Tugas Refining

Main reg Glossary Gallery
CEPATEC AB
Knut-Erik Persson
WOOD FIBRE
Page
1. Physical properties of wood 1
2.1 Chemical composition of wood 10
2.2 Structure of fibre 24
3. Interfibre bonds 28
1. Physical properties of wood
The stem of the tree has three

important functions
− to carry the crown

− to be a piping for liquid
transports
− to store nutrients.
Fig. 1. Pine forest. (1-001.tif)

The exterior and the interior
bark contain dark-coloured
material, which can be difficult to
remove during the cooking and
the bleaching process.
The high content of e.g. silicon

easily leads to crust problems at
the production of pulp.
Fig. 2. Cut up of trunk.
Birch bark contains a large amount Marking of the exterior and
of extractives that can be very interior bark. (1-002.tif)
difficult to dissolve and wash off.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 1
In the border between the interior bark

and wood there is a thin layer called
cambium. Here the tree grows by cell-
division.

Marking of cambium.
(1-003.tif)
Inside the cambium there is the

sapwood, which is the youngest and
most living part of the tree trunk. The
necessary liquid transport from the root
to the crown of the tree goes through this
layer.

Marking of the sapwood.
(1-004.tif)
The interior part of the trunk consists of

heartwood. This type of wood is formed
when the tree is about 20 years old.
Heartwood grows out through the oldest
sapwood, which dies and is filled with
resin. In hardwood there is no heart-
wood.
At the centre of the trunk there is the pith Fig. 5. Cut up of trunk.
Marking of the heartwood.
or medulla, a living nutritious substance, (1-005.tif)
from which the tree grows in height.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 2
Wood mainly consists of wood cells, fibres, which may be of

different types in softwood and in hardwood. The pictures show
where the fibres are located in the different types of wood.
1
1
2 2
Fig. 6. Softwood. Fig. 7. Hardwood.

1. Tracheids 1. Libriform cells
2. Parenchyma cells 2. Parenchyma cells
(1-006.tif) (1-007.tif)
Regarding fibre dimensions and fibre properties in general terms,

there are tracheids when it concerns softwood and libriform cells
when it concerns hardwood; "real paper making fibres”.
The most frequent species of trees in Scandinavia is spruce, pine

and birch.
The fibres are different regarding appearance and size but the
similarity is that they have sharp tips and an interior cavity, called
lumen.
Spruce
Pine
Birch
1 mm
Fig. 8. Sketch. Fibres in spruce, pine and birch. (1-008.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 3
The fibres give the tree

trunk its mechanical
strength. In softwood, the
tracheids take care of the
necessary liquid
transports. To be able to
do this, the tracheids are
connected to each other
through pits, which are
Fig. 9. Microscope photo. Unbleached
recesses in the fibre wall. softwood sulphate. (1-009.tif)
Parenchyma cells are much smaller. This type of fibre is called

”fines” when it is found in pulp. The fines may deteriorate the
dewatering capacities and cause problem later during the paper
making process. Another disadvantage could be high content of
wood resin.
At the heartwood forming the pits in the fibre

wall of the tracheids will close. This may also
happen if the wood dries too quickly,
particularly sprucewood.
At the production of chemical pulp the cooking

liquor must have the ability of penetrating the fibre
wall. Heartwood and very dry sprucewood may
cause problems.
Fig. 10. Closed pit in heart-wood of

pine. (Pekka Saranpää)
(1-010.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 4
It is the properties of the tracheids and libriform cells which

determine the mechanical strength development of the finished
pulp.
The average length of a

tracheid is, in Swedish
coniferous trees, 3–3.5 mm
and the diameter is
0.025–0.035 mm.
Fig. 11. Fibres in pine sulphate

pulp. (STFI) (1-012.tif)
Compared to the tracheids,

the libriform cells of birch
are considerably shorter
and thinner. The average
length is 1.1 mm and the
diameter is 0.022 mm.
Another difference is that
the thickness of the fibre Fig. 12. Fibres in birch sulphate
wall is smaller. pulp. (STFI) (1-013.tif)
Libriform-
cells.
Vessel cells.
Fig. 13. Liberated libriform and vessel cells in a birch sulphate pulp. (STFI)
(1-011.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 5
The libriform cells have no

pits. In hardwood the liquid is
transported in special cells,
called vessel cells.
The vessel cells are vital to

