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CHAPTER4 Linear Wire Antennas
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.2 INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.2.1 Radiated Fields ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
4.2.2 Power Density and Radiation Resistance ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7
4.2.3 Near‐Field ( ) Region .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
4.2.5 Intermediate‐Field (kr > 1) Region ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
4.2.6 Far‐Field (kr >> 1) Region ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.7 Directivity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
4.3 SMALL DIPOLE ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
4.4 REGION SEPARATION .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
4.4.1 Far‐Field (Fraunhofer) Region ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
4.4.2 Radiating Near‐Field (Fresnel) Region ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.4.3 Reactive Near‐Field Region ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 32
4.5 FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
4.5.1 Current Distribution ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
4.5.2 Radiated Fields: Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern Multiplication ..................................................................................................................... 35
4.5.3 Power Density, Radiation Intensity, and Radiation Resistance ......................................................................................................................................... 37
4.5.4 Directivity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
4.5.5 Input Resistance ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
4.6 HALF‐WAVELENGTH DIPOLE ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.7 LINEAR ELEMENTS NEAR OR ON INFINITE PERFECT CONDUCTORS ............................................................................................................................................. 49
4.7.1 Image Theory ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
4.7.2 Vertical Electric Dipole ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
1. Radiation pattern ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
2. Radiation power and directivity .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
3. monopole ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
4.7.4 Antennas for Mobile Communication Systems ................................................................................................................................................................. 63
4.7.5 Horizontal Electric Dipole .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 67
PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
4.1
1 INTROD
DUCTION
Wire antennas,
a , linear or curved, are somee of the o
oldest, sim
mplest, cheapest,
an ost versatiile for many applicaations.
nd the mo
4.2
2 INFINITESIMAL D
DIPOLE
Infinitesimal dipolles are no
ot practicaal, they arre used to
o represen
nt capacittor‐plate
antennass.
In additio
on, they aare utilized as build
ding moree complexx geometrries.
The plates are very small, their radiation is usually negligible. The wire, in
addition to being very small (l <<), is very thin ( ). The spatial variation of
the current is assumed to be constant
′ ; = constant (4‐1)
4.2.1 Radiated Fields
To find the fields radiated by the current element, it will be required to
determine first and and then find the and .
1. Calculation of
Since the source only carries an electric current , therefore and the
potential function are zero. To find we write
, , ′ ′ (4‐2)
Fo
or the problem of FFigure 4.1
, , 4‐3
0 (infiniteesimal dip
pole)
′
so
o we can w
write (4‐2) as
/
, , /
(4‐4)
2. Calculation of and
To calculate and , it is simpler to transform (4‐4) from rectangular to
spherical components.
(4‐5)
0
For this problem, 0, so (4‐5) using (4‐4) reduces to
(4‐6)
0
⟹ (4‐7)
Substituting (4‐6) into (4‐7) reduces it to
0
(4‐8)
1
Th
he electricc field E caan now bee found. TThat is,
∙ (4‐9)
1 (4‐10)
0
For the infinitesimal dipole, the complex Poynting vector can be written using
(4‐8a)–(4‐8b) and (4‐10a)–(4‐10c) as
1 ∗
1 ∗
2 2
∗ ∗
(4‐11)
1
⟹ (4‐12)
| |
1
Since is imaginary, it will not contribute to real radiated power. The
reactive power density, which is most dominant for small values of , has both
radial and transverse components. It merely changes between outward and inward
directions to form a standing wave at a rate of twice per cycle. It also moves in the
transverse direction.
The complex power moving in the radial direction is obtained by integrating
(4‐11)–(4‐12b) over a closed sphere of radius r. Thus it can be written as
∯ ∙ ∙ 4‐13
⟹ 1 (4‐14)
Equation (4‐13), which gives the real and imaginary power that is moving
outwardly, can also be written as
∗
∙ 1 P j2ω W W (4‐15)
Where: P power in radial direction ; Prad time‐average power radiated
W time‐average magnetic energy density in radial direction
W time‐average electric energy density in radial direction
2 W W time‐average imaginary reactive power
From (4‐14)
P ; 2ω W W (4‐16, 17)
It is clear from (4‐17) that When kr ∞, the reactive power diminishes
and vanishes.
1. radiation resistance of the infinitesimal dipole
Since the antenna radiates its real power through the radiation resistance, for
the infinitesimal dipole it is found by equating (4‐16) to
| | ⇒ 80 (4‐18, 19)
For a wire antenna to be classified as an infinitesimal dipole, its overall length
must be very small (usually ).
