
at 7 days interval. At the first observation all the RILs showed
Table 2: Stacking Gel Solution moderately resistance to salinity with score of 5 except RILs
2, 3 which showed resistant response to salinity and RILs
Solution 4%
21, 22, 23, 24, 25 showed susceptibility response to salinity
H2O 6.9 ml
at reproductive stage. After 1 week, 2nd observation similar
0.6 M Tris-HCl, pH 6.8 1.25 ml response of moderately resistance were observed for all the
10 % (w/v) SDS 100 µl RILs except RILs 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24 which
Acrylamide/Bis-acrylamide (30 % /0.8 % w/v) 1.7 ml showed susceptibility response to salinity. RILs 25 showed
10% (w/v) Ammonium per Sulfate (APS) 100 µl highly susceptible response. In final observation, 12 lines
TEMED 10.0 µl out of 25 entries showed susceptible and 13 entries showed
Total volume 10.0 ml highly susceptibility response to salinity (Table 4)

The separating gel were put between glass plates Table 3: Salinity score at vegetative stage
up to proper mark and wait for 30- 40 minutes for proper
Name of Salinity score
polymerization of gel. The stacking gel was cast, after S. No.
variety/line 60 days 67 days 74 days
polymerization of separating gel, insert the Teflon comb
1 RIL 1 1 3 5
(13 well) in the gap between the glass plates and wait for
proper polymerization of the stacking gel. After proper 2 RIL 2 1 3 3
polymerization the Teflon comb was carefully removed from 3 RIL 3 1 3 3
the gel and plates were assembled into electrophoresis unit 4 RIL 4 1 5 5
and electrode buffer was filled both in lower and upper tank 5 RIL 5 1 3 3
of electrophoresis unit. Then the extracted rice leaf protein 6 RIL 6 1 5 5
in phosphate buffer saline (0.25 M pH 7.0) containing 0.15N 7 RIL 7 1 5 5
NaCl were used as a loading sample. Heat the sample by 8 RIL 8 1 5 5
mixing the sample and running dye in (60:40 ratio) for 9 RIL 9 1 5 3
5-10 minute for proper denaturation and the sample was 10 RIL10 1 5 5
centrifuged at 10000 g for 10 minutes at 20±2 0C.The sample 11 RIL 11 1 5 5
was loaded in a wells. After this the electrophoresis unit was 12 CSR 27 1 5 5
attached with power pack and placed the gel for 8-10 hours 13 MI 48 1 5 5
with a supply of 25 mA and 160 volt current. Power supply 14 RIL 14 1 3 5
was turned off when the tracking dye reached the end of the
15 RIL 15 1 3 3
running gel after complete separation of protein molecules.
16 RIL 16 1 5 5
The gel was gently removed from the space between the
17 RIL 17 1 5 3
plates, immersed in staining solution contained in a tray for
18 RIL 18 1 3 5
proper staining.
19 RIL 19 1 3 3
Destaining of Gel 20 RIL 20 1 3 5
21 RIL 21 1 3 5
Destaining solution was prepared by adding 10%
22 RIL 22 1 5 5
methanol and 5% acetic acid. Final volume made 100 ml
with double distilled water. Dye not bound to protein was 23 RIL 23 1 5 7
removed; the process was continued until background was 24 RIL 24 1 3 7
colorless. 25 RIL 25 1 3 7

495
Table4.1b: Salinity score at reproductive stage RILs 25 showed highly susceptible response. In final observation,
12 lines out of 25 entries showed susceptible and 13 entries showed
Salinity score highly susceptibility response to salinity. Samplings were done
S.No. Name of variety /line IIIrd from the salt stress field (MES) from the RILs with check varieties
Ist days IInd days
days and protein were electrophorsed on 12% acrylamide gel. The salt
1 RIL 1 5 5 9 tolerance introgression lines and salt tolerance checks. CSR-27
2 RIL 2 3 5 9 revealed similar banding pattern with nearly all RILs except RILs-
3 RIL 3 3 5 9 10 and 11and parent MI-48, whereas susceptible checks MI-48
4 RIL 4 5 5 9 showed different banding pattern with parent CSR-27. It revealed
5 RIL 5 5 5 9 that the salt responsive gene/QTLs expressed in the stress condition
6 RIL 6 5 5 9 and synthesized the salt responsible protein. RILs 1 to 9 and 14 to
7 RIL 7 5 5 7 25 have same banding pattern with parent CSR-27 and RILs 10
8 RIL 8 5 5 9 and 11 showed same banding pattern with parent MI-48.It showed
9 RIL 9 5 5 9 that RILs 1 to 9 and RILs 14 to 25 were salinity tolerance and
10 RIL 10 5 5 7 RILs 10 and 11 were sensitive to tolerance. Genetic, molecular and
biochemical studies correspond with each other. The RILs produces
11 RIL 11 5 5 7
salt responsible protein in salt stress condition.
12 CSR-27 5 5 7
13 MI-48 5 5 7
14 RIL 14 5 5 7 REFERENCES
15 RIL 15 5 5 7 Agnihotri, R.K., Palni, L.M.S. and Pandey, D.K. (2006).
16 RIL 16 5 7 7 Screening of landraces of rice under cultivation in
17 RIL 17 5 7 7 Kumaun Himalaya for salinity stress during germination
18 RIL 18 5 7 7 and early seedling growth. Indian J. of Plant Physiol..
19 RIL 19 5 7 7 11(3):266-272.
20 RIL 20 5 7 7 Akbar, M., and Ponnamperuma, F.N. (1972). Saline soils of south
21 RIL 21 7 7 9 and south east Asia as potential land. IRRI Los Banos
22 RIL 22 7 7 9 Laguna, Philippines.
23 RIL 23 7 7 9 Ammar, M.H.M., Pandit A., Singh, R.K., Sameena, S., Chauhan,
24 RIL 24 7 7 9 M.S., Singh, A.K. and Sharma, P.C. (2009). Mapping of
25 RIL 25 7 9 9 QTLs controlling Na+, K+ and Cl- ion concentrations in
salt tolerant indica rice variety CSR 27. J Plant Biochem.
& Biotech. 18 (2): 139-150.
SDS PAGE gel electrophoresis for protein
Bharadwaj, C., Satyavathi, C.T., and Subramanyam, D. (2001).
profiling of rice genotypes Evaluation of different classificatory analysis methods in
The rice leaves were collected from 25 genotypes, 23 RILs some rice (Oryza sativa L.) collections. Indian Journal of
and two from check, CSR-27 and MI-48 under salt condition. All Agricultural Science, 71 (2): 123-125.
RILs showed similar banding pattern to CSR-27 except RILs 10 Bosetti, F., Zucchi, M.I., and Pinheiro, J.B. (2011). Molecular and
and 11. Some noble bands were seen in protein profiling for salt morphological diversity in Japanese rice germplasm. Plant
tolerance. The protein band have high molecular weight protein of Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization, l 9
about 29-30 killodalton and are related to salt tolerance character (2):229-232.
of rice RILs.
Flowers, T.J., White, P.J. and Broadley, M.R. (2004). Improving
crop salt tolerance. J. Experimental Botany. 55 (396):
CONCLUSION 307-319.
In the present study, the RILs were screened at 60, 67, Gregario, G.B. (1997). Tagging salinity tolerance genes in rice
and 74 interval. At vegetative stage, all the entries shows highly using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP),
resistant to salinity at 60 days (score 1). At 67 days all entries Ph.D. Thesis University Philippines Los Banos Laguna
exhibited score of 3 which indicated resistance except RILs- 4, 6, Philippines.
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17 and 22 including parents CSR-27 and MI- Gregario, G.B., Senadhira, D., Mendoza, R.D., Manigbas, N.L.,
48, which exhibited moderately tolerance to salinity with SES Roxas, J.P. and Guerta, C.Q. (2002). Progress in breeding
score of 5. In the third observation at 74 days most of the RILs for salinity tolerance and associated abiotic stress in rice.
showed resistance namely RILs 2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 17 and 19. RILs 1, Field Crop Res. 76 (2/3): 91-101.
4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 including parent CSR-27
Laemmli, E.K. (1970). Cleavage of structural proteins during the
and MI-48 and RILs 23, 24, 25 exhibited susceptibility response to
assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature, 227:
salinity at vegetative stage with SES score. At reproductive stage,
680-685.
the SES were recorded at the flowering stage 3 times at 7 days
interval. At the first observation all the RILs showed moderately SES (1996). The modified Standard Evaluation System of  IRRI,
resistance to salinity with score of 5 except RILs 2, 3 which showed Manual for Physiological Studies of Rice
resistant response to salinity and RILs 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 showed Surekha, P.R., Mishra, B., Gupta, S.R. and Rathore, A. (2008).
susceptibility response to salinity at reproductive stage. After 1 Reproductive stage tolerance to salinity and alkalinity
week, 2nd observation similar response of moderately resistance stresses in rice genotypes. Plant Breeding, 127(3):256-
were observed for all the RILs except RILs 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 261.
22, 23 and 24 which showed susceptibility response to salinity.

496
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 497-501 (2015)
AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF Bt COTTON CULTIVATION IN SANAWAD DISTRICT OF
MADHYA PRADESH
J. K TIWARI1 , V. KAMALVANSHI2, AMITA MAURYA3 AND PRADEEP JOLIYA3
Department of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
B.H.U., Varanasi-221005, U.P., India

ABSTRACT
The result of an economic analysis of Bt cotton cultivation in Sanawad , Madhya Pradesh shows that the cultivation of Bt cotton was more eco-
nomic for semi medium farmers as compared to marginal, small, medium and large farmers due to the low total variable cost( less cost incurred
in FYM, fertilizer and PPC). The semi medium farmer was more benefited from the cultivation of Bt cotton because of lowest cost of cultivation
and highest net returns. The result also shows that the benefit cost ratio was highest for semi medium farmers. The advantage of semi medi-
um farmers was related to the technology i.e. Bt. cotton cultivation and was not related to the farmers who were already efficient in that area.

KEYWORDS: - Bt Cotton, Cultivation, Genetic Modified, CACP, Cost.

INTRODUCTION
As visualized by Mahatma Gandhi decades ago,
agriculture continues to be backbone of the Indian economy.
Cotton as an important industrial crop has played a vital role
in the history of mankind and civilization. After the onset
of the industrial revolution in England, cotton cultivation
spread fast under the influence of the British empire. The
experience of the last 18 years of commercialization
confirmed the promise of biotech crops to deliver substantial
agronomic ,environmental ,economic ,health and social
benefits to large and small scale farmers worldwide. In
2013, hectarge of biotech crops grew at an annual rate of
3%, up by 5 million from 170.3 million hectares in 2012.
The top biotech crops in order of hectarage are: soybean,
maize, cotton, and canola. Other biotech crops grown in
2013 are: alfalfa, sugar beet, papaya, squash, poplar, tomato,
and sweet pepper. Of the 27 countries which planted biotech
crops in 2013, 19 were developing and 8 were industrial
countries. The 5 lead developing countries in Latin America
(Brazil, Argentina), Asia (India, China), and Africa (South
Africa) grew 47% of global biotech crops. During 2012-13,
the decline in price drove cotton farmers to switch to more
profitable alternative crops. As a result, the world cotton
acreage in 2012-13 had decreased by 6% to 33.88 million
hectares as against 36.11 million hectares in the previous
year. World cotton production fell by 4% to 26.88 million
tons as against 28.04 Million tons in the previous year. The
decrease in production was driven by reduced plantings, in
reaction to lower prices received by cotton farmers. Due to
relatively more competitive cotton prices than other fibers,
global cotton mill use increased by 3% to 23.48 million tons
in 2012-13 as against 22.79 million tons during last season
(www.indiastat.com2012). Now cotton is grown in nearly 90
countries of the world in about 35 million hectare with an
annual production of about 35 million hectare with an annual
production of about 25 million metric tonnes (MMT). Due
to delayed monsoon across the cotton belt, the acreage under
cotton in 2012-13, has decreased by around 3% to 117.73
lakh hectares as against 121.78 lakh hectares in previous
year. During the year, acreage under BT cultivation has
also declined to 88% of the total acreage of around 117.73
lakh hectares as against 91% in last year. With the advent
of various measures taken by the Government of India
through Mini Mission I and II of the Technology Mission
on Cotton, availability of quality certified seeds and truthful
label seeds, increased usage of Bt seeds and the changed
mindset of cotton farmers for adoption of improved farm
practices through innovative technology, the cotton yield in
the country, over the years, has increased and touched crop
acreage in the level of 121.78 lakh ha in 2011-12
India is the second largest producer of cotton
in the world after China accounting for about 18% of the
world cotton production. It has the distinction of having the
largest area under cotton cultivation in the world ranging
between 12.2 million hectares and constituting about 25%
of the world area under cotton cultivation. The yield per
hectare is however, the lowest against the world average, but
over the last two years have shown a promising potential to
reach near the world average production level in near future
(James Clive 2013) Over the years, country has achieved
significant quantitative increase in cotton production. Till
1970s, country used to import massive quantities of cotton
in the range of 8.00 to 9.00 lakh bales per annum. However,
after Government launched special schemes like intensive
cotton production programmes through successive five-
year plans, that cotton production received the necessary
impetus through increase in area and sowing of Hybrid
varieties around mid 70s. Since then country has become
self-sufficient in cotton production barring few years in the
late 90s and early 20s when large quantities of cotton had
to be imported due to lower crop production and increasing
cotton requirements of the domestic textile industry. Since
launch of “Technology Mission on Cotton” by Government
of India in February 2000 significant achievements have
been made in increasing yield and production through
development of high yielding varieties, appropriate transfer
of technology, better farm management practices, increased
area under cultivation of Bt cotton hybrids etc.
COTTON PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION
During 2012-13 With cotton production of 330 lakh
bales estimated by Cotton Advisory Board (CAB) in its
meeting held on 23rd January 2013 added with carryover

497
stock of 40.00 lakh bales and estimated imports of 20.00
lakh bales, the total availability in cotton season 2012-13, as
per cotton balance sheet drawn by CAB has been estimated
at 390.00 lakh bales as against 412.77 lakh bales in previous
year. With total estimated cotton consumption in the country
(including mill, small mill and non-mill consumption) at
276.00 lakh bales and estimated exports of 80.00 lakh bales,
total disappearance in cotton season 2012-13 has been
estimated at 356.00 lakh bales as against 383.77 lakh bales
in previous year.
INTERNATIONAL COTTON SITUATION
The world cotton acreage in 2012-13 has declined by
around 5% to 34.25 million hectares as against 36.04 million
hectares in previous year mainly because of switching over
to more lucrative alternatives such as soybean, maize etc.,
in response to lower cotton prices compared with previous
two seasons. With reduction in world cotton acreage, world
cotton production in current cotton season 2012-13 is
expected to decline by around 5% to 26.01 million tons as
against 27.44 million tons in 2011-12. On the basis of timid
recovery in global economy, world cotton consumption
in 2012-13 is expected to increase by around 3% to 23.40
million tons as against 22.78 million tons in previous year.
As a result, cotton stocks at the end of July 2013 are forecast
up by 19% to a record of 16.7 million tons. The details of
cotton balance sheet, as drawn by the International.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED COTTON
Genetically Modified (GM) cotton, popularly known in
India as ‘Bt-cotton’ was first developed and commercialized
by the US multinational company, Monsanto, and later, by
several other multinational companies such as Syngenta,
Bayer, Dow, also by CAAS (Chinese Academy of
Agricultural Sciences) and Indian companies such as JK
seeds and Metahelix. A bacterial gene cry1Ac was isolated
from a soil bacterium Bacillus thuringenesis, and introduced
into the cotton genome through genetic engineering using
a bacterium, Agrobacterium tumifasciens to develop
commercial GM cotton called ‘Bollgard’. Currently an
estimated 14.5 M hectares are under Bt cotton in 13 countries.
This accounts for 42% of the total global cotton area.
Recently, several other genes such as protease inhibitors,
Vip3A, Cry1C, Cry2Ab and Cry1F have been used for the
development of GM cotton and are being used for the control
of cotton bollworms and other leaf feeding caterpillars. After
intensive biosafety studies and extensive field trials under the
regulatory system of RCGM (Review Committee on Genetic
Manipulation) and GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval
Committee), Bt-cotton technology was first approved in
2002 by the GEAC for commercial cultivation in central
and south Indian cotton– growing zones in India, and later
in 2005 for cultivation in north India. ‘BikaneriNarma-Bt’
was developed by UAS, Dharwad, and NRCPB, New Delhi
and commercialized by CICR in 2009 after approval by the
GEAC in 2008.
Vaidkar, et al. in 2010 studied that Cotton is major
cash crop in the country and it is grown in rainfed as well as
irrigated condition. The area belongs to Yavatmal district is
identically suitable for Bt cotton cultivation and farmers of
this area cultivating Bt cotton on large scale. For this study,
three tahsils were selected. Four villages were selected form
498
each tahsil on basis of approachability to the site. From each
village ten farmers were selected. Farmers were classified
on the basis of farm size as small (00 to 2.00 ha) medium
(2.01 to 4.00 ha) and large (4.01 and above) farmers. Per
hectare total cost of cultivation (cost C) was Rs. 22875.17
at overall level. Cost A accounted for 75.09 per cent, 78.09
per cent and 81.20 per cent of total cost in case of small,
medium and large groups, respectively. At overall level
proportion of cost A in total cost was 79.10 per cent. Cost
B was 91.46 per cent, 94.85 per cent and 98.96 per cent in
small, medium of large group, respectively whereas, overall
cost B was worked out to 96.29 per cent. Gross return per
ha from Bt cotton cultivation in small, medium and large
group was Rs. 11589.48, Rs. 19898.90 and Rs. 23569.73,
respectively. Whereas, overall grows return was worked out
to Rs. 21089.01.The major problem faced by the Bt cotton
grower were inadequate irrigation facilities and low price for
Bt cotton produce.
In 2014 Prabhjot Singh Grover et al. conducted a
research in Punjab based on farm level experience collected
from 120 cotton growers (60bt and 60 non Bt cotton
growers) spreading over three districts during 2007-2008.
The study brought out that Bt cotton yielded around 24-28
% higher than non Bt .the return over variables cost in Bt and
non Bt cotton was Rs 25428 and Rs.19971/ha respectively.
Bt cotton fetched Rs 4486/ha 23.44% higher returns than
non Bt. Similarily, this paper examines the cost and returns
on cultivating the bt cotton . The paper is divided in five
sections. Section 2 describes the data. Section 3 presents
the framework for examine cost and returns of bt cotton
cultivation. Results are discussed in Section 4. Summary and
Conclusions are presented in Section 5.
2. DESIGN OF STUDY AND DATA
COLLECTION
The design of the study and data collection for the
present study include five components viz., selection of
the area, types of data and their sources, method of data
collection, tool for data collection and sampling technique.
Selection of the Area
The present study was conducted in the Sanawad
tehsil of Khargone districts in Madhya Pradesh, Sanawad is
a cotton growing belt in Madhya Pradesh.
Data and its Sources
The present study was mainly based on primary data.
The required primary data were collected from sample
farmers for the agricultural year 2013-14.The requisite
secondary data were collected from various published
records of government offices, block development offices,
reports, and other related sources.
Method of Data Collection
The primary data was collected personally by survey
method through intensive household survey. Effort was made
to collect data as reliable as possible from selected farmers.
Tool for Data Collection
For the collection of primary data, an in depth
household survey based on purposively developed and
survey instrument (well-structured schedule) was used. study area. The total wage included both cash and kind.
Sampling Technique In case of machinery, the hiring charges were applied
to all those cases that do not own these and cost of fuel,
The district comprises of nine development blocks, repairing and maintenance costs were calculated, for those
viz. Barwah, Bhikangaon, Jhirnya, Kasrawad, Khargone own these. In cases of material cost, cost of seed, manures,
Gogawan, Bhagwanpura, Segaon and Maheshwar. The chemicals, fertilizers were calculated at prevailing price at
selection of farmers was targeted to those farmers who was the time of application on per ha basis for farmers.
growing cotton and adopted the Bt cotton technology who
might have shifted from conventional cotton to bt cotton Fixed costs included interest on value of fixed capital
on their farms. The survey year was the 12 th year (2014) assets, Rental value of own land and depreciation on value
from the introduction of Bt technology in india. Therefore, of fixed capital assets. Simple interest was calculated on
all the farmers in the villages were using this technology. A working capital at flat rate of 8% per annum for half of the
sample of 71 farmers that were randomly selected by using crop duration. Rental value of land prevailed in the study
Probability proportionate sampling belongs to 6 villages area during study period was taken into consideration.
of Sanawad tehsil. At first the district was selected on the Depreciation on value of fixed capital asset per ha was
bases of highest production in the state. ,It comprises of 9 calculated and included in the cost on the basis of hours
tehsils out of these the Sanawad is chosen purposively as used for the crop. Depreciation was calculated by straight
the cultivation of cotton is more concentrated in these line method on the value of assets like farm buildings and
area. Further the villages were selected by simple random tools and implements used by the farmer. The total annual
sampling method (probalistic approach ) by using random depreciation and interest obtained on the value of farm assets
number generator. At last (finally) a sample of 71 farmers during the year was apportioned according to percentage to
comprising of cotton growers were selected randomly. These area under Bt cotton of total cropped area on the farm during
farmers were selected by the simple random method using the year. This was mainly done due to fact that these fixed
the random number generator. farm assets were used in all the crops grown by the farmers.
Gross and Net return
3. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
Estimation of cost and returns of Bt cotton cultivation Gross returns included total value of main product and
on farmers’ field. total value of by-product of the crop. For calculating the net
returns on per ha basis all the expenses were deducted from
To fulfill the objective i.e. cost of production and gross returns.
returns per ha, the CACP concept were employed as given
below: RESULT AND DISSCUSSION
CACP Cost concept Table:4.1 per cent share of different cost components
Cost A1 = All variable costs excluding family labour Semi
cost and including land revenue, depreciation and interest Mar- medi-
Particular small medi- large overall
on working capital. ginal um
um
Cost A2 = Cost A1 +Rent paid for leased-in land. variable cost 78.4 78.66 77.66 77.57 77.76 76.41
% share of all variable inputs
Cost B1 = Cost A1+Interest on the value of owned fixed cap- Hired Human Labour 19.14 24.82 22.18 25.94 25.93 23.61
ital assets (excluding land).
Bullock Pair 1.94 3.82 2.74 3.53 2.51 2.92
Cost B2 = Cost B1 +Rental value of owned land (Net of land Machine Labour 11.45 7.59 10.29 9.17 9.95 9.67
revenue). Seed 5.81 5.78 6.19 6.08 5.9 5.95
Cost C1 = Cost B1 +Imputed value of family labour. FYM 9.94 10.04 9.88 10.54 10.51 10.18
Fertilizer 9.90 8.15 8.27 8.87 10.26 9.08
Cost C2 = Cost B2 + Imputed value of family labour. PPC 24.72 24.52 23.96 24.22 24.84 24.45
Cost C2* = Cost C2 estimated by taking into account statu- Miscellaneous 1.19 1.42 1.51 1.28 0.9 1.26
tory minimum or actual wage rate, whichever is higher. fixed cost 21.59 21.33 22.33 22.42 22.23 21.52
Rental Value of Own Land 18.7 17.89 18.8 18.69 18.68 18.17
Cost D = Cost C*2 + 10 per cent of cost C2 * on account of
managerial function performed by farmers. Land Revenue 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
Depreciation 6.57 7.9 6.17 5.61 3.26 5.90
Total Cost of Production
It included operational costs, material costs and fixed
The share of total variable cost was 76.41per cent in
costs in Bt cotton crop cultivation. In operational costs the
the total cost. Among the different category of farmers, the
cost of hiring human labour, own, machine power were
total variable cost incurred per hectare by small farmers
estimated at prevailing rate during study period in the study
was the highest (Rs.52748.82/ha) as compared to marginal
area. Value of hired labour was computed at actual wage
(Rs.50288.90/ha),semi medium(Rs.49552.80/ha), medium
paid in cash or kind and the kind part of payment also was
(Rs.49785.12/ha) and large category farmers (Rs.49939.70/
converted into monetary terms at prevailing market price to
ha) and in overall category it is Rs.50463.07/ha.
arrive at actual wage rate. Imputed value of family labour
was also calculated using the prevailing wage rate in the The distribution pattern of operational cost under

499
various inputs revealed that cost of human labour accounted
for the highest share in the case of small farmers i.e.
(Rs.13093.00/ha) compared to medium farmers Rs.12916.00/
ha, large (Rs.12950.00/ha),marginal (Rs. 9630.00/ha),semi
medium (Rs.10995.00/ha).
Whereas bullock labour cost was the highest in
the case of small farmers (Rs.2017.00/ha) followed by
medium (Rs.1823.53/ha) ,semi medium(Rs.1362.00/ha)
large(Rs.12950.00/ha)and marginal farmers (Rs.980.00/
ha). The cost of machine labour was lowest in case of small
farmers (Rs.4007.00/ha) and maximum in case of marginal
farmers i.e.(Rs.5760.00/ha).The cost of seed was the lowest
in case of marginal farmers (Rs.2922.00/ha) and the highest
in the case of semi medium farmers (Rs.3069.00/ha).The
cost of FYM was the lowest in case of semi medium farmers
(Rs.4900.00/ha) as compared to marginal(Rs.5000.00/
ha),medium(Rs.5250.00) and large farms (Rs. 5250.00) and
was highest for small farms (Rs. Rs.5300.00/ha).It could be
also observed from the table that the expenditure on pesticide
was the highest (Rs.12939.00/ha) for small farmers followed
by marginal (Rs.12436.00/ha), large (Rs.12408.00) medium
(Rs.12060.00/ha)and semi medium (Rs.11873.00/ha).

Table no 4.2 Cost of cultivation for Bt cotton cultivation

Marginal
Variable Cost Small Farmer Semi Medium Medium Small Large Small Overall
Farmer
Hired Human Labour 9630.00 13093.00 10995.00 12916.00 12950.00 11916.80
Bullock Pair 980.00 2017.00 1362.00 1762.00 1255.00 1475.20
Machine Labour 5760.00 4007.00 5100.00 4566.00 4970.00 4880.60
Seed 2922.00 3049.00 3069.00 3027.00 2950.00 3003.40
FYM 5000.00 5300.00 4900.00 5250.00 5250.00 5140.00
Fertilizer 4980.00 4300.00 4100.00 4420.00 5125.00 4585.00
PPC 12436.00 12939.00 11873.00 12060.00 12408.00 12343.20
Electricity 530.00 1213.00 644.00 428.00 310.00 625.00
Land Revenue 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00
Depreciation 911.28 1130.30 880.00 808.00 466.00 839.11
Miscellaneous 600.00 750.00 750.00 640.00 450.00 638.00
Sub Total 43761.28 47810.3 43685.00 45889.00 46146.00 45458.32
Interest on Working Capital 3500.90 3824.82 3494.80 3671.12 3691.68 3636.66
Cost A1 47262.18 51635.12 47179.80 49560.12 49837.70 49094.98
Rental Value of Own Land 12000.00 12000.00 12000.00 12000.00 12000.00 12000.00
Interest on Fixed Capital 930.00 1160.00 1360.00 1570.00 1800.00 1364.00
Cost B 60192.18 64795.12 60539.80 63130.12 63637.70 62458.98
Owned Human Labour 3950.00 2256.00 3265.00 1045.00 580.00 2219.20
Total cost (COST C) 64142.18 67051.12 63804.80 64175.12 64217.70 66042.18
Transportation 1125.00 1125.00 1125.00 1125.00 1125.00 1125.00
Yield of Main Product(In Qtl.) 24.37 23.89 23.58 23.21 22.58 23.52
Selling Price of Main Product 4650.00 5000.00 5200.00 4700.00 5300.00 4970.00
Return by Main Product 113343.75 119450.00 122616.00 109087.00 119674.00 116834.20
Yield of by Product(In Qtl.) 24.62 28.77 26.68 25.47 23.93 25.89
Selling Price of By Product 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00
Return by by-Product 1107.90 1294.65 1200.60 1146.15 1076.85 1165.23
Gross RETURN 114451.65 120744.70 123816.60 110233.20 120751.00 117999.40
NET RETURN 50309.46 53693.53 60011.80 46058.03 56533.20 51957.20
Benefit Cost Ratio 1.78 1.80 1.94 1.71 1.88 1.78
TOTAL VARIABLE COST 50288.90 52748.82 49552.80 49785.12 49939.70 50463.07
TOTAL FIXED COST 13853.28 14302.30 14252.00 14390.00 14278.00 14215.12
% Share of Variable cost 78.40 78.66 77.66 77.57 77.76 76.41
%Share of Fixed cost 21.59 21.33 22.33 22.42 22.23 21.52

The highest expenditure on fertilizers of ha,14252.00/ha and Rs.14278.00/ha, respectively).

Rs.5125.00/ha was observed on large farms followed by
marginal(Rs.4980.00/ha), medium(Rs. 4420.00/ha), small
(Rs.4300.00/ha) and semi medium(Rs.4100.00/ha) farms.
The same is reported by Pavan kumar B. Gamanagatti 2011.
The share of fixed cost in the total cost of cultivation
was 21.52 per cent in the overall category in the study
area. The farm category-wise analysis revealed that fixed
cost incurred per hectare by medium farmers was highest
(Rs.14390/ha) as compared to marginal ,small and semi
medium and large farmers (Rs.13853.28/ha, Rs.14302.30/
Among the different components of fixed costs, rental
value of land was the highest which accounted for 18.17
percent of the total cost of cultivation in the overall study
area. The other items like land revenue, depreciation charges
and interest on fixed capital are of minor importance.
The same is reported by Pavankumar B. Gamanagatti
in (2011) that Among the different items of fixed costs,
rental value of land was the highest which accounted for
22.64 percent of the total cost of cultivation in the overall

500
study area. The other items like land revenue depreciation
changes and interest on fixed cost of are minor importance.
Among the five categories of farmers the total cost
incurred by the small farmers was the highest (Rs.64795.12/
ha) as compared to marginal, semi medium and medium and
large farmer ( Rs. 64142.18/ha Rs.63804.8/ha 64175.12.00/
ha, and Rs. 64217.7/ha, respectively. The farm category
wise analysis of gross return shows that the gross return
obtained per hectare large farmers were high(Rs.120751.00/
ha) as compared to marginal(Rs.114451.65/ha)
,small(Rs.120744.70),semi medium(Rs.123816.60/ha)
and medium(Rs.110233.20/ha). The same also reported
by Pavan kumar B. Gamanagatti (2011)also find that The
farm category wise analysis of gross returns revealed that
the gross returns obtained per hectare by semi medium
farmers was highest(Rs.123816.60 /ha). With respect to
net returns also the per hectare net returns obtained by the
semi medium were high (Rs.60011.80/ha) as compared
to marginal(Rs.50309.46/ha),small(Rs.53693.53.70),
medium(Rs.46058.03/ha) and large farmers (Rs. 56533.20
/ha).The cost of production was Rs. 2807.08/ha for overall
category of sample farmers. The benefit cost ratio obtained
is 1.78 for overall study area. This shows on investing one
rupees it generate one repees and seventy eight paisa i.e. the
cotton cultivation is beneficial in this particular area.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The variable cost was highest for small farmers due
to the cost of human labour, bullock labour, cost of FYM,
expenditure on pesticide and that was of semi medium
farmers was lowest. The share of fixed cost was highest for
medium farmers due to the rental value of land. The total
cost of cultivation in the study area was Rs. (Rs.64795.12/ha)
for small farmers that was highest as compared to marginal,
semi medium, medium and large farmer (Rs.64142.18/
ha Rs.63804.8/ha 64175.12.00/ha, and Rs. 64217.7/ha,
respectively. The farm category wise analysis of gross
return shows that the gross return obtained per hectare semi
medium farmers were high (Rs.123816.60 /ha) as compared
to marginal (Rs.114451.65/ha),small (Rs.120744.70),
medium (Rs.110233.20/ha) and large (Rs. 120751.00 /ha)
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Balaganoormath, L. B. Sangappa Prabhugouda,
Kamaraddi(2013)“An analysis of economic
performance of Bt cotton growers in Gadag
district of Karnataka” Environment and
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Cabanilla LS Abdoulaye T Sanders JS (2005). “Economic
cost of non adoption of Bt cotton in West Africa”,
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Devi dass, Virendersingh Khatkar ,R.K. Jogender Singh,
Parminder Singh (2014) “Economic analysis
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Gamanagatti P. B., Dodamani M. T., Gaddi G. M., Mena
sinahal, A. S.(2012). “Cost and returns
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farm sizes in northern transitional zone,
Karnataka.”International Journal of Agricultural
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V.,(2012) “Gross monetary returns (Rs./
ha), net monetary returns (Rs./ha) and
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Singh Grover, P., and D.K.(2014).“An economic evaluation
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Vaidkar, R. D., Wahile, D. P., and Bele, V. R.(2010)“Economics
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 502-503 (2015)
EFFECT OF SULPHUR APPLICATION ON SOIL NUTRIENT STATUS OF
BLACKGRAMIN TYPIC RHODUSTALF
B.GOKILA1 AND K.BASKAR2
Department of Soils and Environment, Agriculture College& Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai -625 104, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT
Effect of soil and foliar application of soil available nutrients was investigated on blackgram in Typic Rhodustalf ofMadurai Dis-
trict. The field experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with recommended dose of fertilizer with two levels of differ-
ent S sources as Gypsum, Ammonium sulphate and Potassium sulphate which was supplied through soil and foliar application.
It increased the soil available KMnO4 – N (234 kg ha-1), Olsen – P (28.8 kg ha-1), NH4OAc- K (251 kg ha-1) and CaCl2 extractable
S (15.8 mg kg-1). Among the treatments application of 100 per cent recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) with Potassium sulphate
@ 20 kg ha-1 plus foliar spray of 0.5 % K2SO4 (T9)wereincreased the soil N, P, K and S status inblackgram of TypicRhodustalf .

Keywords: Sulphur, Blackgram, Pulses, Typic Rhodustalf

INTRODUCTION
Blackgram (Vigna mungo) is one of the important solubilisation of mussoorie rocks phosphate on addition of
pulse crops cultivated throughout the India. Further, elemental S and pyrite and on inoculation with S and Fe-
India is the leading country in pulse cultivation area and oxidising bacteria in soil was studied (Kapoor and Mishra,
contributes 25 per cent of world production and 27 per cent 1991, Costa et al., 1992). Bearing this situation urges the
of consumption respectively but also the largest importer of need to improve soil nutrients and pulse productivity.
pulses with the contribution of 34 per cnet of the global food
use. Black gram is predominately cultivated and consumed MATERIALS AND METHODS
in southern states likes, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and
A field experiment was conducted atfarmer’sfield
Karnataka. Blackgram is an important crop because of its
in Thenamallur village, T.Kallikudi block, Madurai district
multiple uses, which include improving soil fertility through
with the test crop of blackgram (vamban 4) during 2014 to
biological nitrogen fixation and key sources of protein. For
evaluate the effect of sulphur supplementation for growth and
green revolution, the national average pulse productivity (638
yield of blackgram in Typic Rhodustalf. The experimental
kg ha-1) declined far below than the global average of 857 kg
site located at 9° 41’ 17.6” N latitude and 77° 55ʹ 50.6” E
ha-1. Consequently, per capita availability of pulses declined
longitude at an elevation of 127 above MSL. The soil of the
from 60.7 to 29.4 g per day during 1951 to 2007(GOI,2008)
experimental site belonged to Vylogam series and according
against world health organisation recommended level of 80 g
to USDA soil taxonomy it could be classified as Sandy clay
per day. International Plant Nutrition Institute has confirmed
loam fine loamy mixed isohyperthermic Typic Rhodustalf.
that Indian soils are under nutrient crisis and also concluded
The characteristics of the experiment soil, determined by
that in the absence of nutrient recycling “it is likely that the
standard methods are presented in Table 1.The recommended
nutrientbalance sheet of Indian agriculture will continue to
dose of nutrients for blackgram as 25: 50: 25 kg N, P2O5 and
be negative”. Further, continuous deterioration of physical,
K2O hectare-1. The field experiment was laid out in randomized
chemical and biological properties invited secondary and
block design (RBD) with combination of recommended dose
micro nutrient deficiencies which prevents farmers to adopt
of fertiliser with two levels of three sulphur sources such
pulse crops even in traditional pulse growing tracts. In many
as gypsum, potassium sulphate and ammonium sulphate
regions in the world S deficiency has been recognized as a
for soil application (SA) and foliar spray of 0.5 % K2SO4
limiting factor for crop production. In Tamil Nadu, sulphur
in 14 treatments for blackgram and replicated as thrice. The
deficiency (7- 40%) has been found mostly in red soils
nutrient status of the soil was analysed by standard analytical
(Alfisol), laterites and alluvial soils with low organic matter
procedure. The experimental data were analysed as per the
content (Sankaran, 1989). Sulphur deficiency in Indian soils
procedure outlined by Gomez and Gomez (1984). The critical
has been on the increase since the adoption of intensive
difference was worked out as five percent probability level
agricultural practices. The deficiency, which noticed many
for significant results. Wherever the treatment differences
years ago only in few localized areas, has engulfed much
were found significant, critical difference were worked out
larger areas in its fold today. In mid 1990s about 51 million
at five per cent probability level.
hectares or about 30 per cent of cultivated area in the country
experienced varying degrees of S deficiency (Tandon, 1991).
The lack of S was reported to limit the efficiency of added N RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(Fazli et al., 2005); therefore, S addition becomes necessary Soil nutrient status
to achieve maximum efficiency of applied nitrogenous
fertiliser. Legumes and pulses usually require almost equal Soil and foliar application of sulphur influenced the
amounts of P and S. When P and S are present below the soil available nutrients such as N, P, Kand S in post harvest
critical level in soil, plant growth and quality of production soil of blackgram in Typic Rhodustalf (Table 2).Among the
are affected adversely (Dube and Mishra, 1970).The sulphur sources soil application of 100 per cent RDF with

502
Potassiumsulphate @ 20 kg ha-1 plus foliar spray of 0.5% T12 226 26.9 236 13.5
K2SO4 (T9) were recordedhigh N (234 kg ha-1) , P (28.8 kg T13 229 27.2 237 14.0
ha-1), K (251 kg ha-1) and S (15.8 mg kg-1) in post harvest T14 218 24.0 225 9.40
soil. The present result shows that application of potassium
Mean 225 26.2 234 12.8
sulphate rated @ 20 kg ha-1 through soil application and
foliar spraying of 0.5 % K2SO4(T9) significantly influenced SEd 3.62 0.53 3.69 0.17
on soil nutrient status of blackgram. This might be attributed
CD(p=0.05) 7.45 1.10 7.59 0.36
with be due to increased levels of S and its availability along
with major nutrients which improve the soil nutrient status
of soil in blakgram.In India, red and lateritic soils cover a
large area and these soils are well drained and acidic with REFERENCES
lower cation exchange capacity and organic matter content Costa, A. C. A., R.A. Medronhe and R.P. Pecanha.1992.
and have mixed or kaolintic clay mineralogy enriched Biotechnology Letters., 5: 53-58.
with sesquioxides is often deficient in S. In order to soil
applied sulphur were increased the soil nutrient status due to Dube, S. D and P.H. Mishra. 1970. J.Indian Soc.Soil Sci.,
increased the solubility andexchange of cations in the ionic 18: 375- 378.
sites. These results was corroborating with the findings of Fazli, I.S., S. Ahmad, A. Jamal and M.Z. Abdin. 2005.
Costa et al., 1992.The above investigations was strongly Indian Journal of Plant Physiology., 10:4,
recommended the Sulphur also one of the major nutrients 354- 361
like NPK is recognised the integrated and other new fertilizer
recommendation policies to rectify the sulphur deficiency Gomez. K.A and A.A.Gomez. 1984. “Statistical procedures
and sub optimal yield. for Agricultural Research ”, John Wiley and
Sons, New Delhi, pp.680.
Table 1. Initial physico - chemical properties of the experi- Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department
mental site of Agricultural and Cooperation, Directorate of
Sl. No. Soil Parameters Experimental Result Economics and Statistics: Agricultural statistics
1. Textural class Sandy clay loam at a glance 2008 (http:// dancet.nic.in/eands/
2. Soil reaction (pH ) 7.17
latest_2006.htm accessed on 19.12.2008).
3. EC (dSm-1) 0.43 Kapoor, K.K., M.M Mishra, R.S. Malik and K.C.
4. CEC (c mol (p+) kg-1) 12.3 Banger.1991. Environment and Ecology, 9:
5. AEC (c molc kg-1) 4.2 635- 637.
6. Total Sesquioxides (%) 12.6
Sankaran, K.1989.Investigation in sulphur status of
7. Organic carbon (g kg-1) 5.43
Tamilnadu soils.Ph.D Thesis, Tamil Nadu
8. Alk - KMnO4 – N (kg ha-1) 234
Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
9. Olsen – P (kg ha-1) 24.8
10. NH4OAc - K (kg ha-1) 244 Tandon, H.L.S. 1991. In: Sulphur research and agricultural
11. CaCl2 – S (mg kg-1) 9.9 production in India. 3rd edition, TSI,
12. Exchangeable Ca (c mol (p+) kg-1) 7.8 Washington. pp: 140.
13. Exchangeable Mg (c mol (p+) kg-1) 2.92
14. DTPA extractable Zn (mg kg-1) 0.92
15. DTPA extractable Fe (mg kg-1) 9.10
16. DTPA extractable Cu (mg kg-1) 1.64
17. DTPA extractable Mn (mg kg-1) 34.8
Table 2. Effect of sulphur on soil nutrient status post harvest
soils in Typic Rhodustalf of black gram
Olsen
CaCl2
KMnO4 –N –P NH4OAc-K
Treatment –S
(kg ha-1) (kg (kg ha-1)
(mg kg-1)
ha-1)
T1 215 23.8 218 8.90
T2 219 24.4 224 11.8
T3 221 24.9 227 11.9
T4 222 25.2 229 11.9
T5 223 25.7 231 12.2
T6 230 27.6 238 14.5
T7 231 28.0 244 14.5
T8 233 28.2 248 15.1
T9 234 28.8 251 15.8
T10 224 26.0 232 12.5
T11 224 26.7 235 12.9

503
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 504-506 (2015)
BENEFITS AVAILED BY THE RURAL WOMEN ABOUT INTEGRATED CHILD
DEVELOMENT SERVICE (ICDS) SCHEME
B.M. THOMBRE1, M.B. VALVI2 AND D.D. SURADKAR3
Government of India proclaimed a National Policy on Children in August 1974 declaring children as, “supremely important asset”.
The policy provided the required framework for assigning priority to different need of the child. Before and after independence vari-
ous programmers to improve nutritional and health status of children have been lunched. The programme of the Integrated Child De-
velopment Services (ICDS) was launched in 1975 seeking to provide an integrated package of services in a convergent manner for
the holistic development of the country. It is an inter-sectoral programme which seeks directly to reach out children, below the age
of six years, especially from vulnerable and remote areas and give them a head-start by providing an integrated programme of ear-
ly childhood education, health and nutrition.No programme on early childhood care and education can succeed unless mothers are
also brought within it ambit as it is in the lap of the mother that human beings learn the first lessons in life. Integrated Child Devel-
opment Services is one of the most ambitious multidimensional welfare programme to reach millions of the mothers and their chil-
dren who are caught in the grip of malnutrition, diseases, illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. The scheme was launched in the coun-
try in 1975-76 with only 33 Integrated Child Development Services projects in the country, with the following major objectives

1. To improve the nutritional and health status of the children
in the age group of 0-6 years.
2. To lay the foundations for proper psychological, physical
and social development of the child.
3. To reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnu-
trition and school dropout.
4. To achieve effective co-ordinated policy and its imple-
mentation amongst the various departments to promote child
development.
5. To enhance the capability of the mother to look after
the normal health and nutritional need of the child through
proper nutrition and health education.
In order to increase area under ICDS respondents must
have knowledge about it.
Keeping all above problems the present study entitled,
“Benefits availed by the rural women about Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) Scheme” with the following
specific objectives
1. To study personal characteristics of rural women benefi-
ciaries about ICDS.
2. To study the knowledge of rural women beneficiaries
about ICDS.
5. To study the constraints faced by the rural women about
availing benefits of ICDS and obtain their suggestions.
METHEDOLOGY
Present study was carried out in randomly selected
talukas of Latur district. Out of these three tahsils namely
Ausa, Chakur, and Renapur were selected randomly by
lottery method. From each tahasils five villages and eight
respondents from each villages were selected randomly
on the basis of nth number method to comprise the total
sample of 120 respondents for study. The respondents
were personally interviewed with pre-structural interview
schedule consisting of the knowledge test.
The independent variables are age, education,
family size, family type, occupation, caste, annual income,
social participation, source of information, knowledge and
dependent variable are benefits availed.
FINDINGS
1. Personal characteristics of rural
women beneficiaries about ICDS
It is revealed that majority of the Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries (66.67%) were
from middle age group, 20.83 per cent of the beneficiaries
were from old age group and 12.50 per cent beneficiaries
were from young age group. Age of the beneficiaries is an
important factor in deciding benefits availed of Integrated
Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries. Younger
women beneficiaries are more energetic, dynamic having
more risk bearing capacity. This finding is in the line with the
findings of Sawandkar (2012) and Wankhade (1997).
The data clearly shows that 67.50 per cent of the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
were educated up to secondary school level, 10.83 per cent
of them were illiterate, 10.00 per cent of them were having
higher secondary school level while, 7.50 per cent of them
were having primary school level, while 2.50 per cent were
can read and write only, 1.67 per cent of the Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries were graduate,
whereas not a single Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiary was post graduate. Generally, the
villages are having the educational facility up to primary and
secondary school level and for getting higher studies one
has to go cities which gives rise to different problems. This
clearly indicates that large proportion of the Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries had education
up to primary and secondary school level category. This
observation is similar with findings of Sawandkar (2012).
The data showed that about 86.67 per cent of the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
were from medium size family, While 12.50 per cent were
belonging to large size family and 0.83 per cent of them were
from small size family. In rural area most of the family type
is joint because of traditional rural social system that’s have
medium number of person. The findings are consistent with

504
findings of Kakakar (1987), Katole (2001) and Kore (2005).
The data showed that about 62.50 per cent
of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
beneficiaries were from joint family, while 37.50 per cent
were from nuclear family. In our country, rural peoples have
homogeneous habitat; hence most of the Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries were from joint
family. This finding is in the line with the findings of Nirmal
et al. (1991), Kignokar (1989) and Sawandkar (2012).
The data showed that the occupations of most of the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
47.50 per cent were house work and agriculture, 30.00 per
cent in house work and labour, 10.83 per cent in house work,
agriculture and labour, 9.17 per cent were engaged in house
work, agriculture and business, 1.67 per cent in house work
and whereas 0.83 per cent performing only house work and
service. Most of the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiaries engaged in house work and agricultural
activities. This finding is similar to Kingaonkar (1989) and
Sawandkar (2012).
It is observed that 50.00 per cent of Integrated
Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries to the
higher caste group i.e Maratha, Bramins, Jain etc., 28.33
and 1.67 per cent of them belonged to the lower caste i.e.
Shedule caste (SC), and Shedule tribes (ST) etc. And 12.05
and 7.50 per cent to the middle caste group i.e.Other back
caste (OBC), Vimukta Jati / Nomedic Tribes (VJ/NT). This
finding is supported by the findings of Thombre (1993) and
Waghmare (2011).
It is observed that 90.00 per cent of
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
had medium annual income followed by 8.33 per cent and
1.67 per cent had high and low annul income, respectively.
Such findings are due to the majority of the Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries were belonging
to medium and small land holding category. Naturally, the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
also came from same category of economic condition in
large number. This finding is in the line with the findings of
Kulkarni (2003), Landge (2009) and Sawandkar (2012).
It is elucidated that majority
(77.50%) of the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiaries had low level of social participation
while, 14.17 per cent were medium social participation and
only 8.33 per cent of Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiaries were having high level of social
participation. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
beneficiaries were busy in their home management, child,
and farming activities. They got little leisure to participate
in different social organizations. They participate only when
it is an important on the basis of their interest. Therefore,
most of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
beneficiaries were noticed from low social participation
category. This finding is similar to those of Gunjkar (2005),
Kore (2005) and Nakhate (2006).
It is revealed that nearly half (45.00%) of the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
were used medium sources of information while, 36.67 per
cent and 18.33 per cent of them were in low and high sources
of information respectively. The different information
505
sources led through understanding of new information and
thereby motivate the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiaries for full benefits availed of Integrated
Child Development Services (ICDS). Similar findings were
reported by Deshmukh (2003) and Rewatkar (2003).
It is observed that maximum (65.83%) of the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
were used medium knowledge while, 20.00 per cent and
14.17 per cent of them were in low and high knowledge
respectively. It is indicated that the knowledge level of
majority of the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiaries was medium. The medium knowledge
level of majority of Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) beneficiaries might be due to the fact that they had
been exposed to different sources of information at medium
level. The finding of the study is simslar to that of Thombre
(1993) and Waghmare (2011).
2. The knowledge of rural women beneficia-
ries about ICDS.
It is observed from Table 1 that maximum (65.83%) of the
ICDS beneficiaries were used medium knowledge
while, 20.00 per cent and 14.17 per cent of them were in low
and high knowledge respectively.
Table.1 Distribution of ICDS beneficiaries according to
their knowledge
Category Frequency Percentage
1. Low 24 20.00
2. Medium 79 65.83
3. High 17 14.17
It is indicated that the knowledge level of majority of
the ICDS beneficiaries was medium. The medium knowledge
level of majority of ICDS beneficiaries might be due to the
fact that they had been exposed to different sources
of information at medium level. The finding of the
study is similar to that of Thombre (1993) and
Waghmare (2011).
3. Suggestions given by beneficiaries of Integrated
Child Development Services (ICDS)
It is noted in Table.2 that 54.16 per cent beneficiaries
suggest that there should be proper building for ‘Anganwadi’.
Also 48.33 per cent suggested that there should be abundant
and good quality medicine for vaccination, About 42.50 per
cent opined that there should be sufficient and well sterilized
utensils for cooking supplementary food. About 37.50
per cent Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
beneficiaries suggested that there should be increment in the
payment of ‘Anganwadi’ workers. while 35.83 per cent asked
the need of proper supplementary food supply, 32.50 per cent
given the priority to have stationary for pre-school education
whereas 28.33 per cent beneficiaries viewed that vaccination
campaign should be well managed and implemented on
proper time, Also 26.66 per cent given the facilities of basic CONCLUSIONS
needs, sufficient mat availability was the need for 24.16 per Majority of the Integrated Child Development
cent. Adding to this, 05.83 per cent beneficiaries think that Services (ICDS) beneficiaries middle age group, educated
there should be playground or other facilities. This finding is up to secondary school level, medium size family, joint
supported by the finding of Thombre (1993) and Sawandkar family, medium annual income, occupations of most ICDS
(2012). beneficiaries were house work and Agriculture, low level of
social participation and medium sources of information and
Table.2 Distribution of ICDS beneficiaries according to middle level knowledge.
suggestion given by them
Sug-
Based on the findings of the present study revealed
gesions Frequency Percent Rank
that knowledge by the rural women about Integrated
Child Development Services knowledge was to the extent
1. In ‘Anganwadi’ their should be available 32 26.66 VIII of medium. These findings suggested that there should be
facilities of basic needs.
proper training to ‘Anganwadi’ worker which will help to
increase knowledge by the rural women about Integrated
2. There should be proper building for 65 54.16 I Child Development Service.
‘Anganwadi’ The results presented in earlier chapter portrayed that
3. Vaccination campaign should be well 34 28.33 VII most of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
beneficiaries suggested that there should be proper building
managed and implemented on due time. for ‘Anganwadi’ and there should be abundant and good
4. There should be abundant and good 58 48.33 II
quality medicine for vaccination.

quality medicines available for vaccination.

REFERENCES
5. There should be proper supply of 43 35.83 V Rathod, R.M. (1999). A study on knowledge and training
supplementary food.
need of beneficiaries about recommended
Watershed Development Programme. M.Sc.
6. For cooking supplementary food, 51 42.50 III (Agri.) Thesis (unpub), Marathwada Krishi
there is necessity of sufficient and well
Vidhyapeeth, Parbhani. (M.S.)

sterilized utensils in kitchen. Suryawanshi (2002). Knowledge level of farm women about
Rural Development Programme with special
7. There should be availability of stationary 39 32.50 VI references to women development programme.
for pre-school education. Thesis (M.Sc.), unpub. Marathwada Krishi
Vidhyapeeth, Parbhani. (M.S.)
8. There should be sufficient availability of 29 24.16 IX
Waghmare, V.V. and Kadam (2011). Knowledge and Benefits
mats for seating children. availed by Members of Self Help Groups. J. of
9. The payment given to ‘Anganwadi’ 45 37.50 IV Ext. Edn. Manag. Vol. XII.
worker and helper should be incremented. Wankhade, V.D. (1997). Knowledge level of women
beneficiaries of ICDS. Thesis M.Sc. (Agri.)
10. Other instructions 7 05.83 X
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krushi Vidhapeeth,
Akola. (M.S.)

506
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 507-509 (2015)
PERFORMANCE OF NEWLY RELEASED WHEAT VARIETIES AT FARMER’S FIELD
SAVITA GUPTA, S. P. SINGH, *CHANDAN KUMAR SINGH, VINOD KUMAR SINGH AND VINAY SINGH

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding

Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad
* Ph. D. Student, Department of Plant Pathology, NDUAT, Kumarganj, Faizabad

ABSTRACT
Front Line Demonstration is one of the most powerful tools for transfer of technology. The present study was undertaken to find
out the yield gap through FLDs on wheat crop. Front line demonstrations were conducted in 6 districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh
during 2012-2014 by 30 farmers on 25 ha. land. Newly released wheat varieties DBW 39, CBW 38 and KRL 213 were distrib-
uted to farmers’ alongwith other existing varieties, as check. Prevailing farmers’ practices were treated as control for com-
parison with recommended practices. The results showed that performance of newly released varieties were better on farm-
er’s field than old varieties. DBW 39 sown by 10 farmers resulted in 39.0 per cent increase over check and CBW-38 gave 35
per cent increase while KRL 213 gave only 14.09 per cent increase over check. Highest benefit cost ratio was obtained with DBW
(1.95) followed by CBW (1.93) in demonstration practices while it was only 1.49 and 1.43 in farmer’s practices respectively.

Key word: Front line demonstration, wheat, yield, BC ratio

INTRODUCTION

Wheat is second most important cereal crop after rice
in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Productivity of wheat is very low
because farmers use old varieties like HD 2285, Lok-1,
HUW 234, Halna, PBW 154, PBW 343, PBW 373, HD 2329
etc. These varieties suffer from diseases like foliar blight and
rusts, resulting in yield losses at farmer’s field.
Delayed sowing, due to late harvesting of paddy,
inadequate irrigation facilities, small land holdings and
lack of availability of seed of improved varieties, were
constraints leading to low productivity in eastern Uttar
Pradesh. Moreover poor agronomic practices such as seed
rate, selection of suitable variety, nutrient management,
weed management and irrigation management etc. were also
responsible for low production of wheat in India (Nagrajan,
2005). Farmers are not aware about new improved varieties
which are a major constraint in enhancing the wheat
production and productivity. For this purpose front line
demonstrations of wheat were allotted to our university by
DWR Karnal during 2012-2014.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in randomly selected
villages of Sultanpur, Ambedkarnagar, Faizabad, Amethi,
Gonda and Basti districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh during
rabi session 2012-2014 under front line demonstration
programme. During these two years of study an area of 25
ha. land was covered with plot size minimum 0.4 ha. (1
acre). 30 farmers were selected randomly for the cultivation
of newly released wheat varieties DBW 39, CBW 38 and
KRL 213 against farmer’s old varieties (check). All the
package of practices have been followed (Table-1). Seed
rate 100 Kg/ha. and NPK 120:60:60 has been proposed.
Traditional practices were maintained is case of local check.
Visit of farmers and extension functionaries was organized
at demonstration plots to disseminate the message at large
scale. The scientists of All India Coordinated Wheat and
Barley project provided technical information to farmers
regarding line sowing, fertilizer application, herbicide
application, harvesting etc. during the course of training and
visit. The data were collected from both FLD plots as well
as control plot and finally the technology gap, extension gap,
technological index alongwith the benefit cost ratio were
calculated (Samui et. al., 2000).
Technology gap= Potential yield-Demonstration yield
Extension gap= Demonstration yield-Farmer’s field yield
Technology index=Potential yield-Demonstration yield X 100
Potential yield
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results of front line demonstrations were personated
in table 2 & 3. A perusal of data showed that yield of wheat
fluctuated during 2012-13 and 2013-14. It is clear from table
2 that use of newly released improved varieties alongwith
Azotobactor seed treatment, proper dose of fertilizer and
timely management of diseases resulted in better yield in
varieties like CBW-38, DBW-39 and KRL-213 in comparison
to old varieties like PBW 154, PBW 373 and HD 2285.
Highest net return was found with DBW-39 (Rs. 30684=00/
ha.) in comparison to farmer’s practice (Rs. 15015=00/ha.)
followed by CBW-38 (Rs. 29917=00/ha) against farmer’s
practice (Rs. 13125=00/ha.). Highest benefit cost ratio was
obtained with DBW-39 followed by CBW-38 (Table-3).
The maximum yield of CBW 38(46.35 q/ha.) was
recorded in 2013-14 followed by 42.5 q/ha. in 2012-13
against check 32.10 q/ha. and 34.0 q/ha. respectively.
Which were 44.3 and 24.9 per cent increase over check
variety PBW 373 and PBW 154. The similar results of yield
enhancement in wheat crop in front line demonstration has
been documented by Tyagi (1997). The results are also in
conformity with the findings of Singh et. al. (1995). The
results clearly indicate the positive effect of FLDs over the
existing practices towards enhancing the yield of wheat in
eastern Uttar Pradesh.

