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This paper presents a theoretical model that motivation are linked (House & Podsakoff,
integrates two related, but distinct mechanisms 1994; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993).
by which transformational leaders influence Accordingly, the purpose of the present
follower motivation. That is, we propose that an manuscript is to contribute to our understanding
affective mechanism by which charismatic of the effects of motivational leadership. We
leaders induce positive emotional experiences in focus specifically on a well-supported theory of
their followers, and a cognitive mechanisms that leadership—transformational or charismatic
includes communicating the leader’s vision and leadership. We further consider two distinct
its effects on goal setting explain the connection (albeit related) psychological processes that are
between charismatic and transformational assumed to result in heightened follower
leadership and follower motivation. Further, we motivation—cognitive and affective
specify the pathways through which affective mechanisms. In the next section of the paper, we
and cognitive processes influence three consider past research on transformational or
components of follower motivation: The charismatic leadership and discuss the potential
direction of action, the intensity of effort, and motivating effects of transformational leaders.
effort persistence.
Past Research on
Research on leadership has pervaded the Transformational/Charismatic
organizational literature for decades. Found Leadership
among the various theories are comments and
claims suggesting that “effective leaders The term charisma (Greek for ‘gift’) has a
motivate” (Locke, 1991, p. 70). Bass’s (1990) distinguished history—it appears in 19 separate
comprehensive treatment of leadership mentions verses in the New Testament. It was Weber
the term “motivation” hundreds of times. (1947), however, who associated charisma with
According to his model, (Bass, 1985, p.23), organizational leadership. The first theory
leader behaviors result in follower “heightened formally linking charisma to leadership was
motivation to attain designated outcome(s)” House’s (1977) theory, which argues that leaders
which then leads to performance. Path-goal promote organizational change by articulating a
theory maintains that “one of the strategic clear vision and creating a strong bond with
functions of the leader is to enhance the followers that leads to acceptance of the vision.
psychological states of subordinates that result While House was developing his theory of
in motivation to perform” (House & Dessler, charismatic leadership, Burns (1978), in his
1974, p. 30). Despite the high quantity of analysis of political leadership, introduced the
research on the topic of leadership, there still concept of transformational leadership.
remains considerable work to be done in According to Burns, transformational leaders
understanding the motivational effects of motivate followers by appealing to common
leadership. That is to say, neither motivation ideals and moral values. Bass (1985) extended
nor leadership research provide an adequate Burns’s concept further, and argued that
account for specifically how leadership and transformational leadership is comprised of four
distinct dimensions: idealized influence
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership Volume 13, Number 1, 2006 3
(charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual many authors load the purportedly distinct
stimulation, and individualized consideration. factors on a common factor (e.g., Judge & Bono,
There are other terms, sometimes used 2000).
synonymously, such as visionary leadership Whatever the proper label and structure of
(e.g., Locke, 1991b; Sashkin, 1988), to describe this form of leadership, it appears to matter. The
this form of leadership. aforementioned meta-analyses suggest that
A considerable amount of research has charismatic (Fuller et al., 1996) or
accumulated on each theory of leadership. transformational (Lowe et al., 1996) leadership
House and Shamir (e.g., House & Shamir, is related to both subjective perceptions and
1993), Conger and colleagues (e.g., Conger & objective criteria indicating effective leadership.
Kanungo, 1998), and Howell and colleagues Supportive studies have been laboratory (Jung &
(e.g., Howell & Frost, 1989) have been among Avolio, 1999) and field (Howell & Hall-
those contributing to research on charismatic Merenda, 1999), cross-sectional (Yammarino,
leadership. Avolio and Bass (Avolio, 1999; Dubinsky, Comer, & Jolson, 1997) and
Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1994) have been the longitudinal (Howell & Avolio, 1993),
leading researchers on transformational correlational (Judge & Bono, 2000) and
leadership. There have even been separate meta- experimental (Barling, Weber, & Kelloway,
analyses of the effects of transformational 1996). Transformational or charismatic
(Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996) and leadership is associated with perceptions of
charismatic leadership (Fuller, Patterson, Hester, effective leadership (Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, &
& Stringer, 1996), published in the same year. Popper, 1998) and objective measures of group
Despite extensive research on charismatic (Sosik, Avolio, & Kahai, 1997), work unit
and transformational leadership, it is not entirely (Avolio, Howell, & Sosik, 1999), and
clear how the two concepts should be integrated. organizational (Geyer & Steyrer, 1998)
Virtually all writers on the subject agree that performance.