transport the large quantities
of liquid which are a
consequence of the excessive
evaporation from the leaf
Fig. 14. Vessel cells in birch-
surfaces.
wood. (STFI) (1-014.tif)
The vessels are long pipes with

thin walls, which easily break at
the pulping process.
Fig. 15. Vessel cells in birch

sulphate pulp. (STFI) (1-015.tif)
Another type of channels is to

be found in pine, but here the
channels are used for resin
storage; resin ducts or
channels.
Fig. 16. Resin channels in

pinewood. (STFI) (1-016.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 6
The majority fibre types Fibre types in Spruce/Pine and Birch

are ”real fibres” in pine- (Percent by weight)
Tracheids Parencyma-cells
and sprucewood, while it Libriform-cells Vessels
is less in birchwood.
86%
98%
2%
9%
5%
Spruce/Pine Birch
Fig. 17. (1-017.tif)
The wood fibres are

cemented to each other with
the help of a binding
material, lignin. To some
extent, this substance can be
found in the fibre walls too.
The proportion of lignin in
the fibre wall is higher in
pine- and sprucewood than in
birchwood. Fig. 18. Illustration. Fibres in wood.
(1-018.tif)
The separate fibres are formed

like tubes and have an interior
cavity, called lumen. In a living
tree it is filled with water and
nutrients.
Fig. 19. Illustration of wood

fibres. (1-019.tif)
The thickness of the

fibre wall can differ if
the fibres are formed the Spring Summer
early, or during the late wood wood
growth period of the
year. Here, the names Fig. 20. Illustration. Spring and summer
used are spring wood and wood fibres. (1-020.tif)
summer wood.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 7
During the early growth

period much of the
nutriment intake is used for
production of new foliage
and new branches. After
this there is a period when
the main part of the
nutriments is used to form
fibres. Compared with the
spring fibres, the summer Fig. 21. Cross-section of pinewood with
fibres grow longer, the visible zones of spring and summer wood.
walls thicker and the (STFI) (1-021.tif)
diameter smaller.
The fibre length can vary depending on

the locality, climate, soils, etc. Slow
growth develops long fibres.
Besides, a slow growth produces fibres

with an, on average, thin fibre wall. The
fibre becomes slim and is because of that
easy to form. The weight of each
separate fibre is reduced, meaning that
the number of fibres at a given weight of
wood will increase. Fig. 22. South Swedish
forest. (1-022.tif)
The fibre length varies Fibre length vs. age of the tree (Spruce /Picea abies)
Fibre length mm
within the tree trunk. 4,0
The fibre length in the 3,5

3,0
exterior part of the trunk 2,5
is always greater than in 2,0
the interior part. 1,5
1,0
Full fibre length is 0,5

0,0
not reached until after 0 5 10 15 20 25
Year
about 15 years.
Fig. 23. (1-023.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 8
A slow growth means that the

average felling age increases and
accordingly also the average fibre
length of a fallen stand of trees.
Fig. 24. Felling. (1-024.tif)
A slower growth develops
− an increased fibre length
− a slimmer and by that a more pliable fibre
− lighter fibres and by that a larger number of these in a given

pulp quantity.
The Nordic softwood trees grow slowly. Thus, the raw material is
well suited for production of paper with good mechanical strength
properties.
Sawmill chips mainly

originate from the exterior
parts of the tree trunk.
They have a long fibre on
average and are therefore a
good raw material for pulp
production.
Fig. 25. Wood chips from sawmill.
(1-025.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 9
2.1 Chemical composition of wood
The wood mainly consists of

Pinewood.
cellulose, hemicellulose and (1-026a.tif)
lignin.
Birchwood.
(1-026b.tif)
Fig. 26. Pine and birchwood.
In spruce, pine and Chemical composition of wood

birch, the content of 50
cellulose is almost the 40

42 41 41
same. In birch the 34
content of hemi- 30 28 28 27 27
cellulose is higher than 20

21
in spruce and pine and

the content of lignin is 10
4 4
Spruce
correspondingly lower. 0
3 Pine
Birch
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractives
Fig. 27. (1-027.tif)
Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are all composed of carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are called elements; atoms.
The atoms create molecules. The molecules then are building blocks
in the connected large molecules, polymers, forming different
types of wood material.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 10
The separate building elements are called monomers (mono=