507
 The extension gap showed a decreasing trend. The November,
extension gap ranging between 4.2 14.25q/ha. during the 3. Time of sowing November
December
study period emphasizes the need to educate the farmers 4. Method of sowing Line sowing Broadcasting
throughvarious means for adoption
Azotobactor 200 ml in Without seed
5. Seed treatment
Table-1 COMPARISON BETWEEN FARMER’S PRAC- 15 lit. water/100 Kg seed treatment
TICE AND DEMONSTRATION PRACTICE IN WHEAT
6. Seed rate 100 Kg/ha. 120-150 Kg/ha.
CROP
7. Fertilizer dose NPK (120:60:60) NPK (120:60:0)
Sl Farmer’s One spray of 0.1%
Particulars Wheat demonstration Non judicious
No. practice Propiconazole 25 E.C.
8. Plant protection use of pesticides
for control of rust and
1. Farming situation Irrigated Irrigated and fungicides
foliar blight
CBW 38 PBW 154 pendimethalin@55 ml
Variety –
2. DBW 39 PBW 373 in 10 lit of water as a pre
One weeding,
emergence followed by
KRL 213 HD 2285 9. Weed management no weedicide
Metsualfuron@ 0.8 g.
application
a. i. in 10 lit. of water as
post emergence

Table-2 PRODUCTIVITY, TECHNOLOGY GAP, EXTENSION GAP AND TECHNOLOGY INDEX IN WHEAT VARI-
ETIES UNDER FRONT LINE DEMONSTRATION

Yield (q/ha)
Wheat varieties % Technology Extension Technology
Sl Area No. of increase
Year Demon gap gap Index
No. (ha.) farmers Potential Check over
stration control (q/ha.) (q/ha.) (q/ha.)
Test Local
variety check
CBW-38 PBW- 5 6 55.0 42.5 34.0 25.00 12.5 8.5 22.72
2012- 154
1
2013
DBW-39 “ 5 6 55.0 45.5 32.75 38.92 9.50 12.75 17.27
PBW
CBW-38 5 55.0 46.35 32.10 44.39 8.65 14.25 15.72
373 6
2013-
2 DBW-39 “ 5 6 55.0 46.65 33.50 39.25 8.35 13.50 15.18
2014
HD-
KRL-213 5 6 40.0 34.0 29.80 14.09 6.0 4.2 15.0
2285
Table-3 COMPARISION OF ECONOMICS OF FLD OF WHEAT BETWEEN FARMER’S PRACTICIES AND DEMON-
STRATION PRACTICES
Year Variety Check No. Yield (q/ha.) % in- Grass expenditure Grass returns Net returns Addi- Har- B. C. ration
B io product

variety of crease (Rs./ha) tional net vest

(Straw q/
ha.)

far- over returns index

mer FP (Rs./h) (%)
DP FP DP FP DP FP DP FP DP FP
2012- CBW-38 PBW 154 6 50.59 42.5 34.0 25.00 31473.00 30193.00 55250.00 44200.00 23772.00 14007.00 9770.00 45.69 1.75 1.46
13
2013- CBW-38 PBW 373 6 54.84 46.35 32.10 44.39 32293.00 30210.00 62572.50 43335.00 29917.00 13125.00 16792.00 45.80 1.93 1.43
14
2012- DBW-39 PBW 154 6 50.60 45.50 32.75 38.92 31473.00 30193.00 59150.00 42575.00 27677.00 12382.00 15295.00 47.34 1.87 1.41
13
2013- DBW-39 PBW 373 6 52.00 46.65 33.50 39.25 32293.00 30210.00 62977.50 45225.00 30684.00 15015.00 15669.00 47.28 1.95 1.49
14
2013- KRL- HD 2285 6 40.60 34.0 29.80 14.09 29293.00 28210.00 45900.00 40230.00 16607.00 12690.00 3917.00 45.57 1.56 1.42
14 213*

Note- Wheat grain rate-2012-13=1300.00/q. 2013-14=1350.00/q *Variety for usar land

508
of improved agricultural production technologies to reverse
the trend. The trend of technology gap (ranging between 6.0
to 12.5 q/ha.) reflects the farmers cooperation in carrying out
such demonstration with encouraging results in subsequent
years. The technology gap observed might be attributing to
the dissimilarity in soil fertility status and weather condi-
tions. Mukharjee (2003) have also pointed out that depend-
ing on identification and use of farming situation, specific
interventions may have greater implications in enhancing
system productivity. Similar findings were also recorded by
Mitra et al. (2010) and Katare et al. (2011). The technology
index showed the feasibility of the evolved technology at
the farmer’s field. The lower the value of technology index,
the more is the feasibility of technology. The wider gap in
technology index (ranging between 15.0-22.72 q/ha.) during
the study period in certain region, may be attributed to the
difference in soil fertility status, weather conditions, non
availability of irrigation water and insect-pests attack in the
crop (Tyagi, 1997 and Singh et al., 1995).
The benefit cost ratio of front line demonstrations
have been presented in table 3 clearly showed higher BC ra-
tio of recommended practices than farmer’s practices in both
the year of study. The benefit cost ratio of demonstrated and
farmer’s practices were 1.95, 1.87 in DBW 39 during 2012-
13 & 2013-14 respectively, while in CBW-38 1.93 and 1.75
respectively. Hence favourable benefit cost ratios proved the
economic viability of the interventions and convinced the
farmers on the utility of interventions. Similar findings were
reported by Sharma (2003) in moth bean and Gurumukhi
and Mishra (2003) in sorghum.
CONCLUSION
The results of front line demonstration convincingly
brought out that the yield of wheat in irrigated conditions
could be increased by 25-44% with the intervention on
balanced nutrition coupled with the improved seed, seed
treatment, weed management, irrigation management and
pest management. From the above finding, it can also be
concluded that use of scientific method of wheat cultivation
i.e. line sowing and use of weedicide can reduce the
technology gap to a considerable extent thus leading to
increased productivity in the eastern U.P.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thanks to the all the members of Department
of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Narendra Deva University
of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad, U.P.,
India for their encouragement and support.
509
REFERENCES
Gurumukhi, D. R. and Sumit Mishra: Sorghum front line
demonstration-A Success story. Agril. Extension
Review., 15:22-23 (2003)
Katare, Subhash, S. K. Pandey and Mohd. Mustafa: Yield
gap analysis of repressed- mustard through
front line demonstration. Agric, Update, 6: 5-7
(2011).
Mitra, Biplab and T. Samajdar: Yield gap analysis of rapeseed-
mustard through front line demonstration Agric.
Exten. Review, (April-June): 16-17 (2010).
Mukharjee, N.: Participatory learning and action. Concept
Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. Pp. 63-
65 (2003).
Nagarajan, S.: Can India produce enough wheat even by
2020? Current Science, 89: 1467-71 (2005).
Samui, S. K., S. Mitra, D. K. Roy, A. K. Mandal and D.
Saha: Evaluation of front line demonstration on
groundnut. J. India Soc. Coastal Agric. Res., 18
(2): 180-183 (2000).
Sharma, O. P.: Moth bean yield improvement through front
line demonstration. Agric. Extn. Rev. 15:11-13
(2003).
Singh, V., R. P. Singh and K. S. Pawar: Response of wheat
(Triticum aestivum) to seed rate and date of
sowing. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 40 (4):
697-99 (1995).
Tyagi, P. K.: Agronomic and physiological responses wheat
genotypes to desiccant spray under irrigated
field conditions. Ph. D. Dissertation, submitted
to C.C.S. Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar
(India). (1997).
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 510-513 (2015)
RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF BLACK GRAM PRODUCTION FARMERS
D. D. SURADKAR, A. R. DHEPE AND B.M. THOMBRE
VNMKV, Parbhani

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in Osmanabad district of the Marathwada Region of Maharashtra state. Keeping in the view
of the objective of study a structured interview schedule was prepared. The information collected from the Black gram farm-
er with the help of personal interview schedule was constituted by making primary and secondary tables. The data of qualitative
nature were converted in to quantitative form and computation of score was done for each of the independent and dependant vari-
ables. Majority of the respondents i.e. 39.17 per cent had higher secondary educated, 58.33 per cent had medium farming expe-
rience, 68.33 per cent had nuclear family type , 63.33 per cent had semi medium land holding, 64.17 per cent medium annual
income, 62.50 per cent had medium social participation,59.17 per cent medium source of information, 60.00 per cent medium ex-
tension contact, 57.50 per cent had medium economic motivation, 54.17 per cent medium market orientation, 57.50 per cent risk
orientation and 57.50 per cent, 68.33 per cent medium level of knowledge and adoption, respectively of black gram farmers.

The variables like farming experience, education, land holding, annual income, social participation, economic motivation, ex-
tension contact, source of information, market and risk orientation had positive and highly significant relationship with knowl-
edge and adoption respectively. Whereas family type was negative and non significant relationship with knowledge and adoption.

INTRODUCTION
This is despite the fact that India produces variety
of pulses including chickpea (39.00 per cent), pigeon pea
(21.00 per cent ) green gram(11.00 per cent), black gram
(10.00 per cent), lentil (7.00 per cent), field pea (5.00 per
cent) and other of around 14 million tons annually from
an area of around 23.63 million hectares, with an average
yield of around 650 kg per hectare, that’s why India is one
of the largest pulses producing country in the world. The
major pulses producing states are Madhya Pradesh (23.00
per cent), Uttar Pradesh (18.00 per cent), Maharashtra (14.00
per cent), Rajasthan (11.00 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (9.00
per cent) and Karnataka (6.00 per cent) where pulses are
predominantly grown as rainfed crops. However, about 2
to 3 million tons pulses are imported annually to meet the
domestic consumption requirement. Thus, there is need to
increase production and productivity of pulses in the country
by more intensive intervention (Anonymous, 2011).
Black gram is protein rich staple food. It contains
about 26 per cent protein which is almost three times that
of cereals. In vegetarian diet in addition to fat 1.2 per cent,
minerals 3.5 per cent and carbohydrates 56.6 per cent,
black gram provides vitamin B1, B2, niacin, riboflavin
and essential amino acids such as arginine, leucine, lysine,
isoleucine, valine and phenylalanine. It is easily digestible
and in absence of milk it is considered as excellent food.
It is consume in the form of split pulses as well as whole
pulses, which is essential supplement of cereal based diet.
The urid dal khichadi is useful to ill or aged person as it is
easily digestible and considered as complete diet. Roti with
udid dal and udid dal chawal is an important ingredient in the
average Indian diet. The biological value improves greatly,
when wheat and rice is combine with black gram because of
the complementary relationship of essential amino acids. It
is particularly rich in leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, valine,
isoleucine etc. It is one of the most important components
in the preparation of famous South Indian dishes, e.g. dosa,
idli, vada etc. In addition to being important sources of
human food and animal feed. India has 104.60 lakh hectares
area under black gram and production 94.79 lakh tonnes. In
the state nearly 3.41 lakh hactares area is under this crop and
production of black gram is 1.64 lakh tonnes estimated for
the year 2013-2014.
Objectives.
1. To study the profile of black gram farmers.
2. To find out relationship of profile of black gram
farmers with their knowledge and extent of adoption about
improved production practices of black gram.
METHODOLOGY
The present study was conducted in Osmanabad
district of the Marathwada Region of Maharashtra state. Out
of eight districts of Marathwada region, Osmanabad was
selected randomly for the study. The district consists of eight
talukas from these, three talukas were randomly selected viz.
Washi, Kalamb and Osmanabad for the study. Four villages
from each selected talukas were selected randomly by lottery
method. Ex-post-facto research approach was used for the
present research study. The data were collected through
personal interview method with the help of pre - tested
structured schedule consisting of various items concern with
the objective of study. The farmer was contacted personally
at their home during their leisure time.
Keeping in the view of the objective of study a
structured interview schedule was prepared. The interview
schedule constituted the information about independent
variable namely education, farming experience, family type,
land holding, annual income, social participation, extension
contact, economic motivation, sources of information, market
orientation, risk orientation. Along with the information
about dependent variables namely knowledge possesses by
farmers and adoption of improved production practices of
black gram. The constraints faced by the respondents were
also identify and structured on the basis of rank order.

510
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Profile of black gram farmers.
1 Education might be due to more awareness and literacy among the
From table 1 it was indicated that 08.33 per cent of
the black gram farmers were illiterate, while, 10.83 per cent
were educated up to primary school level and 14.17 per cent
of them educated up to secondary school level, Only, 39.17
per cent and 27.50 per cent educated up to higher secondary
level and graduate/post graduate level respectively.
2 Farming experience
It was revealed from table 1 that 58.33 per cent of
the black gram farmers had medium experience of 24 to
41 years while, 22.50 per cent of black gram farmers had
low experience of up to 23 years and 19.17 per cent had
high experience 42 and above years. The findings seem too
obvious that more the experience in any occupation better
is the knowledge and mastery over skills and thereby better
adoption.
3 Family type
It was noticed from table 1 that 31.67 per cent Farmers
had joint family, 68.33 percent Farmers from nuclear family.
It might be due to fragmentation of land and another reason
was increase in size population.
4 Land holding
As regards with the land holding, it was evident from
table 1 that higher percentage 63.33 per cent of black gram
farmers were found in semi-medium land holding category,
9.16 cent were in small land holding category and 21.67 per
cent of them from medium land holding. Only, 4.17 per cent
and 01.67 per cent were larger and marginal land holding
farmers category respectively.
black gram farmers had medium level of Extension Contact,
27.50 percent black gram farmers had low and 12.50 percent
black gram farmers had higher level extension contact. This
farmers.
9 Economic motivation
It is elucidated from table 1 that most of the respondents
57.33 per cent had medium economic motivation level
followed 18.33 per cent and 24.17 per cent low and high
level respectively.
10 Market orientation
It is observed from table 1 that 54.17 per cent of the
black gram farmers had medium market orientation followed
by 26.67 per cent and 19.16 per cent of the black gram farmers
had low and high market orientation, respectively. The
black gram farmers were not the members of any growing
association due to which major input purchasing and sale
of produce was not performed by the said association. The
mainly black gram farmers were using to sell their produce
to commission agents. This might be resulted in medium
market orientation.
11 Risk orientation
It was noticed from table 1 that 57.50 per cent of the
black gram farmers were in the medium risk orientation
category while, 20.00 per cent and 22.50 per cent were in
low and high risk orientation category, respectively.
Table No. 1 Profile of black gram farmers.
Fre- Percent-
Sl.No. Characteristics Category
quency age
1 Education 1. Illiterate 10 08.33

5 Annual income 2. Primary school 13 10.83

3. Secondary school 17 14.17
It was observed from table 1 that 64.17 per cent black
gram farmers had medium annual income followed by
4. Higher Secondary 47 39.17
20.00 and 15.83 per cent had low and high annul income,
respectively.
5.Graduate/ 33 27.50
6 Social Participation 6. Ph.D. 00 00.00
It was manifested from table 1 results of study that
the majority 62.50 per cent of the black gram farmers had Total 120 100.00
medium social participation while, 17.50 per cent of them
Farming expe-
had high social participation. Only, 20.00 per cent of black 2 1. Low 27 22.50
rience
gram farmers were having low level of social participation.
7 Sources of information 2. Medium 70 58.33

It was reported from table 1 that 59.17 per cent of the

3. High 23 19.17
black gram farmers had used medium sources of information
while, 18.33 per cent and 22.50 per cent of them had low
and high sources of information, respectively. The different Total 120 100.00
information sources led through understanding of new
practices and thereby motivate the black gram farmers for
3. Family type 1. Nuclear 82 68.33
full adoption of new practices effectively.
8 Extension Contact 2. Joint 38 31.67
It was noticed from table 1 that 60.00 percent of the

511
 Total 120 100.00 Total 120 100.00

Market Orien-
4. Land holding 1. Marginal farmers 05 04.17 10. 1. Low 32 26.67
tation

2. Small farmers 11 09.16 2. Medium 65 54.17

3. Semi medium
76 63.33 3. High 23 19.16
farmers

4. Medium farmers 26 21.67 Total 120 100.00

Risk orienta-
5. Big farmers 02 01.67 11. 1. Low 24 20.00
tion

Total 120 100.00 2. Medium 69 57.50

5. Annual income 1. Low 24 20.00 3. High 27 22.50

2. Medium 77 64.17 Total 120 100.00

3. High 19 15.83 Relationship of profile of black gram farmers with their

knowledge and extent of adoption about improved black
gram production practices of black gram.
Total 120 100.00
In the present investigation an attempt was made to find
Social partici- out the relationship between profile of black gram farmers
6. 1. Low 24 20.00
pation with their knowledge and adoption of improved black gram
production practices. The study on the relationship between
2. Medium 75 62.50 selected dependent and independent variable was one of the
objectives in present investigation.
3. High 21 17.50 Relationship of profile of black gram farmers with
their knowledge:
Total 120 100.00
It is conspicuous from Table 2 that the results of
Sources of correlation coefficient (r) showed that the independent
7. 1. Low 22 18.33 variables namely education, farming experience, land
information
holding, annual income, social participation, use of sources
2. Medium 71 59.17 of information, extension contact, economic motivation,
market orientation and risk orientation were positively and
highly significantly related, while family type is negatively
3. High 27 22.50 and non-significantly related with the level of knowledge
about improved black gram production practices.
Total 120 100.00
Table 2 Relationship of profile black gram farmers with
Extension their knowledge.
8. 1.Low 33 27.50
Contact
Correlation coeffi-
Sl. No. Independent variable
2. Medium 72 60.00 cient (‘r’)
1 Education 0.781**
3. High 15 12.50 2 Farming experience 0.557**
3 Family type -0.140NS
Total 120 100.00 4 Land holding 0.644**
5 Annual income 0.800**
Economic 6 Social participation 0.517**
9. 1. Low 22 18.33
motivation
7 Sources of information 0.609**
2. Medium 69 57.50 8 Extension contact 0.720**
9 Economic motivation 0.776**
3. High 29 24.17 10 Market orientation 0.572**
11 Risk orientation 0.812**

512
 ** Significant at 0.01 % level of probability. NS – Non while adoption of improved production practices of black
Significant gram. Moreover, the results in this study would provide
guidance to village level workers, extension officials;
Relationship between profile of black gram farmers and their other development agencies and scientists associated
extent of adoption about improved black gram production with black gram production, in performing their function
practices of black gram. more effectively by accelerating the adoption of improved
production practices of black gram by the black gram
Table 3 Relationship of profile black gram farmers with farmers.
their adoption.
REFFERENCES
Correlation
Sl. No. Independent variable Anonymous, (2013). Stage wise area and production of
coefficient (‘r’)
pulses in India. w.w.w.indiaagronet.com.
1 Education 0.799**
Asane, P.G. (2003). Knowledge and adoption of cultivation
2 Farming experience 0.583** practice recommended for soybean. M.Sc.
3 Family type -0.153NS (Agri.) Thesis, Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola.
4 Land holding 0.647** Atar, R.S. (2012). Study on knowledge and adoption of
recommended grape cultivation practices by the
5 Annual income 0.794**
grape growers, M.Sc. (Agri.), Thesis, submitted
6 Social participation 0.481** to MKV, Parbhani.
7 Sources of information 0.665** Bhangare, Y.C. Thombare, B. M. and Suradkar, D. D. (2014).
8 Extension contact 0.718** Adoption of improved cultivation practices
of pigeonpea by the farmers. Agric. Update,
9 Economic motivation 0.802**
9:111-114.
10 Market orientation 0.606**
Jadhav, S.R. (2013). Knowledge and adoption of
11 Risk orientation 0.806** recommended package of practices in rabi
** Significant at 0.01 % level of probability. NS – Non Groundnut. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, V.N.M.K.V.,
Significant Parbhani.

It is observed from table 3 that education, farming
experience, land holding, annual income, social participation,
use of sources of information, extension contact, economic
motivation, market orientation and risk orientation were
positively and highly significantly related, while family type
is negatively and non-significantly related with the extent of
adoption about improved black gram production practices.
Kapse, P.S. (2004) A study on technological gap in summer
groundnut cultivation in Parbhani talukas of
Parbhani district. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, MKV,
Parbhani.
Katke, S.P. (2011). Knowledge and adoption of dry land
cotton production technology in Parbhani
district. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, MKV, Parbhani.

IMPLICATIONS Mane, S.S. (2012). Knowledge and adoption of recommended

productiontechnology on greengram M.Sc.
The research study would be useful in understanding
(Agri.) Thesis, MKV, Parbhani.
the personal characteristics of the black gram farmers, their
knowledge and adoption level and constraints faced by them

513
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 514-516 (2015)
ADOPTION OF RECOMMENDED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY ON GREENGRAM
D. D. SURADKAR 1, S. S. MANE 2 AND J.M.DESHMUKH3
VNMKV, Parbhani

INTRODUCTION
Indian Agriculture is knowledge for its multi judging the knowledge and adoption level of greengram
functionalities of providing employment, food, nutritional growers.
and ecological securities. Indian agriculture is a business but
a way of life Agriculture is main sources of livelihood. In OBJECTIVES
a country like India were a large population is vegetarian,
the cheap and best sources of protein is still pulses. For the 1. To judge the extent of adoption about recommended
poor people, cereals constitute the staple food and measure greengram production technology.
sources of energy, they are also referred as poor men’s meat
in developing country like India. 2. To find out the relationship of personal characteristics of
greengram growers with the extent of adoption.
Greengram is protein rich staple food.
It contains about 25 per cent protein which is almost three
times that of cereals. In vegetarian diet in addition to fat 1.3 METHODOLOGY
per cent, minerals 3.5 per cent and carbohydrates 56.7 per Present study was carried out in randomly selected
cent, beside it provides vitamin A, riboflavin and essential Latur district. Out of these ten tahasils of Latur district two
amino acids. It is easily digestible and in absences of milk tahasils namely Latur and Ausa were selected randomly.
it is considered as excellent food. It is consume in the form From each tahasil five villages were selected randomly.
of split pulses as well as whole pulses, which is essential In these ways ten villages were selected for present study.
supplement of cereal based diet. The moong dal khichadi is Then the list of greengram growers who were cultivating
recommended to ill or aged person as it is easily digestible greengram crop continuously last three years prepared from
and considered as complete diet. Roti with moong dal and village and twelve greengram growers were selected from
moong dal chawal is an important ingredient in the average each village. Thus the sample comprised 120 respondents.
Indian diet. The biological value improves greatly, when
wheat and rice is combine with greengram because of the RESEARCH FINDINGS
complementary relationship of essential amino acids. It is Table. 1 Distribution of the greengram growers accord-
particularly rich in leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, valine, ing to their level of adoption of recommended production
isoteucine etc. in addition to being important sources of technology
human food and animal feed.
Generally, the production and productivity of Adoption level Frequency Percentage
pulses including greengram is very low, because the crop is
1. Low 18 15.00
grown on marginal land with poor management practices,
low rainfall, high rate of flowers and fruits drop pest and 2. Medium 80 66.67
diseases. As the average diet of the Indian population is
much deficient in protein contain there is need for multiple 3. High 22 18.33
increase in production of pulses. All the pulse growers do
not adopt the recommended agricultural practices, only few Total 120 100.00
of farmers are innovators, other adopts late and few of them
do not adopt. One dose not adopt as soon as he hear of an It is revealed from Table. 1 that majority (66.67 per cent) of
improved farm practices, as adoption is mental process which the greengram growers were in the medium level of adop-
take certain time. Some of farmers having knowledge about tion of recommended production technology while, 15.00
new practices but they are not adopt at all because of some per cent and 18.33 per cent of them were in the low and high
constraints in adoption so, present study was carried out for level of adoption, respectively.

Table. 2 Distribution of respondents according to their practice wise adoption about recommended production tech-
nology
Extent of adoption
Sl. Full adoption Partial adoption No adoption
Recommended practices
No. Frequen- percent- Fre-
Percentage Frequency Percentage
cy age quency
1 Preparatory tillage
A Selection of soil 75 62.50 21 17.50 24 20.00
B Harrowing and collection of stubbles 100 83.33 20 16.66 _ _
C Manuring (5 tonne / ha) 10 8.33 35 29.16 75 62.50

514
 D Before summer harrowing done and put land for heating 102 85.00 18 15.00 _ _
2 Seeds
A Use of improved varieties seeds (BPMR – 145, BM – 4) 35 29.16 _ _ 85 70.83
B Seed rate @12 to 15 kg / ha 50 41.66 20 16.66 50 41.66
C Seed treatment with rhizobium (25 gm / kg ) 52 43.33 _ _ 68 56.66
D Seed treatment with trichoderma (5 gm / kg) 35 29.16 _ _ 85 70.83
3 Sowing
A Sowing in June third to July first week 69 57.50 23 19.16 28 23.33
B Distance between two rows 30 cm and two plants 10 cm 30 25.00 36 30.00 54 45.00
4 Thinning
A 15 days after sowing 53 44.16 20 16.66 47 39.16

5 Use of chemical fertilizers (25:50:0) 24 20.00 33 27.50 63 52.50

6 Inter cultivation
A First hoeing ( crop become 20 to 25 days old) 100 83.33 12 10.00 8 6.66
B Second hoeing ( crop become 30 to 35 days old) 84 70.00 9 7.50 27 22.50
7 Plant protection
A Spray the crop with diamethoate (15 ml in 10 lit of water ) 27 22.50 10 8.33 83 69.16
B Spray the crop with sulphur or carbendisam+ diamethoate 21 17.50 _ _ 99 82.50
8 Harvesting and threshing
A First picking (75% pod become dry) 12 10.00 10 8.33 98 81.66
B Second picking (8-10 days after first harvesting) 12 10.00 10 8.33 98 81.66
C Dry the pods and seeds are separated with beating stick 100 83.33 _ _ 20 16.66

Practice wise adoption level of greengram growers about recommended production technology.
It was observed from Table. 2 that 62.50 per cent were fully and 17.50 per cent were partially selected proper soil
for greengram cultivation. Manuring was adopted fully by only 8.33 per cent, partially by 29.16 per cent and non adoption
by 62.50 per cent respondents. As regards with the seeds, 29.00 per cent of respondents fully used improved seeds.
Recommended seed rate was adopted fully by 41.66 per cent of respondents. Seed treatment with rhizobium was fully
adopted by 43.33 per cent of respondents as compared to With regard to harvesting and separation of seeds
16.66 per cent respondents had partially adopted and remain it was observed from table that only 10.00 per cent of the
41.66 per cent respondents had not adopted seed treatment respondents harvest the crop after 75% of pod become
. The seed treatment with trichoderma fully a also was fully mature and second harvesting completed 8 to 10 days after
adopted by 29.16 per cent respondents. It was observed from first harvesting. 83.33 per cent of respondents separated the
table 13 that sowing in third week of June to first week of seed with the help of stick.
July was completed by 57.50 per cent fully and 19.16 per
cent partially. The distance between two rows and two plants Correlation with adoption
adopted fully by 25.00 per cent respondents were as 30.00
per cent them adopted partially. Table. 3 Relationship of personal characteristics (indepen-
dent variable) of green gram growers with adoption
It is also revealed from table 2 that first thinning 15
days after sowing was completed by 44.16 per cent of the Correlation coeffi-
Sl. Independent vari- cient Calculated
respondents while 16.66 per cent adopted it partially and
No. able ‘t’ value
39.16 per cent respondents had not undertaken this practice. (‘r’)
The data indicate that 20.00 per cent of the respondents 1 Farming experience 0.622 8.62**
had adopted fully recommended doses of chemical fertilizers
whereas 27.50 per cent had partially adopted. As regards the
2 Education 0.447 5.43**
inter-cultivation, majority (83.33 per cent) of respondents
adopted fully first hoeing after 20 to 25 days after sowing
while 10 per cent respondents adopted it partially. Also, 3 Land holding 0.612 8.40**
second hoeing after 30 to 35 days was fully adopted by
70.00 per cent of respondents follows partially only 7.50 per 4 Social participation 0.640 9.05**
cent of the respondents. About plant protection measures,
majority of respondents (69.16 per cent) did not sprayed the 5 Annual income 0.491 6.12**
crop with diamethoate at the time of incidents of pest and
only 22.50 per cent adopt fully and 8.33 per cent adopt these Economic motiva-
6 0.470 5.78**
operation partially. If incidents of diseases observed only tion
17.50 per cent of the respondents spray the crop with sulphur
or carbendisam + diamethoate. 7 Risk orientation 0.448 5.44**

515
 R2 = 0.511, F-value = 14.52, NS - Non-sig-
Use of sources of nificant *Significant at 5 % level of probability
8 0.670 9.80**
information ** Significant at 1 % level of Probability
** Significant at 1 % level of probability Conclusions
It is observed from table 3 that farming experience, It was clearly observed that majority of greengram
education, land holding, social participation, annual income, growers had medium level of adoption. The independent
economic motivation, risk orientation and use of sources variables like economic motivation and risk orientation
of information were positively and significantly related had significant but negatively impact with adoption. Only,
with adoption of recommended production technology of annual income had non significant impact on adoption of
greengram. recommended production technology.
Multiple regression analysis
REFERENCES
Table. 4. Multiple regression analysis of independent vari- Dandanaik, A. B. 2009. Adoption of improved cultivation
ables with the adoption practices of pigeonpea M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,
Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth Parbhani.
Sl. Independent Regression Standard
‘t’ value Jaiswal, A. N. 2001. Extend of adoption of soybean
No. variable coefficient (Bi) Error
production technology. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,
1 Farming experience 0.0447 0.0466 0.959** Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth,
2 Education 0.2928 0.2318 1.263** Akola.
3 Land holding 0.7490 0.4733 1.582** Kadam, P. B. 2000. A study of adoption improved soybean
4 Social participation 0.0631 0.0346 1.821** technology by the farmers. Thesis, M.Sc. (Agri.)
Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth Parbhani.
5 Annual income 0.0002 0.0048 0.060NS
Economic motiva- Ramteke, A. S. 2001. Adoption of recommended package of
6 -0.1341 0.1932 -0.694**
tion practices of pigeonpea. M.Sc. ( Agri.) Thesis,
7 Risk orientation -0.0173 0.0834 -0.207* Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth Parbhani.
Sources of
8 0.214 0.1283 1.668**
information

516
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 517-517 (2015)
EFFECT OF MOISTURE REGIMES ON TRANSPLANTED RICE UNDER SALINE AKLINE
CONDITION
BHOOP NARAYAN, R.P. SINGH, and R.C. Tiwari
DEPARMENT OF AGRONOMY, N D University of Agriculture& Tech., Kumarganj Faizabad

INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the major staple food with 7cm.
grain crops of India. India has achieved self – sufficiency in
rice production in last 50 years. To meet the demand of 114 mt RESULTS AND DISCUSSON
by year 2030, we have to increase our productivity. Though our Moisture regime 1 DADPW produced maximum grain
productivity is quit low but there is large gap between achieved and yield (55.80q/ha) which was at par with submersed condition
achievable yield with exception of Tamil Nadu (15%) and Punjab (54.10q/ha) and significantly superior over other treatments.
(22%). The yield gap is in range of 35.75 per cent for most of the Lowest yield was recorded under no irrigation (25.00q/ha).
states. Major factors that rice being rainfed, excessive irrigation The maximum plant height was recorded under 1 DADPW
in irrigated area causing soil salinity, imbalance use of fertilizer which was at par with submersed condition and 3 DADPW
nutrient. Since water is one of crucial input of agriculture .Thus, and significantly superior over other treatments. The maximum
efficient utilization and sustainable use of irrigation water through number of panicle was recorded under 1 DADPW which was at
reducing the losses of water from paddy field , percolation from par with submersed condition and 3 DADPW and significantly
the soil surface and by evapo-transpiration from plant surface are superior over other treatments. The maximum benefit cost ratio
the major component of seasonal water losses from paddy field. (1.70) was found under 1 DADPW and minimum (0.32) was
The proper use of available irrigation water to available soil found in case of no irrigation. Test weight was non significant.
moisture may play an important role in minimizing present large Experiment data of WUE indicated that water use efficiency
gap between yields achieved and yield achievable. It is well known decreased markebly with increasing level of moisture regime.
fact that water management is one of the major factors responsible Moisture regime (7 cm at 1 DADPW) created the favorable
for achieving better harvest in crop production. As more than 90% environment for plant growth which helped in aeration and
of water is used for irrigation. Priority should be fixed for high uptake of nutrients by the plants and there by better yield of rice
WUE in the field .Despite the diversion of 45% available irrigation and higher economic return was obtained under this treatment
resources toward agriculture little attention has been devised for
efficient water management schedule In general farmers use to keep Table -1: Impact of moisture regimes on yield attributes,
paddy field submerged through out the growth period on the basis yield, WUE and Economics of rice.
of assumption in their mind that higher grain yield of rice can be
achieved only by doing this practice. Grain
Plant Test Straw
Treat- Panicle/ yield WUE B:C
height weight yield
Key words: DADPW (Days after disappearance of water) ments hill (q/ (kg/ha Ratio
(cm) (g) (q/ha)
ha) cm)
T1 121.4 11.52 23.70 54.10 77.10 36.63 1.60
MATERIALS AND METHED
T2 125.40 12.23 23.90 55.80 78.80 41.50 1.70
The field experiment was conducted at Agronomy T3 118.8 10.00 22.82 51.20 74.70 42.15 1.58
Research Farm of N. D. University of Agriculture & Technology, T4 105.0 6.75 22.50 47.30 64.50 44.50 1.21
Kumarganj, Faizabad (U.P) during Kharif season of 2011 and 2012. T5 105.1 6.20 21.70 33.00 51.70 33.36 0.75
The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with 4
T6 102.08 5.20 21.50 30.10 44.50 38.33 0.54
replications consisting of 7 irrigation schedules.; T1: Submersed
T7 95.76 5.00 21.40 25.00 37.50 23.85 0.32
condition, T2: 7 cm irrigation at 1 DADPW, T3: 7 cm irrigation at 3
CD at
DADPW, T4 : 7 cm irrigation at Tillering, late jointing, Flowering 10.80 2.30 N.S. 3.60 6.40
5%
and Milking, T5: 7 cm irrigation at late jointing, Flowering and
Milking, T6: 7 cm irrigation at Flowering and Milking and T7: REFERENCES:
Control ( no irrigation ). Rice (NDR-359) was taken as test crop.
Singh, B.N. and Singh, Man Mohan (2011). Effect of moisture
Crop was sown on 21/6/012 in Nursery field at the seed rate of
regime and integrated nutrient supply on performance
25 kg/ha .Transplanting of rice seedling in experimental field was
of water use efficiency of transplanted rice. Absts.
done with two seedlings of 22 days per hill at spacing of 20x10
National Seminar on Strategic Resource Management
cm. Soil of experimental field was silt loam with ph 8.2 having
for Sustainable Food and Water Security: Held
low organic carbon (0.28%) and available nitrogen (160.45kgha-
at College of Agriculture, GBPUAT, Pant Nagar
1) and phosphorous (18.5kg ha-1) and high potassium (280kg-1).
(Uttarakhand) during June 13-15, 2011. pp.39.
The climate is sub tropical. The amount of fertilizer were applied
uniformly 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O .Half dose of Singh, G.R. ;Singh, Man Mohan and Singh, B.N. (2011). Effect of
nitrogen and total dose of phosphorous and potash were applied as moisture regime and integrated nutrient supply on
basal application before puddling .Remaining half of the nitrogen wheat. Absts. National Seminar on Strategic Resource
was applied as top dressing in two equal doses each at tillering and Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security:
panicle initiation stage. Irrigation treatments based on day after Held at College of Agriculture, GBPUAT, Pant Nagar
disappearance of pounded water was started just after transplanting (Uttarakhand) during June 13-15, 2011. pp.39.

517
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 518-520 (2015)
EFFECT OF SULPHUR AND BORON NUTRITION ON GROWTH, YIELD, NUTRIENT
UPTAKE AND QUALITY OF GREEN GRAM (VIGNA RADIATA) UNDER RAIN FED
CONDITIONS
UMA SHANKAR MISHRA, AMIT KUMAR UKEY AND RAJESH DHAKAR
Department of Crop Science
Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramoday Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot, Satna (M.P.) India

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted on sandy loam soil of Rajola farm of Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramoday Vishwavidha-
laya, Chitrakoot, District: Satna (M.P.) under rain fed conditions during kharif 2012 on green gram variety SAMRAT. Soils
were deficient in sulphur and boron, Study was conducted to known the effect of sulphur and boron on growth, yield, S and B
uptake and protein content of whole grain. Four levels of S (0, 10, 20 and 30 kg ha-1) and three levels of B (0, 1 and 2 ppm)
and their combinations were tested. The results indicated that 30 kg S ha-1 and 2 ppm B. Resulted in significant increase in
plant height, number of branches and number of leaves plant-1. The effects of boron and S×B were not consistent. The grain
and Stover yields varied from 441.60 to 495.23 kg ha-1 and 1335.4 to 1482.27 kg ha-1, respectively and the highest yield was
recorded at 30 kg S ha-1. Two ppm B gave the highest yields of 483.38 and 1450.88 kg ha-1 in grain and Stover respectively
and the main effects of S and B were significant. Increase in nutrient levels resulted in significant increase in concentration
and uptake of S and B. The highest total uptake values were 9.63 kg ha-1 of S and 705 g kg-1 of B. Protein content of whole
grain significantly increased with S and B. It varied from 22.18 to 24.57% in control and S30 B2. Thus besides yield and nutrient
uptake crop quality in terms of protein content was also improved due to balanced nutrition using S and B along with NPK.

KEY WORDS: Sulphur, boron, yield, concentration, uptake, green gram, protein content.

INTRODUCTION
Pulses are most favored crops in semi- arid tropics on
account of their less input requirement, intrinsic capacity of
biological nitrogen fixation, deep rooting system, less water
requirement and high temperature tolerance. On account of
these attributes, pulses are ideally suited for rain fed areas.
Under irrigated area the productivity of pulses has reached a
plateau and any additional produce has largely to come from
89 m ha. Rain fed lands, which have the potential of two
to four times the present productivity, with proper nutrient
and water management (Wani et al 2012). Green gram is
most important traditional legume crop of India with a high
content of protein (Mensah and Thenyen, 2009). Green
gram has selected nutritional suitability. It contains 26.2%
protein, 59.8% biological value and 357.5 K cal per 100g.
It is rich in lysine (6.48g/ 16g N) and causes no flatulence
(khalil 2006). Nutrient management of crop under rain fed
areas holds the key for nutrition security and farmers profit.
There are widespread deficiencies of sulphur and boron in dry
land areas particularly in Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.
Girish Chandra et al (2012) reported the deficiencies of
sulphur (43- 100%) and boron (69-100%) on the basis of
bulk samples analyzed from farmer’s fields. Thus besides
NPK sulphur and boron are serious yield limiting factors
in pulse productivity. In the backdrop of above the present
study has been undertaken to gain precise information on
balanced nutrition of green gram through sulphur and boron
application along with N.P.K.
MATERIALS AND METHOD:
A field experiment was conducted during the year 2012
at Rajola Farm of Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramoday
Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot District Satna (M.P.) under rain
fed conditions. The area has semi-arid climate with average
temperature extremes of 5.0 0C to 46 0C and average annual
precipitation of 950 mm covering a period from July to last
week of September. The soil of experimental field was sandy
loam deficient in N, P, S and B with pH 7.8, EC 0.29 dSm-1 ,
Organic carbon (%) 0.35, available NPK 154, 8.2 and 170 kg
ha-1 respectively. Available S was 7.45 kg ha-1 and available
boron 0.30 kg ha; soil analysis was made by standard
methods (Jackson 1967). The study was undertaken to find
out the effect of four levels of S (0, 10, 20 and 30 kg ha-1 )
and three levels of boron (0, 1 and 2 ppm)designated as S0,
S10,S20,S30 and B0,B1 and B2 on green gram variety SAMRAT.
The experiment had 12 treatments and three replications
in factorial RBD. A basal and uniform dose of NPK (20,
40 and 20 kg ha-1 respectively) was applied through urea,
DAP and MOP. The crop was shown on 30.07.2012 and
harvested on 10.10.2012. The crop was kept free of disease
and pests. Growth observations viz plant height; number of
branches plant-1 and number of leaves plant-1 were recorded
at 20, 40 and 60 DAS. At the harvest the data were recorded
on grain and stover yields. The plants were analyzed for
concentrations of sulphur and boron in HNO3 - HClO4 (5:1)
reagent (Yoshida et al 1976). The uptake was calculated
from grain and straw yields and respective concentrations
of S and B. Nitrogen content in whole grain samples was
analyzed by Kjeldahl’s method (Jackson, 1967) and protein
content was reported as N×6.25.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
Growth characters
The growth characters such as plant height, number
of branches plant-1 and number of leaves plant increased
significantly due to S application at all the three stages of
growth. (Table-1) The maximum plant height at 20, 40, and
60 DAS (18.00 cm, 52.89 cm and 67.22 cm respectively)

518
was recorded 30 kg S ha-1. This level also resulted maximum
values of branches plant-1 at above stages (4.89, 9.89 and Sul-
33.67 respectively). Similarly number of leaves plant-1 was 20 60
phur 40 DAS
highest at 30 kg S ha-1 i.e. 16.78 At 20 DAS 32.67 at 40 DAS DAS
kgha-1
DAS and 35.22 at 60 DAS. These parameters increased with
PH* NB* NL* PH NB NL PH NB NL
advancement in the age of crop. The response of sulphur
might be ascribed to the deficiency of sulphur in soil. This S0 14.89 3.78 11.22 44.78 7.56 23.44 60.44 27.78 20.89
has also been reported by Rego et al (2007). Response of S10 18.56 4.44 14.44 50.78 10.50 30.89 65.11 34.56 33.56
boron was significant on plant height and number of leaves
S20 17.11 4.89 13.33 52.33 9.56 31.78 66.35 33.56 33.56
plant-1 at 20 DAS, only and on plant height at 40 DAS. Plant
height and number of branches at 60 DAS was significant. S30 18.00 4.89 16.78 52.89 9.89 32.67 67.22 33.67 35.22
S×B interaction was not significant.
SE 0.69 0.34 0.61 0.86 0.64 1.61 1.28 1.34 1.00
Seed and Stover Yield CD 1.43 0.69 1.27 1.79 1.27 3.33 2.69 2.78 2.08
The grain yield varied from 441.60 to 495.23 kg ha -1

and Stover yield ranged from 1335.40 to 1482.27 kg ha in Boron (ppm )

control and 30 kg S ha-1, respectively (Table -2). In case of
main effects of boron ranges in grain and stover yields were B0 15.42 12.92 48.58 9.17 28.58 62.92 30.92 32.08
3.18
453.28 to 483.38 kg ha-1 and from 1422.03 to 1450.88 kg
ha-1 respectively. In case of sulphur levels the differences B1 17.50 13.92 50.00 9.25 30.00 65.50 32.42 33.08
4.67
between S0 and S10 was not significant but S20 and S30 were
significantly superior to control and S10, both in grain and B2 18.50 15.00 52.00 9.75 30.50 65.92 33.83 34.00
4.67
straw. The magnitude of increase in yield due to S30 over
control was 12.5% in grain and 11.0% in straw. In case SE 0.60 0.53
0.29 0.51 0.75 1.39 1.12 1.16 0.87
of boron both B1 and B2 were significantly superior over
control B2 gave 6.64% increase in grain yield and 7.5% CD 1.24 NS
1.10 1.55
NS NS
2.33 2.33
NS
in straw yield over control. It was evident that S30 and B2
gave the highest yields of grain and Stover. The results of
present study are supported by the findings of other workers Notation: PH: Plant height (cm), NB: Number of branches
(Islam and Ali, 2009 Kaiser et al, 2010, Anita et al, 2012). plant-1, NL: Number of leaves plant-1
Concentration and Uptake of Sulphur and Boron
Table -2 Effects of sulphur and boron levels on yield of
green gram
As shown in Table 3, the concentration of sulphur
and boron varied significantly due to levels of S and B. S Levels Grain yield Kg ha-1 % Stover yield % increase
and B levels showed significantly higher values than their
respective controls. Thus it was clear that increasing the S0 441.60 - 1335.40 -
nutrient levels increased the concentrations of these nutrients S10 463.50 5.0 1389.77 4.1
in seed and Stover. Nutrient uptake as a function of nutrient S20 480.13 8.7 1448.10 8.4
concentration and biomass yield increased due to S and B S30 495.23 12.5 1482.27 11.0
application. The main effects of S and B were significant. SE 11.99 30.10
But S×B interaction was not significant. The uptake values CD 24.89 62.45
were higher in Stover than those in grain. The total uptake B0 453.28 - 1368.75
of S varied from 7.49 kg in S0 to 9.63 kg ha-1 in S3 and in B1 473.70 4.51 1422.03 3.9
case of boron the lowest ( 617.3 g) in S0 and the highest
(705 g ha-1) in B2. The results are in conformity with Girish B2 483.38 6.64 1450.88 7.50
Chandra et al (2012), Islam and Ali (2009). SE(d) 10.39 26.07

Grain Protein content CD (5%) 21.55 52.15

The data in Table- 4 depict the protein content of

green gram grain. It was observed that the protein content Table-3 Effect of S and B levels on the concentration and
offered a range of variation from 22.18% in S0B0 (control) to uptake Of sulphur and Boron in green gram
24.57% in S30B2. Combined application of sulphur and boron
resulted in a significant increase in protein content. It might S-Content (%) S- Uptake (kg ha-1)
be due to efficient nitrogen fixation and its incorporation into
protein in grain by boron (SA trends 2003) and sulphur as the Seed Stover Grain Stover Total
constituent of protein (Dwivedi and Bapat 1998).
S0
0.79 0.30 3.49 4.0 7.49
Table- 1 Effect of sulphur and boron levels on S10 0.84 0.33 3.90 4.59 8.49
growth parameter of green gram at different stages
of growth. S20 0.87 0.35 4.18 5.07 9.25
S30 0.87 0.36 4.30 5.33 9.63

519
 SE(d) 0.012 0.013 0.16 0.17 Islam, M and Ali, S. (2009) Effect of integrated application
CD of sulphur and phosphorus on nitrogen fixation
0.025 0.027 0.33 0.35 and nutrient uptake by chickpea ( Cier
(P=5%)
arietinum ). Agrosiencia 43 (8) 1405.
B- Content (%) B - Uptake (g ha-1)
Seed Stover Grain Stover Total Jackson, M. L. (1967) Soil Chemical Analysis Prentice -
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.
B0 0.30 34.7 132.2 475.0 617.3
B1 0.35 36.7 156.2 521.9 684.4 Kaiser, M.S., Rahman, M. Amin M.H.A., Amanullah,
B2 0.36 36.2 172.3 525.2 705.0 A.S.M. Ahsanullah A.S.M. (2010) Effect of
sulphur and boron on the seed yield and protein
SE(d) 0.010 0.014 4.13 10.28
content of mungbean. Bangladesh Research
CD(P=5%) 0.020 0.029 8.61 21.55 Journal 3(4): 1181- 1186.
Table – 4. Effect of S and B levels on protein content (%) Khalil A.A. (2006) Nutritional improvement of an Egyptian
of green gram grain. breed of mungbean by probiotic lactobacilli,
African Journal of Biotechnology 5(2): 206-
S.No. Treatments Protein content 212.
1. S0 B0 22.18 Mensah, J.K and Thenyen J. (2009) Effect of salinity on
2 S0 B1 22.38 germination, seedling establishment and yield
3 S0 B2 22.81 of three genapypes in mungbean in Edo State
4 S 10 B0 23.13 Nigeria. Nigerian Annals of Natural Sciences
8: 17-24.
5 S10 B1 23.38
6 S10 B2 23.63 Rego, T. J., Sahrawat, K.L., Wani S.P., Pardhasaradhi, G.
(2007) Wide spread deficiencies of sulphur,
7 S20 B0 23.81
boron and zinc in Indian semi-arid tropical oils
8 S20 B1 24.13 on crop response. Journal of Plant Nutrition
9 S20 B2 24.44
30: 1569-1583.
10 S30 B0 24.00 S.A. Trends, (2003) Boron and other micronutrients for food
11 S30 B1 24.44 legume production. ICRISAT Monthly News
Letter 32. Hyderabad Oct. 19-20.
12 S30 B2 24.57
Wani, S.V., Dixit, Y. Li, Z, Dhar, W.D. and Chander, G. (2012)
SE (d) 0.27 CD (P=5%) 0.56 Enhancing agricultural productivity and rural
incomes through sustainable natural resources
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Amita, Arora S, Umar, S and Misra, S.N. (2012) Boron and Agriculture 92(5): 1054 – 1063.
and zinc response on growth in Vigna
radiate L. Wilezek var. Pusa Vishal under Yoshida, S. Fomo, A.D. Cock, J.A. and Gomez, K.A.
salinity. International Journal of Plant and (1976) Physiological studies of Rice. 2nd El.
Environmental Sciences. 2(4): 131 – 138. International Rice Research Institute Manila,
Philippines.
Dwivedi, A.K. and Bapat P.N. (1998) Sulphur, phosphorus
interaction in synthesis of nitrogen fractions
and oil in soybean. Journal of the Indian Societ
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Girish Chandra, Wani, S.P., Sahrawat, K. L. and Jangawad,
L.S. (2012) Balabced plant nutrition enhances
rain fed crop yields and water productivity in
Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh states of India.
Journal of Tropical Agriculture 50(1-2): 24 -
29.

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 521-523 (2015)
STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF IDEAL GENOTYPE OF WHEAT
(TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.)
1
REWATI LATA, 1N. K. MOTIRAMANI, 1R. SHRIVASTAVA, 1S. K. NAG AND M. K. LAHRE2
1
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
2
Deptt. of Plant Molecular Biology & Biotechnology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur- 492012, Chhattisgarh,
India

ABSTRACT
Fourteen genotypes were evaluated in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications at four different location of Chhattisgarh
during Rabi 2009-10. Observation were recorded for ten ancillary and plant characters, which were days to 50% flowering, days to maturity,
plant height, number of tillers per plant, number of seeds per spike, 1000 seed weight, ear head length, biological yield, grain yield and harvest
index. The process of adaptation is viewed as a change in the genetic constitution of individual as they accumulate genes or a change in gene for
varies within population, which better match growth and development with the environment. Stability analysis also confirms the above findings
and exhibited stability of genotypes HD 2932 and CG 8026 for grain yield. Therefore genotypes HD 2932, CG 8146, CG 8026 and CG 8017 are
having ideal plant types which make them best suited for late sown conditions and temperature tolerant during reproductive and later stages.

KEY WARDS: Wheat, stability.

INTRODUCTION:

The wheat varieties grown earlier in Chhattisgarh
are not performing well in changing climatic situation
specifically in high temperatures, hence there is need to
identify new varieties / genotypes which will behave stable
in changing climatic condition, specifically resistance against
higher temperature during reproductive phase of wheat and
later stages. A trend in Chhattisgarh has been observed
which shows that the cold starts in the month of December
and remains up to mid February. Suddenly, temperature
rise up from second fortnight of February and due to which
wheat crop that requires cold temperature exposure for its
normal growth and development during reproductive stage
is exposed to high temperature. It is because of this high
temperature that the growth, tillering ability and yield of the
wheat crop are affected a lot. The best way to achieve net
increase in overall production would be to develop genotypes
having specific stability. These genotypes are useful for
the selection of crop varieties as well as for breeding
programmes. The phenotypic performance of a genotype
is not necessarily the same under diverse agro-ecological
conditions (Ali et al., 2003). Some genotypes may perform
well in certain environments, but may fail in several others
environments. Genotypes x Environment (G x E) interaction
are extremely important in the development and evaluation
of plant varieties because they reduce the genotypic stability
values under diverse environment (Hebert et al., 1995).
The concept of stability has been defined in several ways
and several biometrical methods including univariate and
multivariate ones have been developed to assess stability
(Lin et al., 1986; Becker and Leon, 1988; Crossa, 1990).
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
The experimental material comprising of fourteen
genotypes viz., CG 8001, CG 8005, CG 9001, CG 8036, CG
8017, CG 8020, CG 8021, CG 8026, CG 8027, CG 8032, CG
8146, CG 8128, HD 2932 and MP 1203 raised at Raipur,
Kabirdham, Bilaspur and Ambikapur district of Chhattisgarh
in a Completely Randomized Block Design (CRBD) with
three replications during Rabi 2009-10. Each plot consisted
of ten rows of three meter length with plant to plant and row
to row 10 cm and 30 cm respectively. Data were recorded on
five randomly selected plants in each row for the characters
viz. days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height ,
number of tillers per plant, number of seeds per spike, 1000
seed weight, ear head length, biological yield, grain yield
and harvest index. The stability model proposed by Eberhart
and Russell (1966) was adopted to analyze the data over
three environments. The model involves the estimation of
three stability parameters like mean ( X ), regression
coefficient (bi) and deviation from regression (S2d).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Stability parameters in relation to performance of
genotypes under various environments
The highest GCV was obtained for grain yield and
PCV for number of tillers per plant. The genetic advance as
percent of mean in pooled analysis was highest for biological
yield and genetic advance as percent of mean in pooled
analysis was lowest for number of tillers per plant followed
by number of seeds per spike, grain yield, plant height, 1000
seed weight, harvest index, days to 50% flowering, ear head
length and days to maturity. The high values for heritability
and genetic advance suggested that selection in desired
direction for the respective characters would be effective
in crop improvement programme. The analysis of variance
for stability showed significant mean sum of squares for the
genotypes for ten traits viz., days to 50% flowering, days to
maturity, plant height, number of tillers per plant, number of
seeds per spike, 1000 seed weight, ear head length, biological
yield, grain yield and harvest index. The mean sum of
squares for environment (linear) was significant for all the
characters. Genotype x environment (linear) was significant
for all the traits except number of tillers per plant, ear head
length and grain yield(Table 1).. The pooled deviation with
respect to five characters days to 50% flowering, days to
maturity, plant height, biological yield and harvest index was

521
highly significant and for number of tillers per plant, number
of seeds per spike, 1000 seed weight, ear head length, grain
yield and harvest index was nonsignificant. Stability analysis
also confirms the above findings and exhibited stability of
genotypes HD 2932, CG 8146, CG 8026, CG 8128 and CG
8027 for grain yield. Genotypes HD 2932, CG 8146, CG
8017 and CG 8026 exhibited regression value more than
one, indicated better stability of these genotypes for number
of tillers per plant in specific environments. Genotypes
HD 8146 have regression value less than one which
showed average stability of this genotype over a range of
environment for this character whereas genotypes HD 2932,
CG 8017, CG 8026 exhibited regression value more than
one, indicating there to be highly stable varieties and which
can be recommended for highly favorable environment. .
Stable genotypes for grain yield are CG 9001, CG
8021, CG 8027, CG 8032, CG 8146, CG 8128 and HD 2932
as their S2di value deviated non-significantly from zero
(S2di=0). Genotypes CG 8001 (0.64), CG 8032 (0.73), CG
8021 (0.79), CG 8026 (0.82), HD 2932 (0.89), CG 8005
(0.90) and CG 8036 (0.94) having regression values less
than one suggested that genotypes have average stability (b
< 1) and suitable for normal range of environments (Table 2).
The regression coefficient CG 8128 (1.02) CG 9001 (1.12),
CG 8020 (1.17), CG 8146 (1.17), CG 8017 (1.19), CG 8027
(1.25), and MP1203 (1.42) is above unity and are (b>1) more
responsive to environment changes, high stability genotype
and such a variety is recommended only for highly favorable
environment. Genotypes CG 8017 (3.31), CG 8020 (4.08)
CG 8005 (4.13), CG 8036 (4.90), CG 8001 (5.25), CG
8026 (5.38), and MP 1203 (5.82) having significant S2 d
(deviations from regression) invalidate the linear prediction.
Present results supports the earlier findings of Lelley et
al. (2004), Ibrahim (2004), Yadav and Choudhary (2004),
Akcura et al. (2005), Banerjee et al. (2006), Rasul et al.
(2006), Ulker et al. (2006), Gomez et al. (2007), Majid et
al. (2007), Sharma et al. (2009), Aminzadeh (2010) and
Parveen et al. (2010) .
Stability analysis also confirms the above findings
and exhibited stability of genotypes HD 2932 and CG 8026
for grain yield. Genotypes HD 2932, CG 8146, CG 8017 and
CG 8026 exhibited regression value less than one, indicating
better stability of these genotypes for number of tillers per
plant in a range of environments.

Table -1 Analysis of variance for stability of different characters

Degree Harvest
Days No. Of No. Of 1000 Ear
Source of varia- of Days to Plant Biological Grain index
to 50% tillers seeds per seed head
tion Free- maturity height Yield yield
flowering per plant spike weight length
dom
Varieties 13 12.74** 50.25** 34.28** 0.83 14.71** 6.31** 0.169 33.5** 6.66** 13.3**
Environment 3 907.62** 1882.3** 255.7** 15.68** 5.54** 14.3** 1.202 1462.2** 148.5** 142.8**
Vari. X Envir. 39 8.39** 48.98** 19.79** 0.61 14.34** 3.92* 0.24 15.72** 1.69 7.98**
Environment
42 72.62** 179.99** 36.65** 1.69 13.71** 4.67* 0.30 119.0** 12.19** 17.61**
(Vari. X Env.)
Environment
1 2722.9** 5646.9** 767.2** 47.05** 16.65** 43.12** 3.60* 4386.2** 445.7** 428.6**
(Linear)
Vari. X Envi.
13 6.65** 118.60** 8.49** 0.161 13.71** 5.31** 0.42 12.70** 1.57 4.58*
(Linear)
Pooled Deviation 28 8.60** 13.168** 23.63** 0.78 2.19 2.99 0.13 16.00** 1.63 8.99**
Pooled Error 104 1.83 110.52** 1.45 1.03 2.19 1.46 0.81 3.47* 2.71 10.32**

**, * Significant at 1 % and 5% level

Table -2 Stability parameters for grain yield REFERENCES:

Akcura, M., Kaya, Y. and Taner, S. (2005) G x E
Geno- Reg. coef. Deviation from interaction and phenotypic stability analysis for grain yield
Sno. Mean ( x)
types (bi) regression (S2di) of durum wheat in the control Anatolian region. Turkish
1 CG 8001 23.98 0.64 5.21** Agriculture for Forestry, 29: 369-375.
2 CG 8005 24.63 0.90 4.13*
3 CG 9001 25.58 1.12 0.45 Ali, F., Khan, A.S. and Zulfiqar, A. (2003) Genetic
4 CG 8036 24.68 0.94 4.90**
5 CG 8017 26.38 1.19 3.31* variability and inheritance of grain yield and its components
6 CG 8020 26.16 1.17 4.08* in wheat. Pakistan Agricultural Sciences, 40:176-179.
7 CG 8021 24.85 0.79 2.97
8 CG 8026 26.68 0.82 5.38** Aminzadeh, G.R. (2010) Evaluation of seed yield
9 CG 8027 25.96 1.25 2.81 stability of wheat advanced genotypes. Research Journal
10 CG 8032 26.12 0.73 1.12
11 CG 8146 26.68 1.11 2.51 Environmental Sciences, 4(5): 478-482.
12 CG 8128 26.29 1.02 1.56
13 HD 2932 27.44 0.89 1.61 Banerjee, J., Rawat, R.S. and Verma, J,S. (2006).
14 MP 1203 22.57 1.42 5.82** Stability analysis in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em.
Thell) and durum (T. durum L.) genotypes. Indian J. Genet.,
**, * Significant at 1 % and 5% level 66: 145-147.