there are strong similarities in the concepts. At the same time, beyond the definitional
Some argue that despite the similarities, one difficulties noted above, there is a mysterious
concept is to be preferred over the others. Bass quality to this leadership. Some of the concern
and Avolio (1994) argue that charisma is only and debate has been over whether charismatic or
one lower-order component of transformational transformational leadership is of the exceptional
leadership. Conversely, others prefer charisma nature—reserved for a few gifted individuals—
over transformational leadership. Conger and or of a more prosaic nature for the masses (see
Kanungo (1998, p. 70) write, “the Conger- Beyer, 1999). A more microanalytical—but
Kanungo model of charismatic leadership is the equally important—concern is the need to
most comprehensive.” Shamir et al. (1993, p. understand how transformational leadership
577) prefer the label charismatic on the grounds works. As Bass (1999, p. 24) commented,
that “charisma is a central concept in all of “Much more explanation is needed about the
them.” Other writers use the terms workings of transformational leadership.”
synonymously (e.g., Baum, Locke, & Although there have been recent efforts to look
Kirkpatrick, 1998). Den Hartog and Koopman inside this “black box” (Jung & Avolio, 2000), a
(2001, p. 173) conclude, “Despite the broad particularly pressing area is the need to
array of terms used by different authors within understand the motivational effects of
this approach, there seem to be more similarities transformational or charismatic leaders. Shamir
than differences between these view of the et al. (1993, p. 578) commented, “There is no
phenomenon of leadership.” Supporting this motivational explanation to account for the
conclusion, the meta-analyses of profound effects of [charismatic] leaders.”
transformational (Lowe et al., 1996, Table 5, p. Similarly, House and Aditya (1997, p. 442)
410) and charismatic (Fuller et al., 1996, Table concluded, “The neocharismatic theories offer
2, p. 280) leadership found nearly identical inadequate or untested explanations of the
effects. Charisma correlates very highly with the process by which the theoretical leader
other dimensions of transformational leadership behaviors are linked to, and
(ave. r=.84; Lowe et al., 1996, p. 421), and influence…followers.”
4 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Ilies, Judge, & Wagner
amount of effort, and (c) the choice to persist processes. The overarching model is presented
over time. Similarly, Ambrose and Kulik (1999, in Figure 1. In order to more specifically
p. 231), following Pinder (1998), view describe the model and generate testable
motivation as composed of forces that “initiate propositions, we then further decompose the
work-related behavior and determine its form, behavioral component of motivation into three
direction, intensity, and duration.” Thus, these subcomponents, according to the classical model
authors conceptualize motivation in terms of of work motivation (e.g., Campbell & Prichard,
choices and view direction, amplitude/intensity, 1976): direction, amplitude, and persistence.
and persistence as immediate products of Figure 2 shows a detailed model that portrays
motivation. Others consider the effort the mechanisms through which transformational
components (direction, amplitude, and leaders influence followers’ motivation. Finally,
persistence) as being motivational factors per se, after we discuss the affective and cognitive links
and not outcomes of motivation (e.g., Bandura, between transformational leadership and
1991; Locke, 1997). We adopt the latter follower motivation, adopting a self-regulation
perspective in this paper and consider the approach to motivation (e.g., Bandura, 1991),
behavioral component of motivation we address the interdependence between
(comprising direction of effort, effort amplitude, affective and cognitive influences on motivation
and persistence) to be part of the work using Higgins’s (1997, 1998) theory of
motivation construct. (Following Naylor, regulatory focus. In sum, our model of
Pritchard and Ilgen [1980], we use the terms motivation includes affective and cognitive
“amplitude” and “intensity” interchangeably.) processes that influence the effort variables of
From a conceptual standpoint, we focus on direction, amplitude, and persistence, and a self-
the influence that transformational leaders have regulation process that combines affect and
on the behavioral component of followers’ cognition.