=one/single). The chemical reaction connecting the monomers is
called polymerisation, and the macro molecule achieved is called
polymer. (poly=many).
The polymers have properties quite different from the original

monomers.
Monomer
Polymer
Fig. 28. Illustration of

the termes monomer and
polymer. (1-028.tif)
The wood contains not only cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin but
also group of substances, called extractives or wood resin.
Quantity and chemical composition vary between different types of
wood. Here too, the atoms carbon and hydrogen and in most cases
oxygen are included.
Cellulose
The cellulose molecule is composed of a great number of glucose

molecules that have connected and formed a long chained poly-
saccharide. Glucose is the same as dextrose and is an example of a
”monosaccharide”. The product is soluble in water.
H OH
Fig. 29 shows a glucose molecule. OH C C OH

Carbon=C
The molecule is composed OH H
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
C H C Oxygen=O
atoms and has a ring-shaped H C O H
Hydrogen= H
structure. CH2OH
Fig. 29. Glucose molecule.

(1-029.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 11
In cellulose the glucose molecules have connected to a chain that

may contain more than 10 000 glucose molecules.
A number of monomers has formed a polymer, which has quite

different properties compared with the original monomers.
Here, a very important difference is that the polymer formation, the
cellulose, is completely insoluble in water.
H OH
C
OH C OH
Glucose
Glukos
OH H
C H C
H C O H
CH2OH
Cellulose
Cellulosa
Fig. 30. Illustration showing how glucose molecules build up the

cellulose. (1-030.tif)
The OH groups on the glucose

molecules bind to each other by
an attraction between hydrogen
and oxygen atoms, placed on the
opposite molecules; the cellulose
molecules bind to each other
with hydrogen bonds.
Fig. 31. Illustration showing how
two cellulose molecules bind to
each other with hydrogen bonds.
(1-031.tif)
The cellulose molecules connect

and form small, elongated
units, micro fibrils.
Fig. 32. Illustration. Micro fibril.

(1-032.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 12
The micro fibrils then connect and

form larger fibrils.
Fig. 33. Illustration. Fibril.

(1-033.tif)
The cellulose gives the fibre wall its strength and structure. The
task of the cellulose fibrils in a fibre wall can be compared with the
reinforcement bar in concrete.
At all production of paper pulp the

goal is to include cellulose
in the finished product in
an original form.
Fig. 34. Paper pulp.

(1-034.tif)
A chemical influence may break down the molecule chains and

make them shorter. Short molecule chains give the fibrils lower
mechanical strength and weaker fibre walls.
Fig. 35. Illustration. Broken

cellulose chain.
(1-035.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 13
The smaller chain fragments that are broken the more their
properties will resemble the properties of the original monomers.
Consequently, some of the small chain fragments created during
the cooking process may be dissolved or dispersed in the cooking
liquor. The wood yield will decrease.
The cellulose molecules are normally

well arranged and closely packed
together. The distance between the
molecules becomes so small that no
water can penetrate.
Fig. 36. Illustration.
Closely packed cellulose
chains. (1-036.tif)
There are some small areas where this

order is broken. In these areas the
cellulose molecules are not so closely
packed together. The distance between
the molecule chains becomes larger and
water can penetrate.
Disordered cellulose
chains. (1-037.tif)
However, when the distance between the cellulose molecules is that

small, a very limited amount of water can penetrate the chains. A
fibre wall built of only cellulose would therefore swell very little in
water.
The cellulose is uncoloured (white).
Hemicellulose
Hemicellulose is, like cellulose, a polysaccharide consisting of

different monosaccarides. The composition can vary between
different types of wood.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 14
The number of monomers in a

hemicellulose chain is
considerably less than in
cellulose and therefore the chain
becomes shorter. Another
difference is that the hemi-
cellulose chain is branched.
Fig. 38. Illustration. Branched

cellulose chain. (1-038.tif)
The molecule chains in the

hemicellulose are not as well-
arranged as in the cellulose. This,
and the fact that they are branched,
make them pack less closely.
Fig. 39. Illustration. Hemicellulose

chains. (1-039.tif)
Water can penetrate the molecule chains.