522
 Becker, U.B. and Leon, J. (1998) Stability analysis in
plant breeding. Plant breeding 101: 1-23.
Crossa, J. (1990). Statistical analysis of multilocation
traits. Adv. Agro., 44: 55-85.
Eberhart and Russell, W.A. (1966) Stability parameters
for comparing variations. Crop Sci., 6: 36-40.
Gomez, B., Morgounov, A. and Abugalieva, A. (2007)
Evaluation of grain yield stability reliability and cultivar.
Recommendations in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). J.
Cent. Eur. Agric., 7(4): 649-660.
Hebert, Y.C., Plomion, A. and Harzic, N. (1995)
Genotype x Environment interaction for root traits in maize
an analyzed with factorial regression models. Euphytica, 81:
413-419.
Lelley, T., Eder, C. and Grausgruber, H. (2004)
Influence of BL. RS wheat rye chromosome translocation
on genotype by environment interaction. J. Cereal Science,
39: 313-320.
523
Lin, C.S., Binns, M.R. and Lefkoviteh, L.P. (1986)
Stability analysis: where do we stand? Crop Sci., 26: 894-
900.
Parveen, L., Khalil, I.H. and Khalil, S.K. (2010)
Stability parameters for tillers, grain weight and yield of
wheat cultivars in North-West of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.,
43(3): 1613-1617.
Sharma, R.C., Morgounov, A.I., Martius, C. and
Braun, H.J. (2009) Identifying high yielding stable winter
wheat genotypes for irrigated environments in Central and
West Asia. Euphytica DOI, 10: 9992-9996.
Yadav, R.B. and Choudhary, H.B. (2004) Stability
analysis for performance of rainfed bread wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) genotypes. Agriculture Research New Series,
25: 248-252.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 524-528 (2015)
GENETIC VARIABILITY ANALYSIS FOR PLANT SELECTION IN PIGEONPEA
[CAJANUS CAJAN (L.) MILLSP.].
AJAY TIWARI, R.N. SHARMA, H.C. NANDA AND A. K. SARAWGI
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.), India 492012

ABSTRACT
Findings of analysis of variance revealed significant mean squares due to genotypes for all the traits under the study indicated the
existence of sufficient genetic variability for the traits. The highest GCV and PCV estimates were observed for pod clusters per plant.
The highest Genetic advance was observed for number of pods per plant followed by number of pod clusters per plant. High heri-
tability coupled with high genetic advance as percentage of mean was found for number of pod clusters per plant, number of pods
per plant, and 100 seed weight, indicated the role of additive genetic variance in their expression. Rest of the traits exhibited medium
to low genetic advance coupled with high to low heritability indicated the role of non additive genetic variance in their expression.

KEY WORDS: Genotypic coefficient of variation, phenotypic coefficient of variation, Variability, heritability, genetic ad-
vance, pigeonpea, germplasm.

INTRODUCTION:

Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp] is one of the
important grain legume crops of rainfed agriculture in the
semi-arid tropics belongs to family Fabaceae and it is the
second most important pulses crop after chickpea in India
with fifth rank in the world. Pigeonpea grown in about 50
countries in the world and the major pigeonpea producing
countries are India, Eastern Africa, Central and South
America, the Caribbean and West Indies. It is very important
component crop of farming system in India because of its
ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in to the soil. Beside that
it has multiple uses as a source of food, feed, fuel and shelter.
The area under pigeonpea during 2013-14 in India was 3.88
million hectare with a production of 3.17 million tonnes.
(Anonymous, 2015). As ‘dal’, pigeonpea is an important
constituent of the Indian meal. It contains 20-21% protein,
Starch 44.8%, Soluble sugars 2.1%, Crude fiber 8.2%, Fat
2.3%, Calcium 94.6, Magnesium113.7, Copper 1.4, Iron
4.6, Zinc 2.5 (mg/100g). In Chhattisgarh, acreage under
pigeonpea is 52 thousand hectares with a total production
and productivity of 32.3 thousand tonnes and 620 kg/
ha, respectively (Anonymous, 2015). Knowledge on the
nature and magnitude of the genetic variation governing
the inheritance of quantitative character like yield and
its components is essential for genetic improvement. A
critical analysis of the genetic variability is a prerequisite
for initiating any crop improvement programme and for
adopting appropriate selection techniques. Improvement in
grain quality that does not lower yield is the need of present
time in order to benefit all pigeonpea growers. Limited
published researches regarding utilization of component
traits of good quality pigeonpea is one of the important
reasons for tardy progress in breeding for high yielding
pigeonpea varieties. Keeping in view the above perspectives
the present experiment was carriedout to estimate the genetic
variability parameters for various yield attributing traits in
pigeonpea.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
An experiment comprised of 50 germplasm accessions
(Table-1) was conducted during the kharif season of 2012-
13 at the experimental area of department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding at Research cum Instructional Farm, Indira
Gandhi Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Raipur C.G. The experiment
was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three
replications recommended package of practices were applied
to raise the normal crop. Observations were recorded on five
randomly selected competitive plants from each genotype,
in each replication on 12 characters viz. days to flowering
initiation, days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant
height (cm), number of primary branches per plant, number
of pod clusters per plant, number of pods per cluster, number
of pods per plant, pod length (c.m.), number of seeds per pod,
100 seed weight (g) and seed yield per plant (g). Statistical
analysis for genetic variability was done as per the method
given by Burton (1952). Heritability in broad sense was
calculated by Hanson et al. (1956). Whereas genetic advance
was calculated by the method given by Johnson et al. (1955).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Variability parameters
Results of analysis of variances indicated that mean
squares due to genotypes were found significant for all the
traits under the study revealed sufficient variability is present
for the all the characters and selection would be effective to
develop the high yielding desirable genotypes in pigeonpea
Table-2.
Genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation
Genotypic and Phenotypic coefficients of variation are
simple measures of variability; these measures are commonly
used for the assessment of variability. The relative values of
these types of coefficient gives an idea about the magnitude
of variability present in a genetic population. Thus, the
components of variation such as genotypic coefficient of
variation (GCV) and phenotypic coefficient of variation
(PCV) were computed. The phenotypic coefficients of
variation were marginally higher than the corresponding
genotypic coefficient of variation indicated the influence of

524
environment in the expression of the character under study
(Table-3).
Genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) and
phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) are categorized
as low (less than 10%), Moderate (10-20%) and high
(more than 20%) as suggested by Sivasubramanium and
Madhavamenon (1973). The character number of pods
clusters per plant had highest GCV (31.20%) and PCV
(31.97%). The moderate GCV and PCV was observed for
number of pods per plant (19.10% and 19.50%) followed
by seed yield per plant (14.25% and 19.22%) and 100 seed
weight (11.38% and 11.68%). The GCV and PCV was low
for most of the characters viz. days to flowering initiation
(3.81% and 3.97%), days to 50% flowering (3.85% and
4.29%), days to maturity (2.95% and 3.60%), number of
primary branches per plant (8.24% and 9.78%), number of
pod per clusters (6.84% and 12.29%), pod length (4.92% and
6.89%) and number of seeds per pod (4.75% and 6.88%).
The findings are in general agreement with the findings of
Ghodke et al. (1994), Aher et al. (1998), Takalkar et al.
(1998), Srinivas et al. (1999), Singh (1999), Basavarajaiah
et al. (2000), Venkateswarlu (2001), Chattopadhyay and
Dhiman (2005), Sinha and Singh (2005), Mishra (2006),
Kalaimagal et al. (2008), Rathore (2008), Vange and Moses
(2009), Chen et al. (2009), Manyasa et al. (2009), Bhadru
(2010), Hamid et al. (2010), Patel and Acharya (2011),
Jaggal et al. (2012), Srivastava, and Vasishtha (2012),
Rekha et al. (2013), Yerimani et al. (2013), Rangare et al.
(2013) and Pandey et al. (2015) suggested the techniques
for estimation of components of genetic variability.
Heritability
Heritability governs the resemblance between parents
and their progeny whereas; the genetic advance provides the
knowledge about expected gain for a particular character
after selection. Heritability suggests the relative role of
genetic factors in expression of phenotypes and also acts
as an index of transmissibility of a particular trait to its
offspring’s. However, the knowledge of heritability alone
does not help in formulating concrete breeding programme,
genetic advance along with heritability helps to ascertain
the possible genetic control for any particular trait. The
nature and extent of the inherent ability of a genotype for a
character is an important parameter determining the extent
of improvement of any crop species. Heritability and genetic
advance are the important genetic parameters for selecting
a genotype that permit greater effectiveness of selection by
separating out environmental influence from total variability.
Heritability estimates along with genetic advance are
normally more useful in predicting the gain under selection
than that of heritability alone. However, it is not necessary
that a character showing high heritability will also exhibit
high genetic advance (Johnson et al. 1955). An attempt has
been made in the present investigation to estimate heritability
in broad sense and categorized as low (<50%), moderate (50-
70%) and high (>70%) as suggested by Robinson (1966).
In present investigation the high heritability (Table-3.) was
recorded for the character number of pods per plant (95.90%)
followed by number of pod clusters per plant (95.30%), 100
seed weight (94.90%), days to flowering initiation (92.00%),
plant height (88.70%), days to 50% flowering (80.40%)
and number of primary branches per plant (71.00%). The
525
moderate heritability was observed for the character days to
maturity (67.30%), seed yield per plant (54.90%) and pod
length (51.10%). In the present study low heritability was
observed for the character number of seeds per pod (47.70%)
and number of pods per clusters (31.00). The heritability
value alone however, provides no indication of the amount
of genetic improvement that would result from selection of
superior genotypes. High heritability values indicate that the
characters under study are less influenced by environment
in their expression. The plant breeder, therefore adopt
simple selection method on the basis of the phenotype
of the characters which ultimately improves the genetic
background of these traits. Similar results were also quoted
by Holkar et al. (1991), Saxena and Kataria (1993), Aher
et al. (1998), Takalkar et al. (1998), Srinivas et al. (1999),
Basavarajaiah et al. (2000), Venkateswarlu (2001), Singh et
al. (2003), Mahamad et al. (2006), Kalaimagal et al. (2008),
Rathore (2008) Chen et al. (2009), Vange and Moses (2009),
Bhadru (2010), Sreelakshmi et al. (2010), Sreelakshmi et al.
(2011), Jaggal et al. (2012), Naik et al. (2013), Rekha et al.
(2013), Pandey et al. (2015).
Genetic advance and genetic advance as
percentage of mean
The estimates of genetic advance as per cent of
mean provide more reliable information regarding the
effectiveness of selection in improving the traits. Genetic
advance denotes the improvement in the genotypic value
of the new population over the original population. Genetic
advance estimates are depicted in Table-3. Among the
studied characters the high, moderate and low estimates of
genetic advance as percent of mean was recorded. Genetic
advance was observed highest amount for number of pods
per plant (35.32) followed by number of pod clusters per
plant (26.14), plant height (21.13) days to 50% flowering
(9.83), days to maturity (9.31), days to flowering initiation
(9.25), On the other hand, the lowest amount of genetic
advance was recorded for seed yield per plant (4.08), 100
seed weight (1.91), number of branches per plant (1.18), pod
length (0.36), number of seeds per pod (0.26) and number
of pods per clusters (0.23). Among 12 characters studied
genetic advance as percentage of mean was observed highest
for pod clusters per plant (62.73%) had highest genetic
advance as percentage of mean followed by number of pods
per plant (38.53), 100 seeds weight (22.84%), seed yield per
plant (21.75%), plant height (17.43%), number of primary
branches per plant (14.30%), number of pods per clusters
(7.84%), days to flowering initiation (7.53%), pod length
(7.25%), days to 50% flowering (7.11%) number of seed
per pod (6.75%) and revealed moderate genetic advance
as percentage of mean days to maturity showed the lowest
genetic advance as percentage of mean (4.99%). Similar
result are also reported by Aher et al. (1998), Takalkar et al.
(1998) Patel and Patel (1998), Srinivas et al. (1999), Singh
(1999), Basavarajaiah et al. (2000), Venkateswarlu (2001),
Singh et al. (2003), Mahamad et al. (2006), Kalaimagal et
al. (2008), Rathore (2008), Chen et al. (2009), Vange and
Moses (2009), Bhadru (2010), Sreelakshmi et al. (2010),
Sreelakshmi et al. (2011), Jaggal et al. (2012), Rekha et al.
(2013), Naik et al. (2013) and Pandey et al. (2015)
The high heritability coupled with high genetic
advance as percentage of mean were observed for number of
pods per plant followed by number of pod clusters per plant,
100 seed weight, days to flowering initiation, plant height, through selection for improvement of these characters. The
days to 50% flowering and number of primary branches per moderate heritability coupled with high genetic advance was
plant. This indicated the role of additive genetic variance found in the character seed yield per plant.
in the expression of these characters. Hence, selection of
genotypes for these characters may be beneficial for possible Rest of the traits showed high to moderate heritability
improvement in the crop under respective environments. estimates coupled with moderate to low genetic advance as
Other traits had high to moderate heritability coupled with percentage of mean indicated the role of non additive genetic
moderate to genetic advance as percentage of mean which variance in their expression.
is mainly due to the role of non-additive genetic component
in their expression. In the present investigation, high ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
heritability coupled with high genetic advance as percentage The first author wish to acknowledge Department of
of mean was found for number of pod clusters per plant, Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, IGKV,
number of pods per plant, and 100 seed weight which Raipur (CG) for providing financial support for education
indicated that the predominance of additive gene action in and research programme. .
the expression of these characters which could be utilized
Table-1: Details of experimental material
S. No. Name of Genotype Salient Features of parent
accession
1 ICPL 87119 Medium duration, indeterminate, spreading, bold seeded, wilt & SMD resistant
2 BDN-2 Early duration, indeterminate, semi-spreading, white seeded tolerant to wilt
3 UPAS-120 Early duration, indeterminate, semi-spreading, synchronous in maturity, tolerant to pod borer
4 ICP6992 Medium duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, light brown
5 ICP6994 Medium duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading,, seed colour, purple
6 ICP6995 Long duration, stem colour sun red, semi-spreading,, seed colour, reddish brown
7 ICP6996 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, reddish brown

8 ICP6997 Medium duration, stem colour green, spreading , seed colour, light brown
9 ICP6999 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, purple
10 ICP7000 Medium duration, stem colour green, erect and compact , seed colour, reddish brown
11 ICP7001 Long duration, stem colour green, spreading, seed colour, light brown
12 ICP7002 Medium duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, reddish brown
13 ICP7003 Medium duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, light brown
14 ICP7004 Long duration, stem colour purple, spreading, seed colour, Grey
15 ICP7005 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, purple
16 ICP7349 Medium duration, stem colour green, spreading, seed colour, grey
17 ICP7358 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
18 ICP7359 Medium duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
19 ICP7362 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
20 ICP7363 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
21 ICP7364 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
22 ICP7366 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, seddish brown
23 ICP7367 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, reddish brown
24 ICP7373 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, light brown
25 ICP7374 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, light brown
26 ICP7376 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, light brown
27 ICP7379 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, reddish brown
28 ICP7382 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
29 ICP7384 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, light grey
30 RPS 2008-4 Long duration, stem colour sun red, erect and compact, seed colour, dark purple
31 ICP7387 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, orange
32 ICPL-87 Short duration, determinate semi-spriding, stem colour green, tolerant of fusarium wilt, seed colour light brown
33 ICP7389 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, grey
34 ICP7391 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, reddish brown
35 ICP7392 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, white
36 ICP7393 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, light brown
37 ICP7397 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, light brown
38 ICP7398 Long duration, stem colour green, spreading, seed colour, reddish brown
39 ICP7404 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, reddish brown
40 ICP7405 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, light brown
41 ICP7406 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, reddish brown

526
42 ICP7409 Long duration, stem colour purple, semi-spreading, seed colour, light brown
43 ICP7420 Long duration, stem colour green, erect and compact, seed colour, purple
44 ICP7429 Long duration, stem colour purple, spreading, seed colour, light brown
45 JKM-189 Medium duration, semi-spreading, indeterminate, stem colour green, seed colour reddish brown
46 RPS 20010-14-1 Long duration, stem colour purple, spreading, seed colour, grey
47 RPS 2008-5 Long duration, stem colour sun red, semi- spreading, seed colour, dark purple
48 RPS 2007-105 Long duration, stem colour purple, erect and compact, seed colour, light brown
49 RPS 2010-16-5 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, purple
50 RPS 2010-17-3 Long duration, stem colour green, semi-spreading, seed colour, grey
Table -2: Analysis of variance for seed yield and its components in pigeonpea germplasm

Source of DF
Mean sum of squares
Variation
Days to Days Days to Plant No. of No of pod No. of No. of Pod No. of 100 seed Seed
flowering to 50% maturity height primary clusters pods per pods per length seeds weight yield per
initiation flowering (cm) branches per plant clusters plant (cm) per pod (g ) plant (g)
per plant
Replica- 2 4.667 10.320 3.127 5.642 0.160 7.112 0.125 36.709
0.086 0.026 0.127 0.264
tion
Treatment 49 67.677** 91.799** 105.723** 371.308** 1.566** 515.462** 0.216** 932.660** 0.240** 0.134** 2.765** 27.229**
Error 98 1.911 6.884 14.746 15.178 0.187 8.416 0.092 13.059 0.058 0.036 0.048 5.850
Total 149
*Significant at 5% probability level, ** Significant at 1% probability level

Table-3: Genetic parameters of variation for seed yield and its components in pigeonpea germplasm
Grand Range Genetic
Parameters Heritability Genetic
S. No. mean GCV PCV advance in
Characters Min. Max. (%) advance
% of mean
1 Days to flowering initiation 122.83 104.67 131.00 3.81 3.97 92.00 9.25 7.53
2 Days to 50% flowering 138.30 127.33 149.00 3.85 4.29 80.40 9.83 7.11
3 Days to maturity 186.39 173.33 196.00 2.95 3.60 67.30 9.31 4.99
4 Plant height (cm) 121.27 98.93 144.60 8.98 9.54 88.70 21.13 17.43
5 No. of primary branches per plant 8.22 6.13 9.53 8.24 9.78 71.00 1.18 14.30
6 No of pod clusters per plant 41.67 20.57 64.60 31.20 31.97 95.30 26.14 62.73
7 No. of pods per clusters 2.97 2.33 3.67 6.84 12.29 31.00 0.23 7.84
8 No. of pods per plant 91.66 48.07 126.33 19.10 19.50 95.90 35.32 38.53
9 Pod length (cm) 5.01 4.39 5.90 4.92 6.89 51.10 0.36 7.25
10 No. of seeds per pod 3.81 3.27 4.47 4.75 6.88 47.70 0.26 6.75
11 100 seed weight (g ) 8.36 6.87 11.17 11.38 11.68 94.90 1.91 22.84
12 Seed yield per plant (g) 18.74 12.72 32.70 14.25 19.22 54.90 4.08 21.75

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528
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 529-530 (2015)
BENEFITS AVAILED BY THE RURAL WOMEN ABOUT INTEGRATED CHILD
DEVELOMENT SERVICE (ICDS) SCHEME
M.B. VALVI1, B.M. THOMBRE2 AND D.D. SURADKAR3

ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in Ausa, Chakur and Renapur tahsils of Latur district in Marathwada region of Maharash-
tra State during 2011-12, with the total sample of 120 respondents in Latur district. Findings revealed majority (80.00%) of the In-
tegrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries had high level of benefits availed while, 19.17 per cent of them had me-
dium and only 0.83 per cent of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries had low level of benefits availed.

Key words: ICDS, benefits availed, rural women.

INTRODUCTION
Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS) is the Total obtained score
only major national programme that addresses the health Benefits availed Index = × 100
and nutrition needs of children under the age of six. ICDS Maximum possible score
launched on 2nd October 1975 in 33 Community Development
Blocks, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
today represents one of the world’s largest programme
for early childhood development. The main aims of this Extent of benefits availed of Integrated Child Develop-
scheme was to improve the nutritional and health status of ment Services (ICDS) scheme on beneficiaries
vulnerable groups including pre-school children, pregnant It is portrayed in Table 1 that majority (80.00%) of the
women and nursing mother through providing a package Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
of services including supplementary nutrition, pre-school had high level of benefits availed while, 19.17 per cent of
education, immunization, health check-up, referral services them had medium and only 0.83 per cent of the Integrated
and nutrition and health education. Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries had low
level of benefits availed. This finding is similar to Bhople
The guidelines of the scheme envisage one rural or ur- (1999).
ban project for one lakh population and one tribal project for
35,000 populations, with one Anganwadi Centre for a pop- Table.1 Distribution of the ICDS beneficiaries according to
ulation of one thousand in rural or urban projects and seven their benefits availed n = 120
hundred in tribal area. Looking to these facts, the present
Benefits availed Frequency Percentage
MATERIALS AND METHEDS
1. Low 01 0.83
Present study was carried out in randomly selected
talukas of Latur district. The district consist of 10 tahasils 2. Medium 23 19.17
namely Latur, Renapur, Ausa, Nilanga, Ahamadpur, Udagir, 3. High 96 80.00
Chakur, Deoni, Shirur, Anatpal and Jalkot. Out of these three Total 120 100.00
tahsils namely Ausa, Chakur, and Renapur were selected
randomly by lottery method. From each tahasils five villages
and eight respondents from each villages were selected 2. Relationship between personal characteristics of Inte-
randomly on the basis of nth number method to comprise grated Child Development Services (ICDS) beneficiaries
the total sample of 120 respondents for study. The data were and benefits availed.
collected with the help of pretested interview schedule by
personal interview technique and analyzed by applying It is conspicuous in Table 2 that the results of
suitable statistical methods. correlation coefficient (r) showed that the independent
variables namely education, social participation, source
Measurement of Benefits availed of information and knowledge were positively and highly
The benefits availed was measured by scoring significantly related with the benefits availed. Family type,
technique. Total 30 score were selected. Benefits availed score occupation, caste and annual income were negatively related
was calculated by summing up these score of items. Score with the benefits availed while, age, family size, were non
one was assigned for knowing the practices completely, zero significantly related with benefits availed of Integrated Child
score was assigned for total lack of benefits availed about the Development Services (ICDS).
practice. Accordingly, total score of every Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) beneficiary was worked out.
Benefits availed was measured with the help of total score
obtained. The total benefits availed of each beneficiary was
calculated on the basis of total score obtained by them with
the following formula

529
Table 2. Correlation between different personal characteris- level of benefits availed. It helps in further improvement in
tics of ICDS beneficiaries and benefits availed. benefits availed of scheme. The supply of required material
assets and man power will help in improving the benefits
Correlation coefficient (‘r’) availed of scheme. The planners need to make adequate
Independent variables provision and the implementers lead to use them effectively.
Benefits availed
Result of correlation coefficient (r) showed that the
1. Age 0.182
independent variables namely education, social participation,
2. Education 0.746** source of information and knowledge were positively and
3. Family size 0.014 highly significantly related with the benefits availed. Family
4. Family type -0.080 type, occupation, caste, annual income was negatively
5. Occupation -0.039 related with the benefits availed while age and family size
6. Caste -0.122 were non significantly related with benefits availed
7. Annual income -0.028
8. Social participation 0.393** REFERENCES
9. Sources of
0.497** Bhople, R.S.; Mankar S.A. and Patil R.L. (1999). Benefits
information From Agricultural Development Schemes
10. Knowledge 0.718** Availed by Tribal Farmers. Maha. J. of Extn.
** Significant at 0.01 % level of probability Edn. XVIII: 211-214.

* Significant at 0.05 % level of probability
NS Non Significant
CONCLUSION
The study revealed that the positive extent of
benefits availed by the rural women about Integrated Child
Development Services (ICDS) on beneficiaries clearly
indicates that majority of the ICDS beneficiaries had high
Gohad, V.V. (2010). Benefits availed by rural women from
women development programme. Dept. of
Ext. Edn., Shri Shivaji Agriculture College,
Amravati. (M.S.), India.
Waghmare, V.V. and Kadam (2011). Knowledge and Benefits
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Ext. Edn. Manag. Vol. XII.

530
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 531-534 (2015)
EFFECT OF SPLIT APPLICATION OF NPK FERTILIZER ON NUTRIENT UTILIZATION
EFFICIENCY AND YIELD OF HYBRID RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.)
N.K.TIWARI S.F.A ZAIDI, RAJ KUMAR AND CHANDAN SINGH
Deptt of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology Kumarganj Faizabad (U.P.) India

ABSTRACT
The Nutrient utilization Efficiency of Fertilizer are very much concern because of costliest input in hybrid rice production. A field experiment
was conducted to investigate the effect of Split application of NPK fertilizers on nutrient utilization efficiency and yield of hybrid rice (Oryza
sativa L.) at Student Instructional Research Farm, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj),
Faizabad (U.P.) during Kharif season 2012 and 2013. The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block Design with Ten treatments com-
binations were taken by spliting of N, P and K fertilizers in three splits with control and recommended practices. The 75 % RDF were also
taken in three splits to compare with 100 % RDF as old recommended practices (RP). The maximum grain and straw yield (7.35 and 9.70)
t ha-1 and Nutrient utilization efficiency as (NUE) Nitrogen, (63.32 %), Phosphorus (42.83%) and potassium (129.47 %) were recorded in
treatment number T6- NPK (100% RDF) N as (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K (1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI), followed by T3 (7.13 and
9.54) t ha-1 grain and straw yield and (NUE) Nitrogen, (59.37 %), Phosphorus (39.88 %) and potassium (123.56 %) - NPK (100% RDF) as
N (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K basal and T5- NPK (100% RDF) N and P as RP and K (3/4 Basal+ 1/3 PI) recording (6.42and 8.58)
t ha-1 grain and straw yield and (NUE) Nitrogen, (46.73 %), Phosphorus (31.15 %) and potassium (97.27 %) respectively both the year.

Key Word: Splitting of NPK, Nutrient Uptake, NUE (nutrient utilization use efficiency), Yield of hybrid rice,

INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important cereal crop
that provides 43 per cent of calorie requirement for more
than 70 per cent of Indian as well as world’s population. It
is cultivated worldwide over an area about 156.68 million
hectare with an annual production of about 473.2 million
tonnes with an average productivity 4150 kg per hectare.
India is the second largest producer and consumer of rice in
the world. The stagnation in rice production in being reported
by reveals organization. Therefore the hybrid rice production
is the need of the hour to fulfil the requirement of growing
population. The fertilizer requirement of hybrid rice is
much higher than indigenous rice varieties. The fertilizer use
efficiency of applied fertilizer are very less recording only
< 40 % of Nitrogen, 10 to 30% of Phosphatic and 20 to
60% of Potassic fertilizer. Being costlier input in hybrid rice
production the utilization efficiency of N, P and K fertilizer
are very much concern to reduce cost of production. The
Split application of NPK fertilizer may be applied when
required (in spilts) to the plants to reduce the less of nutrients
thus improving the fertilizer use efficiency. This way we
can reduce the cost of hybrid rice production, therefore the
percent investigation was conducted to study the effect of
“Effect of Split application of NPK fertilizer on nutrient
utilization efficiency and yield of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa
L.)” N, P, K and S fertilizers resulted significant increase in
plant height, effective tillers, panicle length, filled grains and
1000-grain weight as well as grain and straw yields of rice
(Dey et al., 2014).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted at Student
Instructional Farm of Narendra Deva University of
Agriculture and Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj),
Faizabad (U.P.). The experiment site falls under subtropical
zone in Indo-Gangetic plains having alluvial calcareous
soil and lies between latitude 24.470 and 25.560 north and
longitudes 81.120 and 83.980 east with in elevation of about
113 m from mean sea level in the Eastern Uttar Pradesh
during in the year 2012 and 2013. The soil of experimental
field was silt loam in texture having pH 8.4, organic carbon
3.3(gm/kg) , Cation Exchange Capacity-2.4 c mol (p) kg-1 soil,
available N- 154.80 kg ha-1, P- 14.40 kg ha-1 and K- 234.00
kg ha-1.The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block
Design with Ten treatment i.e. T1- Control, T2- NPK (100%
RDF) as Recommended practices (RP), T3- NPK (100%
RDF) as N (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K basal, T4-
NPK (100% RDF) N and K as recommended practices (RP)
(3/4 Basal + 1/3 PI), T5- NPK (100% RDF) N (1/3 7DAT+
1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) and P as RP and K (3/4 Basal+ 1/3 PI), T6-
NPK (100% RDF) N as (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and
K (1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI), T7- NPK (75 % RDF) N (1/3
7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K as basal, T8-- NPK (75%
RDF) N and K as RP and P (1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI),
T9- NPK (75% RDF) N (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) and
P as RP and K (1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI), and T10- NPK
(75% RDF) N as (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+1/3 PI) P and K (1/3
Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI). The spilt application of NPK was
applied through Urea, Single super phosphate and Muriat of
potash, respectively.
Twenty five day old seedling of hybrid rice
Arize-6444 was transplanted in last week of July at a spacing
of 20 x 15 cm keeping 1 seedling hill-1at harvest; the data on
panicle m-2 were recorded from randomly selected 4 places
by using quadrate of 0.25 m2. Ten panicles were selected
randomly from each plot for recording panicle weight and
number of grains. The biological yield and grain yield were
recorded at 14% grain moisture from each plot. Nitrogen
concentration in grain and straw were estimation by modified
micro kjeldhal method suggested by Jackson (1973). N
uptake was computed by multiplying the N contains and
their respective yield of grain and straw. The NPK uptake

531
Nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUE), phosphorous utilization efficiency (PUE) and Potassium utilization efficiency (KUE),
and harvest index were calculated by the following formula-
Nutrient uptake under treated plot (kg ha - 1) - Nutrint uptake under control plot (kg ha - 1)
Nutrient utilization efficincy (%) =
Quintity of nutrient applied (kg ha - 1)

Nutrient content grain (%) x Grain yield (kg/ha)

Nutrient uptake (kg/ha) = +
100
Nutrient content in straw ( %
) x Straw yield (kg/ha)
100

Grain yield (q/ha)

Harvest index (%) =
Biological yield (q/ha)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Effect of spilt application of NPK fertilizer increased
grain and straw yield during both the year table -1. When
a part of the NPK was applied basically, the grain and
straw yield of hybrid rice was lower comparison to spilt
application (basal) of all NPK at different growth stages in
a three spilt system also reduce the grain and straw yield by
(6.16 and 8.52) t ha-1 T3- NPK (100% RDF) as N (1/3 7DAT+
1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K basal respectively. Similarly delay
in NPK split application up to maximum tillering stage on
a six split application of NPK T6- NPK (100% RDF) N as
(1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K (1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+
1/3 PI)), the grain and straw yield by (7.35and 9.70) t ha-1
respectively in comparison to T2 (6.17and 8.53) t ha-1 -NPK
X 100
(100% RDF) as Recommended practices (RP). The Split
application of N, P and K fertilizers Qixiaoli et al, (2014)
resulted significant increase in plant height, effective tillers,
panicle length, filled grains and 1000-grain weight as well
as grain and straw yields of rice. The highest grain yields
were produced by application of urea super granule (USG)
at transplanting + 50% PKS at transplanting + 50% PKS at
maximum tillering stage. Zaidi et al., (2007) reported that the
nitrogen utilization efficiency and agronomic efficiency 1.7
time more with split application nitrogen as 1/3 7 DAT, 1/3
MT, 1/3 PI stages, after seeding establishment as compared
to split application starting from basal, where as reverse
was true with varies widely for the NPK applied at different
growth stages.

Table 1 Effect of split application of NPK fertilizers on yield and harvest index of hybrid rice

Grain yield Straw yield H.I.

Treatments
(t ha-1) (t ha-1) (%)
2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean
T1 Control 3.30 3.40 3.35 5.15 5.25 5.20 39.05 39.31 39.18
T2 NPK (100% RDF) Recommended practices (RP) 6.15 6.18 6.17 8.20 8.85 8.53 42.86 41.12 41.99

T3 NPK (100% RDF) as N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K basal 7.05 7.21 7.13 9.20 9.88 9.54 43.38 42.19 42.79

T4 NPK (100% RDF) N and K recommended P (3/4 B+1/3 PI) 6.25 6.23 6.24 8.25 8.40 8.33 43.10 42.58 42.84
NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) K (3/4 B+1/3
T5 6.40 6.44 6.42 8.40 8.75 8.58 43.24 42.40 42.82
PI) and P RP
NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K 1/3
T6 7.25 7.45 7.35 9.45 9.95 9.70 43.41 42.82 43.12
( B+MT+PI)
T7 NPK (75 % RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K basal 5.25 5.30 5.28 7.15 7.75 7.45 42.34 40.61 41.48
T8 NPK (75% RDF) N and K RP and P 1/3 ( B+MT+PI) 5.00 5.15 5.08 6.85 7.50 7.18 42.19 40.71 41.45

T9 NPK (75% RDF) N and P RP and K 1/3 ( B+MT+PI) 5.15 5.25 5.20 7.05 7.55 7.30 42.21 41.02 41.62
NPK (75% RDF) N1/3 (7DAT+MT+PI) P and K 1/3
T10 5.35 5.36 5.36 7.30 7.80 7.55 42.29 40.73 41.51
( B+MT+PI)
SEm± 0.28 0.23 0.26 0.43 0.35 0.39 - - -
CD (P=0.05) 0.83 0.67 0.75 1.30 1.04 1.17 NS NS NS

532
Table 2 Effect of split application of NPK fertilizers on nutrient uptake (kg ha-1) of hybrid rice
Phosphorous Potassium
Nitrogen
Treatments
2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean
T1 Control 75.08 77.90 76.49 12.74 13.94 13.34 74.84 77.16 76.00
T2 NPK (100% RDF) Recommended practices (RP) 139.20 145.28 142.24 27.88 30.31 29.10 127.31 135.77 131.54
T3 NPK (100% RDF) as N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K basal 161.32 169.75 165.54 35.66 38.88 37.27 145.28 154.98 150.13
T4 NPK (100% RDF) N and K recommended P (3/4 B+1/3 PI) 139.08 141.17 140.13 28.85 30.45 29.65 128.43 130.87 129.65
NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) K (3/4 B+1/3
T5 144.44 148.74 146.59 30.96 33.09 32.03 131.80 136.92 134.36
PI) and P RP
NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K 1/3
T6 167.50 175.44 171.47 38.32 39.76 39.04 150.22 157.14 153.68
( B+MT+PI)
T7 NPK (75 % RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K basal 117.26 122.82 120.04 23.47 25.69 24.58 110.39 118.03 114.21
T8 NPK (75% RDF) N and K RP and P 1/3 ( B+MT+PI) 108.05 114.81 111.43 18.85 21.13 19.99 103.22 112.56 107.89
T9 NPK (75% RDF) N and P RP and K 1/3 ( B+MT+PI) 111.96 117.52 114.74 20.63 22.71 21.67 107.48 112.91 110.20
NPK (75% RDF) N1/3 (7DAT+MT+PI) P and K 1/3
T10 118.70 123.16 120.93 22.67 24.61 23.64 111.92 118.40 115.16
( B+MT+PI)
SEm± 3.40 3.86 3.63 1.03 1.49 1.26 3.91 5.29 4.60
CD (P=0.05) 10.00 11.47 10.74 3.06 4.43 3.75 11.78 15.72 13.75
Table 3 Effect of Split application of NPK Nutrient utilization efficiency on hybrid rice

Nutrient utilization efficiency (%)

Treatments Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean
T1 Control 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
T2 NPK (100% RDF) Recommended practices (RP) 42.74 44.92 43.83 25.23 27.29 26.26 87.44 97.68 92.56

T3 NPK (100% RDF) as N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K basal 57.49 61.24 59.37 38.19 41.57 39.88 117.40 129.71 123.56

T4 NPK (100% RDF) N and K recommended P (3/4 B+1/3 PI) 42.66 42.18 42.42 26.85 27.52 27.19 89.31 89.51 89.41
NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) K (3/4 B+1/3
T5 46.24 47.22 46.73 30.37 31.92 31.15 94.93 99.60 97.27
PI) and P RP
NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K 1/3
T6 61.61 65.02 63.32 42.63 43.03 42.83 125.63 133.30 129.47
( B+MT+PI)
T7 NPK (75 % RDF) N 1/3( 7DAT+MT+ PI) P and K basal 37.49 29.95 33.72 23.84 26.11 24.98 78.99 90.82 84.91

T8 NPK (75% RDF) N and K RP and P 1/3 ( B+MT+PI) 29.30 24.60 26.95 13.58 15.97 14.78 63.07 78.67 70.87

T9 NPK (75% RDF) N and P RP and K 1/3 ( B+MT+PI) 32.78 26.41 29.60 17.53 19.49 18.51 72.52 79.44 75.98

NPK (75% RDF) N1/3 (7DAT+MT+PI) P and K 1/3

T10 38.77 30.17 34.47 22.07 23.72 22.90 82.39 91.64 87.02
( B+MT+PI)

B- basal, DAT- days of transplanting, RP- recommended
practices
MT- maximum tillering, PI- panicle initiation
NPK spilt application of resulted significant increase
in NPK uptake over control during both the years. Basal
application of NPK (1/3) resulted significant reduction in
total NPK uptake as compared to top dressing of NPK in two
or three splits at various growth stages. The highest total NPK
uptake was recorded with 6 splits T6 (N-171.47, P- 39.04 and
K- 153.68) kg ha-1- NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3(7DAT+MT+
PI) P and K 1/3 (B+MT+PI),which showed an increase of
over control T1 (N- 94.98, P-25.54 and K-77.98 ) kg ha-1and
recommended practice of NPK application (T2), respectively.
The increase in NPK uptake was mainly due to increase in
grain and straw yield accompanied by higher NPK uptake in
grain and straw during both the year. These resulted are in
agreement with those of Pan et al. (2010) and Shivanna, et
al., (2011) and Anonymous (2001).
The effect of spilt application of NPK utilization
efficiency expressed in terms of nitrogen efficiency,
phosphorous utilization efficiency and potassium utilization
efficiency is presented table 2. The NPK utilization efficiency

533
increased with split applications after seedling establishment
as compared to split application starting from basal, where
as reverse was true with nutrient utilization efficiency. The
highest values of nutrient utilization efficiency were recorded
sowed NPK applied in six equal split i.e. T6 (Nitrogn-63.31,
Phosphorous-42.84, Potassium- 129.47 kg ha-1N, P and K
applied) NPK (100% RDF) N 1/3(7DAT+MT+ PI) P and
K 1/3 (B+MT+PI) the higher nutrient utilization efficiency
with 1/3 split application of total fertilizer NPK at 7 DAT may
be due to better translocation, distribution and remobilization
of absorbed a plant organs i.e. leaf area index with which
NPK used in CO2 fixation This may be explained that a long
time interaction (aging) of soluble P with soil leads to its
reaction with solid phase of soil (Kardos, 1964) and with
calcium carbonate and the formation of relatively insoluble
reaction products with Ca, Fe and Al leading to P, K fixation
(Brady and Weil, 2002).
CONCULUSION
Yield and Straw yield attributes characters highest
gross yield 7.44 % increased. The highest values of nutrient
utilization efficiency in treatments T6 (Nitrogn-63.31,
Phosphorous-42.84 and Potassium- 129.47 kg ha-1 N, P and
K applied) - NPK (100% RDF) N as (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+
1/3 PI) P and K (1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) followed by
T2 (Nitrogen-43.83, Phosphorous- 26.26 and Potassium –
92.56 kg ha-1 N, P and K applied) -NPK (100% RDF) as
Recommended practices (RP) which was at par with T3
(Nitrogen-59.37, Phosphorous- 39.88 and Potassium –
123.56 kg ha-1 N, P and K applied)-NPK (100% RDF) as N
(1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K basal over the rest of
all treatments during the year (2012 and 2013).
The maximum grain and straw yield by (6.16 and 8.52)
t ha-1 and nutrient utilization efficiency of N, P and K were
recorded in treatment T6 (Nitrogn-63.31, Phosphorous-42.84
and Potassium- 129.47 kg ha-1 N, P and K applied) - NPK
(100% RDF) N as (1/3 7DAT+ 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) P and K
(1/3 Basal + 1/3 MT+ 1/3 PI) the spilt application of NPK
improve the production and productivity of hybrid rice.
Further T2- NPK (100% RDF) as Recommended practices
(RP) were recorded at par yield and nutrient use efficiency
with the T10- NPK (75% RDF) N1/3 (7DAT+MT+PI) P and
K 1/3 B+MT+PI)indicating that 25% further as could we
saved by spliting fertilizer without loosing yield of hybrid
rice.
534
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2013). Annual Progress Report AICRP, Vol. 3,
Directorate of Research, Hyderabad.
Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. (2002). The Nature and
Properties of Soils. 13th Edition, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey.
Dey,B.R. Rahman, M.M. and Hoque M.A. (2014).
Enhancement of the growth and yield of rice
bf spilt application Nitrogen phosphorous,
potassium and sulphur fertilizer. J. Soil Nature
7(1):7-12.
Jackson, M.L. (1973). Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall
of India. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Kardos, L.T. 1964. Soil fixation of plant nutrients. p. 369-
394. In: Chemistry of soils. F. E. Bear(ed) .
Reinhold Publishing Corp. N.Y.
Pan, Sheng.Gang, Zhai, Jing. Cao, Cou. Gui. Cai, Ming. Li,
Wang, Ruo. Han. Huang, Sheng. Qi.
and Li, Jin. Shan (2010) Effects of nitrogen
management practices on nutrients (NPK)
uptake and grain qualities of rice. Plant
Nutrition and Fertilizer Science, 16 (3); 522-
527.
Qi XiaoLi, Nie. LiXiao. Liu, Hong.Yan. Peng, Shao.Bing.
Shah, F. Huang, Jian.Liang. Cui, Ke.Hui. and
Sun, Li.Ming. (2014) Grain yield and apparent
N recovery efficiency of dry direct-seeded
rice under different N treatments aimed
to reduce soil ammonia volatilization, Field
Crops Research, (134);138-143.
Shivanna, M; Chidanandappa, H. M; Ramachandra, C; and
Thippeshappa, G. N. (2011). Split application
of potassium on growth, yield attributes,
uptake, quality and availability of
nutrients in low land rice, var KHP-9 (Oryza
sativa). Environment and Ecology, 29(4A):
2148-2152.
Zaidi and Tripathi (2007). Effect of N application timing on
nitrogen use efficiency of rice. Oryza, 44 (3):
243-243.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 535-538 (2015)
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF RICE GERMPLASM
NAVEEN KUMAR MARKAM, RAVINDRA KUMAR VERMA, AJAY TIWARI, UMESH CHANDRA
DESHMUKH AND ISHU KUMAR KHUTE
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, IGKV, Raipur (CG) 492012

ABSTRACT
The morphological characterization is fundamental in order to provide information about plant breeding programs. The pres-
ent investigation was carried out to forty seven rice germplasm including one local check variety poornima during rabi season
2012. The experiment was conducted at the experimental area of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Research Cum In-
structional Farm, IGKV, Raipur (CG). For this purpose, all 47 rice germplasm collected from different sources were carried
out in a complete randomized block design with three replication. These germplasm were characterized and grouped on the ba-
sis of leaf color, flag leaf angle, panicle type, hull color, awning and other characters. Morphological characterization is most im-
portant parameters for characterization of germplasm. Under investigation eighteen morphological characters are characterized.

KEYWORDS: Rice Germplasm, morphological, characterization and check variety.

INTRODUCTION:

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the world’s second most
important cereal crop, belonging to the family gramineae
and it is the most important for world and about 90 per cent
of the people of south-East Asia consume rice as staple food.
Rice is staple food for many Asian countries and here, rice
production would be decreased due to drought stress. Plant
breeding and introducing drought resistant varieties as well
as improve of drought resistance mechanisms will be useful
to solve this problem. Grain yield is a complex polygenic
quantitative trait, greatly affected by environment. Hence,
selection of superior genotypes based on yield as such is not
effective. Selection has to be made for the components of
grain yield. Morphologically, rice is an annual grass and one
of the most important crops. Globally it is grown extensively
in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. More than
half of the people on the globe depend on rice as their basic
diet and, generally extensively consumed in the producing
countries. According to FAO, the productivity level of rice
in India is very low (3. 21 t/ha) as compared to the average
productivity of the china (6.35 t/ha) and world (4.15 t/ha).
The world population is expected to reach 8 billion by
2030 and rice production must be increased by 50% in order
to meet the growing demand (Khush and Brar, 2002). Hence,
rice breeders are interested in developing cultivars with
improved yield and other desirable agronomic characters.
Genetic variability and characterization for agronomic
traits is the key component of breeding programmes for
broadening the gene pool of rice. Plant breeders commonly
select for yield components which indirectly increase yield.
Morphological characterization of germplasm is
fundamental in order to provide information for plant breeding
programs (Lin, 1991). Several researchers reported the use
of agro-morphological markers in the characterization and
study of rice (Oryza sativa L.) germplasm diversity. Yibo et
al. (2010) investigated morphological and genetic diversity
in 11 surviving populations of O. rufipogon Griff. from
Hainan Island, China, and reported a clear morphological
differentiation among or within populations. In India, Patra
and Dhua (2003) analyzed the agro morphological diversity
of upland rice and in Vietnam. Seetharam et al. (2009)
characterized 30 rice genotypes comprising landraces, pure
lines, somaclones, breeding lines and varieties specifically
adapted to costal saline environments using SSR markers
and morphological characters. In Chhattisgarh, Bisne and
Sarawgi (2008) characterized 32 aromatic rice accessions for
morphological characterization from IGKV, Raipur. Parikh
et al. (2012) studies seventy-one aromatic rice germplasm
from IGKV, Raipur. These germplasm were characterized
and grouped on the basis of anthocyanin pigmentation, plant
habit, and awning character.
The main aim of this investigation was to characterize
47 rice germplasm using morphological characters and
to provide useful information to facilitate the choice of
progenitors for rice plant breeding programs.
MATERIAL AND METHODS:
The experimental material comprises of the 47 rice
germplasm including of one local check variety Poornima.
These germplasms were received from International
Rice Research Institute, Manila (Philippines). The list of
experimental material used in the present study is given
in Table 3.1. The experiment was conducted in complete
Randomized Block Design with three replications. The
experimental field was divided into three replications
consisted of 47 rice germplasm. The spacing between row
to row was 20 cm, plant to plant was 15 cm and plot size
3.30m x 1.20m. Transplanting of the material was done
manually, keeping single seedling per hill with 30 days
old seedling. A fertilizer dose of 80N:50P:30K kg/ha was
applied. The entire dose of phosphorus and potassium
along with half dose of nitrogen was applied as basal dose
at the time of field preparation and the remaining nitrogen
dose were applied in two splits at twenty days interval in
the standing crop. The experiment was conducted during
rabi 2012 and observations were recorded on five randomly
selected plants from each plot at each replication for
eighteen agro-morphological characters viz. Early plant
vigor (EPV), basal leaf sheath color (BLSC), leaf blade
color (LBC), leaf pubescence (LP), Flag leaf angle (FLA),
Ligule color (LgC), Ligule shape (LgS), collar color (CC),

535
auricle colour (AC), internode color (IC), Panicle exertion, AFRICA RICE CEN-
panicle type (PT), stigma color (SgC), Awning (An), Hull 42 144 WAB 96-1-1
TER
color (HC), Sterile lemma color (SLmC), Seed coat color 43 145 IR 8866-30-3-1-4-2 IRRI
(SCC) and Threshability (Thr). The germplasm were KHARA GANJA (ACC
characterized using morpho-agronornic descriptors (IRRI, 44 146 PAKISTAN
76363)
1996). Recommended cultural practices as used for growing 45 147 POORNIMA INDIA
rice crop were used throughout the experiment. Frequency PEH-KUH TSAO-TU (ACC
distributions for all the morphological traits were computed. 46 148
8237)
TAIWAN

47 150 BAKTULSHI BANGLADESH

Table 3.1: List of genotypes used for morphological charac-
terization
EN- GENOTYPES RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
S.N. ORIGIN
TRY NAME The eighteen morphological characters were recorded
1 101 N 12 (ACC 6298) INDIA for forty seven germplasm. The various morphological
IR 61336-4B-14-3-2 (PSB characters included (1) early plant vigour, (2) basal leaf
2 102 IRRI sheath color, (3) leaf blade color, (4) leaf pubescence, (5)
RC 94)
TOOR THULLA (ACC flag leaf angle, (6) ligule color, (7) ligule shape, (8) collar
3 103 PAKISTAN color, (9) auricle colour, (10) internode color, (11) panicle
76420)
4 104 JIJAI NIKI (ACC 76358) PAKISTAN exertion, (12) panicle type, (13) stigma color, (14) awning,
5 105 AS 996-HR 1 BANGLADESH (15) hull color, (16) sterile lemma color, (17) seed coat
GUANG JIANG 1 (ACC color and (18) threshability. The results of morphological
6 106 CHINA characters recorded for 47 germplasm are discussed in Table
82336)
7 107 FIROOZ (ACC 39261) IRAN 4.1 (Character 1 to 18). Out of 18 morphological characters,
8 108 BALILLA ITALY
(2) basal leaf sheath color, (3) leaf blade color, (5) flag leaf
angle, (11) panicle exertion, (14) awning, (15) hull color
9 109 CO 18 (ACC 6331) INDIA
and (17) seed coat color was found highest variation in
10 110 JATTA BANGLADESH
different germplasm. After that, (1) early plant vigour, (4)
11 111 TAK RATIA (ACC 76415) PAKISTAN
leaf pubescence, (12) panicle type, (13) stigma color and
12 112 CR 547-1-2-3 EGYPT (18) threshability showed variation in different germplasm
13 113 RJT 74 (ACC 53688) INDIA and rest of 6 found each of two classes among different
14 114 IR 70031-4B-R-9-3-1 IRRI germplasm.
15 115 RATRIA (ACC 28500) PAKISTAN
16 116 TAM CAU 9 A (ACC 8228) VIETNAM The character, early plant vigour of 47 rice germplasm
NAN-GUANG-ZHAN (ACC are categorized into three group 8 genotype are poor, 19 good
17 117 CHINA and 20 genotypes are very good type. Character basal leaf
59316)
18 118 BRRI DHAN 28 BANGLADESH sheath color, 36 genotypes are green color, 7 purple line, 3
19 119 PADI HOJONG (ACC 8192) INDONESIA light purple and 1 genotype are purple color type. Character
20 120 GANJAY (ACC 76349) PAKISTAN
leaf blade color, 3 genotype are light green color, 22 green,
18 dark green, 3 purple tips and 1 genotype are purple margin
21 121 MALA BANGLADESH
color types. The character leaf pubescences categorized
22 122 DULAR (ACC 32561) INDIA
into 3 groups, 10 genotypes are glabrous, 22 intermediate
23 123 BR 26 BANGLADESH
and 15 genotypes are pubescence type. Character flag leaf
24 124 IR 50 IRRI
angle categorized into four groups, 5 erect, 4 semi-erect, 33
25 125 BR 7414-22-1 BANGLADESH horizontal and 5 genotypes are dropping types. Character
26 126 XUE HE (ACC 76826) CHINA ligule color are categorized into two groups, 33 white and
27 127 IR 72049-B-R-8-3-1-1-1 IRRI 14 genotypes are purple line type. Character ligule shape
28 128 ARC 15210 (ACC 41956) INDIA is categorized into two groups 2 acute and 45 genotypes
29 129 BR 7232-6-2-3 BANGLADESH are cleft type. Character collor color is grouped into three
30 131
GANJA RANGWALA (ACC
PAKISTAN
groups 1 pale green, 45 green and 1 genotypes are purple
76346) color type. Character auricle color is grouped into two
31 132 IR 71864-3R-1-1-3-1 IRRI group 41 pale green and 6 genotypes are green color type.
32 133 IR 72 IRRI Character internodes color is grouped into two groups 44
33 134 CUIABANA BRAZIL green and 3 genotypes are purple line color type. Character
34 135 KALAHITTA BANGLADESH panicle exertion is grouped into five groups 4 well exertion,
35 136 DARIAL BANGLADESH 21 moderate exertions, 13 just exertion, 5 partly exertion
36 137 IR 2307-247-2-2-3 IRRI and 4 genotypes are enclosed types. Character panicle type
37 138 IR 28 IRRI is grouped into three groups 3 compact, 36 intermediate and
38 139 SADRI (ACC 32331) IRAN 8 genotypes panicle is open types. Character stigma color
39 140 BRRI DHAN 48 BANGLADESH is grouped into three groups 39 white, 6 light purple and
40 142 JAMREE BANGLADESH
2 genotypes stigmaare purple color. Character awning is
grouped into four groups 37 absent, 5 short partly, 4 long
41 143 IR 6 (ACC 51504) IRRI
partly and 1 genotypes awn are long fully types. Character
hull color is grouped into six groups 14 straw, 1 golden, 1

536
golden brown, 9 brownish furrows, 21 brown and 1 genotype are black type. Character sterile lemma color is grouped into
two groups 45 straw and 2 genotypes sterile lemma are red color type. Character seed coat color is grouped into four groups
18 white 16 light brown, 1 speckled brown and 12 genotypes seed coat color are red types. The character threshability is
grouped into three groups 22 easy, 20 intermediate and 5 genotypes threshability are difficult types.