Example 4.1
Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole whose overall length is
/50.
Solution:
Using (4‐19)
1
80 80 0.316
50
Since the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole is about 0.3 ohms, it
will present a very large mismatch when connected to practical transmission lines,
many of which have characteristic impedances of 50 or 75 ohms. The reflection
efficiency ( ) and hence the overall efficiency ( ) will be very small.
2. The reactance of an infinitesimal dipole is capacitive.
This can be illustrated by considering the dipole as a flared open‐circuited
transmission line. Since the input impedance of an open‐circuited transmission line
a distance from its open end is given by
2
where is its characteristic impedance, it will always be negative (capacitive) for
≪ .
(4‐8b) (4‐20d)
(4‐10a) (4‐20a)
(4‐10b) (4‐20b)
| |
⟹W Re 0 (4‐22)
Equations (4‐20a) and (4‐20b) are similar to those of a static electric dipole and
(4‐20d) to that of a static current element. Thus we usually refer to (4‐20a)–(4‐20d)
as the quasi‐stationary fields.
1 (4‐8b) (4‐23d)
1 (4‐10a) (4‐23a)
1 (4‐10b) (4‐23b)
For moderate values of :
The E‐field components lose their in‐phase condition and approach
time‐phase quadrature.
Their magnitude is not the same, they form a rotating vector whose
extremity traces an ellipse. This is analogous to the polarization problem
except that the vector rotates in a plane parallel to the direction of
propagation and is usually referred to as the cross field.
(4‐8b) (4‐23d)
(4‐10a) (4‐23a)
(4‐10b) (4‐23b)
The total electric field is given by
(4‐24)
(4‐8a, 10c) (4‐26b)
(4‐8b) (4‐26c)
(4‐10a) (4‐26b)
(4‐10b) (4‐26a)
Z (4‐27)
The E‐ and H‐ field components are perpendicular to each other, transverse to
the radial direction of propagation. The fields form a Transverse ElectroMagnetic
(TEM) wave,its wave impedance is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
Example 4.2
For an infinitesimal dipole determine and interpret the vector effective length.
At what incidence angle does the open‐circuit maximum voltage occurs at the
output terminals of the dipole if the electric‐field intensity of the incident wave is
10 mV/m? The length of the dipole is 10 cm.
Solution:
Using (4‐26a) and the effective length as defined by (2‐92), we can write that
4 26a
⟹
2 92
The maximum value occurs at 90 and it is equal to . The open‐circuit
maximum voltage is equal to
| ∙ | 10 10 ∙ | 10 volts
4.2.7 Directivity
The real power P radiated by the dipole was found in Section 4.2.2, as
given by (4‐16). The same expression can be obtained by first forming the average
power density, using (4‐26a)–(4‐26c). That is,
∗
Re | | (4‐28)
Integrating (4‐28) over a closed sphere of radius r reduces it to (4‐16).
Associated with the average power density of (4‐28) is a radiation intensity U which
is given by
| | ⟹ (4‐29, 30)
Using (4‐16) and (4‐30), the directivity reduces to
4 (4‐31)
and the maximum effective aperture to
(4‐32)
4.3
3 SMALL DIPOLEE
The creation of th he current distribution on aa thin wiree was disscussed in
n Section
1.4, and it was illu
ustrated w
with somee examplees in Figure 1.16.
The radiaation prop ed in the previous
perties off an infinittesimal diipole weree discusse
section. IIts curren
nt distribution was assumed to be con nstant.
A consttant curreent distrib
bution is n
not realizable. A beetter approximatioon of the
cu
urrent disttribution o
of wire anntennas, ((/50 /10) is the trriangular vvariation,
whhich is sho
own in Figgure 4.4(bb)
1 , 0
, ,
1 , 0
(4
4‐33)
Th
he vector potential can be w
written using (4‐33) as
/
/
1 1 (4‐34)
Becausse the lenngth of thhe dipole is very sm
mall /10 , for diffferent ’
alo wire are not much different from . TThus can be ap
ong the w c pproximatted by
throughoutt the integgration paath.
The maximum phase error in (4 4‐34) by allowingg will be /2
/10
/ 18 for
f /10. Thiss amount of phase error hass very litttle effect
onn the overrall radiation characteristics. Then, (4
4‐34) redu
uces to (4‐‐35)
(4‐35)
which is one‐half of that for the infinitesimal dipole.