The hemicellulose layer swells greatly
and develops a gel-like character.
Fig. 40. Illustration showing how

the water has penetrated the
hemicellulose chains. (1-040.tif)
The role of the hemicellulose in the fibre wall is, together with the
lignin, to keep the small fibrils together. The function resembles
that of concrete in a concrete construction.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 15
A fibre wall built from both cellulose

and hemicellulose will have a more open
structure compared with a fibre wall of
cellulose fibrils, only. This open
structure allows the fibre wall to absorb
water and to swell.
Fig. 41. Illustration. Chemical

fibre. (1-041.tif)
The fibre wall becomes soft and the

fibres will form well in the sheet.
Fig. 42. Illustration. Soft pliable

fibres. (1-042.tif)
At the production of Chemical composition

(Percent by weight of the original dry substance in
chemical pulp, the chains Composition %
the wood).
of the hemicellulose may 50
40
42
be broken down in the 30 27

34 34
same way as the cellulose

24
20
chains. Actually, this risk 10

4
11
1,5
9
is considerably greater
0,4 0,1 0,05
0
Wood After cooking After bleaching
than with cellulose

Cellulose Lignin
Hemicellulose Extractives
chains. Fig. 43. (1-043.tif)
In practice, the risk of breaking down the hemicellulose determines

how far the removal of the lignin can be driven during the cooking
process.
The hemicellulose, like the cellulose, is uncoloured (white).
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 16
Lignin
In comparison with cellulose and hemicellulose the lignin molecule has

quite different structural elements. The molecule is built like a three-
dimensional network. The exact composition can vary.
The main part of lignin is located

to the connective layer, the
middle lamella, which binds the
fibres in the wood, but some of it
is found in the fibre wall.
The lignin can be made water

soluble by letting it react with acid
or alkaline sulphur compounds at a Fig.44. Illustration. Wood fibres.
high temperature. (1-044.tif)
The chemical reactions during

the cooking process, which
transfer lignin to a soluble
form, can not be done without
also influencing the other wood
components. The more the
cellulose and the hemicellulose
chains are broken down, the
lower the fibre strength becomes.
Fig. 45. Pulp digester.

(1-045.tif)
To avoid this, there will always

be a certain part of lignin
remaining in the pulp when it
leaves the digester and enters the
washing stage.
Fig. 46. Washing filters in a pulp

mill. (1-046.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 17
The conditions during the

bleaching are more lenient to the
cellulose and the hemicellulose
than during the previous cooking
and the risk in breaking down the
molecules is not likely. So, if
it is desirable to remove the rest
of the lignin, it has to be done in
a bleaching stage.
Fig. 47. Sheets made of pulp, taken

before, during and after the
bleaching. (1-047.tif)
When heated, the lignin will

soften. When the fibres are
separated with mechanical
methods this property is
utilised.
Fig. 48. Illustration. Chemically

liberated fibres. (1-048.tif)
The lignin has a water repellent (hydrophobic) character. This

property may be changed during the pulping process, but the quantity
of water that can be absorbed will still be very low.
In mechanical pulp, the fibre

surface is to a great extent
covered with lignin and the
number of OH groups is low.
Thus, if there is lignin on the
contact surfaces between the
fibres in a paper web, the
number of hydrogen bonds
between the fibres will be
low. The fibres bind weakly Fig. 49. Illustration. Fibre surface,
to each other. partially covered by lignin, with few
OH groups. (1-049.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 18
Natural lignin is slightly

yellow. When exposed to
sunlight the lignin becomes
deep yellowish to brownish.
Fig. 50. Parts of a paper page yellowed

in strong sunlight. (1-050.tif)
Cooking wood in alkaline

conditions gives dark
coloured reaction
products and the pulp
leaving the digester is
dark brown.
Also when cooking in

acid conditions there is a
certain dark dyeing of the
lignin.
Fig. 51. Sheet produced of pulp

taken after washing. (1-051.tif)
A large content of lignin in the finished pulp gives a lower strength and,
concerning chemical pulps, also a considerably lower brightness.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 19
Extractives, wood resin
Chemically, extractives consist of
• fatty and resin acids
• different compounds of fatty and resin acids with glycerol or

other alcohols
• free higher alcohols
• hydrocarbon compounds (waxlike material).
The free higher alcohols and the hydrocarbon compounds are

sometimes called unsaponifiable. This means that they can not, in
the same way as the other components, be transferred to a soluble
form (saponified) at the alkaline conditions during a sulphate
cooking.
The total quantity of 50