Table: 4.1 Morphological characters observed in 47 rice germplasm

EPV BLSC LBC Lpb FLA LgC LgS CC AC IC PE PT SgC An HC SLmC SCC Thr
S.N. GENOTYPES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 N 12 (ACC 6298) 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 7 9 1 7 1 1 2 2
2 IR 61336-4B-14-3-2 (PSB RC 94) 3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 1 1 2 1
3 TOOR THULLA (ACC 76420) 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 4 1 5 1
4 JIJAI NIKI (ACC 76358) 3 3 5 3 1 1 2 1 1 3 7 9 5 7 1 1 5 1
5 AS 996-HR 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 1 7 1 1 2
6 GUANG JIANG 1 (ACC 82336) 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 7 1 1 1
7 FIROOZ (ACC39261) 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 9 5 5 0 7 1 2 2
8 BALILLA 3 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 1 1 2 2
9 CO 18 (ACC 6331) 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 9 1 5 0 1 1 1 2
10 JATTA 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 5 9 1 0 7 1 1 2
11 TAK RATIA (ACC 76415) 1 1 2 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 1 4 1 5 2
12 CR 547-1-2-3 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 5 5 5 0 7 1 2 2
13 RJT 74 (ACC 53688) 2 2 3 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 7 3 1 1
14 IR 70031-4B-R-9-3-1 2 1 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 0 1 1 2 1
15 RATRIA (ACC 28500) 2 1 2 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 7 1 2 1
16 TAM CAU 9 A (ACC 8228) 3 1 4 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 9 5 1 0 7 1 1 2
17 NAN-GUANG-ZHAN (ACC 59316) 3 1 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 5 5 1 0 7 1 2 1
18 BRRI DHAN 28 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 7 1 1 3
19 PADI HOJONG (ACC8192) 1 1 3 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 1 5 1 9 7 1 2 2
20 GANJAY (ACC 76349) 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 3 5 1 0 1 1 1 2
21 MALA 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 7 1 1 3
22 DULAR (ACC32561) 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 9 5 0 2 1 3 1
23 BR 26 2 1 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 5 1 0 7 1 2 2
24 IR 50 2 2 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 3 5 1 1 1 1 1 2
25 BR 7414-22-1 2 3 2 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 7 1 1 3
26 XUE HE (ACC 76826) 3 1 4 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 9 9 1 0 7 1 1 1
27 IR 72049-B-R-8-3-1-1-1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 5 5 1 7 1 1 1 1
28 ARC 15210 (ACC 41956) 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 4 1 5 1
29 BR 7232-6-2-3 2 4 4 2 3 2 2 3 1 3 5 5 5 0 7 1 1 3
30 GANJA RANGWALA (ACC 76346) 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 7 5 1 7 4 1 5 1
31 IR 71864-3R-1-1-3-1 3 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 1 1 2 1
32 IR 72 3 1 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 1 1 2 1
33 CUIABANA 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 9 1 0 7 1 1 2
34 KALAHITTA 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 8 1 5 1
35 DARIAL 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 9 1 0 4 3 5 1
36 IR 2307-247-2-2-3 2 1 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 1 7 1 2 2
37 IR 28 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 7 1 2 2
38 SADRI (ACC 32331) 2 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 4 1 5 1
39 BRRI DHAN 48 3 1 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 1 0 1 1 1 2
40 JAMREE 3 1 2 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 5 1 0 4 1 5 1
41 IR 6 (ACC 51504) 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 0 1 1 2 2
42 WAB 96-1-1 3 1 3 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 7 5 1 0 3 1 5 3
43 IR 8866-30-3-1-4-2 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 7 5 1 0 7 1 2 2
44 KHARA GANJA (ACC 76363) 2 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 5 4 1 4 1 5 1
45 POORNIMA 3 1 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 7 1 1 1
46 PEH-KUH TSAO-TU (ACC 8237) 3 1 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0 1 1 1 2
47 BAKTULSHI 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 9 4 0 4 1 5 1

537
Note -: EPV =Early plant vigor: poor-1, good-2, very good-3., BLSC =Basal leaf sheath color: green-1, purple lines-2,
light purple-3., LBC = Leaf blade color: light green-1, green-2, dark green-3, purple tips-4, purple margins-5., Lpb =Leaf
pubescence: glabrous-1, intermediate-2, pubescent-3., FLA =Flage leaf angle: erect-1, semi-erect-2, horizontal-3, drop-
ing-4., LgC =Ligule color: white-1, purple line., LgS =Ligule shape: acute-1, cleft-2, truncate-3., CC =Collor color: pale
green-1, green-2, purple-3., AC =Auricle color: pale green-1, purple-2., IC =Internode color: green-1, purple line-3., PE
=Panicle exsertion: well exe.-1, mod exs.-3, just exs.-5, partly exs.-7, enclosed-9., PT =Panicle type: compact-1, intermedi-
ate-5, open-9., SgC =Stigma color: white-1, light purple-4, purple-5., An =Awning: absent-0, short partly-1, long partly-7,
long fully-9., HC =Hull color: straw-1, golden-2, golden brown-3, brownish furrows-4, brown-7, black-8., SLmC =Sterile
lemma color: straw-1, red-3., SCC =Seed coat color: white-1, light brown-2, speckled brown-3, red-5., Thr =Threshability:
easy-1, intermediate-2, difficult-3.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Lin, M. S. (1991). Genetic base of japonica rice varieties

The author is thankful to Head of the Department
(HOD), all teaching and non-teaching staffs of Department
of Genetics and Plant Breeding, IGKV Raipur (CG), for
providing facilities and support in conductance of the
investigation. The authors are specially thankful to Dr. R. K.
Verma for his assistance in field experiments.
REFERENCES:
Bisne, R. and Sarawgi, A. K. (2008). Agro-morphological
and quality characterization of badshah bhog
group from aromatic rice germplasm of
Chhattisgarh. Bangladesh J. Agril. Res., 33(3):
479-492.
IRRI. (1996). Standard Evaluation for Rice. International
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Khush, G. S. and Brar, D. S. (2002). Biotechnology for rice
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538
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 539-541 (2015)
GRAIN QUALITY EVALUATION AND ORGANOLEPTIC ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT
VARIETIES OF RICE
NITIN VIKRAM1 AND RAJ NARAYAN KEWAT1
Department of Biochemistry, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj Faizabad (U.P.) India.
1

ABSTRACT
Rice grain quality characteristics such as physical (hulling, length and breadth (L/B), Seed Size) chemical (aroma), and organo-
leptic-tests based on consumer preferences like appearance, cohesiveness, tenderness on touching, chewing, taste, aroma, elon-
gation and overall acceptability were studied for ten different rice varieties. The higher hulling percentage was recorded in Lal-
mati (82.92%) and NDR-2064 (80.66%). The Length/Breadth (L/B) ratio among the varieties ranged from 2.80-3.83. The test
weight higher was recorded in 25.70 g in MEPH-113. Organoleptic-test revealed that the varieties were recorded in Lalma-
ti, IR-64, Ankur-7042, Pusa RH-42, Sarju-52, with excellent grain quality characteristics, preference and overall acceptability.

Keywords: Rice, Quality, Organoleptic, Tenderness, Fragrance

INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) a member of family Poaceae
is a cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet
of many people worldwide. It provides 21% of the human per
capita energy and 15% of the protein globally (FAO, 2003).
More than 90% of the world’s rice is grown and consumed in
Asia, where 60% of the calories are consumed by 3 billion Asians
(Khush, 1997). India is one of the world’s largest producers of
white rice, accounting for 20 % of all world rice production.
India stands first in area, second in production, followed and
preceded by China on these two aspects (Bajpai et al., 2012).
Aromatic rice, which has stronger aroma and kernel elongation
than ordinary rice, has more in demand in different countries
of the world. India is one of the largest exporter of basmati
rice in world (Husaini et al., 2009). The consumer demand
has increased markedly to pay a premium price for fragrance
(Louis et al., 2005). Grain quality has always been an important
consideration in rice variety selection and development. Based
on the survey of 11 major rice growing countries (Juliano and
Duff 1991) concluded that grain quality is second only to yield
as the major breeding objective. In the future grain quality
will be even more important as once the very poor , many of
whom depend largely on rice for their staple food become
better off and begin to demand higher quality rice (Juliano and
Villarreal, 1993). Grain quality in rice is very difficult to define
with precision as preferences for quality vary from country
to country. The cooking quality preferences vary in different
countries (Azeez and Shafi, 1966).
MATRIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted during Kharif season
2013-2014 at the G.P.B. farm Narendra deva University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad. Completely
Randomized Design was adopted with three replications. The
observations were recorded and techniques were employed in
present investigation are summarized as under:
Test weight: 1000 Seed from each treatment were
subjected to weight. These value expressed in gm.
Seed Size (mm): Length and breadth of the five seed
were taken with the help of DIAL, Thickness Gage No. 7301
and its average length and breadth were taken.
Kernel length (mm): Ten dehusked whole kernels were
measured for length with the help of DIAL, Thickness Gage No.
7301 and its average length was taken to find out kernel length.
Kernel Breadth (mm): Ten dehusked whole kernel were
measured for breadth with the help of DIAL, Thickness Gage
No. 7301 and its average breadth was taken to find out kernel
breadth.
L:B ratio: L:B ratio of various treatments were
determined on the basis of average length and breadth ratio of
kernel rice (Bhattacharjee and Kulkarni, 2000).
Hulling Percentage: 100 grams of sample were cleaned
and dried to grain moisture level of 12-15% and were subjected
to dehusked by dehusking machine. The dehusked rice was
weighed and the hulling percentage was calculated as under
(Anonymous 2004):
Hulling percentage = weight of dehusked rice/ weight of
paddy sample×100
Aroma: 5 g of rice sample was taken in conical flask
then 15 ml of distilled water was added, soaked for 10 min and
cooked for 15 min, transferred into a Petri dish and placed in
refrigerator for 20 min. Then the cooked rice was smelled by
a random panel: Strongly Aromatic; slightly Aromatic; Non
Aromatic (Anonymous, 2004).
Starch iodine Blue Value: 1 ml of 1% solution of sample
was taken in test tube. Then, 4-5 drops of iodine solution (0.005
N iodine solution in 3% potassium iodine solution) was added
in to it and mixed the content gently and colour of the solution
was noted.
Organolaptic test: 5 g of rice sample was taken in
conical flask then added 15 ml of distilled water and soaked for
10 min. Rice samples were cooked in water bath for 15 min and
scored as per panel test performance (Anonymous, 2004).
Statistical Analysis: The statistical analysis of data
obtained was carried out by Gomez and Gomez (1984) method.
Result and Discussion: Data on physical characters and
organolaptic characters are presented in table 1 and table 2.

539
 Physical characteristics: The seed length varied from
6.63 to 9.37 mm and breadth ranged from 2.03 (Lalmati) to
3.70 mm (KPH-466). The highest seed length was recorded
in NDR-2064 and lowest was recorded in KPH-466 (9.37 and
6.33 mm respectively). Dipti et al.2002 reported that the length
and breadth of some rice varieties ranged from 3.6 to 6.5 mm
and 1.7 to 3.7 mm, respectively. Meena et al.2010 found that
the grain length varied from 4.30 to 7.80 mm, breadth 1.84
to 2.27 mm and grain width 1.54 to 1.88 mm. Similar results
Table: 1. Physical Parameters in Rice Varieties:
were found by Sareepuang et al.2008 the length and width of
parboiled rice were ranged from 7.0 to 9.0 mm and 2.02 to 2.06
mm, respectively. The 1000 seed weight ranged from 17.90
(lalmati) to 25.70 (MEPH- 113). Among the varieties studied,
the L/B ratio ranged from 2.80-3.83 . The variety Pusa RH-42
recorded the highest L/B ratio and least was found in KPH-466.
Bhattacharjee and Kulkarni, 2000 analyzed some preferred
brands of basmati rice and reported that the L/B ratio ranged
from 4.47-4.81.

Treatment/ SEED SIZE

TEST KERNEL KERNEL BRE- L:B HULLING
WE-IGHT SEED LEN- SEED BRE- LEN-GTH ADTH RATIO PERCENTAGE
varieties GTH ADTH
Ankur--7042 21.43 6.71 2.9 6.33 2.1 3.01 79.74

XRA-27934 19.00 6.87 3.03 6.44 2.04 3.15 78.41

KPH-466 24.30 6.63 3.70 6.31 2.25 2.80 78.44
MEPH-113 25.70 7.48 3.40 6.92 2.07 3.34 80.13
Pusa-RH-42 22.06 8.08 3.07 7.79 2.03 3.83 79.56
Lalmati 17.90 7.03 2.03 5.92 1.94 3.05 82.92
Sarju-52 25.16 8.05 3.06 6.28 2.20 2.85 74.97
IR-64 23.05 8.27 2.88 7.04 2.08 3.38 80.41
NDR-2064 25.65 9.37 3.01 7.85 2.08 3.77 80.66
NDR-97 21.28 9.14 2.98 7.79 2.10 3.70 75.40
CD at 5% 0.3114 0.3789 0.2039 0.16 0.1266 - 1.1782

The hulling percentage for among rice varieties ranged analysis in a control panels. Sensory specifications are
from 74.97-82.93 (Table 1). The highest hulling (82.93%) those that can be used tocheck if a product complies with
was noted in variety Lalmati and lowest in Sarju-52 the stated requirements Costell, 2002. The excellent overall
(74.97%), whereas intermediate value was recorded in Pusa acceptability characters were recorded in Lalmati, IR-64,
RH-42 (79.56%). High hulling percentage resulted in higher Ankur-7042, Pusa RH-42, Sarju-52, KPh-466, XRA-27934,
head rice yield of 93.3% in parboiled rice with the higher MEPH-113, NDR-2064 and NDR-97 respectively. The
(5.5 x 104 N/m2) process steam pressure (Igbeka et al., Starch iodine blue value of different varieties showed all the
2008). Rita and Sarawgi (2008) reported that the more than blue colour (Table 2). Aroma is an important trait, has high
80 value of hulling percentage is preferred and if the hulling demand in the global market. The native varieties studied
percentage increases the head rice recovery also increased. during this investigation showed the presence of aroma,
for which these varieties are preferred by local people
The Organoleptic Analysis: The organoleptic- for consumption. Strong aroma was detected in varieties
test was conducted for the appearance, cohesiveness, like Lalmati. Nadaf et al. 2007 reported that Basmati rice
tenderness on touching, tenderness on chewing, taste, aroma, contains more aroma than the traditionally cultivated scented
elongation and overall acceptability of cooked rice and rice varieties.
evaluated by trained assessors using the above descriptive
Table: 2. Starch iodine, Organolaptic Quality and Aroma in rice varieties:
Treatment/ Va- Starch iodine Organolaptic
Aroma
rieties Blue Value Quality
Score Rating Score Rating
Ankur-7042 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 8 Like very much
XRA-27934 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 5 Neither like nor dislike
KPH-466 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 6 Like slightly
MEPH-113 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 5 Neither like nor dislike
Pusa-RH-42 Blue Colour ** Slightly Aromatic 7 Like moderately
Lalmati Blue Colour *** Strongly Aromatic 9 Like extremely
Sarju-52 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 7 Like moderately
IR-64 Blue Colour ** Slightly Aromatic 8 Like very much
NDR-2064 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 2 Dislike very much
NDR-97 Blue Colour * Non Aromatic 1 Dislike very much

540
Conclusion: The paper has concentrated on the physical
characteristics and organoleptic test with consumer pref-
erences of rice varieties. Among the varieties studied the
L:B ration recorded highest in Pusa-RH-42 and the vari-
eties studied Lalmati showed maximum hulling percentage.
Organoleptic analysis always helps the consumers to select
better rice varieties for their consumption and use. It is also
emphasized that the training and recruiting the sensory ex-
pert panel are important in the process of sensory analysis
and organoleptic test (Lefebvre et al., 2010). The present
study revealed that some of the strongly aromatic and slight-
ly aromatic rice varieties have potential for consumer’s pref-
erences and it could be used for breeding programmes and
biotechnological research for the improvement of valuable
grain quality traits.
Igbeka, R. J. C.; Gbabo A. and Dauda S. M. (2008). Effect of
variety, pressure and specific volume of steam
on the head rice yield of milled parboiled rice.
Journal of food science and technology, 45(3):
282-283.
Juliano, B. O. and Duff, B. (1991). Rice grain quality as
an emerging priority in national breeding
programs. In Rice Grain Marketing and Quality
Issues. International Rice Research Institute,
Los Banos, Philippines, 55-64.
Juliano, B. O. and Villareal, C. P. (1993). Grain quality
evaluation of world rices. International Rice
Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, 22-
31.

REFERENCES: Khush, G. S. (1997). Origin, dispersal, cultivation and

variation of rice. Plant Mol. Biol., 35: 25 -34.
Anonymous. (2004). Laboratory Manual on Rice Grain
Quality Procedure. Directorate of Rice Lefebvre, A.; Bassereau, J. F.; Pense-Lheritier, A. M.;
Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India, Rivere, C.; Harris, N. and Duchamp, R.
1-20. (2010). Recruitment and training of a sensory
expert panel to measure the touch of beverage
Azeez, M. A. and Shafi, M. (1966). Quality in Rice.
packages: Issue andmethods employed. Food
Department of Agriculture, West Pakistan
Quality and Preference, 21(1): 156-164.
Technology Bulletin, 1350.
Louis, M. T. B.; Robert, J. H.; Quinsheng, J.; Russell, F.
Bajpai, A.; Singh, Y. and Singh, U. S. ( 2012). Evaluation
R. and Daniel, L. E. W. (2005). A perfect
of Grain Quality of Kalanamak varieties/lines
marker for fragrance genotyping in rice. Mol.
cultivated in Uttar Pradesh. International
Breeding., 16: 279-283.
Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,
2(10). Meena, S. K.; Vijayalakshmi, D. and Ravindra, U. (2010).
Physical and cooking characteristics of selected
Bhattacharjee, P. And Kulkarni P. R. (2000). A comparative
Aromatic rice varieties. J. Dairying, Foods and
study on the physical characteristics and
H. S., 29(3/4): 227-231.
cooking quality parameters of commercial
brands of basmati rice. International Journal of Nadaf, A. B.; Wakte, V. K.; Krishnan, S. and Thengane, R.
Food Sciences and Nutrition, 51:295-299. J. (2007). Studies on lower epidermal papillae,
the site of storage of basmati rice aroma
Bhattacharjee, P. and Kulkarni, P. R. (2000). A comparative
compounds in Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.
study on the physical characteristics and
Current Science, 93:2-25.
cooking quality parameters of commercial
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Food Sciences and Nutrition, 51: 295-299. quality characterization of badshah bhog group
from aromatic rice germplasm of Chhattisgarh.
Costell, E. (2002). A comparison of sensory methods in
Bangladesh Journal of Agriculture Research,
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13(6): 341-353.
Sareepuang, K.; Siriamornpun, S.; Wiset, L. And Meeso,
Dipti, S. S.; Hossain, M. N. And Kabir, K. A. (2002).
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Physicochemical and Cooking properties
physical, chemical and cooking properties
of some rice varieties. Pakistan Journal of
of parboiled Fragrant rice. World Journal of
Nutrition, 1(4): 188-190.
Agricultural Science, 4(4): pp-415.
FAO (2003). Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations, FAO, Rome, Italy, 56: 115-116.
Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. (1984). Statistical procedure
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Husaini, A. M.; Parray, G. A.; Rather, A. G. and Sanghera,
G. S. (2009). Performance of elite basmati rice
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0117-185.

541
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 542-544 (2015)
EFFECT OF SULPHUR AND BORON ON YIELD AND YIELD ATTRIBUTES OF KHARIF
SUNFLOWER
P. B. ADSUL, U. B. GAWADE, P.H.VAIDYA, A. N. PURI AND PUSHPALATHA M.
Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Latur,
Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani (MS) India

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out to study the response of sulphur and boron application on growth and yield of kharif sun-
flower. A field experiment was conducted at Oilseed Research Station , Latur district Maharashtra during kharif, 2013-14. Sunflow-
er variety LFSH -35 was sown on 6 August, 2013 and harvested on 31 October, 2013. The experiment was laid out in Randomized
block design with 9 treatment and 3 replications.. The application of RDF+ S@30kg /ha +B @ 1kg/ha for sunflower crop record-
ed significantly higher number of leaves (25.58/ plant), leaf area index (4.15), total chlorophyll content (1.31mg/g ), and head di-
ameter at harvest (15.83cm ). The treatment RDF+ S@30kg /ha +B @ 1kg/ha to kharif Sunflower recorded maximum seed yield
(1377kg/ha) and at par withtreatment T6 (RDF + s @ 20 kg/ha+ B @ 1kg/ha), T7 ( RDF + S 20 kg/ha + B spray @ 0.2% and T9
(RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B spray @ 0.2% ) and was found significantly superior over rest of treatments. Lowest seed yield 1035 kg/
ha. was recorde in treatment receiving RDF only (T1). Maximum number of filled seeds per plant (544) was found in treatment T8
as compared to other treatments. As regards straw yield, the treatment T9 (RDF + S 30kg/ha. + B spray @ 0.2%) recorded maxi-
mum straw yield (4165 kg/ha.) and was found at par with treatment T4 (RDF+ B @ 1 kg/ha.), T5 (RDF + B spray @ 0.2% ) and T8.

INTRODUCTION
Sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) is a popularly known of plots are 27, size 3.6× 3.9 m2 with spacing 60×30 cm2.
as surajmukhi, it is 4th oil seed crop in the word next to the variety of crop was LFSH-35 at kharif season. After
soybean, groundnut and rapeseed. Belongs to the family that recorded the different growth parameter likes number
Asteraceae. It is introduced in India for the 1st time during of leaves per plant, leaf area index, head diameter and also
1969. In India sunflower growing states are Karnataka, recorded yield attributes viz., seed weight per plant, number
Andhra Pradesh and tamilnadu. About 60 % of sunflower of filled and unfilled seeds per plant, grain and straw yield.
area and production (1.052 million tones) of sunflower is in
our country. Sunflower contains 52% oil and rich source of Table:1 Effect of sulphur and boron on growth parame-
polyunsaturated fatty acid and sources of vitamins A D, K ters of kharif Sunflower
and B complex.
Head Chlo-
Sulphur is the 4th major element after N,P and K No. of
Leaf area diameter rophyll
.It has specified role in many physiological function such Treatments leaves/
index at harvest content
as synthesis of sulfur contain amino acid, protein and also plant
(cm) (mg/g.)
promotes oil and chlorophyll synthesis. Sulfur produces T1: RDF 17.90 2.93 13.81 1.23
bold seed and stimulates seed formation. Boron is an
T2: RDF+S@20kg/ha 19.90 3.02 15.04 1.24
essential secondary nutrient for plant. It plays important
roles in flowering, fruiting, pollen germination, and seed T3: RDF +S@30kg/ha 21.10 3.30 15.21 1.26
setting. This is very important element for enhance the T4: RDF+B@1kg/ha 19.08 3.39 14.26 1.27
yield and yield attributes of sunflower. Apart from the major T5:RDF +B spray @
18.33 3.49 13.98 1.27
plant nutrients (N,P and K) S and B plays important 0.2%
roles in production physiology of oil seed crops and these T6:RDF+S@20kg/
22.28 3.61 15.83 1.28
crops respond well to applied sulphur and boron (Chatterjee, ha+B@1kg/ha
1985). For oilseed, sulphur and boron, most vital nutrients T7:RDF+S@20kg/
for the growth and development of sunflower. 21.07 3.55 15.54 1.28
ha+B spray @0.2%
T8:RDF+S@30kg/
23.43 4.08 16.35 1.31
MATERIALS AND METHODS ha+B@1kg/ha
The field experiment was conducted in Oilseed T9:RDF+S@30kg.
21.57 3.57 15.78 1.28
Research Station, Latur district Maharashtra during kharif ha+B spray @0.2%
season 2013-14. This experiment was laid out in randomized SE± 0.76 0.03 0.30 0.011
block design with 9 treatments and 3 replications of sulphur CD at 5% 2.26 0.09 0.93 0.035
and boron, along with recommended dose of fertilizer
90:45:45: NPK kg/ha. Details of treatments are are T1 (RDF Table:2 Effect of sulphur and boron on yield and yield
Only), T2( RDF+S@20kg/ha), T3 (RDF +S@30kg/ha), T4 attributes of kharif Sunflower
(RDF +B@1kg/ha), T5 (RDF +B spray @ 0.2 % (2g/l), T6 (
RDF +S @ 20kg/ha +B @ 1kg/ha) , T7 (RDF + S @ 20 kg/
ha + B spray @0.2%) , T8 (RDF +S @30kg/ha B @2kg/ha)
,T9 (RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B spray@ 0.2%).Total number

542
 Treatments No. of No of Seed Test Seed Straw The data pertaining to number of filled, unfilled
filled wt/ weight/ yield yield seeds, seed weight, test weight and seed and straw yield
unfilled reported in table 2. The data indicated that, the data regarding
seeds/ plant plant (kg/ (kg/
seeds/ yield attributes significantly influenced by different
plant ha) ha)
plant (g/ (g) treatments. The number of filled seeds per plant were found
plant) maximun (544) in treatment T8 (RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B
T1: RDF 443 172 18.45 50.50 1035 3638 @ 1 kg/ha) as compared to other treatments. Lower number
T2: RDF+S@20kg/ha 457 162 20.68 50.82 1073 3666 of filled seeds per plant (433) were recorded in T1 treatment.
T3: RDF +S@30kg/ha 455 155 21.01 52.15 1125 3938 Malewar et al (2003) reported that zinc and boron might have
T4: RDF+B@1kg/ha 440 139 21.34 54.00 1077 4029 increased auxin synthesis, water uptake, while boron might
T5:RDF +B spray @ 437 135 19.37 51.60 1052 4066 have brought increased translocation of photosynthesis,
0.2% increased pollination and seed setting. Application of T8
T6:RDF+S@20kg/ 521 144 22.45 53.60 1328 4100 (RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B @ 1 kg/ha) recorded highest seed
ha+B@1kg/ha weight (26.67 g/plant) over rest of treatments followed by
T7:RDF+S@20kg/ 498 128 18.78 52.80 1251 4125 treatment T6, T7 and T9. Similar results were recorded for
ha+B spray @ 0.2% test weight, maximum test weight (54.50 g) was observed in
treatment T8. These results are in confirmatory with Rakesh
T8:RDF+S@30kg/ 544 139 26.67 54.50 1377 4134
Kumar et al, (2012).
ha+B@1kg/ha
T9:RDF+S@30kg. 506 126 19.42 53.00 1303 4165 The data on seed and straw yield of sunflower
ha+B spray @ 0.2% indicated that, effect of different treatments influenced
SE± 16.00 6.12 1.19 1.22 52 58.50 on seed and straw yield of sunflower significantly. The
CD at 5% 47.10 19.35 3.58 3.65 156 175.55 application of T8 (RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B @ 1 kg/ha)
recorded highest seed yield (1377 kg/ha.) and was found at
par with T6 (RDF + S @20 kg/ha.+ B @ 1kg/ha.), T7 (RDF +
S @ 20 kg/ha. + B spray @ 0.2%) and T9 (RDF + S @ 30 kg/
RESULT AND DISCUSSION ha. + B spray @ 0.2%) and significantly superior over rest
The data pertaining to growth parameters of kharif of treatments. However, minimum seed yield was obtained
Sunflower table 1, from the data it was evident that, sulphur with treatment T1. As regards straw yield, application of T9
and boron application significantly influenced the yield (RDF+ S @ 30 kg/ha. + B spray @ 0.2%) recorded highest
and yield attributing characters of kharif Sunflower. The straw yield (4165 kg/ha.) at par with T4 (RDF + B @ 1 kg/
application of RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B @ 1 kg/ha (T8) ha.), T5 (RDF + B spray 0.2%, T6 (RDF + S @ 20 kg/ha.+ B
recorded significantly higher number of leaves (23.43) in @ 1 kg/ha.), T7 (RDF + S @ 20 kg/ha.+ B spray @ 0.2%)
Sunflower crop than rest of treatments. Minimum number and T8. Kumar and Singh (2005) revealed that seed yield
of leaves recorded in treatment T1 (Control). The significant increased with levels of increasing P up to 60 kg/ha. And s
improvement in number of leaves was recorde with these up to 30 kg/ha. Begum S. (1998) reported that application
treatments might be due to increase in availability of of sulphur @ 60 kg/ha recorded maximum seed yield of
nutrients with application of inorganic nutrients there by sunflower crop. Highest seed yield with the application of
increased cell division, cell elongation. (Gudade et al, 2010). sulphur might be due to increased formation of reproductive
Mohan and Sharma (1992) opined that the number of leaves structure for sink strength and increased production of
per plant tended to increase with application of S up to 60 assimilate to fill to economically important sink.
kg/ha.
Increased doses of sulphurgradual increase in straw
yield might be due to fact that with increment in supply of
The treatment T8 (RDF + S @ 30 kg/ha + B @ 1 kg/
sulphur the processes of tissue differentiation from somatic
ha) recorded significantly larger leaf area index (4.08cm2)
to reproductive, meristematic activity and development of
and was found at par with T6 (RDF+ S @ 20kg/ha+ B @
floral primodia might have increased more flowering and
1 kg/ha.) and T9 (RDF+ S @ 30 kg/ha. + B spray @ 0.2%)
ultimately more siliquae. Rakesh Kumar et al, (2012).
followed by T2, T3, T4, T5 and T7. Smaller leaf area index
observed with treatment T1. Application of sulphur @ 30
kg/ha. Recorded consistent improvement in leaf area index, CONCLUSION
plant height and dry matter production due to pivotal role of The growth and yield attributes of kharif sunflower
sulphur in regulating metabolic and enzymatic processes in- significantly improved with application of RDF+ S @30kg/
cluding photosynthesis and respiration. (Sreeman Narayana ha + B @ 1kg /ha followed by RDF + S@20kg/ha + B @
and Raju, 1994). Due to adequate supply of sulphur that re- 1kg /ha. Significantly higher grain yield (26.67g/plant), test
sulted in higher production of photosynthesis and their trans- weight (54.50g) and seed yield (1337kg/ha ) achieved with
location to sink. (Vijaya Kumar and Selvaraju, 2001). The application of RDF +S@ 30kg/ha +B @1kg/ha fallowed by
heighest head diameter (16.35 g plant-1) was observed with RDF +S @20kg /ha + B @ 1kg/ha .
treatment T8 followed by T2, T3, T6, T7 and T9. The chloro-
phyll content in sunflower crop increased upto 75 days after REFERENCES
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of sulphur @ 60 kg/ha. Jute (Corchirus olitorius L.) , Ph. D. Thesis,
Dept. of Botany, Dhaka University, Dhaka,

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phosphorus and sulphur on growth, Yield and
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sulphur on growth, yield attributes, Seed and
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population and split application of nitrogenon
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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 545-549 (2015)
CHARACTERIZATIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAPE (VITIS VINITERA)
GROWING SOILS IN OSMANABAD DISTRICT (MAHARASHTRA)
R.D MANE., P.H. VAIDYA, A.S. DHAWAN AND Y.S.PAWAR
Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Dept of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Latur
-413512

ABSTRACT
The grapes growing soils of Osmanabad district were very shallow to very deep, very dark grayish brown (10 YR 3/2) to light yel-
lowish brown (10 YR 6/4) in colour, lome to clayey in texture and granular to angular blocky in structure. The bulk density of soils
varied from 1.20 to 1.93Mgm-3 and plant available water capacity (PAWC) varied from 33.6 t0 281.7 mm. The clay content ranged
between 15 to 67.7 per cent. The highest clay content was found in Typic Haplusterts .The high clay content was attributed to basal-
tic parent material. Moreover, the higher grape yield (29.6 t/ha) were obtained in P4 (Lithic Ustorthant), However soils having less
than 30 percent clay content (weighted average). This fact was evident from the significant negative correlation between clay content
and yield of grape (r= -0.66).This indicated that the heavy texture soil are not profitable and successful cultivation for grape. These
soils are slightly alkaline to moderately alkaline (7.1 to 8.3 pH), organic carbon content low to very high (0.1 to 2.07 percent) and
calcareous in nature (1 to 41 per cent).The maximum CEC was recorded in Typic Haplusterts (30.9 to 62.0 mmol-1) as compared to
Typic Ustochrept and Lithic Ustorthent. The calcium is the dominant cation in the exchange complex followed by magnesium, sodi-
um and potassium. Taxonomically these soils of study area classified into Typic Haplusterts , Typic Ustochrept and Lithic Ustorthent

INTRODUCTION
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is an important temperate
fruit crop. It has been grown more recently in tropical and
subtropical climate by adopting improved and modified
cultural practices. Grape cultivation is an emerging practice
in Osmanabad district of Marathwada region. Grapes are
cultivated on varying soil type and physiographic location
in this region. Each crop has a specific climate and soil site
requirements for optimum production. Grape is grown
over a wide range of soil conditions i.e. shallow to deep.
In Osmanabad district grape were grown in different soil
condition as well as locality. Some grape orchards are on
plateau, in valley, heavy texture, light texture and calcareous
soil also. The present yield of heavy texture soil and quality
of grapes was much lower than the optimum yield of study
area. Keeping in view the importance of land resource
information in grape cultivation, an attempt was made to
undertake these studies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Osmanabad district lies in the southern part of state.
It lies on the Deccan plateau at an elevation of 600 to750
m MSL. It is situated exactly between 180 28’ to 190 28’ N
latitude, and 760 16’ to 770 25’ E longitude. The geographical
area of the district is 7512.40 sq.km. The annual rainfall
is 741 to 840 mm. Maximum and minimum temperature
of this district is 43.30C and 11.90C, respectively. Nine
representative pedon from different physiographic unit
of Osmanabad tahsil were characterized and classified.
Morphological study of the soil was described as per soil
survey manual (Soil survey staff, 2002) The soil samples
were collected horizon wise, air dried ground and sieved by
using 2 mm sieve. Particle size analysis of the sample was
carried out by international pipette method (Jackson 1979).
Water retention characteristics were determined by pressure
plate apparatus and PAWC determined by expression
suggested by Gardner et al (1984). Bulk density of the soil
was determined by clod coating technique (Black 1965).
EC. pH, organic carbon, CaCO3, exchangeable cations
and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were determined by
standard procedure (Jackson,1973). The soils were classified
as per soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1994 & 2002).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Morphological characteristics:
Morphological properties of soils indicated that .The
soils of the study area were very dark grayish brown (10
YR 3/2) to light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) in colour. The
soil located at elevated position pedon P4,P5 and P7 soil
( Lithic Ustorthents ) and sloping landscape pedons P1, P3
and P6(Typic Ustochrepts) soil colour varied from (10 YR
3/2 to 10YR 6/4) correspond to very dark grayish brown
to light yellowish brown in colour where as pedon located
in lower topographic position pedon P2 and P8 ( Typic
Haplusterts) soils colour varied from from (10 YR 3/2 to
10YR 5/3) correspond to very dark grayish brown to brown
in colour.The soils of the study area were granular to angular
blocky in structure, in Lithic Ustorthent (P4,P5 and P7 )
and Typic Ustochrepts (P1, P3 , P6 and P9) soil structure
varied from granular to sub angular blocky in structure were
as Typic Haplusterts (P2 and P8) soil structure varied from
Sub angular blocky to angular blocky in structure Similar
observation reported by Vaidya et.al.2014. The soil depth of
study area ranged from 13 to 150 cm. and accordingly these
soils were categorized as Entisols (Lithic Ustorthent) as very
shallow to Shallow soil (P4, P5 and P7 ), Inceptisols (Typic
and Calcic Ustochrepts) as moderately deep soils (pedon P1,
P3,P6 and P9) and Vertisols (Typic Haplusters) as deep to
very deep soils (pedons P2, and P8 ). The soil depth is related
to slope and degree of erosion. (Sehgal et.al, 1980) and also
due to land form setting ( Vadivelu et al, , 1993).
Physical characteristics:
Physical properties of soils were presented in table 2.
Indicated that the soil texture of all surface samples under
grape orchards was clay in nature. The highest clay content

545
was found in the pedon P2 (>50 %). The soils at higher
topographic position P3, P4 andP5 clay content varied
from 7.5 to 37.5 per cent. The soils at sloping landscape
P1,P3,P6 and P9 clay content ranged between 15 to 62.2
per cent were as soils at lower topographic position P2 and
P8 clay content ranged between 35 to 67.5 per cent which
is correspond to clayey texture. The high clay content
was attributed to basaltic parent material. Moreover, the
higher grape yield (29.6 t/ha) were obtained in P4 (Lithic
Ustorthant) , However soils having less than 30 percent clay
content (weighted average). This fact was evident from the
significant negative correlation between clay content and
yield of grape (r= -0.66).This indicated that the heavy texture
soil are not profitable and successful cultivation for grape
(Deavidson 1991and Singh ,2004) ..The bulk density of the
studied soils varied from 1.20 to 1.93Mgm-3. Surface soils
showed lower bulk density as compared to sub-soils .The
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soils ranged from 4.0
to 22.2 cm hr-1 .The moisture retention at 33 kPa and 1500
kPa suction varied from 15.9 to 50.3 and 7.6 to 34.8 percent
respectively. The available water content ranged between 8.4
to 18.1 per cent and plant available water capacity (PAWC)
varied from 33.6 to 281.7 mm.
Chemical properties of soil:
The chemical properties of soils presented in table 3
indicated that the soils are slightly to moderately alkaline in
reaction with pH ranged from 7.1 to 8.3. The soils of Lithic
Ustorthents (P4, P5 and P7) have pH value ranged from 7.9
to 8.2 and the soils of Typic Ustochrepts (P1, P6 and P9)
Calcic Ustochrepts (P3) pH lie in between 7.2 to 8.2. The
soils of Typic Haplusterts (P2, and P8) pH ranged from 7.9
to 8.3. The data shows that pH of the soils decreasing with
increasing altitude.The soils of Lithic Ustothant (P4,P5and
P7) electrical conductivity value varied from 0.2 to 0.5 dSm-
1
. The electrical conductivity of Lithic Ustrochrept (P1, P3
P6 and P9) in between 0.1 to 0.68 dSm-1 were as in Typic
Haplusterts ( P2 and P8) ranged lie in between 0.2 to 0.6
dSm-1 The data showed that EC of surface soil was higher
than subsurface . This variation attributed to application
of irrigation water ( Vaidya et.al 2007).The organic carbon
content of these soils varied from 0.10 to 2.07 percent .
Maximum organic carbon per cent was observed in pedon
P6 (2.07%). However, application of urban (municipalty)
wastes. The calcium carbonate of soils ranged between
1 to 42.9 percent indicating the soils were calcareous in
nature. The relationship of CaCO3 with TSS (r= 0.82) and
reducing sugar (r=0.63) of grape fruit was significantly
positive correlated were as the relationship with the yield
of grape was significantly negative correlated (r= -0.68).
This indicated that high amount of CaCO3 content in soil
which adversely affect on yield of grape were as improved
the quality of grape fruit in study area.The cation exchange
capacity of Lithic Ustorthent (P4, P5 and P7) varid from
18.20 to 35.20 mmol-1. The maximum CEC was recorded
in Typic Haplusterts (30.9 to 62.0 mmol-1) as compared to
Typic Ustochrept (19.10 to 61.40 mmol-1 ). The high CEC
is attributed to the high amount of clay content in soil and
which was positively correlated with them ( r = 0.89).. The
exchange site has the dominance of calcium followed by
magnesium, sodium and potassium in all profiles. The base
saturation per cent varied from 90.21 to 97.9 per cent.
Soil classification:
Based on field morphology and laboratory
characterization the soils on various landforms have been
classified according to U.S. comprehensive system of soil
classification (Soil Survey Staff, 1994 & 2002) and the
soils of the study area group to three order viz. Entisols,
Inceptisols and Vertisols. The soil developed on an elevated
position and eroded surface in study area (Pedon P4 P5,
and P7) were lack of diagnostic subsurface horizons. They
qualify for the order Entisol and due to presence of Ustic
moisture regime; the soils are grouped into Ustorthents.
Further in view of Lithic contact within 50 cm of the surface
these soil belong to the subgroup Lithic Ustorthents. The soil
located on sloping landform position in study area (Pedon
P1, P6 and P9). The soils having ochric epipedon under lined
by cambic horizon have been classified as ochrept within
the order Inceptisols. The study area belonging to Ustic
moisture regime, these soils qualify for the great group
Ustochrepts. At subgroup level these soils classified as Typic
Ustochrepts. The pedon P3 soil having calcic horizon with
in 100 cm of mineral soil depth, therefore these soils was
classified as Calcic Ustachrepts. The soil located on low
lying area were deep to very deep, black coloured, clayey
(>30%) and characterized by deep and wide cracks, well
developed slickenside and pressure faces. Thus these soils
were classified under the order Vertisols and the subgroup
Typic Haplustert and were observed at lower topographic
position and nearly level landform. (pedon P­2, and P8 ).­­­

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of the soils under grape orchards in Osmanabad district.
Depth Boun Matrix Efferver
Horizones Texture Structure Consistency Pores Roots
(cm) dary colour scence
Pedon P 1 Upla (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-15 CS 10 YR3/2 Cl m 2 sbk s fr ss sp vfm, fm vff, fm e
BW 15-30 CS 10 YR3/2 Scl f 1 sbk fr ss sp vfm, fm ff, cm -
C 30-59 10 YR 5/6 S c 3 gr l ns np cm cm -
Pedon P 2 Upla (Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 0-29 CS 10 YR 3/2 C m2 abk sh fr vs vp vfm, fm vfm, mc es
BW1 29-42 CS 10 YR 3/2 C m2 abk fr vs vp vfm fm vfm, mc es
BW2 42-61 CS 10 YR 3/2 C m2 abk fr vs vp vfm, fm vfm, mc es
BSS1 61-87 CS 10 YR 3/2 C m2 abk fr vs vp vfm, fm cm, vff es
BSS2 87-117 Gw 10 YR 4/1 C m2 sbk fr vs vp vfm, fm ff , cm es
Ck 117-150 10 YR 4/3 Cl - fr ss sp vff, ff, cm ff, cm es

546
 Pedon P3 Pohaner (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-13 CS 10 YR 3/3 Cl m 1 sbk s fr ss sp vfm, fm vfm, fm es
Bw 13-29 CS 10 YR 4/2 Cl m 1 sbk fr ss sp vfm, fm vfm,fm es
Ck1 29-40 CS 10 YR 4/4 Scl m 1 gr l ss sp ff ,cm ff,cm es
Ck2 40-63 10 YR 3/4 Scl f 1 gr l ns np ff ,cm cf es
Pedon P4 Alani (Lithic Ustorthents)
Ap 0-20 CS 10 YR 4/4 Scl f 1 gr l vfr ns np fm, cm vfm, fm -
C 20-34 10 YR 4/6 S f 1 gr fr ns np mm,cm ff,cm -

Pedon P 5 Katri (Lithic Ustorthents )

Ap 0-36 CS 10 YR 3/2 Scl m 1 gr l fr ss sp vfm, fm vfm, fm evs
Ck1 36-60 CS 10 YR 5/6 Scl f 1 gr fr ns np vfm ,fm vfm, fm evs
Ck2 60-71 10 YR 6/3 S f 1 gr fr ns np vff, ff,cm vff ff,cm evs
Pedon P6 Sawargaon (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-13 Gi 10 YR 3/2 Scl m 1 abk l fr ss sp fm, fm vfm, fm e
B1 13-27 Gi 10 YR 3/2 Scl m 1 abk fr ss sp fm, cm cm, fm e
C 27-40 10 YR 6/4 S c 1 gr fr ns np cm cf e
Pedon P 7 Lohara (Lithic Ustorthents)
Ap 0-17 CS 10 YR 3/2 Scl m 1 sbk l fr ss sp vfm, fm vfm, fm e
C 17-34 10 YR 6/4 S c 1 gr fr ns np ff, cm ff, cm e
Pedon 8 Lohara (Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 0-20 CS 10 YR 3/2 C m 2 sbk sh fr vs vp vfm, fm vfm ,fm e
Bw1 20-37 CS 10 YR 3/3 C m 2 sbk fr vs sp fm,cm fm, cm e
Bss1 37-89 CS 10 YR 3/2 C m 3 abk fr vs vp vfm, fm fm,cm evs
C 89-102   10 YR 5/3 Scl f 1 sbk fr ns np cm cf evs
Pedon P9 Lohara (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-15 CS 10 YR 4/4 Scl m 1 sbk s fr ss sp vfm, fm vfm , cm -
Bw1 15-26 CS 10 YR 4/2 Cl m 2 sbk fr ss sp vfm ,cm vfm, cm -
C 26-41   10 YR 5/4 S c 1 gr l ns np cm cc -

Table 2. Physical characteristics of the soils under grape orchards in Osmanabad district.

Coarse Particle size analysis Moisture retention

Hori- Depth frag- BD HC (%) (%) AWC PAWC
zones (cm) ment (Mg/m3) cm/hr (%) (mm)
(%) Sand Silt Clay 33 kPa 1500 kPa
Pedon P 1 Upla (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-15 12.5 1.42 21.2 19.5 45.5 35.0 19.5 7.9 11.6
BW 15-30 20.0 1.47 17.2 20.0 47.4 32.5 19.7 7.6 12.1 62.04
C 30-59 71.5 1.88 - 45.7 39.2 15.0 - - -
Pedon P 2 Upla (Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 0-29 10.0 1.46 04.8 6.05 38.9 55.0 41.3 31.2 10.1
BW1 29-42 10.0 1.53 08.3 5.90 34.1 58.0 43.1 32.1 11.2
BW2 42-61 09.0 1.68 05.4 6.70 31.3 62.0 45.6 33.2 12.4 281.7
BSS1 61-87 11.8 1.68 04.0 4.65 28.3 67.0 45.7 34.8 10.9
BSS2 87-117 14.7 1.73 04.6 6.80 27.8 67.5 42.7 31.8 11.9
Ck 117-150 26.3 1.89 - 35.9 24.1 40.0 32.8 21.6 11.2
Pedon P3 Pohaner (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-13 14.9 1.41 15.4 24.4 48.0 27.5 37.8 24.6 13.2
Bw 13-29 24.3 1.37 12.2 26.6 48.4 25.0 37.9 24.7 13.2 52.29
Ck1 29-40 62.9 1.74 - 56.9 20.5 22.5 - - -
Ck2 40-63 23.7 1.83 - 38.1 36.9 25.0 - - -
Pedon P4 Alani (Lithic Ustorthents)
Ap 0-20 18.4 1.43 13.8 50.4 19.6 30.0 23.1 10.9 12.2 33.60
C 20-34 32.2 1.52 16.9 50.85 21.65 27.5 15.9 7.5 8.4
Pedon P 5 Katri (Lithic Ustorthents )
Ap 0-36 08.6 1.49 19.4 33.3 29.2 37.5 22.9 12.1 10.8  
Ck1 36-60 18.9 1.58 22.2 43.0 42.0 15.0 26.7 14.5 12.2 65.8 

547
 Ck2 60-71 48.8 1.81 29.5 62.0 30.5 07.5 - - -  
Pedon P6 Sawargaon (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-13 18.8 1.52 04.7 12.15 35.35 52.5 37.8 20.5 17.3
B1 13-27 33.6 1.65 05.5 08.65 28.85 62.5 38.5 21.4 17.1 78.20
C 27-40 45.9 1.93 - 37.65 37.35 25.0 - - -
Pedon P 7 Lohara (Lithic Ustorthents)
Ap 0-17 11.4 1.72 05.6 38.8 34.2 27.0 19.4 7.9 11.5 32.00
C 17-34 29.2 1.82 - 46.6 33.4 20.0 - - -
Pedon 8 Lohara (Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 0-20 05.6 1.59 08.8 7.39 32.1 60.0 42.3 26.3 16
Bw1 20-37 11.2 1.61 08.3 9.80 35.2 55.0 42.7 26.4 16.3 217
Bss1 37-89 15.7 1.66 07.8 2.40 37.6 60.0 46.5 28.4 18.1
C 89-102 33.3 1.71 - 19.8 45.2 35.0 19.8 7.7 12.1
Pedon P9 Lohara (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-15 25.9 1.52 16.2 28.6 31.4 40.0 20.5 8.6 12
Bw1 15-26 27.0 1.59 08.4 27.6 32.4 40.0 18.5 8.2 10.3 47.49
C 26-41 53.3 1.83 - 53.0 27.0 20.0 - - -

Table 3. Chemical characteristics of the soils under grape orchards in Osmanabad district.
Depth EC OC CaCO3 CEC Cations (mmol-1 )
Hori- Base satura-
pH
zones Ca ++
Mg ++
Na +
K + tion (%)
(cm) (dSm-1 ) (%) (%) (mmol-1 )
Pedon P 1 Upla (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-15 7.23 0.44 0.93 7.30 36.20 23.20 10.40 0.80 0.50 96.68 
BW 15-30 7.23 0.27 0.49 1.40 31.10 19.20 9.80 0.30 0.10  96.78
C 30-59 7.26 0.18 0.10 1.50 18.10 9.10 5.70 0.40 0.20  93.37
Pedon P 2 Upla (Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 0-29 7.97 0.30 0.45 12.00 62.00 33.00 23.00 3.87 0.90  97.90
BW1 29-42 8.02 0.36 0.48 11.50 60.50 32.00 23.00 3.44 0.60  97.50
BW2 42-61 8.11 0.20 0.25 9.50 58.40 30.00 24.00 2.73 0.60  98.10
BSS1 61-87 8.08 0.26 0.10 12.50 57.00 29.00 23.00 2.89 0.80  97.00
BSS2 87-117 8.06 0.34 0.33 14.50 57.80 31.60 20.00 3.60 0.80  96.80
Ck 117-150 8.10 0.35 0.12 25.20 46.10 26.00 16.00 2.70 0.40  98.20
Pedon P3 Pohaner (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-13 7.87 0.44 0.72 13.50 31.80 15.80 10.60 1.80 2.00  95.12
Bw 13-29 7.91 0.24 0.55 13.80 27.40 13.10 10.20 1.60 2.40  96.10
Ck1 29-40 8.10 0.17 0.31 15.00 25.60 12.00 9.00 2.30 0.60  93.78
Ck2 40-63 8.18 0.15 0.03 41.70 26.20 11.60 8.00 4.10 0.20  91.60
Pedon P4 Alani (Lithic Ustorthents)
Ap 0-20 7.35 0.21 1.20 2.50 34.30 19.00 12.00 0.30 0.70  95.33
C 20-34 7.19 0.21 1.00 2.40 30.20 18.50 9.00 0.30 0.40  93.70
Pedon P 5 Katri (Lithic Ustorthents )
Ap 0-36  7.97 0.47 0.57 12.70 35.20 22.60 6.90 3.80 0.40  96.30
Ck1 36-60 8.25 0.41 0.27 22.00 27.60 17.20 5.00 3.40 0.20  93.47
Ck2 60-71  8.42 0.20 0.24 22.00 18.20 8.10 4.90 4.30 0.10  95.60
Pedon P6 Sawargaon (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-13 8.07 0.68 2.07 8.30 59.10 39.00 16.00 0.90 2.00  97.96
B1 13-27 8.12 0.54 0.33 8.60 61.40 40.00 14.00 1.40 0.80  97.50
C 27-40 8.16 0.27 0.48 27.50 32.00 17.60 7.20 1.90 0.30  84.68
Pedon P 7 Lohara (Lithic Ustorthents)
Ap 0-17 8.11 0.50 0.42 3.00 29.42 16.30 10.10 0.40 1.00  95.50

548
 C 17-34 8.28 0.26 0.03 1.00 20.50 10.60 5.60 1.20 0.20  85.85
Pedon 8 Lohara (Typic Haplusterts)
Ap 0-20 8.12 0.60 0.37 15.00 59.20 40.20 14.10 2.20 0.90  96.95
Bw1 20-37 8.26 0.41 0.31 22.50 58.10 36.10 17.00 3.10 0.60  97.79
Bss1 37-89 8.02 0.52 0.46 18.50 53.20 32.00 14.80 2.90 0.80  95.11
C 89-102 8.37 0.27 0.03 42.90 30.90 17.00 9.10 3.50 0.30  96.76
Pedon P9 Lohara (Typic Ustochrepts)
Ap 0-15 7.85 0.48 0.33 4.50 32.10 14.20 13.90 0.90 0.70  92.83
Bw1 15-26 8.12 0.22 0.40 7.90 36.60 17.00 15.50 1.00 0.50  93.16
C 26-41 8.16 0.16 0.18 1.80 23.30 11.00 8.00 1.80 0.20  90.21

REFERENCES Singh, S.P. (2004). Commercial fruits, Kalyani Publication, New

Black, C.A. 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part I. Amer.
Soc. Agron. Inc. Wisconsin , pp 770.
Davidson, D. (1991). Soil management effect on root
growth. Austrlian and New Zealand Wine
Industry.J. 6(1):39-40.
Gardner, E.A., Shaw, R.J., Smith G.D. and Coughlan, K.J. (1984).
Plant Availability capacity concept, Measurement
prediction. In Properties and Utilization of Cracking
clay soils (J.W. Mc Garity, E.H.. Hoult and H.B. Co.
eds.) Univ. of new England, Armidale. 164-175.
Jackson, M.L. 1973. Soil chemical analysis Prentice hall of India
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp-498.
Jackson, M.L. 1979. Soil Chemical Analysis – Advanced Course,
2nd Edn. Publ. by the author, Univ. of Wisconsin,
Madison, USA.
Sehgal, J.L., A.L. Mahmad, Mishadani Abdul Ghani and R.H.
Sigur, (1980). The soils of Sahazus area (NE Iraq)
for iand use planning characterization. J. Indian Soc
Soil Sci. 28:57-71.
Delhi, pp.163-179.
Soil Survey Staff. 1994. Soil Taxonomy. USDA-SCS Agril. Handb.
436, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
pp- 436.
Soil Survey Division Staff. 2002. Soil Survey Manual, USDA,
Scientific Publication India , Jodhpur. pp- 437 .
Vadivelu,(1983). Soil physio-graphic relationship and its impact on
land use. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ.8(1):16-19.
Vaidya, P.H., D.K. Pal, and S.N. Gawande, 2007. Effect of well
water on soils properties of Pedhi Watershed In
Amravati district of Maharashtra. J.Mah.Agril.
Univ.32(2)184-186
Vaidya, P.H. Dhawan A.S. and Mali C.V. (2014).
Characterization and classification of soil and
ground water farm College of Agriculture,
Osmanabad J.Agric.Res.Technol.,39 (1) 145-
148.

549
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 550-551 (2015)
PHYSIOLOGICAL TRAITS AND YIELD RELATED TRAITS IN BARNYARD MILLET
[ECHINOCHLOA FRUMENTACEA L.]
S. K. Z. RIZVI1, R. P. SINGH2 AND P. SINGH3
Department of Biochemistry, N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224 229 (U.P.) India

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was conducted to study the diversity and extent of variability for different physiological characters and yield
related traits in barnyard millet (Echinochloa germplasm.), during Kharif 2014- 15 at the students instructional farm of Narendra Deva
University of Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad (U.P) India, A wide range of variability were ob-
served for all the characters studied in 10 sawan millet germplasm collected from farmer’s field of eastern U.P. A significant variation
was detected for all traits suggested that there was considerable variability among the germplasm. It was observed that characters viz.,
yield/ ear is 0.52-1.22g , yield per plant is 1.2 -3.1 g. The 1000-Seed weight ( test weight) of different S-1 and S-10 germplasm was re-
corded between 2.89g to 3.46g and plant height from 63.08 to 90.52cm .These parameters are effective for selection of better germplasm.

Keywords: barnyard millet, variability, germplasm, sawan millet

INTRODUCTION
Sawan or Barnyard millets [ Echinochloa frumentacea
L. ] is one of the hardest millet and a multipurpose crop which
is cultivated for food and fodder. It can be cultivated in all
types of soil and sustain adverse climatic conditions. The fast
growing nature of crop suppresses weed growth. Thus, it is
promising crop under adverse agro climatic condition. They
are mostly grown in marginal area under the agricultural
conditions where major cereals fail to give sustainable
major yield. This crop is highly tolerant to alkalinity and
can grow even at pH as high as 11.0. They are highly
tolerant to water logging and highly drought resistant. The
major factor discouraging its cultivation is low production,
less consumption, less market value and unavailability of
high yielding varieties .Grains are the storehouse of many
chemical components including nutrients, phytochemical
and nonnutritive plant protective functional constituents. The
nutritive value of millets in comparable to other cereals with
slightly higher contents of protein and mineral (Gopalan et
al. 2002 ).Studies on several varieties of barnyard millets
revealed the total mineral content ranging between 1.5 to 4.0
percent crude fiber 5.35 -7.90 percent, fat content 3.56 % and
protein content 10.52 -15.0 (Veena et al2005).
Keeping in view increasing the yield potential
and identifying the superior sources for different traits the
present investigation has been formulated with an objective
of assessment of extent of genetic variability for the different
physiological traits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation was carried out at the
students instructional farm of Narendra Dev Universityof
Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj),
Faizabad (U.P) located in the Indo-Gangetic plains of
Eastern Uttar Pradesh at 26.47º N latitude and 82.12 E
longitude at an altitude of 113 meter above the mean sea
level (MSL). The experiment was laid out in Randomized
Block Design with three replications and seven treatments.
At the crop duration the minimum temperature was 22.5
o
c and the maximum temperature was 41.0 0c, the relative
humidity raged between 35- 98% and total rainfall received
during crop period was 792.3 mm.
Experimental Materials
Ten germplasm of Sawan millet namely Sawan -1,
Sawan -2, Sawan -3, Sawan -4, Sawan -5, Sawan -6, Sawan
- 7, Sawan -8, Sawan -9, and Sawan -10 were collected
from different parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and used as
experimental materials in the field trail.

Table1. Variation of different physiological and yield related traits in barnyard millet

Name of Germ-
S. No Place of Collection Color of seed Yield/ear Yield/ Test weight (g) Plant height
plasm
Plant
Navadomre, Gora-
1 Sawan1 Grey 0.94 1.48 3.00 63.08
khpur
Samaemafe, Gor-
2 Sawan 2 Grey 0.84 1.95 2.89 66.85
akhpur
Chaudhree Tola, Light Olive
3 Sawan 3 0.52 1.23 3.31 64.66
Gorakhpur Yellow
Gazpur, Gorakh-
4 Sawan 4 Grey 1.01 1.80 3.15 90.52
pur
Parankuda,
5 Sawan 5 Grey 0.82 1.95 3.01 72.66
Azamgarh

550
 Yellowish
6 Sawan 6 Satana, Azamgarh 1.22 2.59 3.10 74.57
Dark Brown
Bhagalpur,
7 Sawan 7 Grey 1.21 3.10 3.08 79.68
Azamgarh
Baidad, Son-
8 Sawan 8 Grey 1.02 1.82 3.15 78.15
abhadra
Sarauli, Son- Dark olive
9 Sawan 9 0.57 1.29 3.46 60.66
abhadra Yellow

Kurmee Tola,
10 Sawan10 Grey 1.13 2.11 3.17 71.74
Gorakhpur
SEm± 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.89
CD or LSD
0.03 0.03 0.139 2.64
at 5%

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hawladar, M. S. H. (1993). Genetic variability correlation

Greater variability would lead to better scope for
selection and predicting accurately the yield of a crop for
utilization production, consumption and high market value.
The color of seed in various germplasm of sawan millet we
are found as light olive yellow , dark olive yellow and grey
color which is evident in almost all minor millets, both huld
and dehuld grains (Srivastava and Batra 1998), reported
that whole barnyard millet was olive are olive yellow. The
dehuld sawan millet grain were reported from dull cream to
brownish color.(Veena et al. 2005).The genetic variation in
the seed color was evident in both whole and dehuld millet
grains (Itagi 2003). Yield/plant is 1.23-3.1 g, yield/ear ranges
from 0.52-1.22g ,plant height from 63.08 – 90.52 cm .These
findings were supported by (Vijeta Joshi 2013). The 1000-
Seed weight (test weight) of different S-1 and S-10germplasm
was recorded between 2.89g to 3.46 g. All the germplasm of
sawan were found significant regarding 1000 seeds weight.
Similar range of 1000-seed weight was also reported by
(Hawlader, 1993). The difference in 1000 seed weight in
the germplasm appeared due to genetic character and other
factors such as soil, climate and environment. The variation
in the 1000 grain weight of sawan millet may also be due to
heritability and genotypic characters of those germplasm as
given by (Hawlader, 1993).
REFERENCES
Gopalan, C.; Ramasastri, B.V. and Balasubramanian, S.
C. (2002). Nutritive value of Indian Foods.
National Institute of Nutrition, (ICMR),
Hyderabad, pp.47 400-403.
and path analysis in barnyard millet. Bangladesh
Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research.
28: (1) 1-6.
Hadimani, N. A., and Malleshi, N. G. (1993). Studies on
millet, physico-chemical properties nutrient
composition and dietary fibre content of millets.
Journal of food science and Technology., 30
(1): 17-20.
Itagi, S., (2003). Development and evaluation of millet based
composite food for type II Diabetics. Ph.D.,
Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Dharwar. (India).
Srivastava, S. and Batra, A., (1998). Popping qualities of
minor millets and their relationship with grain
physical properties. J. Food Sci. and Tech., 35
(3): 265-267
Veena, B. and Desikachar, H.S.R. (1985). Milling, popping
and malting characteristics of some minor
millets. J. Food Sci. and Tech., 22 (2): 25-27.
Veena, B. Chimmad, B.V., Naik, R.K. and Shantakumar,
G., (2005). Physico-chemical and nutritional
studies in barnyard millet. Karnataka J. Agril.
Sci., 18 (1): 101-105.
Vijeta Joshi (2013). Assessment of Genetic Variability
and identification of genotypes for different
traits in Barnyard millet (Echinochloa spp.)
International Journal of Agriculture and Food
Science Technology, Vol. 4 No. 2

551
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 552-554 (2015)
PARTIAL PURIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF Β -GLUCOSIDASE FROM
MAIZE (ZEA MAYS)
SANTOSH KUMAR1 AND VERMA O.P.2*
1
Department of Biotechnology, ITM University, Gwalior
2
Department of Molecular & Cellular Engineering, JSBB, SHIATS-211007, Allahabad

ABSTRACT
Glucosidases belong to a group of enzymes known as hydrolases which catalyze all types of hydrolytic reactions using water molecules. The
protein estimation at different stages of purification of enzyme indicates that the average value of protein was highest at the step of ammo-
nium sulphate precipitation (16.42 mg) while, it was lowest at the final step of purified enzyme β -glucosidase. In maize plant the maximum
number of bands of protein was found to be four in flag leaf. Molecular weights of different bands were found in range 33 KDa to 66 KDa.
After studying the enzyme kinetics, the optimum pH was found in range of 4.5 to 5.0. The optimum temperature was found at 650C. Thermal
stability of enzyme β -glucosidase was found to be 400C. It was observed that β -glucosidase has Vmax = 660 units/ml/min. and Km = 1.5 mM.