motivation through affective and cognitive
Figure 1
Conceptual Model of the Influence of Transformational Leadership on Follower Motivated Behavior
Affective Influence
Processes
Cognitive Influence
Processes
and their affective states, transformational Due to the difficulty of capturing true
leaders can induce changes in followers’ emotions in the workplace, the distinction
behavior—influencing them to exert effort on between emotions and specific affects is often,
tasks that are important for the organization. understandably, blurred in the organizational
In the broadest terms, with respect to affective behavior literature (e.g., Lee & Allen, 2002).
influence processes on follower motivation, Here, we use the term “emotions” to describe
we propose that the emotions and affective emotional experiences ranging from intense
states of leaders themselves influence the (pure) emotions to more attenuated affective
emotions and affect of followers which, in states. The terms “positive affect” and
turn, influence followers’ motivation. “negative affect” refer to Watson and Clark’s
(1994) higher-order factors of PA and NA
Emotions, Mood and Affect throughout the paper. We use the term
At this point it is necessary to discuss the “positive emotions” to describe emotional
distinction between emotions, mood and experiences corresponding to the lower-order
affect. Like other authors (e.g., Ashforth & dimensions of Watson and Clark’s PA (e.g.,
Humphrey, 1995; Fisher, 2000; Kelly & joviality, self-assurance) or to the adjectives
Barsade, 2001), we see affect as an inclusive used as markers for PA (e.g., determined,
term that refers to both emotions and moods. enthusiastic).
Emotions and moods, however, are distinct
phenomena. Three main factors distinguish Leader Charisma and Emotions
mood from emotions: intensity, duration, and As shown in Figure 2, the dimension of
causal antecedents (Frijda, 1994; Watson, transformational leadership that is essential to
2000). Emotions are more intense and shorter- affective influences is charisma (or idealized
lived than moods, and they are more likely to influence; Avolio et al., 1995). Though not
be caused by external events (mood states are explicitly focusing on emotional dimensions
subject to endogenous influences such as the per se, the literature on charismatic leaders
circadian cycle; Watson, 2000). Emotion describes them as being determined, self-
theorists (e.g., Eckman, 1992; Izard, 1991; confident, enthusiastic, and energetic (e.g.,
Plutchik, 1994) focus on discrete emotions Conger & Kanungo, 1998; House, 1977;
such as joy, fear, anger, and disgust. Mood Sashkin, 1988). Determination, self-
theorists generally take a dimensional confidence, enthusiasm, and energy are all
perspective on the study of affect, focusing on positive emotions that are considered markers
broad factors such as Pleasantness- of positive affect (Watson & Clark, 1994;
Unpleasantness and Activation (e.g., Larsen & Watson et al., 1988). In addition, evidence
Diener, 1992; Russell & Carroll, 1999), or indicates that extraversion—a trait that is
Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect believed to reflect individual differences in the
(NA; e.g., Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). propensity to experience positive emotions
To bridge the gap between the categorical and (e.g., Tellegen, 1985)—is strongly related to
the dimensional approaches, Watson and leadership emergence in groups (Watson &
Clark (1994) have developed the Positive and Clark, 1997). Accordingly, we posit that:
Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form P-1: Charismatic leaders, as opposed to
(PANAS-X), which measures both higher- non-charismatic leaders: (a) experience
order affect dimensions (PA and NA) and positive emotions more often and more
specific affects that correspond to distinct strongly; (b) on average, experience higher
emotions (PA: joviality, self-assurance, levels of positive affect.
attentiveness; NA: fear, sadness, guilt,
hostility).
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership Volume 13, Number 1, 2006 7
(ACT; Friedman, Prince, Riggio, & DiMatteo, subordinate relationship is more formally
1980). The ACT includes items such as “I can structured. Such support points us towards the
easily express emotion over the telephone” or powerful influence that leaders, and leaders’
“I am able to give a seductive glance if I want moods, can have on their followers.