Chemical composition of wood
extractives is higher 42 41 41
in pinewood than in 40
34
sprucewood. 30 28 28 27 27
21
20
10
Spruce
3 4 4
Pine
Birch
0
Fig. 52. (1-052.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 20
The composition of Chemical composition of the resin components

(Laman 1979)
the extractives in 100
pinewood differs from 75
that of sprucewood.
The high content of 50
resin acids and the 25

small quantity of
unsaponifiable makes 0
Pine Spruce Birch
the pine resin easier to Unsaponifiable Fatty acids
Fatty acid esters Resin acids
dissolve in the
Fig. 53. (1-053.tif)
cooking chemicals.
Vertical resin
channels.
Horizontal resin
channels.
In pine most resin is
located to the special
resin channels that run
vertically in the wood.
The location in channels
makes the pine resin
easy to access for the
cooking chemicals.
Fig. 54. Softwood, schematically

reproduced structure. (STFI)
(1-054.tif)
The sprucewood resin is mainly located in narrow, horizontal

channels. The deposition makes the liquor penetration during the
pulping process more difficult than in resin channels. Consequently,
the resin content in a spruce pulp is in most cases higher than in
pine pulp.
It is easier to dissolve and remove the pine resin than the spruce
resin during the pulping process.
The resin content in bark and branches is larger than in trunk

wood. A good barking makes it easier to produce a pulp with a low
resin content.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 21
The resin content in 50

Chemical composition of wood
birchwood may be on 42 41 41
the same level as in 40

34
pinewood. 30 28 28 27 27
21
20
10
Spruce
4 4
3 Pine
Birch
0
Fig. 55. (1-055.tif)
The composition Chemical composition of the resin components

of the birch resin 100
(Laman 1979)
differs from that

of the softwood. 75
50
The content of
free resin acids 25
and fatty acids is
lower and the 0
Pine Spruce Birch
content of Unsaponifiable Fatty acids
esterified fatty Fatty acid esters Resin acids
acid and un-

saponifiable is higher*.
Fig. 56. (1-056.tif)
The unfavourable chemical composition of the birch resin makes it

difficult to dissolve. But there is also a mechanical reason, why it is
exceptionally difficult to remove the birch resin during the pulping
process.
i
(Esters mean reaction products between fatty acids and alcohol.)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 22
In birchwood most of the resin

is located in the thin paren-
chyma cells. The cooking
liquor has difficulties
penetrating the narrow
channels.
Parenchyma
cells.
Fig. 57. Hardwood, schematically

reproduced structure. (1-057.tif)
The resin located in the

birch bark has a still more
unfavourable composition.
Therefore, a good barking is
necessary for the production
of a birch pulp with a low
resin content.
Fig. 58. Birchwood. (1-058.tif)
If birch chips are stored in a

chip pile the wood resin is
chemically transformed. The
fatty acid esters break down
into free acids and alcohols.
This process increases the
solubility of the wood resin.
Fig. 59. Chip pile. (1-059.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-15 23
Unsaponifiable resin will not be influenced during the storage.

When producing birch sulphate pulp, the unsaponifiable resin
therefore has to be transformed into a soluble form by addition of
softwood resin (pine oil) to the digester. In spite of that, the resin
content in birch pulp is often higher than in pine and spruce pulp.
High content of wood

resin in the paper pulp
deteriorates paper
strength and brightness
and causes dots and
deposits.
Fig. 60. Resin particles in a paper

sheet. (40 times.) (1-060.tif)
At the production of chemical pulp a larger quantity of the wood

resin is removed during the pulping process. More resin is removed
if the pulp is cooked at alkaline conditions than at acid conditions.
Mechanical pulps contain a large quantity of the original wood

resin.
2.2 Structure of fibre
Looking at the fibre from a physical perspective, it can be seen that

it is built up of a number of cell layers with different properties.
L= Lumen.
S3 = Interior layer in the secondary

wall.
S2 = Middle layer in the secondary
wall.
S1= Exterior layer in the secondary
wall.
P= The primary wall.