Key Words: Maize, β-glucosidase, Enzyme activity, Protein stability, Molecular weight

INTRODUCTION

Maize is a cereal grain derived from the annual grass
Zea mat
distance migrated and Molecular weight determined
from SDS gels of different parts of Maize. Graph was plotted
for different parts of plant in Maize. In each plant, distance
of marker was used as x-axis while log molecular weight was
used as y-axis. Plant parts were selected in which there were
a maximum number of bands. For each band distances was
measured and log molecular weight and molecular weight
for each band was calculated. Total number of bands for each
parts of plant was also calculated. The results are presented
in Table 2 and exhibited through Figures 1. The maximum
numbers of bands of proteins was found in flag leaf of maize.
Characterization of enzyme
The most prominent function of b-glucosidase is the
activation and release of phytoharmones i.e., cytokinin, ABA
and gibberlins, which are present in glycosylated form. The
very high activity of b-glucosidase in younger tissue might
be responsible for the release of ABA, GA, and cytokinin
from their glucoconjugates form, in a still developing system.
Molecular Weight estimation
The molecular weight of b-glucosidase was estimated
from maize leaves and found to have 48 KDa as shown
in Figure 2. There are some reports available in other
tissue systems as well as in literature. On the other hand
b-glucosidase molecular weights were known in species
Rauvolfia serpentina – 61K Da Warzecha (1999). Lodgepole
Pine – 60 KDa Dharmawardhana (1995), Grape (Vitis
vinifera) - 98KDa and 15KDa Martine (1991), Thai Rose
wood – 66 KDa in denatured and 33 KDa in native state
Svasti et al (1999).
Determination of optimum pH
The optimum pH was found in range of 4.5 – 5.0 as
shown Figure 3. The optimum pH for catalyzing b-glucosidase
action of different plants ranged as Lodgepole Pine – 5 to 6
in variety of substrate. Dharmawardhana et al (1995), Thai
Rosewood – 5.0, Svasti et al (1999), soybean -6.0 Heribert
et al (2000), . b-glucosidase has different optimum pH due
to the groups presented at active sites of enzyme (Figure 4).
Due to these different amino acids and carboxylic groups at
active sites, the different pH requirement might also indicate
a different role for the isoform.
Determination of optimum temperature
The pH 5.0 buffer was used for activity measurement
using 20 mM substrate at temperature range 0 to 650C.
Thus optimum temperature was estimated as shown in
Figure 4. The optimum temperature in different plants were
as Strawberry 600C (Poulton and Li(1984), Leuconostoc
mesenteroides 500C Cicek and Esen (1995), Grape 450C Leah
et al (1995), Soybean 300C Rask et al (2000). The optimum
temperature of b-glucosidase is much higher, because this
enzyme is thermostable; therefore, much energy (activation
energy) required to activate the enzyme.
Determination of thermal stability of purified
enzyme
Thermal stability of β-glucosidase was determined. It
showed highest activity display at temperature 400C, while
the activity was approximately 50% at temperatures below
and above it. It is clear that enzyme β-glucosidase has opti-
mum pH 5.0. The optimum temperature was found at 600C .
Thermal stability of enzyme β-glucosidase was found to be
400C (Figure 5).
Effect of varying concentration of the substrate
The substrate para nitro phenyl b-D glycoside was used
for measuring the effect of varying concentration of substrate.
It was observed that β-glucosidase has Vmax = 660 units / ml
/min. and Km = 1.5 mM as shown in Figure 6. From the
Michaelis - Menten curve, it was observed that b-glucosidase
has Km= 1.4 mM and Vmax = 680 units /ml/min. (Figure
6). Km were 5.4 mM with pNPG substrate in Dalbergia
cochinchinensis Thai Rosewood Svasti et al. (1999) In some
other plants species, Km and Vmax were known as following
strawberry – Km = 18.5 mM, Vmax = 474x10-6 IU/ml Day et
al. (2000), papaya –Km = 0.11mM, Vmax =9.51x10-6 IU/ml.

552
Shen et al (1998), grape –Km= 1.81 mM, Vmax = 43.9x10-6 Table 2: Number of Isoforms in Maize
IU/ml Cicek and Esen (1995). It’s a normal observation that
enzyme requires the presence of metal ions for full catalytic S.No. Sample Protein mg/ml
activity. Metal ions involve in enzyme catalysis by accepting 1 Flower 02
or donating electrons to activate electrophiles and bring 2 Coleoptile 01
together enzyme and substrate by coordinate bonds and thus 3 Node 0
stabilize a catalytically active conformation of the enzyme. 4 Radicle 01
Therefore Fe++ ions enhance the activity of enzyme. 5 Thumb leaf (Lower most leaf) 01
6 Mesocotyl 0
7 Flag leaf (Top most leaf below tassel) 03
8 First Leaf blade 01
9 Second leaf blade 0

Table 2: SDS bands and their mobility recorded from various parts of the plant in Maize
Distance (Cm) of bands
Band No. Thumb leaf (Lower Flag leaf (Top most leaf First Leaf Second leaf
Flower Coleoptile Node Radicle Mesocotyl
most leaf) below tassel) blade blade
1. 4.6 5.7 - 1.6 1.6 4.3 1.7 -
2 6.2 - - - - - 4.0 - -
3 - - - - - - 4.1 - -
4 - - - - - - 4.6 - -
No. of bands 2 1 0 1 1 0 4 1 1

Figure 1: Determination of optimum pH of b-glucosidase Figure 4: Effect of substrate concentration on b-glucosidase

Figure 2: Determination of optimum temperature of b-glu-
cosidase
Figure 3: Thermal stability of enzyme activity
REFERENCES
Cicek, M. and Esen, A. (1995). Cloning and sequencing of
a cDNA coding for β-glucosidase (Dhurrinase)
from Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Accession
No. U33817). Plant Physiol. 109: 1497.
Day, A.J., Canada, F.J., Diaz, J.C., Kroon, P.A., Mclauchlan,
R., Faulds, C.B., Plumb, G.W., Morgan, M.R.A.
and Williamson, G. (2000). Dietary flavonoids
and isoflavone glycosides are hydrolysed by
the lactase site of lactase phlorizin dydrolase .
FEBS. Lett. 468: 166-170.
Dharmawardhana, D. P., Ellis, B. E. and Carlson, J. E. (1995).
A β-glucosidase from lodgpole pine xylem
specific for the lignin precursor coniferin. Plant
Physiol. 107: 331-339.
Heribert, W., Irina, G., Toni M. Kutchan, K and Joachim,
S.. (2000). Molecular cloning and functional
bacterial expression of a plant glucosidase
specifically involved in alkaloid biosynthesis,
Phytochemistry 54: 657-666.
Leah, R., Kigel, J., Svendsen, I. and Mundy, J. (1995).
Biochemical and molecular characterization of
barley seed beta-glucosidase. J. Biol. Chem.
270: 15789-15797.
Mahadaven, A. and Sridhar, R. (1986). In: Methods
in physiological plant pathology (3rd edn)
Sivakami Publications, Chennai. 61.
Martine Lecas Ziya, Y., Gunata Jean, C., Sapis, C. and
Claude, L. (1991). Purification and partial
characterization of b-glucosidase from grape
Phytochemistry, 30: 451-454.

553
Poulton, J. E. and Li, C. P. (1994). Tissue level
compartmentation of (R)-amygdalin hydrolase
prevents large-scale cyanogenesis in undamaged
Prunus seeds. Plant Physiol. 104: 29-35.
Rask, L, Andreasson, E., Ekbom, B., Eriksson, S.,
Pontoppidan, B. and Meijer, J. (2000).
Mytrosinase: gene family evolution and
herbivore defense in Brassicaceae. Plant Mol.
Biol. 42: 93-113.
Roitner, M., Schalkhammer, T. and Pittner, F. (1984).
Characterization of naringinase from Aspergilus
niger. Monatsch. Chem. 115:1255-1267.
Shen, Z., Eisenreich, W. and Kutchan, T.M. (1998). Bacterial
biotransformation of 3 a(S) strictosidine
to the monoterpenoid indole atkaloid
valllesiachotamine. Phytochemistry. 48: 293-
296.
554
Svasti, J., Srisomsap, C., Surarit, R., Champattanachai,
V., Sawangareetrakul, P., Boonpuan, K.,
Subhasitanont, P. and Chokchaichamnankit,
D. (1999). Isolation and characterization of an
enzyme with β-glucosidase and β-fucosidase
activities from dalbergia cochinchinensis
Pierre. Euro.J. Biochem.45: 523-529.
Warzecha, H., Obitz, P. and Stockigt, J. (1999). Purification,
partial amino sequence and structure of the
product of raucaffricine-O-β-d-glucosidase
from plant cell cultures of Rauvolfia serpentina.
Phytochemistry. 50: 1099-1109.
Woodward, J. and Wiseman, A. (1982). Fungal and
other β-glucosidases, their properties and
applications. Enz. Microb. Technol. 4: 73-93.
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 555-557 (2015)
NUTRITIONAL AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SAWAN MILLET
GERMPLASM
[ECHINOCHLOA FRUMENTACEA L.]
S. K. Z. RIZVI1, R. P. SINGH2 AND PRATIBHA SINGH3
Department of Biochemistry,N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224 229 (U.P.) India

ABSTRACT
Millets are one of the oldest foods known to humans and cultivated since time immemorial. Sawan millet [Echinochloa frumentacea
L.] Is nutritious, healthy and versatile and hence would be a worthy addition to one’s diet. Significant differences in nutrient compo-
sition and physico-chemical characteristics were observed of sawan millet. Moisture content of sawan millet seed was observed
on the range 8.13to 8.90 percent . Diameter of seed (1.21- 1.41 mm ) length of ear 11.65 and 11.33cm .Barnyard millet exhibited
excellent cooking attributes The cooking time ranged from 7.9 -12 .37 minutes The protein content was recorded in the range of 7.9
to 9.93 per cent Maximum protein content was recorded in the germplasm Sawan -5 (10.46%) followed by Sawan -7 (10.45%) The
total mineral content was recorded in the range of 3.95 to 4.67 per cent. Maximum total mineral content was recorded in the germ-
plasm Sawan -5 (4.90%) and Sawan -7 (4.07%). So Sawan 5 and Sawn -7 So these germplasm were utilized in further research work.

Keywords: Cooking attributes , Sawan millet ,Japanese barnyard millet

INTRODUCTION
Sawan millet or barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentecea) is a group of grassy plant with short slender
culm and small grains possessing remarkable ability to
survive under severe drought. Barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentecea) is one of the hardiest millet, which is called
by several other names viz., Japanese barnyard millet, ooda
oadalu, sawan, sanwa and sanwank ,barnyard millet is
multipurpose crop which is cultivated for food and fodder it can
be cultivated in all types of soil and sustains adverse climatic
condition. It is fast growing millet, occasionally producing
ripe grains in 40 days after seedling (Nagar and Sharma
2005). Nutritionally too, barnyard millet is an important crop
and a good source of protein, which is highly digestible and
is an excellent source of dietary fibre with good amounts of
soluble and insoluble fractions. The carbohydrate content is
low and slowly digestible, which makes the barnyard millet
a nature‘s’ gift for the modern mankind who is engaged in
sedentary activities. Moisture content determines the shelf
life and milling characteristics of the grains it is interesting
to note that barnyard millet exhibited lower moisture content
than other minor millets such as Proso, Little, Foxtail and
Kodo millet with values ranging from 10.60 to 15.00 percent
(Kulkarni and Naik 1999) .The moisture content observed
in the present investigation (8.66 percent) was in agreement
with those reported in nine varieties of Barnyard millet by
(Veena et al. 2005). the barnyard millet grain exhibit good
cooking quality, short cooking time (10-15 min) and exhibit
maximum grain in weight (390-418 percent) and volume
(420-440 percent) after cooking, protein (10.52 percent), fat
(3.56 percent), minerals (2.02 percent) and calorific value
(398 kcal) with relatively low carbohydrate content (68.76
percent), high dietary fiber (12.60 percent), soluble (4.24
percent) and insoluble (8.36 percent) were recorded Keeping
in view of aforesaid importance, the present investigation
was undertaken to evaluate the promising barnyard millet
varieties for physical, and nutritional characteristics.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The investigations was carried out during Kharif season
2012 -13 and 2014-15. Details of the materials are used and
the techniques employed in the present investigation are
summarized as under.
Experimental site:
The present investigation was carried out at the
students instructional farm of Narendra Dev University of
Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj),
Faizabad (U.P) located in the Indo-Gangetic plains of
Eastern Uttar Pradesh at 26.47º N latitude and 82.12 E
longitude at an altitude of 113 meter above the mean sea
level (MSL). The experiment was laid out in Randomized
Block Design with three replications and seven treatments.
At the crop duration the minimum temperature was 22.5
o
c and the maximum temperature was 41.0 0c, the relative
humidity raged between 35- 98% and total rainfall received
during crop period was 792.3 mm.
Experimental Materials
Ten germplasm of Sawan millet namely Sawan -1,
Sawan -2, Sawan -3, Sawan -4, Sawan -5, Sawan -6, Sawan
- 7, Sawan -8, Sawan -9, and Sawan -10 were collected
from different parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and used as
experimental materials in the field trail.
Experimental Details:
The seeds of Sawan millet germplasm were sown in
Randomized Block Design with three replications eleven
treatment in 2013-14 2014-15. The row to row and plant
to plant spacing were kept 30cm and 5 cm, respectively.
The seeds were sown at the rate of 8 Kg/ha, fertilizer NPK
was applied @ 30:20:20 Kg/ha. Besides this, all other
recommended agronomical practices were adopted to achieve
a good crop. The crop was harvested during September.
Moisture content in seed (%): moisture content was
estimated by drying the known amount (10g) of sample In an

555
oven maintained at 55 ± 2° C till it attained a constant weight
.Moisture content was calculated by subtracting the dried
weight from the fresh weight and expressed as percentage
of fresh weight
Diameter of seed : This parameter was measured by
instrument Dial, Thickness, Gage no.7301
Lengh of ear : This parameter was measured by
meter scale.
Cooking time : For Cooking time open pan boiling
were assessed separately by standard procedures. Also the
grains (50g) were pressure cooked (15 lb psi for min) in
standardized quantity of water (1.0:3.5) .
Protein content : Protein content in grain was
determined by the Lowry’s method (1951). The method
depends on quantification of the colour obtained from the
reaction of protein and reduction of phosphomolybdate and
phosphotungstate by tryrosine and tryptophan amino acids
present in protein.
One gram sample was taken and homogenized in the
presence of 10 ml distilled water and centrifuged at 4000
rpm for 15 minutes. The residue was discarded. Therefore,
1 ml supernatant was taken and mixed with 1 ml 10 per cent
trichloro acetic acid. It was kept for 30 minutes and residue
obtained wad dissolved in 5 ml 0.1 N NaOH. 0.5-1.0 ml
sample extract was taken in another test tube and volume
was made up to 1 ml with distilled water. Then 5 ml alkaline
copper reagent was added and it was mixed properly. After
10 minutes, 0.5 ml Folins reagent was added and it was kept
at room temperature for 30 minutes. Finally, colour intensity
was recorded at 660 nm on spectronic-20 against blank
solution. The calculation was done on the basis of standard
curve prepared from standard BSA solution and results were
expressed on percent basis.
Total mineral content (%) The total mineral
content was estimated by the method as described by Hart
and Fisher, (1971). Material required for this estimation
was silica crucible muffle furnace (6000C) and dessicator
with magnesium per chlorate dessicant. In this method
the constant weight of silica crucible were achieved by
placing clean crucible in Muffle furnace at 6000C for one
hours, transferring from furnace to dessicator weighing
and repeating the above mentioned process till a constant
weight of silica crucible were recorded, 2 g of the sample
was transferred to ash less filter paper and kept into the silica
crucible and were placed into muffle furnace to destroy the
organic matter. Later on the crucible was transferred to the
dessicator and after cooling; its weight was recorded on
electronic balance and results was expressed as percent basis.

Table1 : Physico-chemical and Nutritional characteristics of Barnyard millet germplasm .

Moisture con- Diameter of Lengh Cooking Protein Total mineral
Name of Ger- Place of Col-
S. No tent in seed seed of ear time content Content
mplasm lection
(%) (mm) (cm) (min) (%) (%)
Navadomre,
1 Sawan1 8.54 1.24 5.69 12.29 9.4 2.56
Gorakhpur
Samaemafe,
2 Sawan 2 8.23 1.27 5.97 12.37 9.01 2.15
Gorakhpur
Chaudhree
3 Sawan 3 Tola, Gorakh- 8.29 1.22 10.36 11.35 9.38 2.58
pur
Gazpur, Gora-
4 Sawan 4 8.63 1.33 11.04 10.11 9.66 3.18
khpur
Parankuda,
5 Sawan 5 8.99 1.41 11.65 7.9 9.93 4.09
Azamgarh
Satana,
6 Sawan 6 8.45 1.3 10.06 10.9 9.53 2.87
Azamgarh
Bhagalpur,
7 Sawan 7 8.55 1.37 11.33 8.6 9.68 4.07
Azamgarh
Baidad, Son-
8 Sawan 8 8.49 1.34 10.56 10.46 9.64 3.12
abhadra
Sarauli, Son-
9 Sawan 9 8.13 1.21 5.48 12.37 7.99 2.14
abhadra
Kurmee Tola,
10 Sawan10 8.63 1.25 5.78 12.9 9.29 2.20
Gorakhpur
Popular vari-
11 Type-46 ety of eastern 8.5 1.33 11.62 10.27 10.98 2.7
U.P.
0.24 0.01 0.10 0.23 0.03 0.07
SEm±
CD
0.71 0.04 0.29 0.67 0.08 0.20
at 5%

556
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Moisture content of seed is an important parameter for
determining the shelf life of sawan millet . the data pertaining
to the different germplasm of sawan millet was observed on
the range 8.13to 8.90 percent.Maximum moisture content
was recorded in germplasm Sawan -5 (8.99) and Sawan -7
(8.55).Lowest moisture content was observed in germplasm
Sawan -9 (8.13) and Sawan -2 (8.23). All the germplasm
of sawan millet were significant. Lohany and pandey
(2007) studied the effect of the degree of police on milling
characteristics of sawan millet, noticed that the milling yield
decreased linearly and also found similar range of moisture
content as observed in present investigation The milling
property and moisture have direct and great influence on
commercial value of this millet Variation of moisture content
was also observed by Veena and Naike (2005). Diameter of
seed (1.21- 1.41 mm) highest in Sawan -5 (1.41 mm) and
Sawan -7 (1.37mm) lowest diameter is observed in Sawan -
9 and Sawan – 3 (1.21 mm , 1.22mm). All the germplasm
of sawan millet were significant regarding diameter of seed
. This result is supported by Vijeta Joshi (2013) length from
5.48 -11.33 cm Sawan -5 and sawan -7 have maximum
length of ear 11.65 and 11.33 .Minimum length of ear
was observed in Sawan -9 (5.48 cm) and sawan –1 (5.69)
All the germplasm of sawan millet were significant These
findings were supported by Mehta et al.(2005) and Mehta et
al. (2007) Cooking quality being an important determinant
of utilization of any food, it was observed that barnyard
millet exhibited excellent cooking attributes The cooking
time ranged from 7.9 -12 .37 minutes Lowest cooking time
observed in sawan -5 (7.9 min) aand Sawan -7 (8.6 min) All
the germplasm of sawan millet were significant for cooking
time ,which is comparable to those reported for proso millet
viz., 8 to 15 minutes (Malagi et al., 1997.).. Maximum
protein content was recorded in the germplasm Sawan -5
(10.46%) followed by Sawan -7 (10.45%) and Sawan -4
(10.34%) Minimum protein content was noticed in the
germplasm Sawan - 9 (8.05%). Significant correlation was
obtained regarding protein content in various sawan millet
germplasm. The protein content was recorded in the range of
7.9 to 9.93 per cent. The highest and lowest protein content
in the germplasm might be due to genetic character of that
germplasm. Veena and Naik (2005) studied the nutritional
quality of some Sawan millet germplasm and observed
similar range of protein. Roopashree, (2008) studied the seed
protein content after harvesting of the crop and found similar
range of protein The total mineral content was recorded
in the range of 3.95 to 4.67 per cent. Maximum total
mineral content was recorded in the germplasm Sawan -5
(4.90%). Minimum total mineral content was noticed in the
germplasm Sawan 3-9 (2.14%). Significant correlation was
obtained regarding total mineral content in various sawan
millet germplasm. The highest and lowest total mineral
557
content in the germplasm might be due to genetic character
of that germplasm The health benefits of sawan millet was
observed by Roopshree (2008) reported total mineral content
(2.02%). (Hadimani and Mallesi, 1993) also studied several
genotypes of sawan millet revealed the total mineral content
ranging between 1.5 to 4.0 per cent and maximum content
was observed in kodo millet followed by other millets.
REFERENCES
Hadimani, N.A. and Malleshi, N.G.(1993). Studies on
milling, physico-chemical properties, nutrient
composition and dietary fibre content of millets.
J. Food Sci. and Tech., 30 (1); 17-20.
Lohani, U. C. and Pandey, J. P. (2007). Effect of degree of polish
on milling characteristics of barnyard millet.
Proceedings of the International Agricultural
Engineering Conference, Bangkok, Thailand,
3-6 December. Cutting edge technologies and
innovations on sustainable resources for world
food sufficiency. unpaginated. 9
Mehta, H. Tyagi, P. C. and Mohapatra, K. P. (2005). Genetic
diversity in barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentacea Roxb.). Indian J Genet 65: 93–
295.
Mehta, H. Tyagi, P. C. and Mohapatra, K. P. (2007).Genetic
analysis of morphological and yield component
traits in barnyard millet. Crop Improvement.
34(1): 82–85.
Malagi,U. Shantakumar, G. Naik, R. And Jagadees H,
R.C.( 1997). Cooking quality and acceptability
of high yielding cultivars of proso millet.
Kamataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
10(2):434-43.
Roopshree Ugare (2008). Health benefits, storage quality and
value addition of barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentacaea Link). MHSc. thesis, UAS,
Dharwad, India.
Veena, B. Chimmad, B.V. Naik, R.K. and Shantakumar,
G., (2005). Physico-chemical and nutritional
studies in barnyard millet. Karnataka J. Agril.
Sci., 18 (1): 101-105.
Vijeta Joshi (2013). Assessment of Genetic Variability
and identification of genotypes for different
traits in Barnyard millet (Echinochloa spp.)
International Journal of Agriculture and Food
Science Technology, Vol. 4 No. 2
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 558-561 (2015)
EFFECT OF WATER SOLUBLE FERTILIZERS ON MORPHOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
AND DRYMATTER DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDNUT IN A VERTISOL OF NORTHERN
TRANSITION ZONE OF KARNATAKA
V. MANASA 1, N. S. HEBSUR 1, L. H. MALLIGAWAD2, B. RAMA KRISHNA2 and L. SHIVA KUMAR 1
1. Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry 2. Department of Agronomy
College of Agriculture, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka, 580005.

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at Main Agricultural Research Station (MARS), Dharwad to know the effect of water soluble fertiliz-
ers on morphological parameters and drymatter distribution of groundnut in a Vertisol of Northern transition zone of Karnataka. The
experiment comprised of 10 treatments involving soil application of FYM and different doses of NPK and foliar spray of water soluble
fertilizers at 30, 45 and 60 days after sowing (DAS). The treatment T6 which received FYM + 100 % RDF + foliar spray of fertilizers at
30, 45 and 60 Days after sowing (DAS) produced taller plants (23.40 cm), number of leaves plant-1 (64.33), number of branches plant-1
(9.43) and plant spread (68.33 cm) compared to control at harvest. Drymatter accumulation in all plant parts was significantly highest in
the treatment T6 which received FYM + 100 % RDF + foliar spray of fertilizers at 30, 45 and 60 Days after sowing compared to 100 %
RDF. Dry matter accumulation in reproductive parts was higher compared to accumulation in stem and roots at 60 DAS and at harvest.

Key words : water soluble fertilizers, foliar spray, plant spread, reproductive parts.

INTRODUCTION
Groundnut being a leguminous crop, fixes substantial
quantity of atmospheric nitrogen. So, the application of
full dose of N may not be required. Usually phosphorus
requirement is high at initial stages particularly for root
development. But, the response of crops to the applied P
fertilizers is not encouraging particularly in medium to high
P status soils. University farm soils receive full dose of
fertilizers every year. So, there is a buildup of nutrient status
in soil. Therefore, application of P fertilizers can be reduced
in medium to high P status soils. Moreover, this experiment
was conducted in potash rich soils, application of full dose
of potassic fertilizers may not be required. Application of
recommended dose of FYM also leads to the supply of all
essential nutrients in minute quantities besides improving the
soil physical properties. Further, foliar application ensures
the supply of nutrients as and when they are required by crop.
In view of these, the application of full dose of fertilizers in
such soils may not be required to realize higher yields which
also leads to reduced cost of cultivation.
Keeping this in view, the present investigation was
planned to study the effect of water soluble fertilizers on
morphological parameters and drymatter distribution of
groundnut in a Vertisol of Northern transition zone of
Karnataka.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted at Main Agricultural
Research Station (MARS), University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad, (Karnataka) during rabi/summer 2012.
The soil was texturally clay, neutral in pH, non saline (0.61
dSm-1), medium in organic carbon, low in available nitrogen
(237 kg N ha-1) medium in available phosphorus (34.6 kg
P2O5 ha-1) and high in available potassium (470 kg K2O ha-1).
The soil was sufficient in all micro nutrients Fe (3.84 mg kg-
1
), Cu (0.51 mg kg-1) and Mn (5.60 mg kg-1) except zinc (0.58
mg kg-1). A randomized complete block design with three
replications and ten treatment combinations was followed
by using the groundnut cultivar TAG24. Treatments include
combination of various levels of recommended dose of NPK
and FYM through soil application at the time of sowing and
foliar spray of water soluble fertilizers at 30, 45 and 60 Days
after sowing (DAS). The plant spread was measured from
the tip of the branch in one side to the tip of the branch in
opposite side.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
Morphological Parameters :
The plant height of groundnut did not differ
significantly due to soil and foliar application of fertilizers
at 30, 45 and 60 DAS. The plant height recorded increase as
the crop growth advanced. However, it differed significantly
at harvest stage of crop growth. At harvest, the treatment
(T6) which received FYM + 100 % RDF + foliar spray of
fertilizers produced taller plants (23.40 cm) compared to rest
of the treatments. Treatment (T1) which received no fertilizer
recorded the lowest height (19.33 cm). However, rest of the
treatments were on par with T6.
The Number of branches, number of leaves and plant
spread by groundnut differed numerically due to soil and
foliar application of fertilizers at all the crop growth stages
30, 45, 60 and at harvest. The growth of groundnut is intense
from 30-70 DAS (Bewali et al., 1980) as evident from the
growth partameters. Therefore, synchronizing the nutrient
supply at these stages through foliar application resulted in
higher growth and consequently higher yields. Further, this
period coincides with the pegging and pod development
stages wherein the crop requires higher amount of nutrients.
This might also be due to the greater mobilization of macro
and micronutrients by FYM as reported by Hatwar et al.
(2003). Iron and zinc when applied together increased the
photosynthetic and metabolic rates in plant along with
increase in cell division and elongation in groundnut crop
(Tripathy et al., 1999).

558
Dry matter distribution
The dry matter accumulation in different plant parts of groundnut significantly differed due to soil and foliar application
of fertilizers at all the crop growth stages 30, 45, 60 and at harvest. Drymatter accumulation in all plant parts was significantly
highest in the treatment T6 receiving FYM + 100 % RDF + foliar spray of fertilizers at 30, 45 and 60 Days after sowing.
Similar observations were made by Polara et al. (1991) and Balasubramanian and Palaniappan (1996). Dry matter and
nutrient accumulation were higher in shoots, followed by pods and roots compared to 100 % RDF. Dry matter accumulation
in reproductive parts was higher compared to accumulation in stem and roots at all growth stages. This may be due to supply
of essential nutrients at critical stages of crop growth period coincides with the pegging and pod development wherein the
crop requires higher amount of nutrients.

Table 1: Plant height of groundnut as influenced by soil and foliar application of fertilizers at different growth stages

Plant height (cm)

Treatment details
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS Harvest
T1 : Absolute control 7.07 8.53 11.33 19.33
T2 : 100% RDF 7.50 9.53 12.27 20.47
T3 : Foliar application of water soluble
7.41 9.13 11.40 20.07
grade fertilizers @ 2%
T4 : 100% RDF+ foliar spray 7.76 9.60 12.53 23.13
T5 : FYM + 100% RDF+ water spray 7.49 9.47 12. 40 23.13
T6 : FYM + 100% RDF+ foliar spray 8.04 10.07 12.60a 23.40
T7 : FYM + 85% RDF + water spray 7.76 9.53 12.33 23.07
T8 : FYM + 85% RDF+ foliar spray 7.97 9.93 12.53 23.33
T9 : FYM + 60% RDF + water spray 7.11 9.33 11.60 22.40
T10 : FYM + 60% RDF+ foliar spray 7.25 9.47 12.07 22.47
Mean 7.54 9.46 12.1 22.1
S.Em + 0.46 0.56 0.66 1.12
CD (p=0.05) 1.35 1.66 1.95 3.33

Note : Recommended dose of fertilizers : 25: 75:25 kg N, P2O5 , K2O/ha.

FYM : 7.5 t/ha.

Foliar application of starter dose of water soluble grade fertilizer (11:36:24 + Trace elements) @2.00% at 30 days after
sowing (DAS) + Foliar application of booster dose of water soluble grade fertilizer (8:16:39+ Trace elements) @ 2.00% at
45 DAS and 60 DAS.

DAS: Days after sowing

Table 2: Number of branches of groundnut as influenced by soil and foliar application of fertilizers at different growth stages

Number of branches plant-1

Treatment details
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS Harvest
T1 : Absolute control 4.47 5.27 6.00 8.57
T2 : 100% RDF 5.10 6.00 7.00 9.03
T3 : Foliar application of water soluble grade fertil-
4.70 5.80 6.78 8.87
izers @ 2%
T4 : 100% RDF+ foliar spray 5.40 6.33 7.33 9.40
T5 : FYM + 100% RDF+ water spray 5.27 6.10 7.13 9.13
T6 : FYM + 100% RDF+ foliar spray 5.47 6.83 7.43 9.43
T7 : FYM + 85% RDF + water spray 5.23 6.17 7.07 9.07
T8 : FYM + 85% RDF+ foliar spray 5.42 6.67 7.13 9.30
T9 : FYM + 60% RDF + water spray 5.03 5.83 6.83 8.83
T10 : FYM + 60% RDF+ foliar spray 5.07 5.97 6.93 8.97
Mean 5.12 6.10 6.97 9.06
S.Em + 0.44 0.61 0.49 0.41
CD (p=0.05) 1.31 1.82 1.44 1.21

559
Table 3: Number of leaves of groundnut as influenced by soil and foliar application of fertilizers at different growth stages

Number of leaves plant-1

Treatment details
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS Harvest
T1 : Absolute control 19.73 30.13 40.33 56.00
T2 : 100% RDF 24.13 31.87 43.67 60.33
T3 : Foliar application of water soluble 21.73 30.93 41.27 58.33
grade fertilizers @ 2%
T4 : 100% RDF+ foliar spray 23.93 33.27 46.67 62.00
T5 : FYM + 100% RDF+ water spray 22.20 32.53 46.20 60.60
T6 : FYM + 100% RDF+ foliar spray 26.29 34.67 48.00 64.33
T7 : FYM + 85% RDF + water spray 22.00 32.13 45.73 60.00
T8 : FYM + 85% RDF+ foliar spray 24.80 32.40 47.00 62.67
T9 : FYM + 60% RDF + water spray 21.80 31.13 41.67 58.67
T10 : FYM + 60% RDF+ foliar spray 23.33 31.67 42.33 59.53
Mean 23.1 32.0 44.3 60.2
S.Em + 1.61 2.67 4.93 2.69
CD (p=0.05) 4.79 7.93 14.64 8.00

Table 4: Plant spread of groundnut as influenced by soil and foliar application of fertilizers at different growth stages

Plant spread (cm)

Treatment details
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS Harvest
T1 : Absolute control 27.67 38.42 49.67 56.33
T2 : 100% RDF 29.00 39.75 53.33 60.00
T3 : Foliar application of water soluble grade fer-
28.67 39.42 50.67 57.33
tilizers @ 2%
T4 : 100% RDF+ foliar spray 33.00 43.75 56.67 63.33
T5 : FYM + 100% RDF+ water spray 30.33 41.08 55.33 62.00
T6 : FYM + 100% RDF+ foliar spray 33.67 44.42 61.67 68.33
T7 : FYM + 85% RDF + water spray 29.67 40.42 54.00 60.67
T8 : FYM + 85% RDF+ foliar spray 33.00 43.75 58.33 65.00
T9 : FYM + 60% RDF + water spray 28.00 38.88 51.33 58.00
T10 : FYM + 60% RDF+ foliar spray 28.33 39.33 53.00 59.67
Mean 30.2 41.0 54.4 61.1
S.Em + 2.15 2.08 3.61 3.67
CD (p=0.05) 6.39 6.19 10.74 10.91
Table 5: Dry matter distribution in groundnut as influenced by soil and foliar application of fertilizers at different growth
stages
Dry matter accumulation (g plant -1 )
30 DAS 45 DAS 60 DAS HARVEST
Reproductive Reproductive
Treatment details Stem Leaf Stem Leaf Stem Leaf Stem Leaf
parts parts
T1 : Absolute control 1.63 1.52 1.80 2.17 3.33 3.80 11.30 6.98 4.40 22.58
T2 : 100% RDF 1.78 1.55 2.50 2.51 4.03 4.67 14.11 7.81 5.10 24.95
T3 : Foliar application of water
1.72 1.54 2.26 2.36 3.79 4.10 11.83 7.10 4.58 23.19
soluble grade fertilizers @ 2%
T4 : 100% RDF+ foliar spray 1.79 1.69 2.80 2.63 4.13 5.33 13.76 8.31 7.13 26.36
T5 : FYM + 100% RDF+ water
1.75 1.63 2.60 2.6 4.33 5.13 13.13 8.19 6.71 25.86
spray
T6 : FYM + 100% RDF+ foliar
1.93 1.90 3.00 2.81 4.53 5.83 16.00 8.67 7.85 28.00
spray
T7 : FYM + 85% RDF + water
1.73 1.60 2.55 2.70 4.08 4.83 12.97 7.88 5.29 25.62
spray
T8 : FYM + 85% RDF+ foliar
1.91 1.79 2.80 2.63 4.38 5.24 14.73 8.54 7.58 26.92
spray

560
T9 : FYM + 60% RDF + water
1.65 1.53 2.02 2.44 3.55 4.17 12.04 7.43 4.64 23.56
spray
T10 : FYM + 60% RDF+ foliar
1.68 1.59 2.38 2.50 3.91 4.50 12.17 7.69 4.86 24.56
spray
Mean 1.76 1.63 2.47 2.52 4.00 4.76 13.20 7.86 0.58 25.2
S.Em + 0.07 0.05 0.22 0.10 0.22 0.54 1.09 0.75 0.72 1.36
CD(p=0.05) 0.20 0.15 0.65 0.31 0.66 1.62 3.24 2.24 2.14 4.04

REFERENCES : Polara, K. B., Patel, C. L. and Yadav, B. S. (1991)

Balasubramanian, P. and Palaniappan, S. P. (1996) Influence Accumulation and partitioning of dry matter
of organic and inorganic manuring and split and nutrients in groundnut. Indian J. Plant
application of N and K on root nodulation Physiol., 34(2): 122-125.
and pod yield in groundnut. Madras Agric. J., Tripathy, S. K., Patra, A. K. and Samui, S. C., 1999, Effect of
83(3): 198-200. micronutrient on nodulation, growth, yield and
Bewali, I. S., Shola, G. R. and Shinde, V. M. (1980) Growth nutrient uptake by groundnut. Indian J. Plant
and development studies in groundnut. J. Physiol., 4(3): 207-209
Maharastra Agril. Univ., 5: 76-77.
Hatwar, G. P., Gondane, S. U., Urkude, S. M. and Gahakar,
O. V. (2003) Effect of micronutrients on
growth and yield of chilli. J. Soils and Crops,
13(1): 123-125.

561
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 562-564 (2015)
HETEROSIS AND COMBINING ABILITY FOR MORPHOLOGICAL AND YIELD
CHARACTERS IN CHILLI
V. S. JAGTAP , D. J. GAWALI AND N.H. CHAVAN
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Latur, VNMKV, Parbhani- 431 402

ABSTRACT
By utilizing seven diverse genotypes of chilli viz., G-4 (P1), Phule Jyoti (P2 ), Pusa jwala (P3 ), Parbhani Tejus (P4 ), Phule Suryamukhi
(P5 ), NP-46 (P6 ) and BDN-local (P7 ) were evaluated for general and specific combining ability, variance components and stan-
dard heterosis. Significant gca and sca variances were observed for almost all the characters and the magnitude of gca variances
were lower than sca variances for all the characters. It indicated preponderance of non-additive gene action. Specific combin-
ing ability studies indicated that the cross combinations, P2 x P5 (Phule Jyoti x Phule Suryamukhi), P3 x P7 (Pusa Jwala x BDN-lo-
cal), P3 x P6 (Pusa Jwala x NP-46) and P6 x P7 (NP-46 x BDN-local) were best specific combinations for yield and yield contrib-
uting characters. The estimates of heterosis over best parent ranged from 12.19 to 37.56 per cent for dry fruit yield per hectare. In
the present study based on per se performance, heterosis and sca effects, the hybrids Phule Jyoti x Phule Suryamukhi, Pusa Jwa-
la x BDN-local, Pusa Jwala x NP-46, NP-46 x BDN-local were found superior for yield and yield contributing characters.

Key words: Chilli, combining ability, heterosis.

INTRODUCTION
Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the valuable cash
crops grown in India for its fruits and the spice of commerce.
It is native of new world tropics which were brought into
India from Brazil by Portuguese prior to 1785. Chilli is a
spice cum vegetable crop belongs to the family Solanaceae
and has chromosome no. 2n = 24. It is valued for its pun-
gency. The centre of origin of hot chilli is Mexico. Chilli
has become a part and parcel of our daily diet. The yield
potential and total production of chilli crop is low due to
poor yielding varieties and high incidence of pest and dis-
eases. Growers and processors of capsicum differ in the
quality criteria they apply, the farmer desiring high yields,
lack of diseases and pests and good fruit colour and the lat-
ter favouring good appearance, storage quality, processing
quality and nutritional quality. One of the method to achieve
quantum in yield is heterosis breeding. Chilli has been clas-
sified under self pollinated crop but, the extent of natural
out crossing has been reported up to 66.4 per cent and it has
a substantial amount of non additive genetic variance (Go-
palkrishnan et al. 1987) and quality which can be exploited
profitably through heterosis breeding. It is essential to find
out the combining ability of the desirable genotype to in-
volve in breeding programme for effective transfer of desir-
able genes controlling both quantitative and qualitative traits
in the resultant progenies. Knowledge of relative importance
of general combining ability and specific combining ability
for quantitative characters influencing yield and its compo-
nents is very helpful in selecting parents for production of
superior hybrids. Several biometrical methods are available
for studying the combining ability, heterosis and gene action.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seven genetically diverse genotypes of chilli viz., G-4
(P1), Phule Jyoti (P2), Pusa jwala (P3), Parbhani Tejus (P4),
Phule Suryamukhi (P5), NP-46 (P6) and BDN Local (P7)
and their 21 F1’s obtained by way of diallel mating system
without reciprocals. The parents and their 21 F1’s were
evaluated during summer-2013 in randomized block design
with two replications. There were twenty four plants per
treatment spaced at 60 x 45 cm. in one rows and the data
was recorded on five randomly selected plants for fifteen
characters. The magnitude of heterosis was calculated as
percentage increase or decrease of F1 mean over the mean
of better parent (BP) (Turner, 1953 and Hays et al. 1955)
and per cent superiority over standard hybrid check were
calculated. Combining ability analysis was based on the plot
mean. The procedure given by Griffing’s (1956) for Method-
II, Model-I, was considered to be appropriate for material
under study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis of variance for general and specific
combining ability of parents and their 21 F1’s is presented
in Table 1.The variance for general combining ability and
specific combining ability are highly significant for all
the characters. The magnitude of gca variances for all the
characters studied except days to 50 per cent flowering and
dry fruit yield per plant, was higher than their corresponding
sca variance in all the crosses suggesting preponderance of
additive gene action than non-additive. Similar results have
also been reported in chilli Ahmed et al., (1999) and Prasad
and Ponnuswami (2008).
The general combining ability gca effects (Table 2)
revealed that, none of the parents were found to be good
general combiner for all the characters. However, among the
parents the Phule Suryamukhi (P5) and NP-46 (P6) were best
general combiners for earliness, yield and yield contributing
characters. The results are in agreement with Bhagyalaxmi et
al. (1991), Ganesh reddy (2006) and Prasad and Ponnuswami
(2008).
The specific combining ability effects (Table 3)
showed that, the desirable significant sca effects for yield
and yield contributing characters in cross combinations, P2 x
P5 (Phule Jyoti x Phule Suryamukhi), P3 x P7 (Pusa Jwala x
BDN-local), P3 x P6 (Pusa Jwala x NP-46) and P6 x P7 (NP-

562
46 x BDN-local). These crosses exhibited significant sca Table 1. Analysis of variance of combining ability for 15
effects indicating the presence of dominance and epistatic characters in chilli.
(non-additive) gene action. Similar results were reported by
Bhagyalaxmi et al. (1991), Prabhudeva (2003) and Prasad Characters Error GCA SCA
and Ponnuswami (2008). Number of primary branches
0.04 0.16* 0.15**
per plant
The estimates of heterosis over best parent ranged Number of secondary branches
from -58.52 to 37.56 percent for the character dry fruit yield 0.17 9.90** 4.09**
per plant
per plant and out 21 hybrids, 4 cross combinations exhibited Plant height (cm) 0.37 123.70** 66.90**
positive and highly significant heterosis values. The high Plant spread (cm) 0.31 24.15** 14.95**
heterotic response as observed in most of the crosses further Days to 50 per cent flowering 0.13 6.69** 7.09**
supported the predominant role non-additive component in Number of fruits per plant 0.50 1901.06** 1262.40**
the inheritance of the character studied. Similar trend was Fruit weight per plant (g) 0.01 0.57** 0.48**
reported by Mishra et al. (1991), Doshi and Shukla (2000) Fruit length (cm) 0.01 4.70** 0.54**
and Prasad and Ponnuswami (2008).
Fruit diameter (mm) 3.56 32.31** 27.65**
Evaluation of hybrids based on combination of per Pedicel length (cm) 0.01 0.34** 0.19**
se, sca and heterosis parameters (Table 4) would be more Pericarp thickness (mm) 0.01 2.25** 6.55**
meaningful than on individual parameters. In the present Number of seeds per fruit 0.45 250.18** 675.70**
study based on per se performance, heterosis and sca effects, Seed weight per fruit (g) 0.01 0.17** 4803.70**
the hybrids P2 x P5 (Phule Jyoti x Phule Suryamukhi), P3 x Green fruit yield per plant (g) 4.52 5721.00** 0.08**
P7 (Pusa Jwala x BDN-local), P3 x P6 (Pusa Jwala x NP-46) Dry fruit yield per plant (g) 0.35 629.60** 99.89**
and P6 x P7 (NP-46 x BDN-local) were found promising for
the yield contributing characters like number of fruits, fruit * Significant at 5% level, ** significant at 1% level.
weight per plant and yield of green as well as dry chillies.
Further, they have also exhibited higher additive variance.
Hence, they may be exploited for development of hybrid
vigour.

Table 2. General combining ability effects of parents for yield and other characters.
Characters P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7
Number of primary 
0.16* 0.07 0.07 0.04 -0.16* -0.20* 0.03
branches/plant
Number of secondary
-1.44** -0.17 1.56** 1.08** -0.06 0.89** 0.29*
branches/plant
Plant height (cm) -5.91** -2.52** 4.81** 1.25** -0.16 -1.30** 3.83**
Plant spread (cm) -0.54** 0.41* 1.73** 1.22** -0.38* 0.78** 0.02
Days to 50% flowering 1.73** 0.27* 0.06 -0.78** -0.39* 0.80** -3.22
Number of fruits per plant -22.74** 6.89** 0.36 -10.81** 18.70** 13.97** -6.36
Fruit weight per plant (g) -0.16** 0.31** -0.05* -0.44** 0.23** 0.00 0.11**
Fruit length (cm) -1.30** -0.65** 0.76** 0.35** 0.04** 0.33 0.47**
Fruit diameter (mm) -2.22** 0.31 -0.67 -0.71 3.89** -0.02 -0.58
Pedicel length (cm) -0.23** -0.08** -0.20 0.33** 0.17** -0.17** -0.01
Pericarp thickness (mm) -0.85** 0.19** 0.12** -0.53** 0.23** 0.34** -3.22
Number of seeds per fruit -5.63** -0.41 0.24 10.18** -5.39** 1.39** -0.38
Seed weight per fruit (g) -0.02** -0.01 -0.02** 0.08** -0.05** 0.03** -0.01*
Green fruit yield per plant -51.78** 3.59** 1.21 2.66** 6.79** 32.19** 5.32**
Dry fruit yield per plant -15.79** -1.41** 3.65** -5.58** 5.74** 7.37** 6.02**
* Significant at 5% level, ** significant at 1% level.

Table 3. Hybrid combinations with desired significant sca effects together with type of gca combination.
Characters Significant crosses Sca effect Ranking on gca basis
Number of primary 
P3 x P7, P4 x P5, P3 x P4 (0.56), (0.53), (0.45) PXP, PXP, PXP
branches/plant
Number of secondary
P2 x P5, P3 x P7, P1 x P2 (5.53), (2.75), (2.01) PXP, GXA, PXP
branches/plant
Plant height (cm) P 1 x P 5, P 3 x P 7, P 2 x P 7 (10.91),  (10.73), (10.57) PXP, GXG, PXG
Plant spread (cm) P3 x P7, P2 x P5, P1 x P3 (7.96), (7.29), (3.94) GXP, GXP, PXG
Days to 50% flowering P 2 x P 5, P 3 x P 7, P 3 x P 6 (-6.54), (-4.31), (-2.50) PXG, PXP, GXP
Number of fruits/plant P2 x P5, P3 x P7, P4 x P5 (89.83),   (81.98), (38.38) GXG, PXP, PXP
Fruit weight/plant (g) P2 x P5, P3 x P6, P3 x P7 (1.60), (1.20), (1.17) GXG, PXP, PXG

563
 Fruit length (cm) P2 x P5, P1 x P3, P3 x P4 (1.24), (1.11), (1.07) PXP, PXG, GXG
Fruit diameter (mm) P 3 x P 5, P 1 x P 5, P 2 x P 5 (4.98), (4.86), (4.84) PXG, PXG, PXG
Pedicel length (cm) P2 x P4, P3 x P5, P3 x P6 (-0.69), (-0.67), (-0.58) GXP, AXG, PXG
Pericarp thickness P2 x P5, P3 x P7, P6 x P7 (1.10), (1.06), (0.97) GXG, GXP, GXP
Number of seeds/fruit P3 x P4, P2 x P7, P1 x P4 (-21.95), (13.03), (12.67) PXG, PXP, GXP
Seed weight /fruit (g) P2 x P5, P3 x P4, P4 x P5 (-0.12), (-0.11), (-0.08) PXG, GXP, PXG
Green fruit yield /plant P2 x P5, P3 x P7, P3 x P6 (133.47), (122.66),(65.10) GXG, PXG, PXG
Dry fruit yield/plant P3 x P7, P2 x P5, P3 x P6 (54.78), (54.72), (37.43) GXG, PXG, GXG

Table 4. Per se performance of parents, crosses and standard REFERENCES

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Range of stan- and combining ability studies in hot pepper
Characters
Per se perfor-
dard heterosis
Significant (Capsicum annuum L.). Appl. Biol.Res., 1: 11-
mance of crosses heterosis 14.
(%)
Mean Range Anonymous, 2011. NHB, National Horticulture Board,
Num- Govt. of India. National Database 2011.
ber of pri-
mary  2.40 1.90 – 3.10 - - Bhagyalakshmi, P.V., Shankar, C.R, Subramanyam,
branches/ D. and Babu, V.G. 1991. Heterosis
plant and combining ability studies in chilli. Indian
Num- Journal of Horticulture. 51 (4): 420-423.
ber of sec- P2 x P5, P3 x P7
9.20 – Doshi, K.M. and Shukla, P.T. 2000. Expression of heterosis
ondary 11.49 12.17 to 42.60
11.49 P3 x P6, P6 x P7 in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). Capsicum and
branches/
Eggplant Newsletter 19: 66-69.
plant
Plant height 39.80 – Ganeshreddy. 2006. Heterosis and combining ability studies
53.50 4.81 to 13.96 P 3 x P 7, P 3 x P 5
(cm) 71.90 in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). M.Sc. (Agri)
Plant spread 37.99 – P 5 x P 7, P 2 x P 5 Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences,
44.77 5.10 to 17.50 Dharwad.
(cm) 51.30 P 3 x P 7, P 2 x P 3
Days to 65.90 – P 2 x P 5, P 3 x P 7 Gopalkrishnan, T.R., Gopalkrishnan, P.K. and Peter,
71.70 -7.40 to -1.54 K.V. 1987. Heterosis and combinig ability
50%flowering 75.50 P 3 x P 6, P 4 x P 6
analysis in chilli. Indian journal of Genetics and
Number of 72.80 – P 2 x P 5, P 3 x P 7
120.83 6.95 to 59.35 Plant Breeding, 47(2): 205-209.
fruits/plant 229.30 P3 x P6, P4 x P5
Griffing, B. 1956. Concept of general and specific combinig
Fruit weight/ P2 x P5, P3 x P7
2.96 2.06 – 5.05 14.33 to 50.75 ability in relation to diallel crossing system,
plant (g) P 3 x P 6, P 6 x P 7 Australian Journal of Biological Science, 9:
Fruit length 463- 493.
7.84 5.03 – 9.93 11.45 to 19.64 P3 x P4, P3 x P7
(cm)
Fruit diame- 7.24 –
Hayes, H.R., Immer, F.R. and Smith, D.C. 1955. Methods of
ter (mm)
12.25
16.57
- - Plant Breeding, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Book
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3.35 2.55 – 4.24 -30.30 to -8.20
length (cm) P1 x P6, P2 x P4 Mishra, B.N., Sahoo, S.C., Lotha, A.R. and Mishra,
Pericarp
R.S. 1991. Heterosis and combining ability for
thickness
1.95 1.25 – 3.37 11.96 P2 x P5 seed characters in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.).
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 61(2):
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51.40 -38.13 to -7.11 123-125.
seeds/fruit 80.05 P 3 x P 4, P 1 x P 2
P2 x P5, P2 x P7 Prabhudeva, S.A. 2003. Variability, genetic diversity and
Seed weight / heterosis study in chilli (Capsicum annuum
0.39 0.21 – 0.71 -61.26 to -35.14
fruit (g) P3 x P7, P2 x P3 L.). M.Sc. Thesis, University of Agricultural
Green fruit 148.80 P 2 x P 5, P 3 x P 7 Sciences, Dharwad.
249.90 2.53 to 19.00
yield /plant -369.60 P3 x P6, P6 x P7 Prasath, D. and Ponnuswami, V. 2008. Heterosis and
Dry fruit 39.40 – P3 x P7, P2 x P5 Combining ability for morphological, yield and
66.73 12.19 to 37.56 quality characters in paprika type chilli hybrids.
yield/plant 124.70 P3 x P6, P6 x P7
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Turner, J.H. 1953. A study of heterosis in upland cotton-I.
yield of hybrid compared with varieties. II.
Combining ability and inbreeding effects.
Agronomy Journal, 43: 487-490.

564
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 565-567 (2015)
FIELD EVALUATION OF RICE GERMPLASM AGAINST LEAF FOLDER,
CNAPALOCROCIS MEDINALIS GUENEE. UNDER IRRIGATED CONDITION
VIMAL KUMAR SINGH, P. K. GUPTA, R. B. SINGH AND J. P. SINGH
Department of Entomology
N. D. University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad -224-229 (U.P.)

ABSTRACT
Sixty rice genotypes were screened for their resistance against the rice leaf folder Cnapalocrocis medina-
lis Guenee. Eighteen genotypes were found resistant and twenty four were found moderately resistant against leaf
folder based on per cent damage leaves. None of these were observed under susceptible and highly susceptible.