/
Ref: , , /
(4‐4)
The potential function (4‐35) becomes a more accurate approximation as kr → ∞.
Since the potential function for the triangular distribution is one‐half of the
corresponding one for the constant (uniform) current distribution, the
corresponding fields of the former are one‐half of the latter. Thus we can write the
E‐ and H‐fields radiated by a small dipole as
(4‐26b) (4‐36b)
(4‐26a) (4‐36a)
(4‐26c) (4‐36c)
Since the directivity of an antenna is controlled by the relative shape of the
field or power pattern, the directivity, and maximum effective area of this antenna
are the same as the ones with the constant current distribution given by (4‐31) and
(4‐32), respectively.
Using the procedure established for the infinitesimal dipole, the radiation
resistance for the small dipole is
80 (4‐18) | |
20 (4‐37)
The small dipole its radiated power is of (4‐18). Thus the radiation
resistance of the antenna is strongly dependent upon the current distribution.
4.4 REGION SEPARATION
Before solving the fields radiated by a finite dipole of any length, it is desirable
to discuss the separation of the space surrounding an antenna into three regions
The reactive near‐field
The radiating near‐field
The far‐field
To solve for the fields efficiently, approximations can be made to simplify the
formulation. The difficulties in obtaining closed form solutions that are valid
everywhere for any practical antenna stem from the inability to perform the
integration of
, , ′ ′ (4‐2, 38)
where
(4‐38a)
In the calculations for infinitesimal dipole and small dipole. The major
simplification of (4‐38) will be in the approximation of R.
The Figgure showws a very tthin dipolle of finitee length ll symmetrically possitioned.
Beecause thee wire is vvery thin ((x’ y’ 0), wee can writte (4‐38) aas
(4‐39)
wh
hich can b
be written
n as
2
2 ′ (4‐40
0)
Ussing the binomial eexpansion, we can w
write (4‐4
40) in a seeries as
⋯ (4‐41)
wh
hose higher order tterms beccome lesss significan
nt provideed r >> z’..
To maintain the maximum phase error of an antenna equal to or less than /8
rad (22.5 ), the observation distance r must equal or be greater than 2 /.
2 / (4‐45)
The usual simplification for the far‐field region is
≃ for phase terms
(4‐46)
≃ for amplitude terms 1/
Ref: , , ′ ′ (4‐38)
For any other antenna whose maximum dimension is , the approximation of
(4‐46) is valid provided
r 2D /λ (4‐47)
For an aperture antenna the maximum dimension is taken to be its diagonal.
It wou
uld seem that thee approxiimation o of R in (4‐46) fo
or the am
mplitude
is more sevvere than that fo
or the phaase.
Exxample 4
4.3
For an
n antenn
na with an overall lengtth 5, the observati
o ons are
made at 60. Find thee errors in phase and ampplitude ussing (4‐4
46).
So
olution:
For 90 , , z’ 2
2.5, and
d r 6
60, (4‐40
0) reduce
es to
2 2 ′ (4‐40)
60 2.5 60.052
≃ for phase terms
With (4‐46)
≃ for amplitude terms 1/
r 60
Therefore the phase difference is
2
∆ ∆ 0.327 18.74 22.5
The difference of the inverse values of R is
1 1 1 1 1 1.44 10
60 60.052
which should always be a very small value in amplitude.
If it is necessary to choose observation distances smaller than 2 / , another
term (the third) in the series solution of (4‐41) must be retained to maintain a
maximum phase error of /8 rad (22.5o).
⋯ (4‐41)
Doing this, the infinite series of (4‐41) can be approximated by
(4‐48)
A value of greater than that of (4‐52a) will lead to an error less than /8 rad
(22.5o).
The region where the first three terms of (4‐41) are significant, and the
omission of the fourth introduces a maximum phase error of /8 rad (22.5o), is
defined by
/
2 0.62 / (4‐53)
This region is designated as radiating near field because
The radiating power density is greater than the reactive power density
The field pattern is a function of the radial distance r.
This region is also called the Fresnel region because the field expressions in
this region reduce to Fresnel integrals.
4.5 FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE
The techniques developed previously can be used to analyze the radiation
characteristics of a linear dipole of any length. To reduce the mathematical
complexities, it will be assumed that the dipole has a negligible diameter.