Fig. 61. The different layers
of the wood fibre. The M= Middle lamella.
direction of the cellulose
fibrils in the different layers
is marked. (1-061.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 24
Primary wall
The exterior layer, the primary wall,

is thin, 0.1−0.3 µm.
Primary wall
The lignin content is high. The
capacity to swell in water is low.
The number of OH groups on the
surface is low and therefore the
capacity to form hydrogen bonds is Fig. 62. (1-062.tif)
limited. Because of that, to be able
to form inter fibre bonds the primary wall must be removed.
Secondary walls (S 1, S2, S3)
The exterior layer, S 1, of the three Exterior secondary

secondary walls is very thin and has wall. S1
a low swelling capacity. The
thickness varies between
0.1 and 0.2 µm.
Fig. 63. (1-063.tif)
The number of OH groups on the surface of the S 1 layer is low.

Thus, S1 has a limited capacity to form hydrogen bonds. The layer
also prevents the inner part of the fibre wall from absorbing water
and to swell. To counteract this, during paper making the S 1 layer
has to be split up or partially removed.
The middle layer of the secondary Middle

walls, S2, is much thicker than the secondary
outer layers P and S1. This layer is wall,S2.
about 80% of the fibre weight and
it will have a conclusive influence
on the properties of the finished
pulp. The thickness varies between
1 and 5 µm.
Fig. 64. (1-064.tif)
The number of OH-groups on
the surface of the S2 layer is high.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 25
In contrast to the other layers, the fibrils in S 2 are parallelly

orientated, in a main direction, which is the same as the
longitudinal direction of the fibre. Such an orientation favourably
influences the strength and stiffness of the fibre.
A low growth increases the lengthwise orientation of the fibrils.

Thus, another positive effect of a slow growth can be noted.
The S2 layer has a good swelling capacity. A release of this layer

makes the fibre wall soft. More intimate contact between the fibres
in a paper web is developed and the ability to form strong interfibre
bonds is increased.
The fibre layer is mainly built up of cellulose and hemicellulose.

The content of hemicellulose can vary in the finished pulp, but
generally it is higher than in the exterior layers P and S 1. The more
hemicellulose, the more the fibre wall will swell.
The interior layer of the Interior secondary wall, S3

secondary walls, S3, which
borders to the inner cavity of
the fibre, lumen, has a
thickness of about 0.1 µm and
thus it is very thin. The layer
S3 is sometimes also
referred to as the ”tertiary
wall”.
Fig. 65. (1-065.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 26
Lumen Lumen
In the interior of the fibre there is

a cavity, lumen.
Fig. 66. (1-066.tif)
When paper is produced, the

fibres will be flattened and the
lumen will more or less disappear.
The fibres will then get a band-
like appearance (especially the
thin walled spring wood fibres).
Fig. 67. Illustration. Flattened

fibres. (1-067.tif)
Middle lamella
The adhesive zone located Middle lamella

between the primary walls of
adjacent cells is termed the middle
lamella. Chemically it consists
primarily of lignin. Normally the
lignin is hard and brittle but can
be softened with the help of heat
or chemicals. Fig. 68. (1-068.tif)
The capacity of lignin to absorb water is low. Besides, the number

of free OH-groups in lignin is low. Consequently, lignin, on the
fibre surfaces and inside the fibre wall weakens the bonds between
the fibres in a paper sheet.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 27
At all pulp production the fibres must be processed in such a way

that the lignin does not cover the entire fibre surfaces.
3. Interfibre bonds
When producing paper the reactions between the fibres and water
are of great importance. Paper making without water is completely
impossible.
The concept of hydrogen bonds is explained in a previous

description.
How paper fibres bind to

each other has been of
special interest to the experts
for a long time. A number of
different theories are listed
and today there seems to be a
common support for the
thesis that the hydrogen
bonds are the dominating
uniting power. Fig. 69. Illustration. Fibres in a paper
web. (1-069.tif)
The water molecules, closest to the fibre surfaces, will be attracted

by the OH groups on the fibre surfaces; bound water molecules.
The further away from the fibre surface the water molecule is, the
less attractive the force. Thus, as long as the paper web is wet
most of the water molecules can move freely; free water
molecules.
When the web dries, firstly the free water

molecules will disappear.
The adjacent fibre surfaces will then be attracted

to each other through the hydrogen bonds
formed between the water molecules bound to
OH-groups.
Fig. 70. Illustration. Water molecules

binding to the OH groups on the fibre
surfaces. (1-070.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 28
After a while even part of the bound water will

disappear and more and more hydrogen bonds
directly between the OH groups on the fibre
surfaces are formed. The more such direct
hydrogen bonds, the stronger the fibres will bind
to each other.