Key words: Rice leaf folder, genotype, screening

INRRODUCTION:
Rice (Oryza sativa L.), is the most important single
food crop of the global importance and the staple food for
nearly half of the world population. Globally rice is planted
in about 150 million ha and 497 million tonnes of rice is
produced annually. Rice is grown in different agro-climatic
regions and it contributes 43 per cent of total food grain
production and 46 per cent per cent of total cereal production
in India and it occupies 23.3 per cent of gross cropped area
of country.
The theme of the international year of rice 2004 “Rice
is Life” reflects the importance of the rice as a primary food
source which is drawn from an understanding that rice based
system are essential for food security, poverty alleviation
and improved livelihoods. It continues to play vital role in
national food grain supply. It ranks third after wheat and
maize in terms of worldwide production. Rice production,
consumption and trade are concentrated in Asia. One third of
Asian rice production is consumed in China and one fifth in
India (Anonymous, 2010). Rice covers 11 per cent of world
crop area of 156.58 million ha and is cultivated in more than
214 countries with global production and productivity of 476
m ton & 4.26 ton ha-1respectively (Babu et al., 2014).
Several countries including India attained self
sufficiency in rice, but rice consuming population is
increasing at an alarming rate with 100 million heads per
year. It is expected that rice requirement of Asia would
exceed 760 mt by 2020 A.D. Insect-pests damage rice crop
at different stages of crop growth of which leaf feeding
insect Cnaphalcrocis medinalis (Guenee) are a major
importance because of their ability to defoliate or to remove
the chlorophyll content of the leaves feeding to considerable
reduction in yield Prakash et al., (2007). Realizing several
problems with the use of insecticide, the management of
rice leaf folder Cnaphalcrocis medinalis (Guenee) through
the use of resistant verity has become very important as
it serves as an ideal method of pest control because it is
environmentally safe and also doesn’t have an adverse effect
on natural enemies and other non target insect species. For
evolving a resistant variety, the search for resistant sources
through screening of large number of genotypes is the first
step.
MATERIALS AND MAETHODS:
The present were carried out at Crop Research Station
(CRS), Masodha unit 1st of Narendra Deva University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad during
Kharif, 2013 and 2014. Twenty five days old seedlings of 60
genotypesa were procured from the genetic and plant breeding
section /rice breeders of CRS, Masodha of the University
of NDUAT, Kumarganj, Faizabad were transplanted in
augmented design with 20 x 15 cm2 in row of three meter
each row. Normal fertilizer dose and agronomical practices
were adopted to raise the good crop. All the genotypes
were evaluated for resistance by observing the number of
infested leaves and total number of leaves of 5 hills in each
line. The percent leaf folder damaged leaves were worked
out. Observation on leaf folder infestation was recorded at
two stages of crop viz. tillering stage and flowering stage by
Standard Evaluation system (SES) for rice insects narrated
by IRRI, Philippines.
Total number of damaged leaves/5 hills
Leaf folderc damage (%) = X 100
Total number of leaves/5 hills
Table: 1 Scale of germplasm evaluation
Damage Range Damage
S. No. Category
(%) Rating
1. 0-10 1 Resistant
2. 11-20 3 Moderately Resistant
3. 21-35 5 Moderately Susceptible
4. 36-50 7 Susceptible
5. 51-100 9 Highly Susceptible
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
Sixty rice germplasm were evaluated against rice leaf
folder under field condition at two stages i.e. maximum
tillering and flowering in Kharif, 2013 and 2014. The per cent
leaf damage was recorded by randomly selecting five hills of
the each line. The data presented in Table-2 and graphically
represented in showed variation in per cent damage caused
by the C. Medinalis.
The per cent leaf damage were recorded maximum
at maximum tillering stage in genotype Kalanamak with
23.45 and minimum BPT 5204 with 1.26 and at flowering

565
stage maximum were recorded in genotype Kalanamak with 23. SB-143 5.05 9.89 7.47 1 R
26.37 and minimum in NDR 6175 with 1.98 during Kharif, 24. SB-436 5.45 8.13 6.79 1 R
2013. During Kharif, 2014 leaf folder damage were recorded 25. NDR-6023 5.00 9.87 6.43 1 R
maximum 37.50 and 38.14 in genotype TN 1 at both stages 26. NDR-1011 8.98 18.07 13.52 3 MR
(maximum tillering and flowering) and minimum were 27. IET-10649-1 5.15 10.75 7.95 1 R
found in NDR 6175 with 6.17 and 7.07 at maximum tillering 28. FH-674 20.00 27.27 23.63 5 MS
and flowering stages respectively.
29. Kavya 5.26 8.98 7.12 1 R
Out of 60 genotypes were screened against leaf folder, 30. JKRP-10 20.23 29.68 24.95 5 MS
eighteen genotypes found resistant i.e. RP- 4645-688, BPT- 31. IC-252181 20.98 29.68 25.33 5 MS
5204, LF-270, NDR-2030, TKM-6, SB-143, SB-436, NDR- 32. LF-293 5.00 8.33 6.66 1 R
6023, IET-10649-1, LF-293, Mashsuri, W-1263, SARJU-52, 33. Mashsuri 3.33 9.00 6.16 1 R
NDR-6232, NDR-6175, NDR-6111, IC-114412, twenty four Pant dhan-
34. 9.85 16.94 13.39 3 MR
found moderately resistant i.e. ARC- 5982, Type-3, IR-20, 19
SB-55, SB-479, NDR-1075, IET-17114, NDR-2030, NDR- 35. CSR-27 18.18 23.71 20.54 3 MR
1011, Pant dhan-19, CSR-27, CSR-23, Anjali, Hemawati,
NDR-1099, ADJ-44, Govind, ASD-16, Jitendra, ADT-43, 36. CSR-23 9.52 19.48 14.50 3 MR
IC-114978, NDR-359, Tapasawani and eighteen found Pusa
37. 24.71 38.46 31.58 5 MS
moderately susceptible i.e. ARC- 5982, ARC-10650, RP- sugandha
4518-2-6, RP-4621-1842, IR-36, LF-88, LF-256, LF-333, 38. W-1263 2.75 10.22 6.48 1 R
Basmati, FH-674, JKRP-20, IC-252181, Pusa sugandha,
Pusa RH-10, Kalanamak, NK-6302, NDR-2090, TN-1and 39. Anjali 10.38 19.79 15.08 3 MR
none of these was found susceptible (Table-3) and highly 40. Hemawati 9.63 19.78 14.70 3 MR
susceptible on the basis of pooled data with followed
by Standard Evaluation System for rice given by IRRI, 41. Pusa RH-10 20.00 27.97 23.98 5 MS
Philippins in 1996. The findings of present studies are 42. Kalanamak 26.37 39.75 33.06 5 MS
in conformity result of Gupta et al. (2003) Singh, et al.,
43. SARJU-52 3.06 9.25 6.15 1 R
(2004), D. R. R. Hyderabad, (2013), Nigam, et al., (2008),
Preetinder, et al., (2012) 44. NK-6302 19.41 27.27 23.34 5 MS
45. NDR-1099 9.90 18.57 14.23 3 MR
Table: 2 Reaction of rice genotypes against rice leaf fold-
er at flowering stage of the crop on pool basis of 2013 and 46. ADT-44 10.14 18.75 12.94 3 MR
2014. 47. NDR-2090 20.75 27.83 24.29 5 MS
Percent leaf damage 48. NDR-6232 5.05 9.57 7.31 1 R
Scoring
S. Reac-
Genotypes (1-9 49. NDR-6175 1.98 7.07 4.52 1 R
No. 2013 2014 Mean tion
scale)
50. NDR6111 8.88 17.82 9.08 1 R
1. ARC- 5982 24.39 38.46 31.42 5 MS
51. Govind 9.27 20.00 14.63 3 MR
2. ARC-6926 14.00 31.16 22.58 3 MR
3. ARC-10650 24.67 39.47 32.07 5 MS 52. ASD-16 9.17 18.27 13.72 3 MR
RP- 4645- 53. ICIS-5576 8.97 36.45 14.71 3 MR
4. 3.33 11.76 7.54 1 R
688
54. Jitendra 10.00 21.11 15.55 3 MR
RP-4518-
5. 20.00 34.93 27.19 5 MS
2-6 55. ADT-43 9.67 20.20 14.93 3 MR
RP-4621-
6. 19.00 33.33 26.16 5 MS 56. IC-114412 2.94 15.49 9.21 1 R
1842
7. BPT-5204 4.27 8.43 6.60 1 R 57. IC-114978 10.00 18.88 14.44 3 MR
8 Type-3 9.78 18.75 14.31 3 R 58. NDR-359 7.22 20.18 13.70 3 MR
9. IR-36 24.27 37.33 30.75 5 MS
10. IR-20 10.08 17.77 13.92 3 MR 59. Tapaswani 7.04 18.36 12.70 3 MR
11. LF-88 20.23 28.84 24.53 5 MS 60. TN-1 27.84 38.14 30.99 5 MS
12. LF-256 19.54 35.71 27.62 5 MS
13. LF-270 4.87 10.10 7.48 1 R
14. LF-333 20.00 38.80 29.40 5 MS MR- Marginal/ Moderate Resistance
15. SB-55 24.48 16.66 20.57 3 MR
16. SB-479 10.38 17.14 14.07 3 MR MS- Marginal Suscetable
17. NDR-1075 10.44 18.94 14.69 3 MR
18. IET-17114 10.00 19.35 14.67 3 MR R- Resistance
19. IET-13310 3.22 8.43 5.82 1 R
20. NDR-2030 10.25 19.27 14.76 3 Mr
21. Basmati 24.48 38.78 31.63 5 MS
22. TKM-6 9.78 9.87 9.82 1 R

566
Table: 3 Categorigation of rice genotypes against Leaf folder
Varital rating No. of
Damage
germ Name of germ plasm
range % Score Reaction
plasm
RP- 4645-688, BPT-5204, LF-270, NDR-2030, TKM-6, SB-143, SB-436, NDR-6023,
1-10 1 (Resistant) 18 IET-10649-1, LF-293, Mashsuri, W-1263, SARJU-52, NDR-6232, NDR-6175, NDR-
6111, IC-114412
ARC- 5982, Type-3, IR-20, SB-55, SB-479, NDR-1075, IET-17114, NDR-2030, NDR-
11-20 (Moderately Resistant) 24 1011, Pant dhan-19, CSR-27, CSR-23, Anjali, Hemawati, NDR-1099, ADJ-44, Govind,
3 ASD-16, Jitendra, ADT-43, IC-114978, NDR-359, GR-11
ARC- 5982, ARC-10650, RP-4518-2-6, RP-4621-1842, IR-36, LF-88, LF-256, LF-333,
(Moderately Suscep-
21-35 18 Basmati, FH-674, JKRP-20, IC-252181, Pusa sugandha, Pusa RH-10, Kalanamak, NK-
5 tible)
6302, NDR-2090, TN-1
36-50 7 (Susceptible) 0 Nil

51-100 9 (Highly Susceptible) 0 Nil

REFERENCE: Singh, H.M; R.K. Srivastava, S.M.A. Rizvi, F.A. Elazequi,

D. R. R. (2013). Effect of Planting dates on insect pest
incidence. DRR Annual Progress Report - 2 pp
2.65, 2.66.
Gupta, S.P., Singh, R.A. Dwivedi, J.L. and Chaudhary,
R.C. (2003). Screening of rice genotypes for
resistance of leaffolder, C. medinalis (Gueene).
Int. Rice Res. Notes, 28(2): 32.
N.P. Castilla and S. Savary, (2003). Yield
reduction due to brown spot and leaf folder
injuries and various levels of fertilizers and
water supply to rice crop. Annuals of Plant
Protection Science 11: 16-19.
Anonymous (2010). Annual Report of Central Rice Research
Institute, Cuttack , India. pp. 45-48.

Nigam V.D.; Sharma, R.C. and Ali, S. (2008). Evaluation of
Rice germplasm at different cropping stages for
resistant to Cnaphalocrocis medinalis. Ann. Pl.
Protect. Sci. 16(2): 329-332.
Preetinder S. S. and Mahal, M. S. (2012). Evaluation of
rice germplasm for resistance to a leaf folder,
stem borer and plant hopper under in India.
International J. of tropical insect science.
32(3): pp- 126-135.
Babu, V. R.; Voraprasad, G.S.; Ram, T.; Subbarao, L. V.;
Padmavati, G.; Bhadana, V. P.; Kota, S.; Badri,
J. and Chaitanya, U. (2014). Rice research
in India. Natoinal conference on emerging
challenges and opportunity in biotic and abiotic
stress management. Ecobasm . pp 3-4.
Prakash, A.; Rao, J.; Singh, O.N.; Tyagi, J.P.; Singh, S. and
Rath, P.C. (2007). Rice the queen of central,
AZARA Publication CRRI, pp. 1-40.

567
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 568-569 (2015)
EFFECT OF DATE OF PLANTING ON RICE LEAF FOLDER, CNAPALOCROCIS
MEDINALIS GUENEE. IN AROMATIC RICE
VIMAL KUMAR SINGH, P. K. GUPTA, R. B. SINGH AND J. P. SINGH
Department of Entomology
N. D. University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad -224-229 (U.P.)

ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during Kharif, season of 2013 and 2014 at C. R. S. Masodha, Faizabad (U. P.) to
study the effect of planting dates on rice leaf folder in irrigated condition. The result revealed that leaf folder dam-
age leaves was observed range from 2.28 to 26.15 and 5.40 to 27.89 during 2013 and 2014 respectively. Leaf folder ac-
tivity observed maximum in late planted rice followed by normal and early transplanting during both the year in aromatic rice.

Key words: Rice leaf folder, aromatic rice, planting dates

INTRODUCTION Realizing several problems with the use of insecticide,

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), is the most important single
food crop of the global importance and the staple food for
nearly half of the world population. Globally rice is planted
in about 150 million ha and 497 million tonnes of rice is
produced annually. Of this, Asia accounts for 90% of the
production and consumption of rice. India has the world’s
largest area under rice with 42.5 million ha and is the
second largest producer (106.54 million tons in 2013-14)
next only to china (Babu et al., 2014). Rice is primarily a
high energy or high caloric food. The biological value of its
protein is high (less than wheat 6-9%). Rice contains high
carbohydrates 77.84 per cent and low fat about 2.0 to 2.5 per
cent. It is a good source of thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin
(vitamin B2) and niacin including all eight of essential amino
acid. The calcium content in rice is generally low (Prakash
et al., 2007).
Paddy crop suffers maximum losses due to wide range
of insects and non-insect-pests under different ecological
conditions. Insects alone cause about 30% yield losses in
rice every year by attacking almost all the aerial parts of the
crop plants as well as root system in soil (Prakash and Rao,
2003). Rice leaf folder, Cnaphalcrocis medinalis (Guenee)
was considered as pest of minor importance have increased
in abundance in late 1980 and have become major pests in
many part of India including Tamil Nadu. The yield loss is
from 30-80per cent due to leaf folder epidemic situation.
Every unit of increase in infestation by Cnaphalcrocis
medinalis (Guenee) decreased the yield by 14 and 1.46 per
cent during dry and wet season, respectively.
the management of rice leaf folder Cnaphalcrocis medinalis
(Guenee) through the change in transplanting time it
serves as an ideal method of pest control because it is
environmentally safe and also doesn’t have an adverse effect
on natural enemies and other non target insect species.
MATERIALS AND MAETHODS
The present were carried out at Crop Research Station
(CRS), Masodha unit 1st of Narendra Deva University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad during
Kharif, 2013 and 2014.Twenty five days old seedlings of a
scented variety of Pusa basmati-1 was transplanted in 1500
sq. m. area in three different planting time of fifteen days
interval. Each plot size is 5x10 sq. m replicating ten time
with maintaining proper distance between rows and plants
i.e., 20 x 15 cm2. Normal fertilizer dose and agronomical
practices were adopted to raise the good crop.
Five hills were tagged randomly in each replication
of each treatment to record the observations. Observation on
the incidence of rice leaf folder and leaf damage (1/3 of the
damage leaf area) was recorded on tagged hills from first
appearance till maturity of crop at 15 days interval as per
mentioned formula. Besides, 5 sweeps were also made with
hand collecting net to record the population of leaf folder at
3 places in each replication from first appearance in the field
at 15 days intervals.
Total number of damaged leaves/5 hills
Leaf folderc damage (%) = X 100
Total number of leaves/5 hills

Table:1 Date of nursery raising and transplanting of rice during kharif, 2013 and 2014

Early transplanting Medium transplanting Late transplanting

Year Date of nursery Date of trans- Date of nursery Date of transplant- Date of nursery Date of transplant-
raising planting raising ing raising ing
2013 22.06.2013 21.07.2013 07.07.2013 07.08.2013 21.07.2013 20.08.2013
2014 12.06.2014 12.07.2014 27.06.2014 28.07.2014 12.07.2014 12.08.2014

568
RESULT AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES
Influences of the three dates of transplanting on leaf Faleiro, J.R.; Patil, K.D. and Viraktamath, B.C. (2001).
folder were observed during Kharif 2013 and 2014. It is Incidence of leaf hopper, Cnaphalecrocis
evident from the table 2 indicated that the incidence of leaf medinalis and gall midge Orselia oryza on
folder was low at initial of crop established, which attained its medium duration rice varieties. Indian J.
highest peak at reproductive stage of crop each transplanting Entomology, 63(2): 201-203.
dates during both experimental years. Leaf folder damaged
leaves recorded were maximum in late planting with 26.15 Chandar, S. Aggarwal, P.K. and Swarooparani, D.N.S.
and 27.89 per cent in both years i.e. Kharif, 2013 and (2004). Agroecological zonation of leaffolder,
2014, respectively (Table-2 and Table-3). However, adult C. medinalis infestation in Haryana. Ind. J.
population were recorded maximum 76.62 and 111.50 per Agric. Sci., 74(8): 455-457.
five sweeps in late planting rice. Sharma, D.R.; Gill, P.S. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (1995). Impact
The highest population of leaf folder recorded in of agronomic practices on the incidence of rice
early transplanting rice with 18.30 and 23.60, and minimum stem borer Scirpophaga incertulus (Walker).
was recorded 2.80 and 3.90 during Kharif, 2013 and 2014 Indian Journal of Ecology. 22(2): 101-108.
respectively. However, in medium transplanting maximum Prakash, A.; Rao, J.; Singh, O.N.; Tyagi, J.P.; Singh, S. and
population was found 32.45 and 70.45, and minimum found Rath, P.C. (2007). Rice the queen of central,
3.50 and 23.70 during Kharif, 2013 and 2014 respectively. AZARA Publication CRRI, pp. 1-40.
The maximum damaged leaf per cent recorded in early
transplanted rice was 12.68 and 16.13 and minimum was Babu, V. R.; Voraprasad, G.S.; Ram, T.; Subbarao, L. V.;
recorded 2.28 and 5.40 during Kharif, 2013 and 2014 Padmavati, G.; Bhadana, V. P.; Kota, S.; Badri,
respectively. However, in medium time planting maximum J. and Chaitanya, U. (2014). Rice research
per cent damaged leaf recorded with 25.00 and 21.77, and in India. Natoinal conference on emerging
minimum was 0.25 and 0.93 during Kharif, 2013 and 2014 challenges and opportunity in biotic and abiotic
respectively. The maximum damage per cent of Leaf and stress management. Ecobasm . pp 3-4.
population per five sweeps of leaf folder were observed in
late transplanting followed mwdium and early planting rice Soren, A.;Prasad, R.; Hemborm, L. and Prasad,
in both experimental years. The findings of present studies D. (2014). Management of leaf folder,
are in conformity result of Soren et al., (2014), Chander et Cnaphalcrocis medinalis (Guenee) infesting
al., (2004), Faleiro et al. (2001) and Sharma et al. (1995). rice through innovating and ecofriendly
approach. National conference on emerging
challenge and apportinity in biotic and abiotic
Table:2 Effect of different transplanting date on occur- stress management (ECOBASM 2014),
rence of leaf folder during Kharif, 2013 December 13-14, 2014.
DAT Av. Damage leaf (%) Population (Av. No. /5
Sweeps)
Early Medium Late Early Medium Late
30 0.00 0.25 1.04 0.00 3.50 23.59
45 2.28 9.07 12.02 2.80 14.20 46.70
60 5.81 13.44 15.55 6.20 23.60 64.89
75 8.41 16.74 17.93 13.40 28.30 76.62
90 11.12 22.21 22.40 18.30 32.45 59.70
105 12.68 25.00 26.15 14.90 26.76 40.55
DAT-Date after transplanting

Table: 3 Effect of different transplanting date on occur-

rence of leaf folder during Kharif, 2014
Population (Av. No. of/5
Av. Damage leaf (%)
Sweeps)
DAT
Early Medium Late Early Medium Late

30 0.00 0.93 2.49 0.00 23.70 43.30

45 5.40 6.85 9.08 3.90 44.70 60.20
60 9.35 10.80 16.43 8.25 59.50 94.66
75 12.00 13.52 20.57 16.10 70.45 111.50
90 14.30 18.41 23.33 23.60 56.65 75.75
105 16.13 21.77 27.89 18.35 46.30 50.80
DAT-Date after transplanting

569
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 570-572 (2015)

EFFECT OF PRUNING SEVERITY ON PHYSIOLOGICAL, YIELD AND QUALITY

ATTRIBUTES IN GRAPES (VITIS VINIFERA L.) CV. PERLETTE
VINOD SINGH, SAURABH VERMA, ARCHANA SINGH AND M.K. PANDEY
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Directorate of Extension
N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad – 224229 (UP)

ABSTRACT
Grape is one among the most delicious, refreshing and nourishing fruits of the world. Crop load is the most important factor affecting
yield and cluster quality as well as vigour of both seeded and seedless varieties. Hence, an optimum canopy size and bunch number
per vine are to be maintained for achieving better fruit quality. The pruning requirement of different varieties differs in their growth
behaviour. Therefore, effect of varying number of buds and spur on ripening, yield and quality of Perlette grapes were studied. Vines
pruned at 2 bud with 40 spur improved fruit quality and increased the vigour (pruning weight) but the average yield per vine was the
lowest under this treatment. Pruning at 6 bud with 40 cane treatment gave the highest yield but produced poor fruit quality and reduced
the vigour of the vine. Vines pruned at 4 bud with 30 spur advanced ripening and produced optimum yield, fruit quality and vigour of vine.

Key words: Grape, Perlette, spur, cane, pruning, vigour, berry, TSS, TSS acid ratio, reducing sugar, bower system

INTRODUCTION
Pruning is the most important cultural practice in
the management of grapevine to sustain production and
productivity. Pruning methods have been developed to
balance fruit productivity, vegetative growth and attain
maximum yield without reducing vine vigour. An increase in
the severity of pruning will increase the vigour of individual
shoot at the expense of total growth and crop (Weaver, 1976
and Celik et al., 1998).The exact number of buds kept at the
time of pruning in order to give optimum yield with high
quality fruits is, therefore, of immense importance. Pruning
the vines for optimum cropping according to the vigour is the
most reliable method to maintain balance between growth
and production. The vine should carry moderate number of
canes in order to maintain the uniform vigour throughout its
life span. So, canopy, vigour and productivity can be balanced
through pruning levels. Eynard and Gay (1992) suggested
that equilibrium of crop load versus vegetative development
is important for production of quality fruits. The total
number of fruiting-spurs or canes on a vine is also important
regulating yield, fruit maturity and quality. The number of
buds per cane and total number of canes per vine, however,
vary according to cultivars and training system. Little or
no definite information is available for pruning of Perlette
grapes in present changing climatic condition. The present
investigation was, therefore, carried out to study the effect
of different pruning severities of Perlette grape cultivars for
their performance in changing climatic conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was carried out on a 25 year old vineyard
of cultivar Perlette, trained on bower system planted 3.0
m apart at the Horticulture Research Centre of Narendra
Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj,
Faizabad (UP). The experiment was laid out in RBD with
6 pruning treatments with 3 replications. The pruning
treatments of vines were performed to 2-bud with 40-spur,
4-bud with 30-spur, 4-bud with 40-spur, 4-bud with 45-
spur, 4-bud with 50-spur and 6-bud with 40-cane with three
replications per treatment. The number of days taken to 50
per cent sprouting and panicle emergence and about 70 per
cent calyptras-fall for full-bloom were calculated from the
date of pruning (20th January, 2009). TSS/acid ratio of at
least 24 was used as a measure of desire ripeness. Numbers
of days taken to ripening were calculated from the date of
pruning. Weight of pruned wood of individual vine was taken
after one season’s growth (20th January, 2010) and it was
used as a parameter for vine growth. 4-bunch and 100 berries
from each replication under each treatment were used for
recording the bunch/berry weight. Juice was extracted from
the weighed sample and measured. TSS were determined
by hand refractometer and total acidity by titrating the juice
against N/10 NaOH using phenolphthalein as an indicator.
Reducing sugar was determined by potassium ferricyanide
methods (Hulme and Narain, 1931).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The number of days taken to sprouting, flowering
and ripening was significantly affected by the intensity of
pruning (Table 1). Severely pruned vines took lesser number
of days for bud sprouting and flowering compared to lightly
pruned ones. Velu (2001) reported that in Muscat, where
the pruning level was severe (pruning 67% of the canes to
5 bud level and 33% to 2 bud level), taken lesser number
of days (40.06 days) for bud sprouting. The bunches of
vines pruned to 2-bud with 40-spur and 4-bud with 30-
spur treatments were at par and ripen earliest amongst the
treatments. Early sprouting resulted into early flowering and
berry development due to better nutrition and distribution of
food material in these treatments may be responsible for the
enhanced ripening. The findings of Lider et al. (1973) and
Palma et al. (2000) also support the results of these studies.
Average number of bunch/vine was the highest
under 4-bud with 50-spur treatment but bunch and berry
weight were the lowest with this treatment (Table 2).
Reduction in bunch weight due to pruning levels in grape.
It was recorded that 2 buds spur gave more bunch weight
(379.38 g) as compared to 6 buds spur (363.25 g). The poor
nutrition or competition for metabolites with greater number
of bunches per vine may be responsible for decreased bunch

570
and berry weight. These findings are in line with the results were observed by Kilby (1999) in Merlot cultivar, spur
reported by Bhujbal (1972) in Thompson Seedless grapes. pruning with 2 buds produced more pruning weight (246 g/
Similarly, Palanichamy et al. (2004), among the three vine) than spur pruning with four buds (218 g/vine). Chalak
pruning treatments viz., 4, 6 and 8 buds per cane retaining (2008) observed that maximum pruning weight (882.42 g)
uniformly 12 canes per vine on the ‘head’ system, the was recorded in 4 buds/cane while it was maximum (525.43
maximum number of bunches (36.2/vine) were obtained g) in 12 buds/cane.
with pruning at 6 bud level. However, the maximum bunch
weight (234 g) was recorded at 4 bud pruning level in grape CONCLUSIONS
cv. Pusa Navrang.
Pruning is one of the important cultural operations
Average yield per vine was increased with in grape and standardization of pruning levels for any grape
decreased intensity of pruning. Vines pruned with 6-bud gave cultivar is of utmost importance for obtaining optimum
significantly higher yield (28.68 kg/vine) than 2 bud spur yield and quality. High net return in grapes with increased
(17.45 kg/vine) and 4-bud spur pruning (Table 2). The more productivity could be ensured by adopting judicious pruning
bearing areas with this treatment accounted for increased practices.
yield. Similarly, Chadha et al. (1969) and Chalak (2008)
also obtained higher yield in different grape cultivars under Table1: Effect of pruning treatments on time of bud spruting,
study by retaining more fruiting nodes per cane. Kohale et flowering and ripening of grapes cv. Perlette
al. (2013) reported that in cv. Sharad Seedless, the maximum
yield (18.92 t/ha) was recorded in 8 buds per cane whereas in Number of days taken for
Pruning treat-
6 buds per cane, it was 18.26 t/ha and with 4 buds per cane it Sprouting Full bloom Ripening
ments
was 17.25 t/ha. Miele and Antenor (2013) studied the effect 2008 2009 2008 2009 2008 2009
of the pruning and thinning intensity on the variables related 2-bud with 40-
55 56 84 84 152 153
to yield components in grapevine Cabernet Sauvignon and spur
reported that pruning and thinning had highly significant 4-bud with 30-
56 56 85 85 152 153
effect on the vineyard yield which varies from 10,971 kg/ha spur
(short pruning + 75% cluster thinning) to 32,819 kg/ha (long 4-bud with 40-
56 57 86 86 154 155
pruning + 0% cluster thinning) as average of four years. spur
4-bud with 45-
The percentage of juice was significantly higher spur
58 59 86 87 157 157
under 4-bud with 30 and 40-spur treatments (Table 3). 4-bud with 50-
Increased berry size in these treatments may be responsible spur
60 61 88 89 158 159
for higher recovery of juice. TSS/acid ratio and reducing
6-bud with 40-
sugar of grape juice were increased with increased intensity 60 61 90 91 156 157
cane
of pruning. Vines pruned with 2-bud showed the highest
C.D. at 5% 0.95 0.97 1.56 1.55 1.41 1.39
TSS/acid ratio and reducing sugar (Table 3). Similarly, an
increase in TSS/acid ratio in cv. Rashme (Al-rawi and Al-
doori, 1977) and reducing sugars in Perlette (Chadha et al.,
Table 2: Effect of pruning treatments on bunch and berry
1969) cultivars of grapes has been reported with increased
characters and yield of grapes cv. Perlette (pooled data of
severity of pruning. Similarly, Chalak (2008) observed
two years)
that, as the intensity of pruning decreased, TSS and TSS to
acid ratio decreased. The maximum TSS (21.50 Brix) and Average
TSS to acid ratio (32.70) were recorded in 4 buds per cane Average Average Average
Pruning treat- number of
level. The minimum TSS (18.890 Brix) and TSS to acid ratio bunch berry yield/ vine
ments bunches/
(21.88) were observed in 12 buds per cane level. Kohale et weight (g) weight (g) (Kg)
vine
al. (2013) observed in cv. Sharad Seedless that the maximum 2-bud with 40-
TSS (21.17 and 22.060 Brix, respectively) was recorded in 4 46.13 379.38 1.55 17.45
spur
buds per cane in both seasons. 4-bud with 30-
48.10 353.34 1.55 18.35
The vines pruned with 6 buds per cane showed the spur
highest acidity (0.81%) while it was less (0.74%) in vines 4-bud with 40-
62.10 376.62 1.51 22.49
pruned upto 2 buds per spur. The heavy fruit load resulted spur
in the production of light coloured fruits with reduced 4-bud with 45-
60.56 362.20 1.43 20.72
percentage of soluble solids and pH and increased acidity. spur
Similar finding were obtained by Chougule (2004) in cv. 4-bud with 50-
84.23 299.40 1.18 23.18
Thompson Seedless, the lowest acidity (0.49%) was in 35 spur
cane density per vine, while the highest acidity (0.80%) was 6-bud with 40-
81.23 363.25 1.24 28.68
recorded in cane density 40 per vine. cane
C.D. at 5% 10.79 12.49 0.04 4.01
Pruning weight of grape vines increased with
increased severity of pruning. Vines pruned with 2-bud
showed the highest pruning weight amongst the treatments Table 3: Effect of pruning treatments on quality components
(Table 4). It is obvious that the vigour of the individual shoot of grapes cv. Perlette
increased with increased severity of pruning which accounted
for higher pruning weight in this treatment. Similar findings

571
 T.S.S. Reducing method for determination of reducing sugars,
Pruning treat- Juice T.S.S. Acidity A modification of Hogelsn Hometechnique.
Acid sugar
ments (%) (%) (%) Biochemistry Journal, 25: 1051
ratio (%)
2-bud with 40- Kilby, M.W. (1999) Pruning methods affect yield and fruit
57.0 19.33 0.74 24.72 14.13
spur quality of ‘Merlot’ and ‘Sauvignon Blanc’
4-bud with 30- Grapevines. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/
64.0 18.63 0.78 23.47 13.96 crops/az1051/az105118
spur
4-bud with 40-
66.0 18.10 0.71 21.42 12.13 Kohale, V.S.; Kulkarni, S.S.;  Ranpise, S.A.  and Garad, B.V.
spur
(2013) Effect of pruning on fruiting of Sharad
4-bud with 45-
56.2 17.23 0.75 20.85 11.81 Seedless grapes. Bioinfolet, 10(1B): 300-302
spur
4-bud with 50-
55.0 16.93 0.80 17.10 11.73
Lider, L.A.; Kasimatis, A.N. and Kliewer, W.M. (1973)
spur Effect of pruning severity and root stock on
6-bud with 40- growth and yield of two grafted, cane pruned
54.0 17.00 0.81 17.18 11.63
cane wine grape cultivars. Journal of American
C.D. at 5% 3.1 0.32 NS 0.37 0.39 Society of Horticulture Science, 98: 8-11
Miele, A. and  Antenor, R.L. (2013) Pruning and cluster
thinning intensity on the composition of
Table 4: Effect of pruning treatments on pruned weight on
Cabernet Sauvignon grape.  Rev. Bras.
grapes cv. Perlette
Frutic., 35(4): 1081-1092
Average pruned weight/vine (kg)
Pruning treatments Palanichamy, V.; Jindal, P.C. and Singh, R. (2004) Studies
2008 2009
on severity of pruning in grapes (Vitis
2-bud with 40-spur 5.60 5.90
vinifera  L.) cv. Pusa Navrang- A teinturier
4-bud with 30-spur 3.39 3.42 hybrid.  Agriculture Science Digest, 24 (2):
4-bud with 40-spur 3.56 3.74 145-147
4-bud with 45-spur 1.93 1.91
4-bud with 50-spur 2.06 2.24 Palma, L.; Novello, V. and Tarricone, L. (2000) Blind buds,
6-bud with 40-cane 2.53 2.67 fruitfulness and balance between vegetative
C.D. at 5% 0.54 0.63 and reproductive growth of grape cv. Victoria
as related to bud load and pruning system
REFERENCES during vine canopy establishment. Rivista di
Al-rawi, A.K. and Al-doori, A.H. (1977) Effect of spur frutticoltura e di orthofloricoltura, 62(3): 69-
and cane length on bud sprouting, flowering 74
and fruiting of some grape cultivars. Punjab
Horticulture Journal, 17: 109-113 Velu, V. (2001) Studies on bud load and certain crop
thinning practices on vigour, yield and quality
Bhujbal, B.G. (1972) The effect of levels of pruning on of grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Muscat. M.Sc.,
bud sprouting, yield and quality in Thompson Thesis submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural
Seedless grapes (Vitis vinifera L.). Indian University, Coimbatore
Journal of Horticulture, 29: 298-301
Weaver, R.J. (1976) Grape growing. Wiley-Interscience
Celik, H.; Agaoglu, Y.S.; Fidan, Y.; Marasali, B. and Publication, New York
Soylemezoglu, C. (1998). General Viticulture,
Professional Books series, Ankara, 1: 1-253
Chadha, K.L.; Nauriyal, J.P. and Kumar, H. (1969) Studies
on pruning of Perlette grapes. Indian Journal
of Horticulture, 26: 15-20
Chalak, S.U. (2008) Effect of different levels of pruning
on various wine grape varieties for yield and
quality.  M.Sc., Thesis submitted to MPKV,
Rahuri
Chougule, R.A. (2004) Studies on sub-cane pruning
and cycocel application in relation to the
canopy management in grapes. M.Sc.,
Thesis submitted to MPKV, Rahuri
Eynard, I. and Gay, G. (1992) Yield and quality. In: Proc.
8th Australian Industry and Technical
Conference. Melbourne, Australia, 54-63
Hulme, A.C. and Narain, R. (1931) The ferricyanide

572
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 573-576 (2015)
EFFECT OF HIGH AND LOW DENSITY PLANTATION ON YIELD AND QUALITY OF
GUAVA UNDER RECLAIMED SODIC CONDITION
VINOD SINGH, SAURABH VERMA, ARCHANA SINGH AND M.K. PANDEY
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Faizabad, Directorate of Extension
N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad – 224229 (UP)

ABSTRACTS
Trees of guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. L-49 were planted in September 2007 at 3.0X1.5, 3.0X3.0, 3.0X6.0 and 6.0X6.0 m spacing in 0.2 ha
of reclaimed sodic land under each treatment at four guava growers of district Faizabad to determine the effect of planting distance on tree
growth, yield and fruit quality. Tree growth was significantly influenced by different tree densities when measured in October 2011 and 2012,
four and five years after planting. Density plantation had significant influence on all the yield attributes and ultimately on yields during both
the years. Maximum number of flowers per plant, fruits per plant, fruit weight and yield per plant were recorded under lower plant density
planting (6.0X6.0 m) during both the years. The fruit yield per hectare showed increasing trend with increasing plant density and maximum
yield obtained under 3.0X1.5 m spacing treatments during both years. Quality component of fruits under high and low density planting did not
differ significantly during both the years. Increasing planting density did not change significantly most variables related to fruit quality, such
as TSS, acidity, ascorbic acid, reducing sugar and organoleptic score. Growers can obtain considerably high yields by high density planting.

Keywords: Guava, planting densities, growth, fruit set, TSS, ascorbic acid, reducing sugar, organoleptic score

INTRODUCTION
The continuing decline in the availability of cultivable
land, rising land cost, uncertainty of labourers, high cost of
irrigation and weed management problem are the various
factors necessitating modification in usual method of
cultivation in order to increase yield and lower unit costs
particularly in early years of bearing. One method of
overcoming this problem is of growing more trees per unit
area by close planting with dwarf cultivars. It is an intensive
form of horticulture production which has high relevance to
nutritional security of our ever-increasing population. Now
days, high density orcharding has been standardized in many
temperate fruit crops with full package of practices. This
concept is also gaining popularity in tropics and subtropical
fruit crops such as pineapple (Chaddha et al. 1973), mango
(Majumdar et al. 1982 and Ram and Sirohi, 1991), citrus
(Sharma et al. 1992) and guava (Singh, 2005 and Singh et
al. 1980).
The increasing importance of guava (Psidium guajava
L.) as a commercial fruit crop, both for table and processing
purpose, demands its widespread cultivation. The total area
and production of guava in the country are 1.90 lakh ha and
1.68 million tonnes, respectively. Uttar Pradesh is by far
the most important guava producing state of the country
and Allahabad has the reputation of growing the best guava
in the country as well as in the world. At present guava is
cultivated largely through a traditional system under which
it is difficult to achieve desired level of production and
economic returns because low density plantation provides
low production per unit area and needs high labour inputs
(Reddy et al., 1999 and Singh et al. 2003). Moreover, large
trees take several years before they come into bearing and
overall cost of production per unit area is further increased.
High density planting not only provides higher yield but also
provides higher net economic returns per unit area in the
initial years and also facilitates more efficient use of inputs
(Reddy, 2004).
One of the ways used for different and profitable
land use is to work on tree spacing. Lot of works done by
various research workers on high density and ultra high
density orcharding but there is scanty information on guava
plantation in reclaimed sodic soil condition. Therefore,
present study was attempted to find out suitable planting
density of guava under reclaimed sodic soil conditions.
METHODOLOGY
The field observations were conducted at progressive
guava growers of the district Faizabad. It has a typical sub-
tropical climate, characterized by mild winters and summers.
The average rainfall of this region ranges from 750 to 1150 mm
per year. More than 85% rainfall is received from Southwest
monsoon during the months of June to September with scanty
showers during winter months. The minimum temperature may
reach the extreme of 40C in winter and the maximum temperature
may reach another extreme of 430C during summer. The relative
humidity varies from 75.0 to 99.0% in monsoon with average
being 55 to 60%. The seasons are well distinguished between
summer, winter and rainy seasons. The winter season persists
from second half of October and continues up to February. The
summer season lasts longer compared to winter, beginning from
March to the June or middle of July, while the rainy season starts
from July and ends in September. The soil of the guava orchard
is silty clay loam with saline-alkali soils. The soil contains pH
of 8.2, EC (dS/m) 2.32, organic carbon 0.42%, with available
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium of soil were 191.1, 16.5
and 232.4 kg/ha, respectively
Treatment application
Tress of guava (Psidium guajava L.)cv. Lucknow 49
were planted in September 2007 at 3.0X1.5 m (T1), 3.0X3.0 m
(T2), 3.0X6.0 m (T3) and 6.0X6.0 m (T4) in 0.2 ha of land under
each treatments at four guava growers land. The number of plants
is planted at different plant density ranges from 2222, 1111, 555
and 277 plants per hectare, respectively. After six months of
planting, all the trees were topped at uniform height of 50 cm

573
from ground level and all the side shoots and branches were
removed (first pruning), after one year of planting mature shoots
reduced to 50 % of their length and 3 to 4 equally spaced shoots
per plant were retained (second pruning). Trees are pruned to
increase the yield of quality fruits by eliminating crowded and
criss-cross branches. Pruning begins at an early stage of plant
growth to develop single trunk trees with well spaced scaffold
branches to form the frame work. Newly emerged shoots are
allowed to grow up to 40-50 cm and are pruned again for the
emergence of new shoots. This is mainly done to obtain the
desired shape. The pruning operations continue during the
second year after planting. After two years, the short branches
within the tree canopy produce a compact and strong structure.
All the plants are confined to a hedge shape of 2.0 m inter
row width and 2.5 m height for which pruning is performed
in January-February and May-June every year. Plants started
bearing at the age of 4 years. Flowers were thinned manually
in early years for better growth of the plant. Each plant under
high density plantation received with two baskets of well rotten
farm yard manure and 0.5 kg of calcium ammonium nitrate
from the age of 6th year. In low density plantation, each plant
received double quantity of farm yard manure and calcium
ammonium nitrate. Trees were irrigated just after manuring as
usual practice.
Observation recorded
Observations were recorded on flowering, yield and
quality parameters, ie. number of flowers per plant, fruit set (%),
number of fruits per plant, fruit weight (g), yield per plant (kg),
estimated fruit yield/ha (tonnes), total soluble solids (%), acidity
(%), TSS/acid ratio, ascorbic acid (mg/100g pulp), reducing
sugar (%) and organoleptic score were measured from 10 trees
under each spacing during 2011 and 2012. The total number
of flowers set into fruits was counted. Average fruit weight
was recorded with the help of electronic balance. Mature fruits
were harvested periodically in each treatment separately and
weighted on an electronic balance and then the yield per plant
was calculated. Estimated fruit yield per ha was calculated by
multiplying the yield per plant by number of plants per hectare.
Fruit quality (TSS, acidity and ascorbic acid) attributes were
analyzed as prescribed standard methods (A.O.A.C., 1990).
Reducing sugar content was determined by using Anthrone
reagent method (Dubois et al., 1951).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yield component
The results obtained in the present investigation
revealed that various spacing treatments had significant
influence on numbers of flowers per plant, per cent fruit set,
number of fruits per plant, fruit weight, yield per plant and per
hectare during both the years. After four years of planting among
various low and high density planting treatment maximum
number of flowers per plant, number of fruits per plant, fruit
weight and yield per plant were recorded under lower plant
density treatment (6.0X6.0 m) during both the years. Minimum
values of these parameters were recorded in high plant density
treatments. The fruit yield per hectare showed increasing trend
with increasing plant density and maximum yield obtained
under 3.0X1.5 m spacing treatment during both the years. The
trees under low density plantation gave significantly higher
yield per plant in both years. The higher yield per tree under
low density planting was due to more number of fruits per tree,
574
whereas total yield per hectare under high density planting was
owing to more number of trees per hectare. Higher fruit setting
in plants under low density plantation seems to be due to greater
photosynthetic activity, because of exposure of more number of
leaves to sunlight. Increase in density delayed the emergence
of flowers and reduced the flowering period and fruit setting.
The maximum fruit set was at population of 278 plants per ha,
while it was low at 1600 plants per ha (Kundu, 2007). These
findings are in accordance with the findings reported by Singh
and Dhaliwal (2007) in guava.
Maximum fruit weight was recorded with 6.0X6.0 m
density plantation and minimum at 3.0X1.5 m treatment which
is accordance with the studies of Singh et al., (2007), Kundu
(2007), Singh and Dhaliwal (2007) and Kumawat et al., (2014)
in guava. This might be due to less percent radiation interception
on per tree basis in higher density planting which led to severe
competition of metabolites and caused reduction in fruit weight.
Further, higher fruit weight and higher number of fruits per
plant were observed in T4 treatment (6.0X6.0 m) which was
one of the reasons for achieving higher yield of guava during
both the years under this treatment. At higher density plantation,
yield was poor due to lower number of flower buds and low
fruit sets (Table 1). Number of plants per ha increased with
increasing planting densities (277 to 2222), therefore, maximum
fruit yields per ha was obtained from higher density planting
ie 3.0X1.5 m (T1) which remained statistically at par with the
treatment T2 (3.0X3.0 m) during 2012. Results of present finding
are supported by Singh et al. (1980), Chundawat et al. (1992),
Bal and Dhaliwal (2003) in guava and Dalal et al. (2012) in
Kinnow. High density plantation decreased the fruit weight and
size but the yield per unit area increased considerably in guava
(Kundu et al. 1993).
Quality component
Quality component of fruit under high and low density
planting did not differ significantly in the year 2011 as well as
in 2012. Increasing planting density did not change significantly
most variables related to fruit quality, such as TSS, acidity,
ascorbic acid, reducing sugar and organoleptic score, however,
these parameter were recorded higher under lower planting
density. Therefore, in the present study, high planting density
had little influence on fruit quality. Availability of proper
sunlight to the lower branches of the trees at higher density
becomes a limiting factor, though it did not significantly affects
the fruit quality. The present results are also supported by the
findings of Kumar et al. (2010) in Apricot; Bal and Dhaliwal
(2003), Singh et al. (2007) and Kumawat et al. (2014) in guava.
The objective of high density planting is the accommodation
of maximum plants with higher yield per unit area with normal
physic-chemical attributes. The better quality of fruit in the year
2012 might probably be due to better growth of the fruit, as it is
evident from present finding.
The performance of the trees under high density
planting is very well so far. Therefore, growers can obtain
considerably high yields by high density planting. Intensive
density of planting system recorded satisfactory growth, fruit
quality and significantly higher fruit yield per hectare with
optimum plant per unit area (2222 per ha). In future, crowding
can be expected in such plantation. When this situation will
occur the trees of alternate row and every other tree in the row
can be removed so that number of plants per hectare may remain
same as in conventional spacing.
Table 1: Effect of high density plantation on yield components of guava cv. Lucknow 49

Planting No. of flowers/

Fruit set (%) No. of fruits/plant Fruit weight (g) Yield/plant (kg) Yield/hectare (t)
density plant
2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012
T1 (3.0X1.5 m) 255.1 264.8 58.75 61.15 111.31 107.99 100.35 129.45 11.17 13.98 24.81 31.07
T2 (3.0X3.0 m) 260.8 274.6 62.80 66.50 148.64 161.53 106.50 143.85 15.83 23.56 17.59 26.18
T3 (3.0X6.0 m) 278.2 295.0 67.12 71.25 168.59 177.41 116.85 179.25 19.70 31.80 10.93 17.65
T4 (6.0X6.0 m) 285.5 301.4 78.24 79.40 194.19 240.11 124.00 201.45 24.08 48.37 06.67 13.40
SEm ± 2.74 7.64 1.86 2.15 6.01 10.84 1.98 5.14 0.71 083 2.13 3.52
CD at 5% 8.10 21.52 5.74 6.64 17.89 32.42 6.08 14.60 2.19 2.52 6.18 10.04
Table 2: Effect of high density plantations on quality components of guava cv. Lucknow 49
Planting den- TSS (%) Acidity Ascorbic acid Reducing sugar (%) Organo-lep-
sity tic score
(%) mg/100 g
2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012
T1 (3.0X1.5 m) 10.87 11.82 0.45 0.41 185.4 178.5 4.11 4.41 7.20
T2 (3.0X3.0 m) 12.50 13.41 0.58 0.51 178.4 168.4 4.26 4.31 7.12
T3 (3.0X6.0 m) 11.15 13.72 0.42 0.48 167.5 184.3 3.96 4.12 7.00
T4 (6.0X6.0 m) 13.30 12.84 0.54 0.46 175.0 171.9 4.21 4.20 6.75
SEm ± 0.43 0.39 0.08 0.10 6.40 5.98 0.14 0.17 0.24
CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
REFERENCES
A.O.A.C. (1990). Official method of analysis. Association cum densities on growth, fruit size and yield of
of official agricultural chemists. Washington, guava cv. Allahabad Safeda under sub-humid
D.C. USA. 16: 37 conditions of Bihar. Annals of Agriculture
Research, 21: 152-153
Bal J.S. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (2003). High density planting
studies in guava. Haryana Journal of Kumawat, K.L.; Sarolia, D.K.; Kaushik, R.A. and Jodha,
Horticulture Science, 32(1/2): 19-20 A.S. (2014) Effect of different spacing on
newly planted guava cv. L–49 under ultra high
Chaddha, K.L.; Melanta, K.R. and Shikhamany, S.D. 1973. density planting system. African Journal of
Effect of planting density on growth, yield and Agricultural Research, 9(51): 3729-3735
fruit quality in Kew pineapple. Indian Journal
of Horticulture, 30: 461-466 Kundu, S. (2007) Effect of high density planting on growth,
flowering and fruiting of guava (Psidium
Chundawat, B.S.; Kikani, K.P.; Verma, L.R. and Jadav, guajava L.). Acta Horticulturae, pp 735
R.J. (1992) Studies on hedgerow plantation in
guava cv. Allahabad Safeda. Indian Journal of Kundu, S.; Ghosh, S.N. and Mitra, S.K. (1993) Yield and
Horticulture. 49: 143-147 fruit quality of guava cv. L-49 under different
plant densities. Indian Agriculture, 37: 157-
Dalal, R.P.S.; Sangwan, A.K.; Beniwal, B.S. and Sharma, 162
S. (2012). Effect of plant spacings on growth,
yield and economics in early bearing stage of Majumdar, P.K.; Sharma, DK.; and Singh, R.N. (1982)
Kinnow Mandarin. Book Abstracts In: 5th A study of high density orcharding in mango
Indian Horticulture Congress, November variety Amrapali. Punjab Horticulture
6-9, 2012 held at Ludhiana pp 155-156 Journal, 22: 123-127
Dubois, M.; Gilles, K.; Hamilton, J.K.; Robbers, P.A. and Mitra, S.K.; Sen, S.K.; Maiti, S.C. and Bose, T.K. (1984)
Smith, F. (1951) A colorimetric method for Effect of plant density on growth, yield and fruit
determination of sugar. Nature, 16: 167, http:// quality of guava. Bangladesh Horticulture,
dx.doi.org/10.1038/ 168167a0 12: 7-9
Kumar, D.; Ahmed, N.; Srivastava, K.K. and Dar, T.A. Ram, S. and Sirohi, S.C. (1991) Feasibility of high
(2010) Effect of planting density and varieties density orcharding in Dashehari mango. Acta
on growth, yield and quality of Apricot. Horticulturae, 291: 207-209
Book Abstracts In: 4th Indian Horticulture
Congress, November 18-21, 2010 held at New Reddy, B.M.C. (2004) High density planting in horticultural
Delhi, pp 298 crops. First Indian Horticulture Congress,
6-9 November, 2004, New Delhi, pp 36
Kumar, R. and Singh, H.P. (2000) Effect of planting systems
Reddy, N.N.; Gangopadhyay, K.K.; Rai, M. and Kumar,

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 R. (1999) Evaluation of guava cultivars under
rainfed sub-humid region of Chhotanagpur
plateau. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 56:
135-140
Sharma, J.N.; Chohan, G.S.; Vij, V.K. and Monga, P.K.
(1992) Effect of spacing on growth, yield and
quality of Kinnow mandarin. Indian Journal
of Horticulture, 48: 8-12
Singh, A. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (2007) Solar radiation
interception and its effect on physical
characteristics of fruits of guava cv. Sardar.
Acta Horticulturae pp 735
Singh, G. (2005) High density planting of guava - application
of canopy architecture. ICAR News, 11(2):
9-10
Singh, G.; Singh, A.K. and Mishra, D. (2007) High density
planting in guava. Acta Horticulturae, pp 735
Singh, G.; Rajan, S. and Sing, A.K. (2003) Approaches and
strategies for precision farming in guava. In:
Precision Farming in Horticulture. Singh, H.P.;
Singh, Gorakh,; Samual, J.C. and Pathak, R.K.
(eds). NCPAH, DAC, MoA, PFDC, CISH, pp
92-113
Singh, I.S.; Singh, H.K. and Chauhan, K.S. (1980) Effect
of high and low density plantation on yield and
quality of guava under semi-arid conditions.
Haryana Agriculture University Journal of
Research, 10(3): 421-423

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 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue):577-578 (2015)

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF RICE IN FARMERS’ FIELDS IN RELATION TO

PRODUCTIVITY
1
TEJENDER KUMAR, 2 BRAJENDRA, 3 KV RAO, 4 K SUREKHA,MBB PRASAD BABU AND 5VK SINGH
1&5
ZARS, Ghagraghat, UP
2,3&4
DRR, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

ABSTRACT
The study involved survey and record of all the package of fertilizer and crop management practices of the farmers, besides in-
formation about the nutrient status of the soils before cropping and the crop at maximum tillering stage including crop productivi-
ty and dry matter yield.. Substantial variability was however observed in the grain and straw yield among the different farm sites.

Key words : nutritional status, rice , farmers’ fields , productivity

INTRODUCTION
Current fertilizer management practices, in general,
are not tailored to site specific soil nutrient supply capacities
and crop demand, and blanket fertilizer recommendations are
still being followed for large domains with less importance
being given to management induced site variations. This
has been the major reason for nutrient imbalances and
un-sustainability of realizable yields. Fertilizer nutrient
management not matching with the temporal and spatial
variability in the availability of major nutrients in the
farmers’ fields and nutrient requirements of the crop
variety besides other crop related management are among
the important factors responsible for the low realization of
productivity potential of the variety, imbalanced nutrition
and unsustainability of the production system. A review of
current fertilizer management practices is felt necessary to
refine based on site specific soil nutrient supply capacities
and crop demand. A study was, therefore, proposed in kharif,
2008 at few locations from farmers fields representing deep
water rice ecology of Ghgraghat to assess the nutritional
status and productivity of the crop under farmers’ current
management practices for further refinement in fertilizer
practices and improvement in rice productivity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data collected from 50 farm sites in kharif 2008
around Ghagraghat from farmers fields. Simultaneously the
nutrient supply potential of the soil was also assessed at the
research farm representing the area of study. The farmers in
the study area cultivated high yielding cultivars and hybrids
(PA6444,KRH-2) applying a range of nutrient management
levels of 100:50:0 and 80:40:0 in IGP (Ghagraghat) ..
Important soil fertility characteristics (pH, SOC, available
N, P and K) collected from the farmers’ fields were grouped
under HYVs and hybrids
Table 1 Soil characteristics in the farmer field sprior to planting during
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Important soil fertility characteristics (pH, SOC,
available N, P and K) collected from the farmers’ fields were
grouped under HYVs and hybrids and presented in the Table
1 to 5. The parameters assessed showed a fairly wide range
of variability. Soils at different farmers fields of Ghagraghat
were sandy loam in texture with pH 7.8 to 8.7, 0.2-0.6% soil
organic carbon, 104-232 kg/ha available N, 8.4-25.1 kg/ha
available P and 148 to 249 kg/ha available K. Results of soil
analyses showed little differences between the two groups
(HYVs and hybrids) with regard to soil fertility. Hybrids,
in general, recorded higher yields than HYVs ranging from
3.2t/ha to 4.2t/ha at different farmers fields of Ghaghraghat.
N content in grain and K content in straw were substantially
low indicating poor nutritional status of the crop as also
reflected by low soil availability and highly imbalanced
fertilizer use by the farmers. Nutrient accumulation in grain
and straw averaged 81 kg N/ha, 20kg P/ha and 154.6 kg K/
ha for the Hybrids while that by HYVs averaged 52.1 kg N/
ha, 17.1 kg P/ha, and 117.9 kg K/ha at different farmers fields
of Ghaghraghat, broadly reflecting the dry matter yields at
these locations. Nutrient harvest index calculated for the
two groups of genotypes indicated almost similar trend at
Ghaghraghat for all the nutrients. Internal efficiency (IE,
kg grain/kg nutrient accumulation) varied between the sites
and genotypes. Average IE for hybrids at different farmers
fields of Ghaghraghat was 46, 18 and 24 kg grain/kg N, P2O5
and K2O respectively and correspondingly averaged 51,155
and 23 kg grain for HYVs. The results suggest a highly
imbalanced uptake of K in relation to a highly imbalanced
uptake of K in relation to N at different farmers fields of
Ghaghraghat.

Variations in nutrient concentration for Variations in soil characteristics for

Standard Standard
Parameters Hybrid HYV
deviation deviation
Min Max Average Min Max Average
pH 7.8 8.7 8.1 0.2 7.8 8.7 8.3 1.6
SOC% 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.1
Avail. N(kg/ha) 104 232 168 46.3 109 230 146 48.8

577
 Avail.P2O5 (kg/ha) 8.4 25.1 15.4 6.9 8.6 22.2 12.6 6.1
Avail.K2O (kg/ha) 148.0 245.0 182.4 34.0 155.0 249.0 178.4 43.4

Table 2 Grain and straw yield variations between

Variations in yield for Hybrid Standard Variations in yield for HYV Standard
Parameters
Min Max Average deviation Min Max Average deviation
Grain(t/ha) 3.2 4.2 3.7 0.3 2.1 3.2 2.6 0.2
Straw(t/ha) 4.2 5.8 5.1 0.5 3.1 4.6 3.8 0.3
Table 3 Nutrient concentration among the genotypes
Variations in nutrient concentration for Hybrid Variations in nutrient concentration for HYV
Nutrients
Grain Straw Grain Straw
N(%) 1.41 0.55 1.25 0.43
P(%) 0.36 0.13 0.44 0.13
K(%) 0.47 2.34 0.43 2.38
Table 4 Nutrient uptake and harvest index during
Hybrid HYV
Nutrients Uptake (kg/ha) Uptake (kg/ha)
Grain Straw NHI (%) Grain Straw NHI (%)
N 53.1 27.8 65.6 33.8 18.2 65.0
P2O5 13.3 6.6 66.8 12.2 4.8 71.7
K 2O 17.7 191.1 11.5 12.5 92.8 10.6
Table 5 internal efficiency of nutrients in hybrids and HYVs
IE(kg grain/kg) NR (kg nutrient/ton of grain) NUEI (%)
Nutrients
Hybrid HYV Hybrid HYV Hybrid HYV
N 46.3 50.9 21.6 19.7 40.0 53.0
P 2O 5 188.0 155.0 5.39 6.5 58.0 38.0
K2O 24.2 22.5 4.1 4.5 (-3) (-7.1)

REFERENCES cropping system. Journal of Indian Society of

Callens, K. and K. Gallagher, 2003. Incorporating nutrition
in Farmer Field Schools. Food, Nutrition and
Agriculture no. 32. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Bhandari AL, Sood A, Sharma KN and Rana DS 1992.
Integrated nutrient management in a rice-
wheat system. Journal of Indian Society of Soil
Science 40: 742-747.
Bharadwaj V and Omanwar PK 1994. Long-term effects of
continuous rotational cropping and fertilization
on crop yields and soil properties-II. Effect on
EC, pH, organic matter and available nutrients
of soil. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science
42(3): 387-392.
Filser J, Fromm H, Nagel RF and Winter K 1995. Effects
of previous intensive agricultural management
on microorganisms and the biodiversity of soil
fauna. Plant Soil 170: 123-129.
Hegde DM and Dwivedi BS 1992. Nutrient Management in
rice-wheat cropping system in India. Fertilizer
News 37(2): 27-41.
Jackson ML 1973. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of
India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 498p.
Kumar A and Y adav DS 1993. Effect of long-term fertilizer
on soil fertility and yield under rice- wheat
Soil Science 41(1): 178-180.
Mishra VK and Sharma RB 1997. Influence of integrated
nutrient management on soil health
and energy requirement of rice based cropping systems.
Oryza 34(2): 165-170.
Patel RB, Rajashekarrappa BJ, V iswanth OP and Shantaram
MV 1979. Solubilization and
immobilization of phosphate by some microorganisms and
P availability to plant. Journal of Indian Society
of Soil Science 12: 550- 556.
Subbiah BV and Asija GL 1956. A rapiod procedure for
estimation of available nitrogen in soils. Current
Science 25(8): 259-260.
Yaduvanshi HS, T ripathi BR and Kanwar RS 1985. Effect
of continuous manuring on some soil properties
of an Alfisol. Journal of Indian Society of Soil
Science 33: 700-703

578
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 579-582 (2015)
QUANTIFYING MAJOR NUTRIENT LOSSES AS RUNOFF UNDER AGROFORESTRY
LAND USE SYSTEMS IN EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA
LAHAR JYOTI BORDOLOI,1 BRAJENDRA2, ,B.P.BHATT2. BENJAMIN3 4 MEGHNA SARMA AND 5V V
SUMANTHKUMAR
2
DRR,Hyderabad, 2 ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region ,Patna,a, 1,3, 4ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
Umiam, Meghalaya 793 103, India,5 ICRISAT Hyderabad 1Corresponding author

ABSTRACT
In a field experiment major nutrient losses in agrisilviculture (hedgerow and alder based) and agrihorticulture (guava based) agro-
forestry systems (AFS) was monitored for five consecutive years (2002-05). Rainfall had significant positive (p = 0.01) correlation
with soil and nutrient loss. Significant (p = 0.05) monthly variations were observed for nutrient loss in different AFS. Irrespective
of monthly variations, organic carbon loss ranged from 1.09 ± 0.04 - 1.11 ± 0.10% in different AFS compared to 0.96 ± 0.06% in
control. Average nitrogen loss ranged from 172.0 ± 11.45 - 175.08 ± 9.43 kg/ha in various AFS as against of 169.17 ± 12.33 kg/ha
in control plots. Range of phosphorus and potassium loss was, respectively, 6.19 ± 0.63 - 6.49 ± 0.54 and 165.0 ± 11.45 - 175.08 ±
13.05 kg/ha. In control plots, loss of phosphorus and potassium was found to be 6.49 ± 0.33 and 169.0 ± 10.50 kg/ha, accordingly.