, 0
0, 0, (4‐56)
, 0
This distribution assumes that the antenna is
center‐fed
the current vanishes at the end points.
Experiments have verified that the current in a center‐fed wire antenna has
sinusoidal form with nulls at the end points.
(4‐26b) (4‐57b)
, ,
(4‐26b) ′
(4‐57c)
where R is given by (4‐39) or (4‐40).
Using the far‐field approximations given by (4‐46), (4‐57a) can be written as
, ,
′ (4‐58)
Summing the contributions from all the infinitesimal elements to integration. Thus
/ /
/ /
, , ′ (4‐58a)
The factor outside the brackets is designated as the element factor
And that within the brackets as the space factor.
For this antenna, the element factor is equal to the field of a unit length
infinitesimal dipole located at a reference point. The total field of the antenna is
equal to the product of the element and space factors.
For the current distribution of (4‐56), (4‐58a) can be written as
′
4 / 2
/
′ ′ (4‐60)
⇒ (4‐62a)
The total component can be written as
(4‐62b)
| |
| | (4‐63)
and the radiation intensity as
| |
(4‐64)
Figure 4.7(a) is the
e three‐diimensionaal pattern
n
Figure 4.7(b) is thee two‐dim
mensional pattern
The cuurrent diistribution
n for th
he dipolees with
/4, /2, , 3/2,
/ and 2, as given by (44‐56), is
shown in Figure 4.8.
0
0 330 30
-1
10
300 60
-2
20
-3
30
40 270
-4 90
-3
30
-2
20
240 120
-1
10
0 210 150
180 Figure 4.8 Current disttributions
Figgure 4.7 Thrree‐ and two
o‐dimensionnal amplitud ength of a liinear wire
de patterns ffor a thin along the le
and sinuso
dipole of l = 1.25 oidal currentt distribution. antenna.
To find
d the total powerr radiatedd, the average Po
oynting ve
ector of (4‐63) is
inttegrated o
over a sph here of raadius r. Th
hus
∯ ∙ ∮ ∙
| |
∮ (4‐66)
After some extensive mathematical manipulations, it can be reduced to
| | 1
2 2
4 2
/2 2 2 (4‐68)
where C 0.5772 (Euler’s constant) and Ci x and Si x are the cosine and
sine integrals given by
; 4 68a, b
The radiation resistance can be obtained using (4‐18) and (4‐68)
2 1
2 2
| | 2 2
/2 2 2 (4‐70)
4.5.4 Directivity
The directivity was defined mathematically by (2‐22), or
, |
4 (4‐71)
,
| |
F θ, ϕ F θ , B η (4‐73,73b)
Because the pattern is not a function of , (4‐71) reduces to
|
(4‐74)
,
The corresponding values of the maximum effective aperture are related to
the directivity by
(4‐76)
4.5.5 Inpu
ut Resista
ance
The inp
put imped
dance was defined
d as“the ratio of tthe voltagge to currrent at a
paair of term
minals orr the ratio of the appropriiate comp
ponents of
o the eleectric to
maagnetic fie
elds at a p
point.”
The reaal part of the inputt impedannce was deefined as the inputt resistancce which
for a losslesss antenna reducess to the raadiation resistance.
By the definition
n, the rad
diation resistance iis referred
d to the m
maximum
m current
wh ome lengths (l = //4, 3/4, , etc.) do
hich for so he input terminals
oes not occur at th
of the antennna.
To refe
er the radiation ressistance too the inpu ut terminals of
the antenna, the anttenna is ffirst assum med to bee lossless (RL =
0). Then th
he power at the in
nput term
minals is equated
e to
o the
po
ower at th he currennt maximu um. Referrring to Figure 4.10 0, we
can write
| | | |
⟹ (4‐77)
Figure 4.10 Current
here
wh distribution, m
maximum
does not occcur at the
R rad
diation reesistance aat input (ffeed) term
minals
minals.
input term
R = raadiation resistancee at curren
nt maximu
umEq. (4‐‐70)
I = cu
urrent maximum
I = cu
urrent at input term
minals
dipole of length l, the curreent at thee input terminals (I ) is reelated to
For a d
the current maximum
m (I ) refferring to Figure 4.10, by
(4‐78)
he input raadiation rresistancee of (4‐77aa) can be written aas
Thus th
(4‐79)
Figgure 4.9 R
Radiation resistancce, input rresistancee and directivity of a thin dip
pole with
sinuusoidal cuurrent distribution..