to.” In their article on the development of the Second, Bono and Ilies (2006) report the
ACT, Friedman et al. (1980, p. 347) results of multiple experiments addressing
concluded that “much of what is meant by charismatic leaders, their expression of
charisma can be understood in terms of positive emotions, and the transfer of positive
expressiveness.” These authors found that emotions to their followers. They report
extraversion was one of the strongest several important findings. First, they found
personality correlates of the ACT, which is that subordinate ratings of leader charisma
consistent with an association between were positively related to the leader’s use of
individual differences in the BAS and the positive emotional expression. Second, they
capacity to transmit emotion. An instrument found that followers of charismatic leaders
similar to the ACT is the Facial were more strongly affected by the emotions
Expressiveness Scale (FES), which was of their leader. That is, followers of
developed by Klein and Cacioppo (1993; see charismatic leaders reported higher positive
also Verbeke, 1997) and contains items such affect than did followers of non-charismatic
as “People can tell I have a problem from my leaders. These empirical findings support our
expression” or “People have told me that I am contention that charismatic leaders
an expressive person.” demonstrate more emotional communication
Several studies have examined the links than non-charismatic leaders, and that these
between leaders’ and followers’ emotions or emotions are transferred to followers of
affect. Lewis (2000, p. 228), in a laboratory charismatic leaders more strongly than are
investigation of negative emotions, found those of non-charismatic leaders.
“consistent main effects for leader emotion on P-2: Charismatic leaders transmit
follower affect.” She also found that the their emotions to followers more effectively,
emotional tone of the leader impacted compared with non-charismatic leaders.
followers’ perceptions of leader effectiveness As we proposed that charismatic leaders
(leaders expressing anger and sadness were experience positive emotions more often and
rated lower than leaders with a neutral more strongly and they also experience higher
emotional tone). George (1995), focusing on average levels of positive affect than non-
positive affect, found similar effects in a field charismatic leaders, it follows that:
study of sales managers. Specifically, leader P-3: There is a positive
positive affect was positively related to the relationship between leader charisma and
group-level positive affect, and leader positive follower emotional experiences. Specifically,
affect and group positive affect each predicted followers of charismatic leaders experience (a)
group performance. more positive emotions, and (b) higher levels
Two recent studies have specifically of positive affect, than followers of non-
examined the emotional contagion charismatic leaders.
phenomenon. First, in an experimental study
in which they utilized preexisting groups, Sy, Follower Emotion and Motivation
Cote, and Saavedra (2005) found that leaders In the preceding sections, we have
in a positive mood condition influenced their proposed that charismatic leaders experience
teams such that at the end of a team task, the positive emotions more often and more
members of the team showed higher positive strongly than non-charismatic leaders, and that
affect than did teams led by leaders in the they transmit these emotions to their followers
neutral mood manipulation. Furthermore, Sy more effectively than non-charismatic leaders.
et al. (2005) highlight that their study provides We now turn to the links between the positive
“a conservative test of the effects of the mood emotions experienced by followers and their
of the leader” (p. 296), suggesting that the work motivation. As shown in Figure 2, we
effects of a leader’s moods will have a greater propose that positive emotions influence
effect on subordinates when the leader— motivation directly by influencing the
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership Volume 13, Number 1, 2006 9
amplitude, direction, and persistence Seo et al. (2004) discuss the generative—
components of motivation, and indirectly defensive orientation in behavioral choice.
through their effects on self-efficacy and self- They “define generativeness as a behavioral
set goals. orientation toward exploring and achieving
First, we believe positive emotions anticipated positive outcomes” (p. 425) and
influence the amplitude of effort exerted by assert that in the pursuit of such outcomes,
employees. Focusing on general mood, individuals assume risk and are willing to
George and Brief (1996) proposed that incur losses. From this perspective, the
positive mood influences the initial amount of direction that individuals take can be mapped
effort exerted on a task through its influence on a continuum from generative actions,
on the three components of expectancy intended to achieve positive outcomes through
motivation: valence, instrumentality, and risk taking and exploration, to defensive
expectancy. Seo, Feldman Barrett, and actions, in which individuals avoid negative
Bartunek (2004) presented a model connecting outcomes despite potential opportunities to
core affective experience, consisting of actively pursue and achieve positive
pleasantness and activation, to the behavioral outcomes. Such a perspective falls in line
outcomes of direction, persistence, and with the many dichotomies presented in the
intensity. The affect—intensity relationship is motivation literature, such as Higgins’
theorized to occur via expectancy judgments promotion—prevention approach (Brockner &
by the individual. In the only published report Higgins, 2001; Higgins, 1997), as well as with
that tested the relationship between positive Gray’s behavioral activation system—
affect and expectancy motivation, Erez and behavioral inhibition system approach (Gray,
Isen (2002) found, in their first study, that 1981; 1990). Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-
positive affect influenced participants’ and-build theory of positive emotions also
perceptions of expectancy and valence and suggests that when individuals experience
their performance on an anagram solving task, positive emotions, they are more likely to be
and, in their second study, that positive affect exploratory, creative, playful, and learning
influenced all three components of expectancy oriented. Thus, we see that the influence of
motivation. We should note that because positive emotion is likely to affect the
expectancy theory is a cognitive theory, this directional aspect of an individual’s
link implicitly assumes a mediating effect of motivation, including occasions when this
cognitions on the relationship between affective state is fostered by a charismatic
emotions and effort. Consistent with research leader. Based on this support, we propose the
that points to a linear relationship between following:
arousal and task performance (e.g., Matthews, P-5: Positive emotions influence
Davies, & Lees, 1990), a more direct task direction by inducing
explanation of the effect of positive emotions promotive/generative actions such as
on effort amplitude would focus on the impact exploration, risk taking, and creativity.