Keywords Humid tropics . Hedgerow intercropping . Alnus nepalensis . Psidium guajava

INTRODUCTION
The potential of using woody perennials has often been
emphasized for conservation as well as production in the hilly
terrains (Young 1989). Agroforestry land use has been found
ecologically and economically viable in mountain villages of
India including humid tropics of Eastern Himalaya (Puri and
Nair 2004). Although many research reports are available on
production aspect of various AFS in Eastern Himalaya, very
few findings are available on soil and nutrient losses, and
runoff in agroforestry land use systems (Bhatt et al. 2001;
Bhatt and Misra 2003; Dhyani and Tripathi 1999; Satapathy
2006; Jamir et al. 1998). Present investigation deals with
soil and nutrient losses in selected agroforestry land use
systems. macrophylla, Indigofera tinctoria and Tephrosia candida);
Soil erosion is one of the most common problems,
responsible for land degradation throughout the world
including Himalayan region of India (Borthakur 1992).
Rainfall and runoff induced soil erosion are particularly
severe in humid tropics, especially from the marginal lands
with steep slopes and poor soil structures (Ramakrishnan
1992). In Eastern Himalaya, increased level of soil erosion,
hydrological imbalance and over exploitation of forest
resources has resulted into reduced jhum cycle and thereby
sharp decline in crop yield (Sundriyal 2002).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Experimental site
The experiment site is located in between 25039/ 25041/
N latitude and 91054/ - 910 63/ E longitude. The altitude of the
farm ranges from 900 to 950m asl. The climate of the area is
humid subtropical with an annual rainfall of 2393.8mm. On
average, 90% of the total rainfall is received during April-
October. The mean maximum and minimum temperature
is 29.20C (June) and 6.070C (January), respectively. The
soils of the experimental area was sandy loam, phosphorus
deficient, acidic Alfisol (Majumdar et al. 2004).
About 10 ha of fallow land was taken up for
rehabilitation through agroforestry interventions in the year
2001-2002. Average soil depth was >1.0m and the slope
percentage of the area ranged from 6.40 to 6.75. Contour
bund was followed as a major tool for soil and water
conservation across the slope at a vertical interval of 3m and
also for gradual conversion of hill slope into terraces (Singh
1990).
Experimental details
Out of the 10 ha of area, about 1.54 ha area was
selected and divided into small plots, each of 500m2 area. In
all 33 plots were made to plant 06 hedge species (Cajanus
cajan, Crotolaria tetragona, Desmodium rensonii, Flemingia
Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis), and guava (Psidium
guajava) cv. Allahabad safeda with three replications for each
species in randomized block design (RBD). Hedge species
were planted as a thick row on contour bunds whereas, alder
and guava was planted on contours across the slope at 5m
X 5m distance from plant to plant and row to row. While
making the plots, care was taken to ensure similar slope
conditions (average 6.58), soil types and exposure.
Soil samples from all the plots were collected from
0 - 15cm soil depth using screw type auger, and composite
samples were analyzed for soil pH, organic carbon and
nutrient status with five replications. Soil pH, organic carbon
and phosphorus in soil samples were estimated following the
methodology suggested by Jackson (1973). Soil available
potassium was measured by flame photometer and nitrogen
by the Kjeldahl method. Initial values were 4.45 ± 0.10,
1.65 ± 0.12%, 275.0 ± 6.50kg/ha, 3.20 ± 0.21kg/ha, 297.0 ±
5.94kg/ha, 0.51 ± 0.04meq/100g and 0.39 ± 0.01 meq/100g,
respectively, to soil pH, organic carbon, available nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Plant density for hedge species ranged from 773.0 ±
10.5 - 833.0 ± 12.5 nos./plot with highest to C. tetragona and
lowest to T. candida. In case of tree species, 30 seedlings
were accommodated in each plot. A uniform basal dose
of 500 g dia-amino phosphate (DAP) and 10 kg farmyard

579
manure (FYM) was applied in each pit (0.60 m X 0.60
m X 0.75 m) at the time of planting. Hedgerow and alder
plots were treated as agrisilviculture AFS whereas, guava
blocks as agrihorticulture AFS. Three plots were left for sole
cropping to serve as control. The soil retained was collected
and dried to estimate soil loss from the contributing plot.
Representative samples of the eroded soil collected in the
filter type silter were taken for nutrient analysis. Rainfall,
and maximum and minimum temperature was also recorded
at experimental site (Fig. 2) besides soil moisture in each
land use (Fig. 3).
RESULTS
Temperature, rainfall and soil moisture
Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature has been
found to vary from 21.750C in January to 29.200C in June.
Mean temperature was consistent during June to September
and decreased thereafter. Similar trend was observed in
case of monthly mean of minimum daily temperature also,
with values in the range of 6.070C in January to 20.910C in
August (Fig. 2). The annual rainfall during the period of
experiments was recorded to be 2393.80 ± 112.60mm with
maximum monthly rainfall of 495.8 ± 35.64mm in May in
all the five years. On average, precipitation occurred only
during June to October at experimental site.
Status of nutrients in different land use systems
There was significant (p = 0.05) increase in soil
nutrients, particularly in organic carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium compared to initial values.
Significant variations (p = 0.05) were observed for soil
pH in different land use systems (Table 1). Compared to
control, significantly (p = 0.05) higher organic carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
was recorded in different AFS. Although, different AFS did
not exhibit significant variations for nutrients, highest build
up of organic carbon (3.42 ± 0.21%), phosphorus (97.39
± 0.41 kg/ha) and magnesium (0.71 ± 0.07 kg/ha) was
recorded in agrisilvi system (hedgerow based) compared
to others. Nitrogen and potassium was recorded highest in
alder based system (562.0 ± 46.54 kg/ha and 403.0 ± 28.32
kg/ha, respectively) whereas, Ca was highest (2.11 ± 0.10
meq/100g) in agrihorti system. Phosphorus content differed
significantly (p = 0.05) between different land use systems
including control.
Carbon and available nutrients loss
Significant (p = 0.05) seasonal variations were
observed for organic carbon loss in different AFS including
control (Fig. 3). During the period of May - August, organic
carbon loss was highest (range 10.0 – 16.0%) in all the
plots including control. Carbon loss was significantly (p =
0.05) higher in AFS compared to control. Similar to organic
carbon, significant (p = 0.05) seasonal variations were found
in nutrient loss in all the systems (Fig. 4-6). Inter-comparing
nutrient loss between systems, no significant variations were
observed, however, maximum nitrogen (175.08 ± 9.43 kg/
ha) and potassium (175.08 ± 11.20 kg/ha) loss occurred in
alder based AFS. Phosphorus loss was, however, highest
in agrihorticulture and control plots (6.49 ± 1.24 kg/ha).
Rainfall had significant (p = 0.01) positive correlation with
organic carbon and nutrient loss in all the systems including
control.
Soil moisture
Soil moisture had significant (p = 0.01) monthly
variations in each land use. On average, soil moisture was
high during May – August and decreased during winter
months (Fig. 3). Hedgerow system retained maximum
moisture (31.4%, irrespective of monthly variations) into
the soil, followed by alder (29.4%) and guava (27.7%).
Compared to control plots, hedgerow and alder plots had
significantly (p = 0.05) higher moisture percentage. However,
no significant variations were recorded for moisture content
between systems (Fig. 8).
Conclusion
The initial experiments conducted over past 5 years
showed that contour hedgerow, alder and guava plantation
has significantly minimized soil and nutrient loss. In situ
moisture conservation was also higher in agroforestry land
use compared to control. Owing to short gestation period
and wide ecological amplitude, hedge species like C. cajan,
C. tetragona, D. rensonii, F. macrophylla, I. tinctoria and
T. candida besides A. nepalensis has a potential for some
improvement in traditional land use systems, e.g., shifting
cultivation in order to minimize soil and nutrient loss, in situ
moisture conservation, apart from biomass augmentation.
Acknowledgements
Senior author (B.P. Bhatt) is thankful to Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Govt. of India, New Delhi
for financial assistance in the form of research grant.

Table 1 Some important soil characteristics of the experimental site, Meghalaya, India
______________________________________________________________________
Soil Agroforestry systems Control
parameters _____________________________________ (without tree)
Agrisilvi- Agrisilvi- Agrihorti-
culture culture culture
(hedgerow (alder based) (guava based)
based) AFS AFS AFS
______________________________________________________________________

580
Soil pH 4.61 ± 0.10a 4.76 ± 0.09ab 4.92 ± 0.14bc 4.99 ± 0.11c
Organic carbon (%) 3.42 ± 0.21a 2.97 ± 0.19a 2.94 ± 0.26a 1.91 ± 0.16
Nitrogen (Kg ha ) -1
485.0 ± 23.50 a
562.0 ± 46.54 a
492.0 ± 37.32 a
400.0 ± 28.11
Phosphorus (Kg ha-1) 7.39 ± 0.41 4.48 ± 0.31 5.60 ± 0.28 3.50 ± 0.31
Potassium (Kg ha-1) 392.0 ± 23.54a 403.0 ± 28.32a 362.0 ± 31.39a 291.0 ± 16.85
Calcium (meq /100 g) 1.96 ± 0.11 a
1.57 ± 0.13 2.11 ± 0.10 a
0.65 ± 0.09
Magnesium (meq/100 g) 0.71 ± 0.07 a
0.55 ± 0.08 a
0.63 ± 0.07 a
0.38 ± 0.04
______________________________________________________________________

Between rows, means followed by the same letter are not significantly (p = 0.05) different
Agrisilvi (hedgerow based) AFS Agrisilvi (alder based) AFS Agrisilvi (hedgerow based) AFS Agrisilvi (alder based) AFS
Oct Apr Oct Apr
Oct Nov Apr
Apr
13% 14% 14% 14%
12% 12% 11% 10%

Oct May
10% 11%
Sep May Sep M ay
Sep May
15% 14% 14% 14% 15% 14%

Sep Jun
15% 14%

Aug Jun Aug Jun Aug Jun

15% 14% 15% 14% 16% 17%
Jul Aug Jul
Jul Jul
15% 15% 14%
15% 14%

Agrihorti (guava based) AFS Without tree (control)

Agrihorti (guava based) AFS Without tree (control) Oct Apr Oct Apr
Oct
Apr Oct Apr 12% 13% 14% 14%
15%
16% 14% 14%

Sep May Sep

Sep 16% May
Sep May 14% 14%
14% May 16%
15% 14% 14%

Jun Aug
Aug Aug
14% Jun
14% Jun Aug Jun 16% 14%
14% 14%
13% 15%
Jul Jul Jul
13% Jul 15% 14%
15%

Fig.Fig.1 1Soil
Soil available nitrogen
available nitrogen loss loss Fig. Fig.
2 Soil2organic carbon loss
Soil organic different
carbon lossland use
systems, Eastern Himalaya, India
Agrisilvi (hedgerow based) AFS Agrisilvi (alder based) AFS
Oct Apr Agrisilvi (hedgerow based) AFS
Oct Apr Agrisilvi (alder based) AFS
14% 14% Oct Apr
14% 14% Apr
15% 14% Oct
15% 14%

Sep May
Sep May 15% 14% May
14% 14% Sep 13% May
14% Sep
15%
14%

Aug Jun
Aug Jun 15% 14% Jun
15% Aug 16%
14% Jul Jun
14% Aug
Jul 14% 14%
Jul 14%
15% 14%
Jul
14%

Agrisilvi (guava based) AFS Without tree ( control) Without tree(control)

Oct Apr
Oct Apr Agrisilvi (guava based) AFS Oct Apr
14% 14%
15% 15% Oct Apr 15% 14%
16% 15%

Sep May May

Sep May Sep
15% 14% 15%
14% 14%
14% Sep
May
13%
16%

Jun Jun
Aug Jun Aug Aug
14% Aug 14%
15% 14%
14% 14% 13% Jun
Jul
Jul Jul 14%
Jul 14%
14% 14%
13%

Fig. 4 Soil available phosphorus loss Fig. 5 Soil available potassium loss

581
REREFERES
Bhatt BP, Singh R, Misra LK, Tomar JMS, Singh Matvar,
Chauhan DS, Dhyani SK, Singh KA, Dhiman
KR, Datta M (2001) Agroforestry research
and practices: an overview. In: Verma ND,
Bhatt BP (eds) Steps towards modernization
of agriculture in NEH region. ICAR Research
Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya,
India, pp 365-392
Borthakur DN (1992) Agriculture of northeastern region
with special reference to hill agriculture. Beecee
Prakashan Guwahati, India, pp 265
Konig D (1992) The potential of agroforestry methods for
erosion control in Rwanda. Soil Technology
5:167-176
Laxminarayana K, Bhatt BP, Rai T (2006). Soil fertility
buildup through hedgerow intercropping in
integrated farming system: a case study. In:
Bhatt BP, Bujarbaruah KM (eds) Agroforestry
in north east India: opportunities and challenges.
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
Umiam, Meghalaya, India, pp 479-490
Ramakrishnan PS (1992) Shifting agriculture and sustainable
development: an interdisciplinary study from
north-eastern India. MAB Series 10, Parthenon
Press, UK
582
Schwab GO, Fangmeier DD, Elliot WJ, Frevert RK (1993)
Soil and water conservation engineering. John
Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 68-90
Semwal RL, Maikhuri RK (1996) Structure and functioning
of traditional hill agroecosystems of Garhwal
Himalaya. Biological Agriculture and
Horticulture 13:267-289
Sharma R, Sharma E, Purohit AN (1994) Dry matter
production and nutrient cycling in agroforestry
systems of cardamom grown under Alnus and
natural forest. Agroforestry Systems 27:293-
306
Singh G, Venkataramanan C, Sastry G and Joshi BP (1990)
Manual of soil and water conservation practices.
Oxford and IBH Co, New Delhi, India, pp 52
Yadav DS, Bujarbaruah KM, Yadav RK, Dhiman KR (2006)
Horticulture development in NEH region:
issues, potentials, challenges and strategies. In:
Bhatt BP, Bujarbaruah KM (eds) Agroforestry
in north east India: opportunities and challenges.
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
Umiam, Meghalaya, India, pp 375-396
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 583-585 (2015)
PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES FOR THE ROT ROOT PATHOGEN OF
ASHWAGANDHA(WITHANIA SOMNIFERA).
RAVINDRA PRATAP SINGH JETAWAT1, KAMAL SINGH1, R. S. RATNOO1 AND B.D.S. NATHAWAT2
1
Department of Plant Pathology, RCA, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
2
Department of Plant Pathology, RARI, SKNAU, Jobner, Rajasthan, India,
E-mail: jaitawat.ravindra@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted to study the Physiological Studies for the rot root pathogen of Ashwagandha in Department of Plant Pathology
,Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur during 2011-2012. This disease was observed for the first time at RCA and adjoining areas. The
fungal pathogens were isolated, purified and identified as Fusarium solani and Rhizoctonic solani and their pathogenicity was confirmed
on ashwagandha diseased roots. In-vitro physiological studies revealed that fungus grew well on potato dextrose agar and Malt extract me-
dia, both F. solani and R. solani out of five temperatures, maximum mycelial growth and dry mycelia weight were recorded at 25±1°C and
30±1°C followed by 35±1°C.The temperature range of 25°C to 35±1°C was found to be most suitable for disease development and pH 7.0.

Key words : Ashwagandha, , Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonic solani, Physiological,

INTRODUCTION

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE

as Indian ginseng, belonging to the family Solanaceae,
is an important ancient medicinal plant, used in the
Indian traditional systems of medicine, Ayurveda and Unani.
It is popularly known as Ashwagandha and Varahakarni in
Sanskrit, Asgandh and Punir in Hindi. Its roots, seeds and
leaves are used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicines. Among
the major constraints for growing this crop, diseases like
root rot caused by species of Fusarium, Rhizoctonia. The
incidence of root rot was observed first time in field of
Ashwagandha growing area of Southern Rajasthan, since
then the severity of incidence of the disease increased year
by year in the area. The causal fungus was isolated, purified,
identified as Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium solani.
Fusarium solani is a widely distributed soil-borne fungus
pathogenic to at least 111 plant species spanning over 87
genera . It causes root rot diseases on a wide variety of crops.
Rhizoctonia solani is also a widespread and destructive
fungal pathogen of many plant species. Different types of
disease symptoms like damping off, root, crown and stem
rot, sheath blight etc. are caused by the pathogen.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of disease materials, isolation and
purification of the pathogen
Diseased roots of Ashwagandha (Withania somanifera
) were collected from farmer’s field of Udaipur and Rajasthan
College of Agriculture, Udaipur. These were carefully placed
in clean polythene bags, tagged and bought to the laboratory
for isolation and purification of the pathogen. The cultures
were identified by comparing the morphological and culture
characters described in standard references Mordue(1988)
for Rhizoctonia and Booth (1971) for Fusarium and were
identified as Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium solani.
PATHOGEN-
Effect of solid and liquid media on growth and
sporulation of the F. solani and R. solani infecting
Ashwagandha:
The Richard’s; Brown’s, Potato dextrose agar,
Czapek’s- Dox and Maltose media were examined to
confirm their comparative suitability for supporting the
growth and sporulation of F. solani and R. solani root rot
pathogens.Solid as well as liquid media were used and they
were prepared with sterile distilled water. The medium in
each flask/Petri plate was inoculated with 5 mm circular
disc, cut from 7 days old culture. For solid media studies,
20 ml of sterilized medium was poured in sterilized Petri
plate replicated thrice, inoculated and incubated at 25 ± 2°C.
The growth was recorded by measuring colony diameter
along with two diagonal axes passing through the centre
of the colony. Sporulation was also recorded at the time of
observation when one plate fully covered with the mycelial
growth. For liquid media studies, 50 ml of the medium was
poured in each 150 ml conical flask, autoclaved, inoculated
and incubated at 25 ± 2°C. Three replications were
maintained for each treatment. After 10 days of incubation,
mycelium mat were harvested by using Whatman no.1 filter
paper. The filter papers were dried and weighted before use.
Mycelial mass along with filter paper was then dried till
constant weight in an oven at 60°C and weighted to get the
weight of dry mycelium. The average dry mycelial weight
was taken into account for comparing the growth of the two
fungi on various media. For liquid media, cultures contents
of one of the flask were diluted by adding 90 ml of sterilized
distilled water, agitated vigorously, 0.1 ml of suspension
taken there from and spore population counter. The amount
of sporulation was determined on the basis of number of
spores present per microscopic field at 100 X magnifications
and was graded as follow:

583
 Number of spores/sclerotia per Grading
microscopic field
Nil Nil Absent (-)
1-20 1-3 Poor (+)
21-40 3-5 Good (++)
41 and above 5 and above Abundant (+++)
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES
ON MYCELIAL GROWTH AND
SPORULATION OF F.SOLANI AND R.SOLANI
INFECTING ASHWAGANDHA:
To study the effect of temperature on the growth
and sporulation of the two fungus, a range of 15 to 35±1°C
were used Sterilized PDA was poured in plates and these
plates were inoculated with 5 mm disc from the individual
7 days old culture each treatment was replicated thrice
and kept at temperature starting from 15 to 35 ±1°C with
the difference of 5°C. The observations were recorded by
measuring fungal colony diameter in mm when any one plate
was fully covered with the mycelial growth. Sporulation in
three plates was also observed by making slide-mounts on
lectophenol-anilin die and observing under micro scope.
For liquid media studies, 50 ml of the medium
was poured in each/50 ml conical flask replicated thrice,
autoclaved, inoculated and incubated at temperature
ranging from 15 to 35 ± 1°C. After 10 days of incubation,
the mycelium mat was harvested by using Whatman no.1
filter paper. The filter paper was dried and weight before
use. Mycelial mat along with filter paper was then dried till
constant weight in an oven at 60°C and weighted to get the
weight of dry mycelium. The average dry mycelial weight
was taken into account for comparing the growth of the
fungus on various temperatures.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
EFFECT OF MEDIA ON MYCELIAL GROWTH,
DRY WEIGHT AND SPORULATION OF THE F.
solani AND SCLEROTIAL FORMATION IN R.
Solani INFECTING ASHWAGANDHA:
To find out the most suitable medium for F.solani
and R. solani five different solid as well as liquid media
were tried and mycelial growth, weight and sporulation
were recorded after 8 and 10 days of incubation. The result
(Table-1) show that the R. solani and F. solani was able to
grow and sporulate on various media studied. Maximum
mycelial growth (90.0 mm) and abundant sporulation of F.
solani was noticed on Potato dextrose agar medium, Maltose
medium and Brown’s medium followed by Richard’s and
Czapek’s Dox agar medium (87.00, 86.67 mm, respectively).
In liquid media, maximum dry mycelium weight followed
by F. solani was recorded from Brown’s medium (0.53
g), Maltose medium (0.40 g) whereas comparatively less
mycelial weight was recorded in Richards’s (0.22 g), PDA
(0.20 g) and Czapek’s Dox (0.17 g) medium. R. solani
showed maximum mycelial growth on Potato dextrose agar
medium followed by Richard’s, Maltose, Czakep Dox and
Brown’s medium (90.00, 89.53, 87.10, 86.93 and 85.27 mm).
In liquid media, maximum dry mycelium weight of R.solani
was recorded from maltose medium (0.57 g) and Potato
dextrose agar (0.43 g) whereas, comparatively less mycelial
weight was recorded in Brown’s medium (0.18 g), Czapek’s
Dox medium (0.21 g) and Richard’s medium.

Table 1: Effect of solid and liquid media on mycelial growth, dry weight of Fusarium solani and Rhizoctonia solani.
Fusarium solani Rhizoctonia solani
Solid media Liquid Solid media Liquid
Media growth in media growth in media Sclerotia
Sporulation
diameter mycelial diameter mycelial Formation
(mm*) weight (g*) (mm*) weight (g*)
Maltose medium 90.0 0.4 +++ 87.1 0.6 +++
Potato dextrose 90.0 0.2 +++ 90.0 0.4 +++
Czapek’s Dox medium 86.6 0.2 ++ 85.2 0.2 ++
Richard’s medium 87.0 0.2 ++ 89.5 0.3 +++
Brown’s medium 90.0 0.5 +++ 86.9 0.2 ++
SEm± 0.59 0.01 0.56 0.06
CD at 5% 1.88 0.03 1.78 0.02
CD at 1% 2.67 0.04 2.52 0.03
CV% 1.16 6.83 1.11 5.20
* Average of three replications, ** +++ = Abundant, ++ = Good, + = Poor, - = Nil

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON MYCELIAL maximum growth of observed at 30±1°C followed by 25 and

GROWTH, DRY WEIGHT AND SPORULATION
OF THE F. solani AND SCLEROTIAL
FORMATION IN R. solani INFECTING
ASHWAGANDHA:
The temperature range from 15-35°C was tested
for growth and sporulation of F. solani and R. solani. The
35±1°C, whereas significantly least growth was recorded at
15±1°C followed by at 20±1°C. Aabundant sporulation was
also recorded at temperature ranging from 25-30±1°C while
fairly good sporulation was recorded at 30 and 35±1°C (Table
2). After 10 days of inoculation in liquid media, maximum
mycelial weight and sporulation of F. solani was observed
when flasks were kept at 30±1°C followed by 25±1°C,

584
whereas, significantly less mycelial weight was recorded from 25-30±1°C while fairly good sporulation was recorded
at 15±1°C. It was evident from data that the optimum at 20 and 35±1°C. After 10 days of inoculation was liquid
temperature range for the weight and sporulation of F. solani media, maximum mycelial weight and sclerotia formation
lies between 25 and 30±1°C. While in case of R. solani of R. solani was observed at 30±1°C followed by 25±1°C,
maximum mycelial growth was recorded at 30±1°C followed whereas, significantly less mycelial weight was observed
by 25 and 35±1°C whereas, significantly less growth was at 15±1°C as well as 20±1°C. Optimum temperature range
recorded at 15±1°C followed by at 20±1°C. An abundant for weigh and sporulation of R. solani lies between 25 and
sclerotia formation was also recorded at temperature ranging 35±1°C.
Table 2: Effect of temperatures on mycelial growth, dry weight of Fusarium solani and Rhizoctonia solani
Fusarium solani Rhizoctonia solani
Solid media Solid media
Liquid media Liquid media
Temperature (±1°C) growth in growth in Sclerotia
mycelial Sporulation mycelial
diameter diameter Formation
weight (g*) weight (g*)
(mm*) (mm*)
15 26.1 0.1 + 26.0 0.1 +
20 40.2 0.1 + 40.7 0.1 +
25 87.6 0.3 +++ 88.0 0.3 +++
30 90.0 0.3 +++ 90.0 0.3 +++
35 58.6 0.1 ++ 60.0 0.1 ++
SEm± 1.13 0.01 1.19 0.01
CD at 5% 3.56 0.02 3.76 0.03
CD at 1% 5.06 0.03 5.35 0.04
CV% 3.23 10.90 3.39 12.16
* Average of three replications, ** +++ = Abundant, ++ = Good, + = Poor, - = Nil
Fungi exhibit a great diversity in their nutritional growth of three species of Fusarium causing
requirement for their growth that are greatly influenced by wilt of Simmondsia chinensis. Annuals of
natural conditions and total quality of nutrition supplied Biology, 18 :161-164.
(Jadhav et al. 2000; Dhrmveer et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2007).
In the present study different media were evaluated, and Jadhav, N.V., Fugro P.A. and Sawant G.G. 2000. Effect
Semi synthetic media like PDA gave better growth then of media, pH, carbon and nitrogen sources
synthetic ones, which could be attributed to the complex on the growth and sporulation of Fusarium
nutrient present in PDA. chlamydosporium causing stem canker of okra
Indian Journal of Environment and Toxicology,
The mycelial growth of F.solani was maximum on 10: 81-83.
Maltose medium and PDA followed by Richard’s medium
whereas in the case of liquid media maximum dry weight was Liu LiYun Liu XiaoLin Liu ZhiHeng Wang FuMei Mu
obtained in Brown medium followed by Maltose medium for LiSong. 2007. The biological characteristics
R.solani PDA and Richards media were found best followed of  Fusarium solani. Journal of Shenyang
by Czapek’s Dox, Maltose and Brown media for its growth. Agricultural University, 38: 54-58.
Many workers have found PDA media as best for the growth Mordue, J.E.M. 1988. International course on the identification
of fungal pathogen in laboratory studies (Liu et al 2007).Also of fungi and bacteria of agriculture importance.
in liquid media studies, maximum dry mycelium weight was Commonwealth Mycological Institute, 69: 102-
obtained on Malt extract media followed by Potato Dextrose 116.
medium. The results of current studies indicates that out of
five temperatures, the maximum growth of F. solani was
recorded at 30±1°C and 25±1°C followed by 35±1°C and
maximum mycelium weight were recorded at 30 ± 1°C
followed by 25 ± 1°C and 15±1°C. Whereas the maximum
growth of R.solani was recorded at 30±1°C and 25±1°C
followed by 35±1°C and maximum mycelium weight were
recorded at 30 ± 1°C followed by 25 ± 1°C and 15±1°C,
results are expected as these Ashwadandha is a kharif season
crop where the ambient temperatures are in similar range.

REFERENCES
Booth,C. 1971. The genus Fusarium. Commonwealyh
Mycological Institute, Kew, England.16pp.
Dharamveer., Champawat, R.S. and Singh, J. 2002. Effect
of different media, tempearatures and pH on

585
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 586-593 (2015)
GENERATION MEAN ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE TRAITS IN RESTORER LINES OF
RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.)
RAZIA SULTANA*1, N.A. ANSARI2, M.S. RAMESHA3, A. SIVA SANKAR4 AND K. MURALI KRISHNA2
1
Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Prof. Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University
(Formerly part of Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, Telangana state, India.
2
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Prof. Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana state, India.
3
Senior scientist-IRRI, IRRI-South Asia hub, ICRISAT campus, Patancheru, Hyderabad-502 324, Telangana state, India.
4
Department of Crop Physiology, College of Agriculture, Prof. Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, Telangana state, India.

ABSTRACT
Gene action and inheritance of quantitative traits associated with good out-pollination, agronomic and grain quality in restorer lines
of rice was studied by generation mean analysis through six parameter model of Hayman. Eleven traits namely days to 50% flowering,
flag leaf area, plant height, number of panicles plant-1, panicle length, number of filled grains panicle-1, 100 seed weight, grain yield
plant-1, kernel length, kernel breadth and kernel length/breadth ratio were studied in five crosses viz., BCW 56 / C20 R, BCW 56 / 1005,
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R, C 20 R / 1005 and DR 714-1-2R / 1005. The A, B, C and D scales are significant and epistasis was noticed for
all the characters in all the crosses except for plant height in cross BCW 56 / C 20 R, 100 seed weight in C 20 R/DR 714-1-2R and
kernel breadth in C 20 R / 1005. Grain yield plant-1 recorded dominance variance in all the crosses. Hence, heterosis breeding can
be exploited in all the crosses by crossing the parents with high yielding CMS sources for identifying heterotic combinations. Additive
and non additive gene effects with duplicate type of epistasis was observed for yield and quality characters like plant height, number
of panicles plant-1, panicle length, number of filled grains panicle-1, 100 seed weight, grain yield plant-1, kernel length, kernel breadth
and kernel L/B ratio in most of the crosses studied. Biparental mating, reciprocal recurrent selection and diallele selective mating sys-
tems could be exploited to obtain desirable recombinants having the characteristics of a restorer line with tallness, desirable flowering
duration, reduced flag leaf area and more number of fertile spikelets. In crosses BCW 56 / C 20 R and BCW 56 / 1005 biparental mat-
ing followed by selection will be desirable to utilize both additive and non additive gene action for number of filled grains panicle-1
and grain yield plant-1. The fixable gene effects namely additive (d) and additive x additive (i) gene effects were highly significant
for the traits days to 50% flowering in BCW 56 x C 20 R and C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R and 100 seed weight in crosses BCW 56 / C 20
R and C 20 R / 1005 and offer scope for improvement through phenotypic selection based on pedigree method in segregating gener-
ations by isolating desirable lines for the important floral, yield and quality traits for use as male parents in hybridization programs.

Key words: Gene action, quantitative traits, generation mean analysis, restorer lines, rice.
INTRODUCTION
Rice is a premium food grain crop and is often the
main source of calories and principal food of millions of
people. Though the green revolution has helped to attain
self-sufficiency in food grain production, in coming decades
the production needs to be increased every year by almost
two million tones to meet the growing needs of increasing
population. Moreover, with changing consumer preferences
and the demand by the export market, improvement in
grain quality has to convene with yield. Under the present
context of shrinking natural resources, climate change
and burgeoning population, the only choice is to increase
the productivity by enhancing the yield levels. Among the
many genetic approaches being exploited to increase the
yield levels, hybrid rice technology using three line system
appears to be the most appropriate, ecofriendly and readily
adoptable one. However, the extent of adoption of hybrid
rice technology to increase the paddy production has been
much slower than the expected due to several reasons like
marginal and inconsistent yield advantages, unacceptable
grain quality, inadequate profitability by cultivation of
hybrids at present market prices and higher seed cost due
to seed production difficulties. To increase the economic
advantage of this technology and for ready acceptance by
the farmers on a large scale, hybrid rice technology has to
be improved further. This needs concerted research efforts in
certain areas like identification and development of location
specific diverse parental lines (maintainers and restorers), to
study heterosis for yield, development of heterotic hybrids,
efficient and economic hybrid seed production techniques
and effective technology transfer efforts.
Most commercial indica hybrid rices have been
developed through the wild abortive (WA) cytoplasmic
male sterility (CMS) system, maintainer (B) and restorer (R)
lines. The fertility of WA type CMS line, the most widely
used source, is generally restored by various IR varieties
and strains (Virmani et al., 1986) with 20-30% heterosis
for grain yield (Huang et al., 1984). Effective and diverse
restorer lines are necessary to exploit heterosis. The higher
the genetic variability, the greater is the probability of
obtaining heterotic combinations since, heterosis is directly
proportional to Σdy2 where’d’ is the degree of dominance
component of gene action and ‘y’ is the difference in the gene
frequencies of the parents involved in the cross (Falconer,
1960).
Desirable restorer lines should posses good fertility
restoration ability, high performance for yield and yield
contributing characters, multiple disease and pest resistance,
good general combining ability, high pollen production with
high residual pollen and dispersal ability, and good grain

586
quality traits. Several elite IR lines possessing good combining
ability and strong heterosis were being discarded due to their
weak restoring ability and other floral traits associated with
out-pollination. Since, effective and diverse restorer lines and
CMS lines are necessary to exploit heterosis, improvement
programmes were designed to develop simultaneously both
the CMS lines and restorer lines. The concept of location
specific CMS lines to suit different agro-climatic conditions
was emerged to face problems like genetic uniformity and
genetic vulnerability. Identification of genetically diverse
restorer lines and developing heterogenous gene pool of
restorers for these locally adaptable new CMS lines is the
need of the hour and can be achieved through cross breeding
(Restorer x Restorer) and genetic male sterility facilitated
recurrent selection programmes (DRR, 2005). Cross
breeding (Restorer x Restorer) is adopted for development
of allo-cytoplasmic restorers (restorer lines which have
normal cytoplasm are called allo-cytoplasmic restorers) with
increased magnitude of heterosis through broadening the
genetic base (DRR, 2005).
The choice of an efficient breeding program depends
to a large extent on the knowledge of the type of gene action
involved in the expression of the characters being improved.
Application of biometrical procedures like generation mean
analysis helps in providing information about the type of
inter-allelic interaction and genetic components of variance
underlying genetics of quantitative characters. This helps
the plant breeder to systematically analyze the inheritance
patterns and plan for result oriented breeding programs.
Many reports are available on the nature of gene action
governing yield and its component traits in rice. Partitioning
of gene effects through generation mean analysis has not
been adequately tested for genetic improvement of restorer
lines in rice. Studies on the gene action and inheritance of
traits associated with flowering and yield traits of restorer
lines are very limited. Keeping in view the need to develop
improved restorer lines for utilization in enhancing the
magnitude of heterosis of rice hybrids, an attempt was made
in the present study to unravel the genetic architecture of
some of the important floral, agronomic and grain quality
traits in restorer lines of rice.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study was conducted using eight restorer
lines namely, C 20 R (collected from Tamilnadu Agricultural
university, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India), KMR 3 (from
University of Agricultural Sciences, Mandya, Karnataka,
India), BCW 56, DR 714-1-2R, EPLT 104, SC5-9-3, 619-
2 and 1005 from Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh, India) crossed in a half diallel mating
design to obtain 28 F1 hybrids during Rabi, 2006 in a
crossing block at Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh. In Kharif 2007, F1 hybrids were evaluated
and selected five crosses viz., BCW 56 / C20 R, BCW 56 /
1005, C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R, C 20 R / 1005 and DR 714-1-
2R / 1005 based on their high per se performance and gca
effects for floral traits (days to 50% flowering, duration of
blooming and residual pollen per anther), grain yield and
quality characters and diversity among parents for studying
gene effects through generation mean analysis. All the six
generations in each of the five crosses were generated during
Kharif and Rabi, 2007.
587
In Kharif 2008, the material of six basic generations was
raised in a randomized block design with three replications.
A row length of 4 m length with spacing of 20 x 15 cm for
parents and 20 x 20 cm for F1, F2, B1 and B2 generations was
followed. The F2 seed from each individually threshed F1
plant was planted in rows and a total of twenty rows (400
seedlings/replication) were maintained for F2 generation
of each cross. The backcrosses were sown in twelve rows
(240 seedlings/replication), whereas parents and hybrids
were planted in three rows (60 seedlings/replication). Single
seedling was planted per hill and the recommended package
of practices and prophylactic measures were followed to raise
a healthy crop. Data was recorded on randomly selected 10
plants from each of the parents (P1 and P2) and F1, 90 plants
in F2 and 60 plants each in B1 and B2 generations.
Eleven traits including days to 50% flowering (was
recorded on individual plants in F2 and backcross generations
as the total numbers of days taken for 50 per cent of the
panicle to flower from the date of sowing and on plot basis
in other generations), flag leaf area (cm2), plant height (cm),
number of panicles plant-1, panicle length (cm), number
of filled grains panicle-1, 100-seed weight (g), grain yield
plant-1 (g), kernel length (mm), kernel breadth (mm) and
kernel length/breadth ratio were recorded as per Standard
Evaluation System (SES) of rice (IRRI, 2002).
DATA ANALYSIS
Generation Mean Analysis (GMA) developed
by Hayman (1958) was utilized to estimate the genetic
components of variation. Scaling test was conducted for
testing the presence / absence of gene interaction. The
adequacy of additive-dominance model was tested by
calculating different scales followed by variances and
standard errors as suggested by Mather (1949) and Hayman
and Mather (1955). The significance of any one of the scaling
tests indicated the presence of epistasis. When the model was
adequate (when the scales were significant), the mean values
over replications are used for the estimation of the gene
effects by six parameter model proposed by Hayman (1958)
viz., mean (m), additive gene effects (d), dominance gene
effects (h) and three types of non-allelic gene interactions
viz., additive × additive (i), additive × dominance (j) and
dominance × dominance (l). Variance and standard error of
each estimates was calculated to test the significance of the
calculated gene effects by ‘t’ test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analyses of variance for the five crosses for
eleven characters (floral, yield and grain quality traits) are
presented in Table 1. The analysis of variance revealed
significant differences among the generations for various
characters in all the five crosses except for kernel L/B ratio in
cross BCW 56 / 1005 and plant height in cross C 20 R / 1005.
Since the differences between different generation means
were found to be non-significant for these two characters,
further analysis of these characters (i.e., kernel L/B ratio in
cross BCW 56 / 1005 and plant height in cross C 20 R /
1005) was avoided and generation means of the remaining
crosses are subjected to generation mean analysis to know
the gene action controlling the traits.
Results of the individual scaling tests (Table 2) were
non-significant for plant height in BCW 56 / C 20 R, 100
seed weight in C 20 R/DR 714-1-2R and kernel breadth in
C 20 R / 1005 indicating the absence of epistasis interaction
for these traits in the respective crosses. Thus, the characters
plant height, 100 seed weight and kernel breadth in the
respective crosses showed simple type of inheritance, while
epistasis contributed significantly towards the inheritance of
the remaining characters in all other crosses.
The study of gene effects (Table 3) revealed that
additive (d) and additive x additive (i) gene effects were
significant in the inheritance of the trait days to 50% flowering
in crosses BCW 56 / C 20 R (d = 4.35** and i = 13.74**),
BCW 56 /1005 (i = 7.37**) and C 20 R / DR 714 -1- 2R
(d = 5.83** and i = 9.71**) indicating the predominance
of fixable gene interaction controlling this trait, suggesting
that simple pedigree selection in the segregating generations
helps in identifying homozygous lines for flowering period,
a trait that is essential for better synchronization of flowering
during hybrid seed production. The crosses C 20 R / 1005
and DR 714-1-2R / 1005 were highly significant for additive
x additive ‘i’, dominance ‘h’ and dominance x dominance
‘l’ components indicating the role of both additive and non
additive gene action in controlling this trait. The breeding
approaches other than simple pedigree selection which can
utilize both types of gene actions help in recovering desirable
types in the segregating generations. In cross, C 20 R / 1005,
the ‘h’ and ‘l’ component is of complementary type which
suggest that improvement of flowering trait can be obtained
in the segregating generations. Similar results were also
reported by Hasib et al. (2002).
All types of gene effects i.e., ‘d’, ‘h’, ‘i’, ‘j’ and
‘l’ epistatic components were highly significant for flag leaf
area, a very important character of restorer line in rice. As
also the additive x additive and dominance played a major
role in crosses BCW 56 / C 20 R and BCW 56 / 1005 for
flag leaf area. Plant height, which is another important trait
of restorer line, is also under additive control in two crosses
viz., BCW 56 / 1005 and C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R. Hence,
as such these crosses can be utilized to derive improved
lines through selections in the early segregating generations
for plant height. While the cross BCW 56 / 1005 exhibited
significant gene effects for ‘d’, ‘h’ and ‘i’, components,
therefore biparental mating and reciprocal recurrent
selections which utilize both additive and non additive gene
actions can be utilized for improving this trait in this cross.
All the crosses exhibited duplicate type of epistasis for flag
leaf area and plant height. Similar results were also reported
by Ram (1994) and Hasib et al. (2002).
Number of panicles per plant recorded significant
‘h’ and ‘i’ epistatic components in two crosses viz., C 20 R /
1005 and DR 714-1-2R / 1005. Therefore, biparental mating
design followed by selections is suitable for improving
number of panicles per plant. The cross BCW 56 / 1005
exhibited significant non additive gene action and hence this
cross can be utilized for heterosis breeding. Three crosses
exhibited duplicate epistasis for this character. The important
contribution of dominance effect and duplicate gene action
for this character was also explained by Dhanakodi and
Subramaniam (1994) and Hasib et al. (2002).
The crosses BCW 56 / C 20 R and BCW 56 / 1005
recorded significant ‘h’ and ‘i’ epistatic components for
588
inheritance of panicle length. The ‘h’ component is higher
in magnitude than ‘i’ component. Biparental mating and
reciprocal recurrent selection can be utilized for exploiting
dominance and additive x additive type of epistasis. This
type of inheritance for panicle length was also reported by
Ram (1994), Hasib et al. (2002) and Verma et al. (2006).
Since in cross BCW 56 / C 20 R ‘d’ and ‘i’ components are
significant, selection can be done in the early generations
by spotting true breeding genotypes for panicle length.
Four crosses exhibited duplicate type of epistasis for this
character.
Number of filled grains per panicle exhibited
highly significant ‘d’ ‘h’ and ‘i’ type epistatic gene actions
in crosses BCW 56 / C 20 R, BCW 56 / 1005 and C 20 R
/ DR 714-1-2R. Since ‘h’ effects arising from non additive
gene action cannot be fixed in nature, heterosis breeding can
be exploited in the above crosses by crossing the parents
as male with high yielding CMS sources for identifying
heterotic combinations. Though, dominance ‘h’ component
was highly significant, the additive x additive ‘i’ epistatic
inheritance is equally significant. Therefore, alternately,
careful selections could also be rewarding to get homozygous
lines for this character from segregating generations. All the
crosses exhibited duplicate type of epistasis for this character
which was also observed by Banumathy and Thiyagarajan,
2005 and Murugan and Ganeshan, 2006.
The character 100 seed weight was governed by
both additive ‘d’ and dominance ‘h’ with highly significant
‘i’ epistatic interaction component in BCW 56 / 1005 and C
20 R / 1005. Therefore, reciprocal recurrent selection and
biparental mating in early segregating generation followed
by selection would be more rewarding in these crosses to
increase 100 seed weight. All the crosses exhibited duplicate
type of gene action. Similar results stating the predominant
role of dominance and epistasis for this trait was also reported
by Verma et al. (2006).
The dominance ‘h’ effect was more prominent
than additive ‘d’ gene effect in the inheritance of grain yield
which is ascertained by the non-significant nature of additive
genetic variance in most of the crosses. The crosses BCW 56
/ C 20 R and BCW 56 / 1005 recorded significant ‘h’ and ‘i’
type of epistatis. Preponderance of dominance and additive
x additive type suggests that one can expert to select better
lines in segregation generations after restoring to biparental
mating followed by selection. The greater importance of
dominance gene effect than the additivity for grain yield per
plant was also reported by Singh et al. (2009). The crosses C
20 R / DR 714-1-2R, C 20 R / 1005 and DR 714-1-2R / 1005
exhibited significant ‘h’ variance while, cross C20 R / DR
714-1-2R is governed additionally by significant dominance
x dominance (l) gene action besides dominance. The signs
of ‘h’ and ‘l’ were positive and are in the same direction for
cross C20 R / DR 714-1-2R and C 20 R / 1005 which signifies
complementary type of digenic non allelic interaction. Since
these crosses were selected based on highest heterosis and
heterobeltiosis for grain yield per plant and due to presence
of dominance and dominance x dominance gene effect with
complementary digenic inter allelic interaction, the parents
of these crosses i.e., C 20 R, DR 714-1-2R and 1005 could be
used as male parents against the CMS lines for development
of heterotic hybrids for grain yield.
 For the character kernel length, the crosses BCW 56
/ C 20 R, BCW 56 / 1005 and DR 714-1-2R / 1005 exhibited
significant additive gene effects (i) whereas, three crosses
viz., 20 R / DR 714-1-2R, C 20 R / 1005 and DR 714-1-
2R / 1005 exhibited dominance (h). Selection for isolating
desirable lines with good kernel length in the crosses
exhibiting additive gene action will be desirable, while
heterotic breeding will be rewarding to exploit non additive
gene action in the crosses exhibiting dominance variance or
else selection can be postponed to later generations when
dominance is dissipated for isolating homozygous lines. The
cross DR 714-1-2R / 1005 exhibited significant effects for
‘d’ ‘h’ ‘i’ and ‘j’ components. Therefore, biparental mating
followed by selections in the early generations will be useful
for isolating purelines of restorers for this character. Four
crosses exhibited duplicate epistasis.
Additivity is governing kernel breadth in crosses
BCW 56 / 1005 (d=0.11**), C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R
(d=0.21**, i= 0.47**) and DR 714-1-2R / 1005 (i= 0.07**)
in whose case simple pedigree selection helps in improving
this character. The cross C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R exhibited
significant additive variance with significant dominance x
dominance variance and hence reciprocal recurrent selection
and biparental mating in early segregating generation
followed by selection would be more rewarding in this
cross where additive and non additive gene actions could be
exploited simultaneously. All the crosses exhibited duplicate
type of epistasis.
Kernel length/breadth ratio was governed by
all types of gene effects viz., ‘d’ ‘h’ ‘i’ and ‘j’ epistasis
effects in cross DR 714-1-2R / 1005. Therefore, population
improvement programme followed by selection is desirable.
The cross C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R exhibited significant
dominance and additive x additive epistatis. Hence,
homozygous lines for this character can be isolated from
this cross by switching to biparental mating followed by
selection. In BCW 56 / C 20 R (d = 0.32**) and C 20 R /
1005 (d = - 0.43**) this trait is under additive gene action
and thus simple pedigree selection could help in isolating
desirable types from segregating generations. Three crosses
exhibited significant duplicate type of epistasis. Similar gene
effects were also reported for kernel length and kernel L/B
ratio by Hasib et al. (2002).
Table 1. Analysis of Variance of six generations for quantitative characters in five crosses of rice
S. No Source of variation d.f.
Cross 1 Cross 2
1 Days to 50 per cent flowering
Replications 2 5.37
Generations 5 61.98** 51.47**
Error 10 1.55
2 Flag leaf area
Replications 2 1.29
Generations 5 45.28** 74.08**
Error 10 1.57
3 Plant height
Replications 2 0.76
Generations 5 254.99** 241.21**
Error 10 0.96
589
CONCLUSION
From the ongoing discussion on gene action in
quantitative traits of rice, additive (d) and additive x additive
(i) gene effects were the only significant components for the
inheritance of the trait days to 50% flowering in cross BCW
56 / C 20 R, BCW 56 /1005 and C 20 R / DR 714 -1- 2R.
Additive (d) gene effects alone are highly significant for the
expression of 100 seed weight in cross DR 714-1-2R / 1005,
kernel 1/b ratio in crosses BCW 56 / C 20 R and C 20 R
/ 1005. These additive (d) and additive x additive (i) gene
effects are fixable and are most easily exploited by producing
homozygous genotypes. Hence, these traits in the above
respective crosses offer scope for restorer line improvement
through phenotypic selection based on pedigree method and
simple selection in the segregating generations. Further, the
study revealed non additive component of epistasis was more
important than the additive gene action in the inheritance of
most of the yield and quality characters like plant height,
number of panicles plant-1, panicle length, number of filled
grains panicle-1, 100 seed weight, grain yield plant-1, kernel
length, kernel breadth and kernel L/B ratio in most of the
crosses studied. Predominance of duplicate type of epistasis
as evidenced from opposite sign of (h) and (l) was also
noticed in majority of crosses which depicts non allelic
interaction. This type of epistasis tends to cancel or weaken
the effects of each other and hinders the progress made under
selection. Therefore, selection would have to be deferred till
later segregating generations where dominance effects are
dissipated. Population improvement concept may become
an amenable solution in autogamous crops like rice (Frey,
1975). Biparental mating, reciprocal recurrent selection and
diallele selective mating systems (Jenson, 1970) might be
profitable in breaking the gene linkages and exploiting both
additive and non additive gene actions to obtain desirable
recombinants having the characteristics of a restorer line
like tall plants, desirable flowering duration to match with
CMS parent in hybrid combination, reduced flag leaf area for
better pollen dispersal and more number of fertile spikelets
and grain yield.
The conclusions drawn from the gene effects for
different characters are based on digenic interaction model
assuming two genes in the character inheritance. However,
possibilities of trigenic or higher order interactions and
linkages among the genes governing cannot be ruled out.
Mean squares
Cross 3 Cross 4 Cross 5
0.55 4.96 4.87 0.25
65.87** 198.46** 123.90**
2.61 3.78 4.17 0.44
4.33 5.61* 2.15 3.82
24.96** 75.99** 80.99**
4.91 1.25 6.89 1.89
6.55 0.79 1.13 1.60
61.22** 4.80 85.31**
2.24 1.03 2.18 1.07
 4 Number of panicles per plant
Replications 2 0.01 0.04 0.08 0.02 0.07
Generations 5 2.67** 7.53** 11.66** 6.76** 11.25**
Error 10 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.10
5 Panicle length
Replications 2 0.80 0.12 0.31 0.54 0.11
Generations 5 37.10** 19.81** 13.21** 7.67** 8.22**
Error 10 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.79 0.36
6 Number of filled grains per panicle
Replications 2 5.92 21.89 12.45 53.18 7.01
Generations 5 1534.46** 4021.93** 891.64** 825.76** 2422.69**
Error 10 13.80 20.015 3.19 79.98 16.45
7 100- seed weight
Replications 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Generations 5 0.00* 0.39** 0.01* 0.42** 0.25**
Error 10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
8 Grain yield per plant
Replications 2 0.68 0.48 0.25 1.47 0.03
Generations 5 32.24** 173.26** 90.50** 34.84* 21.99**
Error 10 1.06 0.82 0.55 1.57 0.50
9 Kernel length
Replications 2 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.02
Generations 5 0.40** 0.21** 0.92** 0.15** 0.66**
Error 10 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01
10 Kernel breadth
Replications 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Generations 5 0.04** 0.05** 0.08** 0.17** 0.03**
Error 10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
11 Kernel L/B ratio
Replications 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Generations 5 0.22** 0.02 0.58** 0.34** 0.09**
Error 10 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01

Cross 1: BCW 56 / C20 R; Cross 2: BCW 56 / 1005; Cross 3:C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R; Cross 4:C 20 R / 1005; Cross 5: DR
714-1-2R / 1005 * : Significant at P=0.05 ** : Significant at P= 0.01

Table 2. Scaling tests for eleven quantitative characters in five crosses of restorer lines in rice

Scales
Cross combination
A B C D
Days to 50% flowering
BCW 56 / C 20 R -0.73 ± 1.47 -1.5 ± 1.70 -15.98** ± 5.33 -6.87* ± 2.86
BCW 56 / 1005 -6.93** ± 1.85 -2.43 ± 1.26 -16.73** ± 3.05 -3.68* ± 1.74
C 20 R / DR714-1-2R 3.87** ± 1.74 3.87** ± 1.74 -2.91 ± 2.50 -4.86** ± 1.59
C 20 R / 1005 -23.83** ± 1.53 -24.17** ± 1.68 -71.69** ± 2.22 -11.84** ± 1.57
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 1.00 ± 1.42 -1.37** ± 0.41 41.31** ± 2.15 20.84** ± 1.23
Flag leaf area
BCW 56 / C 20 R -5.35** ± 1.05 2.52 ± 1.30 -12.83** ± 2.10 -5.00** ± 1.14
BCW 56 / 1005 -1.56 ± 1.45 -5.63** ± 1.75 -31.26** ± 3.63 -12.04** ± 1.72
C 20 R / DR714-1-2R 5.53** ± 1.23 3.20** ± 1.24 10.52** ± 2.56 0.89 ± 0.87
C 20 R / 1005 -0.19 ± 1.57 -4.66** ± 2.00 11.92** ± 4.28 8.38** ± 1.89
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 2.50* ± 1.21 -2.81 ± 1.60 -1.54 ± 2.89 -0.62 ± 1.34
Plant height
BCW 56 / C 20 R -2.83 ± 1.82 3.72 ± 1.98 -4.53 ± 4.21 -2.71 ± 2.33
BCW 56 / 1005 -2.57 ± 1.86 -1.03 ± 1.65 -21.71** ± 4.19 -9.06** ± 2.29
C 20 R / DR714-1-2R 3.78** ± 1.16 2.98 ± 1.76 21.74** ± 3.26 7.49** ± 1.82
C 20 R / 1005 -- -- -- --
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 5.89** ± 1.54 4.32** ± 1.33 7.30* ± 3.53 -1.45 ± 1.88
Number of panicle per plant
BCW 56 / C 20 R -1.47 ** ± 0.50 -0.77 ± 0.41 0.18 ± 1.24 1.21* ± 0.59

590
 BCW 56 / 1005 -1.53** ± 0.58 -1.90** ± 0.55 -4.78** ± 1.29 -0.67 ± 0.64
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R -2.87** ± 0.49 -2.70** ± 0.37 -0.80 ± 1.42 2.38** ± 0.73
C 20 R / 1005 -1.60** ± 0.41 -1.50** ± 0.46 -6.24** ± 1.47 -1.57* ± 0.73
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 -4.80** ± 0.38 -2.17** ± 0.48 -14.87** ± 1.36 -3.95** ± 0.67
Panicle length
BCW 56 / C 20 R -2.44** ± 0.77 1.04 ± 0.79 -4.78** ± 1.22 -1.69** ± 0.66
BCW 56 / 1005 -5.50** ± 0.79 -0.15 ± 0.64 -13.06** ± 1.60 -3.70** ± 0.84
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 1.75 ** ± 0.74 -0.06 ± 0.55 4.98 ** ± 1.09 1.65 ** ± 0.58
C 20 R / 1005 -0.3 ± 0.64 -0.24 ± 0.70 4.40** ± 1.43 2.47** ± 0.72
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 0.24 ± 0.55 0.90* ± 0.45 11.21** ± 1.12 5.03** ± 0.55
Number of filled grains per panicle
BCW 56 / C 20 R -18.17** ± 3.07 -19.33** ± 3.47 -233.42** ± 9.79 -97.96** ± 4.60
BCW 56 / 1005 -56.27** ± 4.97 -29.53** ± 5.57 -350.13** ± 14.96 -132.17** ± 6.39
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R -5.27 ± 3.98 1.23 ± 1.85 -89.02 ** ± 7.80 -42.49 ** ± 3.68
C 20 R / 1005 -9.43** ± 3.13 -5.73* ± 2.30 67.51** ± 15.70 41.34** ± 7.73
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 1.7 ± 2.51 16.87** ± 3.38 69.64** ± 13.28 25.54** ± 6.82
100 seed weight
BCW 56 / C 20 R -0.10* ± 0.05 -0.02 ± 0.03 -0.18 ± 0.11 -0.03 ± 0.05
BCW 56 / 1005 -0.01 ± 0.05 0.11 ± 0.08 -0.30 ** ± 0.11 -0.20 ** ± 0.07
20 R / DR 714-1-2R -0.02 ± 0.03 0.00 ± 0.03 -0.07 ± 0.09 -0.03 ± 0.04
C 20 R / 1005 0.06 ± 0.04 -0.20** ± 0.05 -1.01** ± 0.10 -0.44** ± 0.05
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 0.06* ± 0.03 0.09 ± 0.07 0.15 ± 0.10 0.00 ± 0.06
Kernel length
BCW 56 / C 20 R -0.11 ± 0.10 0.24 * ± 0.10 0.25 ± 0.22 0.06 ± 0.11
BCW 56 / 1005 -0.30** ± 0.11 0.00 ± 0.10 0.04 ± 0.23 0.17 ± 0.10
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 0.10 ± 0.09 0.09 ± 0.15 -0.34 ± 0.20 -0.26** ± 0.10
C 20 R / 1005 -0.37** ± 0.06 -0.08 ± 0.07 -0.97** ± 0.15 -0.26** ± 0.06
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 0.34** ± 0.01 0.04 ± 0.01 -0.53* ± 0.05 -0.46** ± 0.01
Kernel breadth
BCW 56 / C 20 R -0.07 ± 0.05 -0.06 ± 0.04 0.06 ± 0.10 0.10* ± 0.04
BCW 56 / 1005 0.01 ± 0.04 0.14** ± 0.05 0.25** ± 0.10 0.05 ± 0.04
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R -0.05 ± 0.05 -0.03 ± 0.05 0.40** ± 0.09 0.24** ± 0.04
C 20 R / 1005 -0.01 ± 0.04 0.10 ± 0.05 0.06 ± 0.12 -0.02 ± 0.05
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 0.00 ± 0.04 0.07 ± 0.04 0.47** ± 0.10 0.20** ± 0.04
Kernel l/b ratio
BCW 56 / C 20 R 0.02 ± 0.08 0.15* ± 0.06 0.03 ± 0.14 -0.07 ± 0.07
BCW 56 / 1005 -- -- -- --
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 0.07 ± 0.07 0.07 ± 0.12 -0.67** ± 0.14 -0.41** ± 0.08
C 20 R / 1005 -0.16** ± 0.04 -0.23** ± 0.08 -0.54** ± 0.15 -0.08 ± 0.06
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 0.16* ± 0.07 -0.09 ± 0.08 -0.94** ± 0.19 -0.50** ± 0.08
Grain yield per plant
BCW 56 / C 20 R -6.01 ** ± 1.18 - 4.99 ** ± 1.10 -30.09 ** ± 2.75 -9.55 ** ± 1.26
BCW 56 / 1005 -11.78** ± 2.11 -7.75** ± 2.10 -57.22** ± 4.16 -18.84** ± 1.49
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R -8.13 ** ± 1.22 -6.80 ** ± 0.76 -17.45 ** ± 2.78 -1.26 ± 1.48
C 20 R / 1005 -3.97** ± 1.06 -3.78** ± 1.15 -8.63* ± 4.31 -0.44 ± 2.18
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 -6.27** ± 0.72 1.72 ± 1.14 -9.74** ± 3.07 -2.59 ± 1.55
* : Significant at P=0.05 ** : Significant at P= 0.01