4.6 HALF‐WAVELENGTH DIPOLE
One of the most commonly used antennas is the half‐wavelength (l = /2)
dipole. Because
Its radiation resistance is 73 ohms very near the 50/75‐ohm characteristic
impedances of some transmission lines,
Its matching to the line is simplified especially at resonance.
The electric and magnetic field components of a half‐wavelength dipole can be
obtained from (4‐62a) and (4‐62b) by letting l = /2.
, (4‐84, 85)
The time‐average power density and radiation intensity can be written,
respectively, as
| | | |
(4‐86)
| | | |
(4‐86)
Figure 4
4.6 and 4.11 show the two‐ and the tthree‐ dim
mensionall pattern.
0
0 330 30
-10
0
300 60
-20
0
-30
0
-40
-40
0 270 90
-30
0
-20
0
240 120
-10
0
0 210 150
180
Th
he total po
ower radiated can be obtain
ned as a special casse of (4‐67
7)
| |
(4‐88)
| | | |
2 (4‐89)
Byy (4‐69)
2 0.577
72
ln 2 2
2 0.5
5772 1.838 0.02 2
2.435
(4‐90)
Using (4‐87), (4‐89) and (4‐90), the maximum directivity of the half‐wavelength
dipole reduces to
| /
4 4 1.643 (4‐91)
.
The corresponding maximum effective area is equal to
and the radiation resistance, for a free‐space medium ( 120), is
| |
2 30 2.435 73 (4‐93)
The radiation resistance of (4‐93) is also the radiation resistance at the input
terminals (input resistance) since the current maximum for a dipole of /2
occurs at the input terminals. As it will be shown later, the imaginary part
associated with the input impedance of a dipole is a function of its length (for
/2, it is equal to j42.5). Thus the total input impedance for /2 is equal
to
73 42.5 (4‐93a)
To reduce the imaginary part of the input impedance to zero, the antenna is
matched or reduced in length until the reactance vanishes. The latter is most
commonly used in practice for half‐wavelength dipoles.
Depending on the radius of the wire, the length of the dipole for first
resonance is about 0.47 to 0.48; the thinner the wire, the closer
the length is to 0.48.
For thicker wires, a larger segment of the wire has to be removed from
/2 to achieve resonance.
4.7 LINEAR ELEMENTS NEAR OR ON INFINITE PERFECT CONDUCTORS
The presence of obstacles, especially when it is near the radiating element, can
significantly alter the overall radiation properties.
The most common obstacle is the ground. Any energy from the radiating
element directed toward the ground undergoes a reflection. The amount of
reflected energy and its direction are controlled by the ground.
The ground is a lossy medium ( 0) whose effective conductivity increases
with frequency. Therefore it should be expected to act as a good conductor above
a certain frequency, depending primarily upon its composition and moisture
content. To simplify the analysis,
First assuming the ground is a perfect electric conductor, flat, and infinite.
The same procedure can also be used to investigate the characteristics of any
radiating element near any other infinite, flat, perfect electric conductor.
The effects that finite dimensions have on the radiation properties of a
radiating element can be accounted for by the use of the Geometrical Theory of
Diffraction and/or the Moment Method.
(a) Vertical electric dip
pole (b
b) Field com
mponents at point of refflection
Figure 4
4.12 Vertical electric dipole abo
ove an infin
nite, flat, p
perfect elecctric condu
uctor
The amount of reflection is generally determined by the respective
constitutive parameters of the media below and above the interface.
(a) EElectric con
nductor (b) Magnetic conductorr
4.13 Electrric and maggnetic sources and th
Figure 4 heir images near elecctric (PEC) and
magnetic (
m PMC) cond
ductors.
For an ob bservation point P1, there iss a
dirrect wavee.
On the interface, the incid
dent wavee is comp
pletely refflected an
nd the field below
the boundaary is zero o. The tan
ngential ccomponen
nts of thee electric field musst vanish
n the interrface.
on
1. Radiation pattern
(1) Direct component
The far‐zone direct component of the electric field of the infinitesimal dipole
of length , constant current , and observation point P is given according to
(4‐26a) by
(4‐94)
(2) The reflected component
The reflected component can be accounted for by the introduction of the
virtual source (image), as shown in Figure 4.14(a), and it can be written as
(4‐95, 4‐95a)
(3) The total field
The total field above the interface (z≥0) is equal to the sum of the direct and
reflected components as given by (4‐94) and (4‐95a). In general, we can write that
/ /
2 , 2 (4‐96a, b)
(4‐98)
2 cos z 0
(4‐99)
0 0
The shaape and aamplitudee of the field is nott only conntrolled bby the field of the
sin
ngle elem
ment but also
a by th he positio t elemeent relativve to the ground.
oning of the
Th
he normalized pow wer patteerns for 0, /8, /4, 3 /8, /2, and a have been
plo
otted in FFigure 4.15
5..