Hydrogen bonds
between fibre
surfaces. (1-071.tif.)
How many hydrogen bonds that can be formed, depends on the

amount of OH groups on the fibre surface. The necessary OH
groups are to be found in cellulose and hemicellulose but hardly-
in lignin. Thus fibres, surrounded by lignin, can not develop
strong hydrogen bonds.
Consequently, the amount of OH

groups on the surface, depends on
the kind of pulp which is used. In
chemical pulps, refined until the
primary wall and the outer
secondary wall S1 have split up, the
amount of OH groups is high.
Fig. 72. Illustration. Refined

fibre. (1-072.tif)
In mechanical pulp, with a lot

of lignin on the fibre surfaces, the
amount of OH groups is, however,
considerably lower.
Fig. 73. Illustration. Mechanical

fibre. (1-073.tif)
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 29
To be able to create many

hydrogen bonds the direct contact
area between the fibres must be as
large as possible. The softer the
fibre wall is, the easier the fibre
forms and the direct contact
surface between the fibres
increases.
Fig. 74. Microscope photo. Liner.

(1-074.tif)
The softness of a fibre wall depends on the capacity to absorb

water. If chemical fibres are used, the fibres are refined to increase
the water absorbency.
During the refining:
− The primary wall and the

outer secondary wall, S1
will be broken up. Then the
surface of the swelling
disposed fibrewall, S2, will
be released (Exterior
fibrillation).
Fig. 75. Illustration. Refined
fibre. (1-075.tif)
− The fibre wall, S2 will be split up

(Interior fibrillation).
Fig. 76. Illustration. Decomposed

fibre wall. (1-076.tif)
The exterior- and interior fibrillation make it easier for the water
to penetrate into the fibre wall. The fibre will be soft and pliable.
L:1-2-e.doc 02-01-07 30

Tugas Refining

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Tugas Refining

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Main reg Glossary Gallery

2.1 Chemical composition of wood 10

2.2 Structure of fibre 24

1. Physical properties of wood

The stem of the tree has three

− to carry the crown

Fig. 1. Pine forest. (1-001.tif)

The high content of e.g. silicon

In the border between the interior bark

Fig. 3. Cut up of trunk.

Inside the cambium there is the

Fig. 4. Cut up of trunk.

The interior part of the trunk consists of

Wood mainly consists of wood cells, fibres, which may be of

Fig. 6. Softwood. Fig. 7. Hardwood.

Regarding fibre dimensions and fibre properties in general terms,

The most frequent species of trees in Scandinavia is spruce, pine

Fig. 8. Sketch. Fibres in spruce, pine and birch. (1-008.tif)

The fibres give the tree

Parenchyma cells are much smaller. This type of fibre is called

At the heartwood forming the pits in the fibre

At the production of chemical pulp the cooking

Fig. 10. Closed pit in heart-wood of

It is the properties of the tracheids and libriform cells which

The average length of a

Fig. 11. Fibres in pine sulphate

Compared to the tracheids,

The libriform cells have no

The vessel cells are vital to

The vessels are long pipes with

Fig. 15. Vessel cells in birch

Another type of channels is to

Fig. 16. Resin channels in

The majority fibre types Fibre types in Spruce/Pine and Birch

Fig. 17. (1-017.tif)

The wood fibres are

The separate fibres are formed

Fig. 19. Illustration of wood

The thickness of the

During the early growth

The fibre length can vary depending on

Besides, a slow growth produces fibres

The fibre length in the 3,5

Full fibre length is 0,5

A slow growth means that the

Fig. 24. Felling. (1-024.tif)

A slower growth develops

− an increased fibre length

− a slimmer and by that a more pliable fibre

− lighter fibres and by that a larger number of these in a given

Sawmill chips mainly

2.1 Chemical composition of wood

The wood mainly consists of

In spruce, pine and Chemical composition of wood

cellulose is almost the 40

same. In birch the 34

cellulose is higher than 20

in spruce and pine and

Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractives

Fig. 27. (1-027.tif)

Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are all composed of carbon,

Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are called elements; atoms.

The separate building elements are called monomers (mono=

The polymers have properties quite different from the original