Table 3. Estimation of gene effects for eleven quantitative characters in five crosses of restorer lines in rice
Gene Effect
Cross combination Type of epistasis
m d h i j l
Days to 50% flowering
BCW 56 / C 20 R 99.06** ± 1.32 4.35** ± 1.08 5.91 ± 5.73 13.74** ± 5.80 0.38 ± 1.10 -11.51 ± 6.87 Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 100.00* ± 0.70 0.65 ± 1.03 -0.33 ± 3.54 7.37* ± 3.49 -2.25* ± 1.04 2.00 ± 5.14 Duplicate
C 20 R / DR714-1-2R 93.49** ± 0.58 5.83** ± 1.10 2.88 ± 3.22 9.71** ± 3.19 0.47 ± 1.13 -16.51 ± 5.06 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 85.41** ± 0.55 -0.9 ± 1.13 22.22** ± 3.15 23.69** ± 3.15 0.17 ± 1.13 24.31** ± 5.02 Complementary
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 111.18** ± 0.51 -5.25** ± 0.68 -37.38** ± 2.48 -41.68** ± 2.46 1.18** ± 0.73 42.04** ± 3.47 Duplicate
Flag leaf area

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BCW 56 / C 20 R 20.28** ± 0.45 0.38 ± 0.69 9.32** ± 2.34 10.00** ± 2.27 -3.93** ± 0.79 -7.17* ± 3.47 Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 25.22** ± 0.77 0.95 ± 0.77 31.67** ± 3.57 24.07** ± 3.44 2.04 ± 1.04 -16.88** ± 4.76 Duplicate
C 20 R / DR714-1-2R 23.45** ± 0.38 1.48** ± 0.42 2.54 ± 2.03 -1.79 ± 1.75 1.16* ± 0.55 -6.94* ± 3.06 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 28.35** ± 0.86 -3.44** ± 0.77 -15.32** ± 3.99 -16.77** ± 3.78 2.23* ± 1.02 21.62** ± 5.27 Duplicate
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 25.25** ± 0.59 -3.34** ± 0.66 3.85 ± 2.81 1.23 ± 2.69 2.66** ±-0.92 - 0.94 ± 3.90 Duplicate
Plant height
BCW 56 / C 20 R -- -- -- -- -- -- --
BCW 56 / 1005 92.12** ± 1.00 11.47** ± 1.13 14.34** ± 4.63 18.11** ± 4.58 -0.77 ± 1.18 -14.51* ± 6.17 Duplicate
C 20 R / DR714-1-2R 86.50** ± 0.77 5.48** ± 0.96 -11.62** ± 3.67 -14.99** ± 3.63 0.4 ± 1.01 8.23 ± 5.03 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 85.68** ± 0.83 -5.66* ± 0.88 9.12* ± 3.81 2.91 ± 3.76 0.79 ± 0.96 -13.12** ± 5.00 Duplicate
Number of panicle per plant
BCW 56 / C 20 R 6.74 ** ± 0.27 -0.48* ± 0.23 0.06 ± 1.22 -2.4 1* ± 1.18 -0.35 ± 0.26 4.64** ± 1.54 Complementary
BCW 56 / 1005 7.06** ± 0.28 -0.78* ± 0.30 5.24** ± 1.31 1.34 ± 1.28 0.18 ± 0.36 2.09 ± 1.77 Complementary
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 9.13** ± 0.34 -1.82** ± 0.27 -0.77 ± 1.48 -4.77** ± 1.47 -0.08 ± 0.29 10.33** ± 1.77 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 6.69** ± 0.35 -0.88** ± 0.23 6.78** ± 1.49 3.14* ± 1.47 -0.05 ± 0.28 -0.04 ± 1.74 Duplicate
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 6.37** ± 0.32 -0.42 ± 0.22 11.73** ± 1.36 7.90** ± 1.34 -1.32** ± 0.27 -0.93 ± 1.62 Duplicate
Panicle length
BCW 56 / C 20 R 20.62** ± 0.24 3.46** ± 0.45 4.57** ± 1.38 3.38* ± 1.32 -1.74** ± 0.52 -1.98 ± 2.18 Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 20.81** ± 0.36 0.73 ± 0.43 9.53** ± 1.72 7.41** ± 1.69 -2.68** ± 0.48 -1.76 ± 2.34 Duplicate
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 21.18** ± 0.22 -0.95* ± 0.38 0.83 ± 1.20 -3.29** ± 1.16 0.91* ± 0.43 1.61 ± 1.86 Complementary
C 20 R / 1005 19.99** ± 0.31 -1.82** ± 0.38 -2.79 ± 1.49 -4.94** ± 1.44 -0.03 ± 0.42 5.48** ± 2.08 Duplicate
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 23.92** ± 0.24 -0.27 ± 0.27 -7.18** ± 1.14 -10.07** ± 1.10 -0.33 ± 0.31 8.93** ± 1.57 Duplicate
Number of filled grains per panicle
-158.42** ± Duplicate
BCW 56 / C 20 R 49.34** ± 2.19 3.18* ± 1.39 200.52** ± 9.45 195.92** ± 9.19 0.58 ± 1.99
11.27
264.33** ± -178.53** ± Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 50.37** ± 3.04 -30.37** ± 1.95 290.13** ± 13.51 -13.37** ± 2.26
12.79 16.88
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 76.84 ** ± 1.69 13.88** ± 1.48 111.86** ± 7.62 84.99** ± 7.37 -3.25 ± 1.90 -80.96** ± 9.78 Duplicate
-82.68** ± Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 133.41** ± 3.82 -21.45** ± 1.08 -94.41** ± 15.55 -1.85 ± 1.80 97.84** ± 16.29
15.45
-51.08** ± Duplicate
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 114.31** ± 3.28 -44.32** ± 1.87 -67.81** ± 13.67 -7.58** ± 2.05 32.51* ± 15.25
13.63
100 seed weight
BCW 56 / C 20 R 2.26** ± 0.03 0.00 ± 0.02 -0.02 ± 0.11 0.06 ± 0.11 -0.04 ± 0.03 0.06 ± 0.13 Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 1.90 ** ± 0.03 0.45 ** ± 0.04 0.59 ** ± 0.14 0.40 ** ± 0.13 -0.06 ± 0.05 -0.50** ± 0.21 Duplicate
C20 R / DR 714-1-2R -- -- -- -- -- -- --
C 20 R / 1005 1.73** ± 0.02 0.59** ± 0.03 1.18** ± 0.11 0.88** ± 0.11 0.13** ± 0.03 -0.74** ± 0.14 Duplicate
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 1.88** ± 0.02 0.38** ± 0.04 0.16 ± 0.12 0 ± 0.12 -0.01 ± 0.04 -0.15 ± 0.17 Duplicate
Kernel length
BCW 56 / C 20 R 6.16 ** ± 0.05 0.36 ** ± 0.05 -0.01 ± 0.23 -0.12 ± 0.22 -0.18 ** ± 0.07 -0.01 ± 0.31 Complementary
BCW 56 / 1005 6.30 ** ± 0.05 0.23 ** ± 0.05 -0.15 ± 0.22 -0.34 ± 0.21 -0.15* ± 0.07 0.63 * ± 0.29 Duplicate
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 6.15** ± 0.04 -0.78** ± 0.06 0.43* ± 0.21 0.53** ± 0.20 0 ± 0.08 -0.71* ± 0.32 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 5.64** ± 0.03 -0.30** ± 0.03 0.97** ± 0.14 0.52** ± 0.13 -0.14** ± 0.04 -0.08 ± 0.18 Duplicate
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 6.28** ± 0.05 0.77** ± 0.03 0.86** ± 0.21 0.92** ± 0.19 0.15* ± 0.06 -1.30** ± 0.26 Duplicate
Kernel breadth
BCW 56 / C 20 R 2.46** ± 0.02 -0.16** ± 0.02 -0.08 ± 0.09 0.19* ± 0.09 0.00 ± 0.03 0.32* ± 0.13 Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 2.16** ± 0.02 0.11** ± 0.02 0.03 ± 0.08 -0.11 ± 0.07 -0.06* ± 0.03 -0.04 ± 0.12 Duplicate
C20 R / DR 714-1-2R 2.43** ± 0.01 0.21** ± 0.02 -0.44** ± 0.08 0.47** ± 0.07 -0.01 ± 0.03 0.54** ± 0.13 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 2.14** ± 0.02 0.07** ± 0.01 -0.33** ± 0.09 -0.41** ± 0.08 -0.03 ± 0.02 0.34** ± 0.11 Duplicate
Kernel l/b ratio
BCW 56 / C 20 R 2.52** ± 0.03 0.32** ± 0.04 0.04 ± 0.15 0.14 ± 0.14 -0.07 ± 0.05 -0.31 ± 0.20 Duplicate
BCW 56 / 1005 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 2.54** ± 0.03 -0.60** ± 0.05 0.69** ± 0.16 0.82** ± 0.15 0 ± 0.06 -0.96** ± 0.26 Duplicate
C 20 R / 1005 2.46** ± 0.03 -0.43** ± 0.02 0.07 ± 0.14 0.16 ± 0.13 0.03 ± 0.04 0.23 ± 0.18 Complementary
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 2.94** ± 0.04 0.26** ± 0.02 0.87** ± 0.17 1.01** ± 0.16 0.12** ± 0.05 -1.08** ± 0.22 Duplicate
Grain yield per plant
BCW 56 / C 20 R 8.55 ** ± 0.57 -0.61 ± 0.53 24.70 ** ± 2.63 19.10 ** ± 2.51 -0.51 ± 0.65 -8.10 * ± 3.48 Duplicate

592
BCW 56 / 1005 7.46** ± 0.61 -2.27** ± 0.85
C 20 R / DR 714-1-2R 16.24 ** ± 0.67 -0.44 ± 0.64
C 20 R / 1005 16.01** ± 1.04 -0.25 ± 0.62
DR 714-1-2R / 1005 13.98** ± 0.73 -4.37** ± 0.53
* : Significant at P=0.05 ** : Significant at P= 0.01
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of yield traits in rice. Crop Research. 30 (2):
202-207.
Dhanakodi, C. V and Subramanian, M. 1994. Genetic
analysis of yield components in short duration
rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties. Madras
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DRR. 2005. Genetic improvement of restorers and
maintainers for better grain quality and
increased magnitude of heterosis in rice. In:
Directorate of Rice Research Annual report
2004-05, Hyderabad, India.
Falconer, D. S. 1960. Introduction to Quantitative Genetics.
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Frey, KJ. 1975. Breeding concepts and techniques for self-
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Hayman, B. I. 1958. The separation of epistasis from additive
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Huang, Chen Seng, Ra hsuiung Buu and Chen Chang Chen.
1984. Hybrid variety of indica rice and its yield
potential. Journal of Agricultural Research ,
China. 33 (1): 1-11.
54.37** ± 3.43 37.69** ± 2.99 -2.02* ± 0.95 -18.15** ± 5.37 Duplicate
17.42 ** ± 2.99 2.51 ± 2.96 -0.66 ± 0.70 12.43 ** ± 3.77 Complementary
10.18* ± 4.39 0.88 ± 4.35 -0.09 ± 0.74 6.86 ± 4.97 Complementary
11.43** ± 3.14 5.19 ± 3.11 -4.00** ± 0.64 -0.64 ± 3.74 Duplicate
IRRI (2002). Standard evaluation system for rice (SES).
International Rice Research Institute, 54 p.
Jensen N.F. 1970. A diallel selective mating
system for cereal breeding. Crop Science. 10:
629-635.
Mather, K. 1949. Biometrical Genetics: The study of
continuous variation. Methuen and Co. Ltd.,
London.
Murugan, S and Ganesan, J. 2006. Generation mean analysis
in rice (Oryza sativa L.) crosses utilizing “WA”
cytosteriles. Plant Archives. 6 (1): 165-167.
Ram, T. 1994. Genetics of yield and its components in Rice
(Oryza sativa L.). Indian Journal of Genetics
and Plant Breeding. 54 (2): 19-154.
Singh, S., Pradhan, S. K., Singh, N. K., Singh, A. K., Singh,
P. K., Tyagi, J. P., Singh, V. N and Chandra,
R. 2009. Genetic analysis of agromorphologic
traits under normal and delayed planting in
rainfed lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.). Indian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 79 (12):
1036-1040.
Verma, O. P., Singh, R. V., Dwivedi, J. L and Prakash,
N. 2006. Genetic analysis of yield and its
components in rice. Oryza. 43 (1): 55-57.
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countries. In: Rice Progress Assessment and
Orientation in the 1980s. International rice
commission Newsletter. 34 (2): 143-152.
593
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 594-598 (2015)
EFFECT OF POTASSIUM AND ZINC DEFICIENCIES ON DRY MATTER ANALYSIS OF
GERBERA UNDER POLYHOUSE CONDITION
K MURALI MOHAN, H B KALBHOR
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Pune-411005, Maharashtra

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out under polyhouse condition at the Hi-Tech Floriculture and Vegetable Proj-
ect, College of Agriculture, Pune-5 during November-2011 to December-2012.The results of the experiment revealed that
K and Zn deficient treatments showed significantly inferior results in respect to green and dry matter production, nutrient concen-
tration of potassium and zinc and nutrient uptake of potassium and zinc in Gerbera over all nutrients application treatments.

Key words : Potassium, Zinc, Deficiency, green and dry matter production, nutrient concentration, nutrient uptake.

INTRODUCTION
The role of potassium and zinc for the better growth of
gerbera is well documented. The balanced nutrition and its
concentration in shoots at the time of flowering in specific
cultivars is an essential tool for obtaining the good quality
flowers. Recently zinc has gained key position in intensive
cropping system with diminishing use of organic manures
resulting in depletion of zinc from majority of agricultural
productive areas of Maharashtra. In this view, the role of
zinc in sucker’s production, leaf area assumes importance
particularly in gerbera crop. Zinc is an important component
of proteinases and peptidases enzyme system. Zinc plays
important role in biosynthesis of chlorophyll and production
of growth harmones (Hemantranjan and Garg, 1984). Das
and Sen (1981) studied the effect of N, P, K deficiency on
the uptake and mobilization of ions in Bengal gram. Scanty
information on the optimum concentration of potassium and
zinc in leaves and flowers of Gerbera is a major constraint
in yield and quality. Therefore, the present investigation was
carried out to determine the effects of potassium and zinc
deficiencies on green and dry matter production, nutrient
concentration of potassium and zinc and nutrient uptake of
total potassium and zinc in Gerbera.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present investigation was carried out under
polyhouse condition at the Hi-Tech Floriculture and
Vegetable Project, under the ICAR scheme Niche
area of Excellence for Protected floriculture and
Vegetable Production, College of Agriculture, Pune-5
during November-2011 to December-2012. The cocopeat
was used as growth media, which was acidic in reaction (pH-
5.8), EC (0.92 dSm-1), Organic C (48.76%), Total K (0.61%)
and Zn (102 mg kg-1). The experiment was laid out in
Factorial Complete Randomized Design (FCRD), replicated
thrice with five harvesting periods. The recommended
dose of Gerbera is 136-66-82 mg N, P2O5 & K2O/plant/
alternate day before flowering and 130-66-90 mg N, P2O5
& K2O/plant/alternate day after f low ering was applied.
Flowering was not allowed upto 100 days. After 100 days of
planting, five treatment combinations were normally applied
with all nutrients, whereas other five treatment combinations
application of K was curtailed i.e. without K was applied
and for another five treatment combinations application of
Zn was curtailed.
The polyhouse was naturally ventilated (GH-1) type
and UV stabilized 200-micron thickness polythene film was
used as cladding material. For maintaining temperature 50
percent shade net was provided in the polyhouse. The misting
system was provided for controlling the temperature and
humidity. The harvested parts of plants were air dried and
weighed and recorded as dry matter yield. Dried plants were
grind and the powdered samples were used for estimation
of nutrient concentrations. The concentration was multiplied
with dry matter yield to obtain nutrient uptake of different
parts of the plants. The disbudding practice was followed
for saving and diverting the food materials to the beneficial
parts of plants. The representative samples were collected
before and after flowering (100 DAP) with 10 days interval.
The collected samples were dried in shade and then hot air
oven at 650C for 24 hours and then grinded and used for
analysis. Potassium was estimated by flame photometer as
per methods described by Jackson (1973) and zinc by zoroski
and Burau. Leaf chlorophyll was estimated by calorimetric
method (Arnon,1949).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of K and Zn deficiency treatments on green
and dry matter production of gerbera:
The green and dry matter production of gerbera
plant was significantly influenced by K and Zn deficiency
treatments. Data on fresh weights of roots, leaves and flowers
of gerbera are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Data on dry weights of roots, leaves and flowers of gerbera
are presented in Tables 4, 5 and 6 respectively. Zinc (Zn)
deficiency treatment recorded significantly lowest green and
dry matter production as compared to all nutrients application
treatments. The results obtained were in conformity with
results of Das and Sen (1981).
Fresh and dry weights of roots increased linearly with
days for all nutrients treatment but rate of increase was less
due to K and Zn deficiency treatments upto 140 DAP and
suddenly decreased at 150 DAP. Fresh and dry weights of
root at 150 DAP was significantly superior over others and
interactions were also significant. DAP were not significant
for fresh and dry weight of leaves. Fresh weight and dry
weights of flowers at 150 DAP were significantly superior
over others and interactions were also significant.Fresh

594
weight and dry weights of flowers increased slowly from
110 DAP to 150 DAP due to K and Zn deficiency treatments.
However due to all nutrients application treatment both
fresh weight and dry weight of flowers were significantly
increased with DAP.
Effect of K and Zn deficiency treatments on K
content:
Data of K content in crown and leaves are presented
in table 7, flowers data are presented in table 8 and roots
data are presented in table 9 respectively. Due to all nutrients
application K content decreased with days in leaves and roots
but it was increased with days in flowers due to all nutrients
and Zn deficiency treatments. K content in leaves, roots and
flowers were reduced significantly from 110 DAP to 150
DAP due to K deficiency treatment. K content in leaves,
roots and flowers at 110 DAP was significantly superior over
others and interactions were also significant for K content in
crown and leaves, root and flowers of gerbera plant.
Effect of K and Zn deficiency treatments on Zn
content:
Data of Zn content in crown and leaves are presented in
table 10, flowers data are presented in table 11 and roots data
are presented in table 12. Zn content decreased with days in
leaves and roots but it was increased with days in flowers
due to all nutrients application and K deficiency treatments;
however Zn content decreased with days in leaves, flowers
and roots due to Zn deficiency treatments. Zn content in
leaves, flowers and roots were reduced significantly from
110 DAP to 150 DAP due to K and Zn deficiency treatments.
Zn content in leaves and roots at 110 DAP was significantly
superior over others, while Zn content in flowers at 150 DAP
was significantly superior over others and interactions were
also significant for Zn content in crown and leaves, root and
flowers of gerbera plant.
Effect of K and Zn deficiency treatments on total K
uptake:
Data of K uptake by Gerbera are presented in table 13.
Potassium uptake increased with days due to all nutrients
treatments. K uptake increased with days upto 120 DAP
but significantly decreased with days after 120 DAP due
to K and Zn deficiency treatments. K uptake at 150 DAP
was significantly superior over others except at 130 DAP.
Interactions were also significant for K uptake by Gerbera.
Effect of K and Zn deficiency treatments on total Zn
uptake:
Data of Zn uptake by Gerbera are presented in table
14. Zinc uptake increased with days due to all nutrients
treatments. Zn uptake increased with day’s upto 130 DAP
but significantly decreased afterwards due to K deficiency
treatments, while Zn uptake significantly decreased with
day’s due to Zn deficiency treatments. Zn uptake at 150 DAP
was significantly superior over others. Interactions were also
significant for Zn uptake by Gerbera. Nutrient uptake results
were in conformity with results of Das and Sen (1981).

Table 1: Fresh weight (g) of roots

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 21.50 22.00 23.70 26.80 30.50 24.90
Potassium deficient 21.30 21.43 21.50 21.60 21.50 21.47
Zinc deficient 21.00 21.20 21.33 21.40 21.50 21.29
MEAN 21.27 21.54 22.18 23.27 24.50
Control : 21 g
TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION
SE (±) 0.10 0.11 0.22
CD (0.05) 0.29 0.32 0.63
Table 2: Fresh weight (g) of crown and leaves

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 210.00 222.00 235.00 243.00 250.00 232.00
Potassium deficient 209.20 212.00 209.00 202.00 195.00 205.44
Zinc deficient 204.00 209.00 203.00 195.00 170.00 196.20
MEAN 207.73 214.33 215.67 213.33 205.00
Control : 200 g

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 2.36 2.64 5.29
CD (0.05) 6.76 NS 15.11
Table 3: Fresh weight (g) of flowers

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN

595
 All nutrients 53.20 128.33 220.00 283.00 316.80 200.27
Potassium deficient 50.40 107.93 148.66 148.07 156.95 122.40
Zinc deficient 49.80 92.13 134.57 137.40 138.60 110.50
MEAN 51.13 109.46 167.74 189.49 204.12
Control : 0 (Flowers were not allowed upto 100 DAP)

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.36 0.40 0.80
CD (0.05) 1.02 1.14 2.27
Table 4: Dry weight (g) of roots

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 4.20 4.40 4.70 5.03 6.00 4.87
Potassium deficient 4.10 4.20 4.20 4.30 4.33 4.23
Zinc deficient 3.70 4.10 4.00 4.20 4.20 4.04
MEAN 4.00 4.23 4.30 4.51 4.84
Control : 4.0 g
TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION
SE (±) 0.04 0.05 0.10
CD (0.05) 0.12 0.14 0.28
Table 5: Dry weight (g) of crown and leaves

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 33.50 34.33 35.40 37.20 37.80 35.65
Potassium deficient 33.00 33.20 32.70 32.00 31.00 32.38
Zinc deficient 32.50 33.10 32.10 31.50 30.80 32.00
MEAN 33.00 33.54 33.40 33.57 33.20
Control : 33 g
TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION
SE (±) 0.11 0.13 0.25
CD (0.05) 0.33 NS 0.73
Table 6: Dry weight (g) of flowers
TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 7.28 17.39 29.92 38.83 45.13 27.71
Potassium deficient 6.80 14.60 19.60 19.35 19.92 16.05
Zinc deficient 6.64 12.32 17.73 18.13 19.21 14.81
MEAN 6.91 14.77 22.42 25.44 28.09
Control : 0 (Flowers were not allowed upto 100 DAP)

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.15 0.17 0.34
CD (0.05) 0.44 0.49 0.98
Table 7: Per cent K content in crown and leaves

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 3.20 3.10 3.01 2.95 2.88 3.03
Potassium deficient 3.05 2.55 2.21 2.05 1.90 2.35
Zinc deficient 3.15 3.06 2.99 2.88 2.79 2.98
MEAN 3.13 2.91 2.74 2.63 2.52
Control : 3.3 %

596
 TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION
SE (±) 0.01 0.02 0.03
CD (0.05) 0.04 0.05 0.09
Table 8: Per cent K content in flowers

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 3.22 3.24 3.29 3.35 3.39 3.30
Potassium deficient 3.10 2.75 2.61 2.45 2.22 2.63
Zinc deficient 3.15 3.20 3.25 3.30 3.33 3.25
MEAN 3.16 3.06 3.05 3.03 2.98
Control : 0 (Flowers were not allowed upto 100 DAP)
TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION
SE (±) 0.02 0.03 0.05
CD (0.05) 0.07 0.07 0.15
Table 9: Per cent K content in roots

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 3.18 3.08 2.97 2.90 2.85 2.99
Potassium deficient 2.95 2.47 2.15 2.05 1.85 2.29
Zinc deficient 3.05 2.95 2.85 2.71 2.65 2.84
MEAN 3.06 2.83 2.66 2.55 2.45
Control : 3.25 %
TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION
SE (±) 0.01 0.01 0.02
CD (0.05) 0.03 0.03 0.07
Table 10: Zn content in crown and leaves (mg/ Kg)

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 105.20 100.00 96.00 92.40 88.00 96.32
Potassium deficient 95.23 80.23 67.33 55.10 43.20 68.22
Zinc deficient 90.20 65.67 39.00 26.10 17.00 47.59
MEAN 96.88 81.97 67.44 57.87 49.40
Control : 110 mg/ Kg

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.53 0.60 1.19
CD (0.05) 1.53 1.71 3.41
Table 11: Zn content in flowers (mg/ Kg)

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 115.00 110.00 125.00 133.00 142.00 125.00
Potassium deficient 100.00 105.00 110.00 119.00 128.33 112.47
Zinc deficient 100.00 79.03 45.00 39.00 28.33 58.27
MEAN 105.00 98.01 93.33 97.00 99.56
Control : 0 (Flowers were not allowed upto 100 DAP)

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.54 0.60 1.20
CD (0.05) 1.54 1.72 3.44

597
Table 12: Zn content in roots (mg/ Kg)

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 108.00 104.00 99.67 96.33 91.10 99.82
Potassium deficient 99.00 83.00 70.00 60.50 45.20 71.54
Zinc deficient 95.00 69.00 45.10 33.10 22.20 52.88
MEAN 100.67 85.33 71.59 63.31 52.83
Control : 113 mg/ Kg

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.52 0.59 1.17
CD (0.05) 1.50 1.67 3.35
Table 13: Total K uptake (g) by Gerbera per plant

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 1.27 1.55 1.93 2.22 2.42 1.88
Potassium deficient 1.52 1.25 1.25 1.20 1.17 1.28
Zinc deficient 1.20 1.35 1.45 0.97 1.37 1.27
MEAN 1.33 1.38 1.54 1.46 1.65 1.47
Control : 1.06 g

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.047 0.042 0.094
CD (0.05) 0.134 0.120 0.268
Table 14: Total Zn uptake (mg) by Gerbera per plant

TREATMENT 110 DAP 120 DAP 130 DAP 140 DAP 150 DAP MEAN
All nutrients 4.36 5.34 7.72 8.58 9.72 7.14
Potassium deficient 3.82 3.18 4.36 4.05 3.88 3.86
Zinc deficient 3.59 3.14 2.05 1.53 1.05 2.27
MEAN 3.92 3.89 4.71 4.72 4.88 4.43
Control : 3.48 mg

TREATMENT DAP INTERACTION

SE (±) 0.128 0.114 0.256
CD (0.05) 0.366 0.327 0.732

REFERENCES Jackson, M.L.( 1973) Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice

Hall, India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 498 pp.
Arnon, D.I., (1949) Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplast
poly phenol oxidase in Beta velgaris. Journal of Plant Physiology Terry and Ulrich. (1973) Effect of K deficiency on
24:1-15. photosynthesis and respiration of leaves of sugar beet. Journal of
Plant Physiology. 51: 783-786.
Das, B.K. and Sen, S.P. (1981) Effect of N, P, K deficiency
on the uptake and mobilization of ions in Bengal gram. Journal of Zoroski, R.J and Burau, R.G.(1997) A rapid nitric
Biosciences (3) : 249-258. perchloric acid digestion method for multi element tissue analysis.
Commercial Soil Science and Plant Analalysis 8(5): 425-436.
Hemantrajan,A. and Garg, O.K (1984) Effect of zinc
fertilization on senescence of wheat varieties. Indian Journal of
Plant Physiology 27(3): 239-246.

598
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 599-600 (2015)
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT PYRETHROIDS ALONE AND IN COMBINATION WITH
DIMETHOATE AGAISNT SEMILOOPER OF SOYBEAN
S.G.LONAGRE1,S.R.KASHTE2 AND D.N.INGOLE3
Departgriment of Aculture Entomology, Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104.
Department of Agriculture Botany, VNMKV Parbhani (M.S.) 431 402.
Department of Agriculture Economics, Dr.P.D.K.V.Akola (M.S.) 444104.

ABSTRACT
Field experiment on “Efficacy of different pyrethroids alone and in combination with dimethoate against semilooper of soybean.” was conduct-
ed during Kharif season of 2011-2012 on field of Department of Entomology, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola. The experi-
ment was planned in Randomized Block Design with gross plot size 4.5× 3.0 m2 and Net Plot Size 3.6 × 2.6 m2 with twelve treatments replicated
thrice with the object to study the effect of synthetic pyrethroids in combination with dimethoate on the incidence of semilooper of soybean. The
result revealed that Most of the data regarding semilooper on soybean at different interval after each spray was found to be non-significant
Treatment alphacypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003% + dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045%, dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.045% and triazophos 40 EC @ 0.06%
+ deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% were found significantly effective in minimizing the larval population of semilooper at 3 days after 1st spray.

Keywords: Efficacy, pyrethroids, Soybean, dimethoate, alphacypermethrin.

INTRODUCTION
Oilseed crops play an important role in Indian economy. + deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% and (Untreated) control. The
Soybean,Glycine max is one of the major oilseed crop. The present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of synthetic
soybean belongs to the family – Leguminosae, Subfamily- pyrethroids in combination with dimethoate on the incidence of
Papillionoidae, and the genus- Glysine, The cultivated form semilooper of soybean.Three sprays were undertaken at 30 days
is Glycine max L The first record of the plant is contained in after sowing at an interval of 15 days. Post treatment observation
the book ‘Pen Tsao Kong Mu’ (Materia medica) describing on population reduction of semilooper at 3, 7 and 14 days after each
the plants of china by Emperor Sheng in 2838 BC. (Sharma, spray. Population count of number of larvae per meter row length
2004) Soybean is reported to be attacked by 273 species of semilooper was recorded at 5 spot in plot. The data thus obtained
with an extensive rise in area under soybean cultivation. from above experiment was subjected to statistical analysis.
The pest problem has also been increase, severely minimize
the yield level. This crop is attacked by 88 insect species RESULT AND DISCUSSION
belongs to six different order and mites. Most economic
It is seen from Table 1 cypermethrin @ 0.01%,
injury caused by 25 insects belongs to order Lepidoptera
alphacypermethrin @ 0.003% , dimethoate @ 0.045%,
and Hemiptera. Now days everywhere there is a severe
alphacypermethrin @ 0.003% + dimethoate @ 0.045% , triazophos
problem of timely availability of labour in rural area for the
35% + deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready mix formulation ) @ 0.09%
application of plant protection chemical. In order to manage
were found significantly most effective in minimizing the mean
defoliators insect and to save labour, time and economics on
population of semilooper at 3 days after 1st spray, dimethoate @
plant protection there is popular practice among farmer for
0.045% at 7 days after 2nd spray and in triazophos @ 0.06% +
mixing of different chemicals. Hence to find out suitable,
deltamethrin @ 0.0028% at 14 days after 1st and 2nd spray were found
economical and effective combinations of insecticides
numerically more effective in minimizing the mean population of
against semilooper
semilooper. Results regarding fenvalerate 20 EC@ 0.01% and
deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% alone against semilooper are in
MATERIAL AND METHOD agreement with report of Singh and Singh (1994) reported its
Field experiment was conducted during Kharif efficacy against semilooper of soybean but combination
season of 2011-2012. Variety JS-335 was sown in the plots, on field treatment could not be compared for the want of literature.
of Department of Entomology, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Akola. To evaluate “Efficacy of different pyrethroids CONCLUSION:
alone and in combination with dimethoate against semilooper of
cypermethrin 25 EC@ 0.01%, Alpha cypermethrin
soybean.” The experiment was planned in Randomized Block
10 EC @ 0.003%, dimethoate 30EC@ 0.045%,
Design with twelve treatments replicated thrice. The twelve
alphacypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003% + dimethoate 30 EC @
treatments used in present study were consisting of cypermethrin
0.045%, and triazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1% (36% Ready
25 EC @ 0.01%, deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028%, fenvalerate 20
mix formulation) @ 0.09% were found significantly effective
EC @ 0.01%, alpha cypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003% , dimethoate
in minimizing the mean larval population semilooper at 3
30 EC @ 0.045%, cypermethrin 25 EC @ 0.01% + dimethoate 30
days after spray.
EC @ 0.045%, deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% + dimethoate 30
EC @ 0.045%, fenvalerate 20 EC @ 0.01% + dimethoate 30 EC
@ 0.045%, alpha cypermethrin 10 EC @ 0.003% + dimethoate
30 EC @ 0.045%, triazophos 35% + deltamethrin 1% (36%
Ready mix formulation ) @ 0.09%, triazophos 40 EC @ 0.06%

599
Table 1: Mean larval population of semilooper per mrl.

Days after 1stspraying Days after 2nd spraying Days after 3rd spraying
Sr.
Treatment 3DAS 7DAS 14DAS 3DAS 7DAS 14DAS 3DAS 7DAS
No. 14DAS
(**) (**) (**) (**) (**) (*) (**) (**)

1 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.40 2.13 0.60 0.06

Cyp 25 EC @ 0.01% 0
(0.71) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.95) (1.46) (1.05) (0.75)

0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 1.66 0.86 0.13

2 Delt 2.8 EC @ 0.0028% 0
(0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.87) (1.29) (1.17) (0.79)

0.13 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.46 2.06 0.86 0.06

3 Fenv 20 EC @ 0.01% 0
(0.79) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.98) (1.44) (1.17) (0.75)

0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.40 1.66 0.80 0.13

4 Alph cyp 10 EC @ 0.003% 0
(0.71) (0.75) (0.75) (0.71) (0.99) (1.29) (1.14) (0.79)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 1.73 1.60 0.13

5 Dim 30 EC @ 0.045% 0
(0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.75) (1.32) (1.45) (0.79)

Cyp 25 EC 0.01%+ Dim 30 EC@ 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.53 1.80 0.66 0.00
6 0
0.045% (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.75) (1.01) (1.34) (1.08) (0.71)

Delt 2.8 EC @ 0.0028%+Dim 30 EC 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.60 1.80 0.73 0.06
7 0
@ 0.045% (0.75) (0.75) (0.75) (0.71) (1.05) (1.34) (1.11) (0.75)

Fenv 20 EC @0.01%+Dim 30 EC @ 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 1.26 0.53 0.13
8 0
0.045% (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.79) (1.12) (1.01) (0.79)

Alph cyp 10 EC @ 0.003%+ Dim 30 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.30 1.26 0.46 0.06
9 0
EC @ 0.045% (0.71) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.89) (1.12) (0.98) (0.75)

0.66
Triazophos 35% + Delt 1% @ 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.46 1.00 0.06
10 (1.08) 0
0.09%(Readymix) (0.71) (0.71) (0.75) (0.75) (0.98) (1.00) (0.75)

Triazophos 40 EC @ 0.06% + Delt 2.8 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.46 1.00 1.26 0.06
`11 0
EC @ 0.0028% (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (0.71) (0.98) (1.00) (1.33) (0.75)

Control 0.40 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.53 3.73 1.30 0.06

12 0
(0.95) (0.75) (0.71) (0.71) (1.01) (1.93) (1.34) (0.75)
‘F’ test Sig NS NS NS NS NS NS NS -
SE (m)± 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.20 0.16 0.04 -
CD (p = 0.05) 0.09 - - - - - - - -
CV% 7.13 7.09 5.21 4.37 16.76 28.02 24.47 9.36 -
NB : Figure in parentheses indicates (*)√x value
Figure in parentheses indicates (**)√x+ 0.5 value

REFERENCE:
Sharma, R.K. and R.P. Chawla, 1992. Residues of Singh, K.J.,and O.P. Singh, 1994 . Persistent toxicity of
cypermethrin in chickpea crop. J.Insect Sci. 5 some synthetic pyrethroid and organophosphate
(1): 103-104. insecticides to grey semilooper and thrips on
Sharma, Sanjay and G. Krishnamurthy, 1998. Bioefficacy of soybean. J. Insect Sci. 7(2): 224-225.
some insecticides against insect pests of tomato.
Pestology 22 (12):34-36.

600
 Annals of Plant and Soil Research 17 (Special Issue): 601-605 (2015)
ENHANCING WATER PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH MICRO-
IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE
P. ASHOKA* KADASIDDAPPA M. M AND SANJEY, M. T.
* Scientist (Agronomy),
AICRP on Water management, Belvatagi (P), University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka State, Pin-582208,

ABSTRACT
India is the largest freshwater user in the world and the country’s total water use is greater than any other continent. The Agricultural
sector is the largest user of water, followed by the domestic sector and the industrial sector. As water demand from cities and industries
is increasing rapidly, pressure is also mounting on agriculture to enhance water efficiency. In intensive agriculture, both fertilizer and
irrigation management have contributed immensely in increasing the yield and quality of crops. Traditional irrigation methods are no
longer viable. The dominant method of irrigation practiced in large parts of the country is surface irrigation under which crop utilize
only less than one half of the water released and remaining half gets lost in conveyance, application, runoff and evaporation. Micro
irrigation (MI) methods like drip and sprinklers need to be employed for efficient distribution and application of water for crop produc-
tion. Drip and sprinkler irrigation is a solution that reduces conveyance and distribution losses and allows higher water use efficiency.
Drip irrigation has the greatest potential for the efficient use of water and fertilizers through fertigation. Hence, this present study was
undertaken to examine the yield using different irrigation and fertigation schedules by drip irrigation and to suggest the most efficient
irrigation practice. Comparison of normal furrow irrigation efficiencies with drip and sprinkler method with mulch and without mulch
yield of maize was noted. Both the efficiencies i.e. water application and water use efficiency, were maximum in case of sprinkler irriga-
tion system as compared to furrow irrigation system. Use of sprinkler irrigation during early crop season helped in saving water when
the soil infiltration rate was very high and need of water in the root zone was less. Using sprinkler irrigation system, 30.8% and 28.3%
higher water use efficiency and 21.1% and 9.0% more water application efficiency was achieved as compared furrow irrigation system.

Key words: Micro irrigation, water productivity and yield

INTRODUCTION
In India, both surface and groundwater are dependent
on the monsoon. More than 85% of groundwater is used
for irrigation. Thus, rainfed, surface water irrigated and
groundwater irrigated agriculture suffers from the vagaries of
monsoon. In world, India has the second largest net irrigated
area, after China. The irrigation efficiency under canal irrigation
is not more than 40% and for ground water schemes, it is 69%.
The net irrigated area in the country is about 61 m ha, which is
about 43% of the total ‘sown area. Although considerable area
has been brought under irrigation since independence; there
is much scope for its expansion in the future. Irrigation water
for agriculture finds competition from domestic use, industrial
and hydroelectric projects. At present, the efficiency of the
irrigation systems adopted is less than 40%. As such as 50% of
the water release at the project head is lost in transmission of
the canal outlet. Additional loss occurs in water courses which
is directly proportional to their length and duration of water
flow. Considerable scope exists for enhancing the water use
efficiency to bring additional area under irrigation. Scientific
management of irrigation water is necessary to improve crop
productivity and alleviate irrigation related problems such as
shortage of irrigation water, water logging, salinity etc. Even
all the water resources have been tapped for irrigation; almost
50% area will still remain rainfed. But, whether it is irrigated
or rainfed agriculture water holds the key for enhancing and
sustaining agricultural production. Since, sustainability and
enhanced productivity are the need of the hour; the focus has
to shift from crops to cropping systems that are more input use
efficient going with resource conservation technologies. Out of
the 250 cropping systems in India, 30 are the most common ones
and out of them, several are well fitted under drip and sprinkler
irrigation system. There is immense scope for conservation,
distribution and on farm utilization of water and attaining higher
water use efficiency through micro irrigation system; yield can
be maximized significantly with a limited amount of water.
Modern irrigation techniques like sprinkler and drip should be
promoted where water is scarce and the topographic and soil
condition do not permit conventional methods of irrigation.
Why Modern Irrigation Technologies are Needed?
• The productivity of irrigated land is low compared to its
potential
• The productivity per unit water is very low
• Water available for irrigation is becoming scarce
• Cost for generating water source is ever increasing
• The predominance of soils with low water retention capac-
ities and very low hydraulic conductivities make the arid
and semi-arid regions an ideal case for light and frequent
irrigations through micro-irrigation
• Micro-irrigation will increase the irrigation cover using the
existing available water
• Micro-irrigation with fertigation will enhance production
per unit input in these nutrient poor, shallow and sloppy soils
REASONS FOR ACTION
Conventional irrigation methods are employed for
more than 80% of the world’s irrigated lands yet their field
level application efficiency is only 40-50%. In contrast, drip
irrigation has field level application efficiencies of 70-90% as

601
surface runoff and deep percolation losses are minimized. All
agricultural operations require energy in the form of electricity,
the magnitude of which varies as per different agro-climatic
zones and even from farmer to farmer. The largest share of
energy is utilized for pumping of irrigation water. Various
research studies have shown that water saving, electricity saving,
irrigation efficiencies and yield of crops using drip irrigation
are substantially higher than crops irrigated by the conventional
flood irrigation method. The modern irrigation systems, drip
and sprinkler can act as a mitigation measure over this problem.
Eventually with little water available in Indian subcontinent,
crop can survive and we can virtually come out the over
dependency on monsoon. Because, whatever rain is available in
arid regions can be will be stored and water applied to root zone
with drip, will bring this region out ‘rain feed’ clutches with
increased productivity. The crops, area irrigated, productivity,
consumptive use, common method of irrigation and water use
efficiency (WUE), indicate that the highest area irrigated is
in the paddy crop, followed by sugarcane, maize, groundnut,
sunflower, coconut, arecanut, wheat and bengal gram. Flow
irrigation is the common method followed, while drip irrigation
is emerging as the innovative method for crops like coconut,
grapes, mulberry, pomegranate, fig, vegetables and off late for
close spaced food crops. The water-use efficiency obtained by
dividing the yield obtained per ha by the water used per ha, has
given the highest value for cabbage, followed by grapes, brinjal,
mulberry and banana. Thus, WUE is higher for fruits and
vegetable crops compared to cereals and pulses. Even in value
terms this holds good. Drip irrigation saves water up to 30% to
70% for various crops. Drip irrigation also improves the yield
of the 30% to 200% for various crops (Kadasiddappa M.M.,
2015). This assures good technology transfer and knowledge
tool in the hands of illiterate farmers. The water savings due to
widely spaced crop is 300 mm year-1 and closely spaced crops
like maize is 100-150 mm year-1 (Kadasiddappa et al.,
2013) and this water savings is directly proportional to energy
savings (Narayanmurty, 2007).
WATER SAVING AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY
IMPACTS OF MI SYSTEMS IN THE FIELD
The real water saving impact of micro irrigation
(MI) systems at the field level depends on the improvements
in water use efficiency. All the available data on the efficiency
impact of micro-irrigation systems are on application efficiency.
The classical definition of irrigation efficiency is the ratio of the
amount of water consumed by the crop to the amount of water
applied. The work of Sivanappan (1994) provides the data on
application efficiencies at various stages such as conveyance
efficiency, field application efficiency and soil moisture
evaporation. But in estimating water-saving, what matters is
the amount of depleted water, rather than the amount of water
applied. The depleted water includes moisture evaporation
from the exposed soil and non-recoverable deep percolation. It
would be less than the applied water so long as the unconsumed
water is not lost in natural sinks like saline aquifers or swamps
(Allen et al., 1998). This means, the application of the concept
of irrigation efficiencies is no longer useful in analyzing the
performance of irrigation systems, with a greater understanding
of agro hydrology and appreciation of deep percolation from
irrigated fields as a component of the available water resources.
The drip and sprinkler systems were first developed in the
groundwater-scarce Israel during the 1960s. This technology
is spreading to different water-scarce regions of the world,
602
including western and southern India and north China. In India,
drip irrigation was introduced in the 1970s. Drip irrigation has
been a success for citrus, orange and grapes in Maharashtra,
for coconuts in Tamil Nadu, and mulberry, coconut, grapes,
sugarcane and cotton and in Karnataka.
With continuous R&D efforts and engagement
with farmers, it has encompassed almost all crops, under
microirrigation technologies (e.g. drip irrigation, sprinklers).
Experimental results are also quite encouraging for water
intensive crops. The adoption rate of micro-irrigation
technologies is increasing and today nearly 4% of area out of
irrigated land is under micro-irrigation. To break the perfect
nexus of water-energy-food, this will be great boon, if drop by
drop water is provide to the root zone without wastage of water,
with great efficiency, saving electricity (or providing electricity
where there is no electricity by solar pump technology) and
producing more from less area or producing good crops where
it was only rain fed crop. Our ultimately objective is to increase
the productivity of the famers per unit area and per unit of
water available, adoption of technology to a large number of
farmers and increase the area under drip irrigation in India,
and expand to other crops, which are not currently under drip
irrigation through research and development.The results of field
level data pertaining to three crops viz., sugarcane, banana and
grapes are somewhat different from the experimental results.
The pattern of water use for crops is totally different between
the two methods of irrigation. The drip adopters have applied
more number of irrigation per hectare when compared to the
non-drip adopters in all the three crops considered for the
analysis. However, hours required per irrigation to irrigate
per hectare of guava, sapota, sugarcane, grapes and banana
are significantly less for the drip adopters as compared to the
non-drip adopters. Water consumption (in quantity) per hectare
is much less under drip method of irrigation as compared to
flood method of irrigation in all the three crops. Water saving
in sugarcane due to drip method of irrigation is about 44%,
while the same is estimated to be about 37% in grapes and
29% in the case of banana. Additional area can also be brought
under irrigation from the saving of water realised through the
adoption of drip method of irrigation. The additional irrigated
area possible from the saving of water is estimated to be 0.80
ha in sugarcane, 0.60 ha in grapes and 0.41 ha in banana. Water
use efficiency is also significantly higher in drip-irrigated crops
when compared to the same crops cultivated under non-drip
irrigated condition. Sugarcane cultivated under drip method of
irrigation consumes only 1.28 horse power (HP) hours of water
to produce one quintal of sugarcane as against 2.83 HP hours
of water under flood method of irrigation, i.e., about 1.55 HP
hours of additional water is consumed to produce one quintal of
sugarcane under flood method of irrigation. Banana crop under
DMI consumes only 11.60 HP hours of water to produce one
quintal of output as against the use of 21.14 HP hours of water
under non-drip irrigated condition. In grapes, each quintal of
output involves the use of just 13.60 HP hours of water under
DMI as compared to the use of 25.84 HP hours of water under
non-drip irrigated conditions (Narayanamoorthy, 2005). Higher
saving of water by drip method of irrigation to guava crop
was noticed with irrigation at 40% PE (17.16%) and 60% PE
(12.46%) over basin method of irrigation to guava crop during
mid growth stage (Table 1). Guava crop compare to other fruit
crops is adoptable to a wide variation in irrigation moisture
regimes and fertilizer levels during kharif, rabi and summer
seasons. Higher yields of guava can be obtained only when
crop is supplied with optimum moisture and nutrients (Khot,
2011). Pooled data indicated the superiority of higher as well as
moderate of moisture regimes (80% and 60% PE, respectively)
in obtaining higher guava fruit yields 162.44 and 163.59 q ha-
1
, respectively (Table 2) and sopota fruit yield indicated the
superiority of lower as well as moderate of moisture regimes
(40% and 60% PE, respectively) in obtaining higher fruit yields
2826 and 2512 q ha-1, respectively. Similar results were noticed
by Shelke et. al. (1999) and Shinde et. al. (2004). Excess
moisture i.e. 80% PE for mid growth stage of sapota crop
might have been resulted in decreasing the fruit yields. Excess
moisture i.e., 80% PE for mid growth stage of guava crop might
have been resulted in decreasing the fruit yields. In addition to
achieving higher fruit yields with 60% PE and 80% PE there
was 4.21% and 12.46% saving of water over surface method
(basin) of irrigation. Economics of gross income, net income,
B:C ratio and water use efficiency was recorded significantly
different due to moisture regimes and fertilizer levels (Table 3).
Guava yield, irrigating at 60% PE and 80% resulted in higher
gross income (` 81, 796 ha-1 and ` 81,221 ha-1, respectively).
Thus, higher net returns ` 43,934 ha-1 and ` 42, 109 ha-1,
respectively and B:C ratio of 2.50 and 2.29, respectively were
significantly higher over surface method of irrigation (Ashoka
et al., 2013)
Sprinkler irrigation systems imitate natural rainfall.
Water is pumped through pipes and then sprayed onto the
crops through rotating sprinkler heads. These systems are
more efficient than surface irrigation, however, they are more
costly to install and operate because of the need for pressurized
water. Conventional sprinkler systems spray the water into the
air, losing considerable amounts to evaporation. Low energy
precision application (LEPA) offers a more efficient alternative.
In this system the water is delivered to the crops from drop tubes
that extend from the sprinkler’s arm. When applied together
with appropriate water-saving farming techniques, LEPA can
achieve efficiencies as high as 95%. Since this method operates
at low pressure, it also saves as much as 20 to 50% in energy
costs compared with conventional systems. Table 4 and 5
reveals that, maize yield using sprinkler irrigation with 0.8 IW/
CPE ratio were 82.86, 88.10 and 90.53 q ha-1 during 2008-2011
respectively. The corresponding maize yield were 79.41, 87.73
and 81.60 q ha-1 with 0.6 IW/CPE ratio, where as 59.43, 63.38,
and 85.86 q ha-1 with 0.4 IW/CPE ratio and 70.45, 74.03 and
85.86 q ha-1 with normal irrigation as formers practice. The
three years pooled maize yield (85.91 kg ha-1) with 0.6 IW/CPE
Table 1. Total Water applied (mm) through drip and basin method of irrigation during 2009 to 2011 and mean of three years.
2009 2010
Total Water applied Total Water applied (mm) Total Water applied
Treatments
(mm)
80% PE 1015.72 673.2
60% PE 914.82 622.8
40% PE 826.54 614.4
Basin(Control) 1053.10 698.6
603
ratio recorded results is on par with 0.8 IW/CPE ratio sprinkler
irrigation level. Mulching with maize straw @ 5 t ha-1 recorded
a superior grain yield about 77.01, 82.88 and 99.53 q ha-1 during
2008, 2009 and 2010 respectively. The three years pooled data
showed a superior grain yield of 86.47 q ha-1. Interaction effect
between irrigation 0.6 IW/CPE ratio with maize straw mulching
@ 5 t ha-1 shows a higher yield of maize 84.19, 93.84 and 92.94
q ha-1 (Table 4 and 5). The corresponding three years pooled
grain yield recorded 90.32 q ha-1. But all these are on par with 0.8
IW/CPE ratios with the mulch treatment. In water use efficiency
depicted in Table 5 which records a significantly superior water
use efficiency (18.05 and 19.94 kg ha-mm-1) during 2008 and
2009, respectively. Significantly higher water use efficiency
with mulch treatment (17.82, 19.16 and 23.47 kg ha-mm-1)
was recorded. Interaction effect between irrigation 0.6 IW/CPE
ratio and mulching recorded significantly superior water use
efficiency (19.13, 21.33 and 21.12 kg ha-mm-1) compared to the
other treatment (Neelakanth et al., 2013).
CONCLUSIONS
Increased water scarcity conditions in this century
will result in reduced availability of irrigated land for food
production than in the past. The main challenge confronting
both rainfed and irrigated agriculture is to improve productivity
or use efficiency of water and sustainable water use for
agriculture. The adoption of MI systems is likely to pick up
fast in arid and semi-arid, well-irrigated areas, where farmers
have independent irrigation sources, and where groundwater
is scarce. Further, high-average land-holdings, large size of
individual plots, and a cropping system dominated by widely
spaced row crops, which are also high-valued, would provide the
ideal environment for the same. The extent of real water-saving
and water productivity improvements at the field level through
the adoption of MI systems would be high for irrespective of
the spacing followed for the crops and type of the crops in arid
and semi-arid conditions. In adopting MI technology ensures
increased crop yield, high water use efficiency, reduced water
and energy consumption and minimal weed problems. MI (Drip
and sprinkler irrigation) has a potential of utilizing saline and
sewage water in agriculture but it should not be regarded as a
universal substitute for long established proven methods such
as basin, flood, and furrow. It is just another way of irrigating
and the advantages and disadvantages of which have to be
considered in comparison with the conventional method in each
particular case.
2011 Pooled (mm) Saving over basin
method of three years
(mm) (%)
824.8 837.91 4.21
759.6 765.74 12.46
732.9 724.61 17.16
872.4 874.70 --
Table 2. Effect of irrigation and fertigation levels on guava fruit yield, WUE, gross and net income and B:C ratio (pooled
2009 to 2011).

Fruit Yield (kg WUE Gross Income Net Income (000 `

B:C Ratio
Irrigation levels ha-1) ( kg ha- mm-1) (000’ ` ha-1) ha-1)
PE levels (%)
I1=80 16244 32.42 81221 42109 2.29
I2=60 16359 42.34 81796 43934 2.50
I3=40 15807 52.66 79040 40430 2.07
I4=Bain (Control) 14817 27.03 74081 36375 1.95
SEm + 184.34 0.56 1776.06 1095.28 0.06
CD (0.05) 537.29 1.93 4894.19 3086.96 0.19
Fertilizer levels (RDF %)
F1 = 125 16296 39.44 81482 43122 2.15
F2 = 100 16499 40.67 82498 44470 2.38
F3 = 75 15712 37.92 78555 41267 2.09
F4 = 50 14720 36.41 73602 36989 1071

SEm + 254.72 0.78 1409.22 1801.40 0.07

CD (0.05) 714.79 2.29 3974.80 5126.22 0.26
Interaction (I x F)
SEm + 949.24 1.47 4746.91 4633.94 0.13
CD (0.05) NS NS NS NS NS

Table 3. Effect of irrigation and fertigation levels on sapota fruit yield, WUE, gross and net income and B:C ratio during
(pooled 2009 to 2011).

Fruit Yield (kg WUE Gross Income Net Income (000’

B:C Ratio
Irrigation levels ha-1) ( kg ha-mm-1) (000’ ` ha-1) ` ha-1)
PE levels (%)
I1=80 2475 5.71 26107 11920 2.15
I2=60 2512 6.96 26537 13217 2.22
I3=40 2826 8.18 29886 17483 2.82
I4=Bain (Control) 2089 3.68 21012 9264 1.60
SEm + 206.90 0.78 1871.37 1712.10 0.259
CD (0.05) 585.35 2.14 5578.17 4994.93 0.758

Fertilizer levels (RDF %)

F1 = 125 2689 5.98 27287 14393 2.19
F2 = 100 1378 7.09 32258 17627 2.69
F3 = 75 2220 4.97 23562 10932 1.99
F4 = 50 1916 3.50 19436 8832 1.73

SEm + 155.69 0.39 1263.00 1205.00 0.124

CD (0.05) 427.70 1.08 3687.17 3548.00 0.362
Interaction (I x F)
SEm + 302.71 0.40 3305 3278.02 0.328
CD (0.05) NS NS NS NS NS

Table 4. Water use efficiency (WUE) as affected by sprinkler and surface irrigation with mulching in maize crop (pooled of
three years).

Treatment WUE (kg ha-mm-1)

Irrigation levels 2008 2009 2010 Pooled
I1 = 0.8 IW/CPE (Sprinkler) 16.57 17.62 18.10 17.43
I2 = 0.6 IW/CPE (Sprinkler) 18.05 19.94 18.54 18.84

604
 I3 = 0.4 IW/CPE (Sprinkler) 16.98 18.11 25.88 20.32
I4 = 0.6 IW/CPE (Surface) 16.01 16.83 19.51 17.45
SEm+ 0.27 0.21 1.35 0.61
CD(0.05) 0.83 0.64 4.17 1.88
Mulches
M1 = Maize straw @ 5 t ha-1 17.82 19.16 23.47 20.15
M2 = Without Mulch 15.98 17.09 17.55 16.87
SEm+ 00.17 00.16 00.55 00.30
CD(0.05) 00.52 00.48 01.64 00.88

Table 5. Effected of sprinkler and surface irrigation with mulching on yield of maize crop (pooled of three years)

Treatment WUE (kg ha-mm-1)

Irrigation levels 2008 2009 2010 Pooled
I1 = 0.8 IW/CPE (Sprinkler) 82.86 88.10 86.29 85.75
I2 = 0.6 IW/CPE (Sprinkler) 79.41 87.73 81.60 82.91
I3 = 0.4 IW/CPE (Sprinkler) 59.43 63.38 90.59 71.13
I4 = 0.6 IW/CPE (Surface) 70.45 74.03 85.86 76.78
SEm+ 1.19 0.94 5.83 2.65
CD(0.05) 3.67 2.90 17.09 7.89
Mulches
M1 = Maize straw @ 5 t ha-1 77.01 82.88 99.53 86.47
M2 = Without Mulch 69.00 73.74 74.76 72.49
SEm+ 0.76 0.72 2.26 1.24
CD(0.05) 2.26 2.15 6.79 3.73

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