0 5
15 0 15
0 30 30
-10
0 45 45
-20
0 60 60
-30
0
h=0 5
75 75
-40
0
8
h=1/8 h=3/8
-50
0 4
h=1/4 9
90 h=1/2 90
h=1
-40
0
10
05 105
-30
0
-20
0 120 120
-10
0 135 135
0 150 150
180 16
65 180 165
For h λ/4 more minor lobes, in n additionn to the m
major one
es, are forrmed. As
h attains values
v grreater than λ, an umber of minor lobes is
n even greater nu
inttroduced..
0 15
0 30
-10 45
These are shown in Figure 4.16 for -20 60
h 2λ and 5λ . In general, the total -30
75
-40
number of lobes is equal to the integer that -50 h=2 90
h=5
is closest to -40
105
-30
2 120
number of lobes 1 -20
-10 135
0 150
180 165
2. Radiation power and directivity
The total radiated power over the upper hemisphere of radius r using
/
1
∙ | |
2
/
| | (4‐101)
which simplifies, with the aid of (4‐99), to
(4‐102)
As kh → ∞ the radiated power, as given by (4‐102), is equal to that of an
isolated element.
As kh → 0, it can be shown that the power is twice that of an isolated element.
The radiation intensity can be written as
| | (4‐103)
(4‐103)
The directivity can be written as
4
(4‐104)
Figure 4.17 Elevation plane amplitu
ude pattern
n of a verticaal infinitesim
mal electric d
dipole at a h
height of
0.4585 ab
bove an infin
nite perfect electric con nductor.
Ussing (4‐10
02), the radiation reesistance can be written as
| |
2 (4‐105)
(4‐19)
Th
he radiation resistaance is plotted
p in Figure 4.18
4 0 h
for 0 5 when = /50
5
an
nd the element is raadiating in nto free‐sspace (η 120).
Fiigure 4.18 D
Directivity an
nd radiationn resistance of a vertical infinitesimal electric d
dipole as a fu
unction of
its height above an infinite perfectt electric conductor
3. monopo
ole
In pracctice, a wide
w use has beenn made of
o a quarrter‐wavelength monopole
m
( λ/4) mounted
m above
a a ground
g plane, and
d fed by a
a coaxial line, as shown
s in
Figgure 4.19
9(a). For analysis purposess, a λ/4 image is introducced and it forms
the λ/2 eq quivalent of Figurre 4.19(b). It should be emphasize
e ed that the λ/2
eqquivalent of Figure 4.19(b) ggives the correct field valuees for the e actual syystem of
Figgure 4.19(a) only above the interfacee (z 0, 0 θ /2).
Figgure 4.19 Quarter‐‐wavelenggth monopole on aan infinite perfect e
electric co
onductor
Thus, the far‐zone electric and magnetic fields for the λ/4 monopole above
the ground plane are given, respectively, by (4‐84) and (4‐85).
, (4‐84, 4‐85)
The input impedance of a λ/4 monopole above a ground plane is equal to
one‐half that of an isolated λ/2 dipole. Thus, referred to the current maximum,
the input impedance Z is given by
Z monopole Z dipole 73 j42.5 36.5 j21.25 (4‐106)
Figure 4.21 Input impedance, real and iimaginary parts, of a veertical mono
opole mountted on an
hone devicee.
expeerimental ceellular teleph
im
mplementaation.
Above the firstt resonance, the immpedancee is inducttive. The ssecond reesonance
rapid changes in th
he valuess of the impedance. Thesee values and variation of
im
mpedance are usually undesirable for practical implementation.
4.7
7.5 Horizo
ontal Elecctric Dipo
ole
Figgure 4.24 Ho
orizontal eleectric dipole,, and its associated
nductor
imaage, above aan infinite, fflat, perfectt electric con
The analysis
a p
procedure e of this iss identicaal to the one of th
he verticaal dipole.
Inttroducingg an imagge and assuming
a far field observattions, as shown in Figure
4.2
25(a, b),
(a) Horizontal electricc dipole abo
ove ground p
plane (b) Far‐‐field observvations
Figgure 4.25 Ho
orizontal eleectric dipolee above an infinite perfeect electric conductor
oefficient is equal to R
Since the reflection co 1, The direct and the
refflect components ccan be wrritten as
(4‐111)
⟹ (4‐112)
To fiind the angle ψ , which is measu
ured from
m the y‐‐axis tow
ward the
ob
bservation
n point, w
we first forrm
∙ ∙ (4‐113)
⟹ 1 1 (4‐114)
Since for far‐field observations
for phase variations (4‐115a)
The two‐dime
t ensional elevation
e
erns (norrmalized to 0 dB)
plaane patte
for = 900 ((y‐z planee) when h = 0, /8,
//4, 3/8, /2, and
d are plotted
p in
Figgure 4.26. Since this antenn na system
is not symm metric witth respectt to the z
axxis, the azzimuthal plane (x‐‐y plane)
paattern is not isotroppic.
Fiigure 4.26 Elevation plaane ( = 900) amplitude
) patterns off a horizontaal infinitesim
mal electric d
dipole for
diffeerent heightts above an infinite perfect electricc conductor..
The radiated power can be written as
(4‐118)
The radiation resistance as
| |
(4‐119)
For small values of
→
(4‐120)
For kh→∞, (4‐119) reduces to that of an isolated element.
80
The radiation resistance, as given by (4‐119), is plotted in Figure 4.29 for
0 h 5 when λ/50 and the antenna is radiating into free‐space
( 120 ).
Figgure 4.29 Raadiation ressistance and d maximum directivity o of a horizonttal infinitesimal electricc dipole as
perfect electric conducttor.
a functtion of its heeight above an infinite p
The radiation in
ntensity is given by
1 (4‐121)
Th
he maximum value
e of (4‐121) depends on thee value off hether kh≤/2, h
(wh
≤/4 or kh
h > /2,h >>/4). It ccan be sho
own that the maxim
mum of (4
4‐121) is:
, , 0 4 122
2 4
, , 0 sin 1 4 122
2 4
The directivity can be written as
4
, 4 123
4
4
4
, 4 123
4
where
(4‐123c)
For small values of kh (kh → 0), (4‐123a) reduces to
4 sin
7.5
2 2 8
3 3 15
For h = 0 the element is shorted and it does not radiate.
PROBLEMS
4.1. A horizontal infinitesimal electric dipole of constant current I0 is placed
symmetrically about the origin and directed along the x‐axis. Derive the
(a) far‐zone fields radiated by the dipole
(b) directivity of the antenna
4.2. Repeat Problem 4.1 for a horizontal infinitesimal electric dipole directed along
the y‐axis.
4.22. A thin linear dipole of length l is placed symmetrically about the z‐axis. Find
the far‐zone spherical electric and magnetic components radiated by the
dipole whose current distribution can be approximated by
1 , 0
(a)
1 , 0
(b) ,
(c) ,
4.23. A center‐fed electric dipole of length l is attached to a balanced lossless
transmission line whose characteristic impedance is 50 ohms. Assuming the
dipole is resonant at the given length, find the input VSWR when
(a) /4
(b) /2
(c) 3 /4
(d)
4.26. A resonant center‐fed dipole is connected to a 50‐ohm line. It is desired to
maintain the input VSWR = 2.
(a) What should the largest input resistance of the dipole be to maintain the
VSWR = 2?
(b) What should the length (in wavelengths) of the dipole be to meet the
specification?
(c) What is the radiation resistance of the dipole?
4.29. A base‐station cellular communication system utilizes arrays of λ/2 dipoles
as transmitting and receiving antennas. Assuming that each element is
lossless and that the input power to each of the λ/2 dipoles is 1 watt,
determine at 1,900 MHz and a distance of 5 km the maximum
(a) radiation intensity Specify also the units.
(b) radiation density (in watts/m2)
4.30. A /2 dipole situated with its center at the origin radiates a time‐averaged
power of 600 W at a frequency of 300 MHz. A second /2 dipole is placed
with its center at a point P r, θ, φ , where r 200 m, θ 90 , φ
40 . It is oriented so that its axis is parallel to that of the transmitting
antenna. What is the available power at the terminals of the second
(receiving) dipole?