of the arousal component of positive emotions Third, we believe that employees who
on general activation, which should increase experience more positive emotions will be
the amplitude of effort by making more motivated to persist longer in their efforts to
resources available for performing the task complete work tasks successfully. With
(Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989). Accordingly: respect to positive mood and task persistence,
P-4: Positive emotions will George and Brief (1996, p. 89) state: “…once
positively influence the amplitude of the effort a worker is in the process of performing a
exerted by employees on a specific task task, positive mood also enhances proximal
through (a) the effect of the valence of motivation in that it results in a worker, for
emotions on expectancy cognitions, and (b) example, persisting.” Such an effect can be
the effect of emotional arousal on resource explained by two processes: the tendency to
availability. form mood-congruent judgments, and the
Second, we suggest that employees who effect of emotional arousal on resource
experience more positive emotions will availability. Mood-congruent judgments
expend their energy in pursuit of goals that are associated with positive emotions include
perceived as positive and promotion focused. more favorable evaluations of goal progress
10 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Ilies, Judge, & Wagner
(George & Brief, 1996), and higher levels of the subsequent goal level, and we also
task enjoyment (Venhatesh & Speier, 1999). subscribe to this perspective in suggesting that
As argued by Seo et al. (2004), core affective a follower’s emotional state will have a
experiences help determine our progress positive relationship with self-efficacy, and
judgments and these judgments in great part subsequently with self-set goals.
determine an individual’s persistence at a P-7: Positive emotions will
goal. From an expectancy theory perspective, positively influence employees’ perceptions of
positive evaluations of goal progress and high self-efficacy (a) directly, and (b) indirectly,
levels of task enjoyment should both lead to through an associative effect of emotion on
increased persistence on a specific task. The cognition.
arousal component of positive emotions Fifth, we believe that follower affective
makes more attentional resources available for experience will have a direct effect on self-set
task performance (Matthews, Davies, & Lees, goals. Empirical work by Ilies and Judge
1990), which enables employees experiencing (2005) examined the dynamic relationships
positive emotions to persist longer on the tasks among feedback, affect, and self-set goals.
that they are performing (e.g., Kanfer & They found that, in a multi-trial study, the
Ackerman, 1989). In sum: effect of feedback on self-set goals was
P-6: Positive emotions have a partially mediated by positive affect. This
positive effect on task persistence. Employees suggests that individual affective experience
experiencing positive emotions will persist has some bearing on the level of goals
longer on a specific task because of (a) individuals set for themselves. Seo and
emotion-congruent evaluations of goal colleagues (Seo et al., 2004) argue that this is
progress and task enjoyment, and (b) the case, noting that “scholars from several
increased resource availability facilitated by disciplines suggest that affective reaction is a
emotional arousal. core driver of conscious attention, which then
Fourth, following Staw, Sutton, and influences the cognitive processes involved in
Pelled (1994), we propose that employees’ decision making and goal setting” (p. 427).
positive emotions influence their level of self- Accordingly, we suggest that individuals who
efficacy with respect to their performance on follow a charismatic leader are likely to
the task at hand which, in turn, should increase establish their goals as guided by their
the level of effort amplitude and persistence. If affective experiences.
charismatic leaders induce feelings of general One mechanism by which this occurs
self-confidence and enthusiasm (e.g., Burns, could include the behavioral activation system
1978; Conger & Kanungo, 1998; House, (BAS; Gray, 1990). The BAS is believed to
1977), these emotions will directly affect regulate the experience of positive emotions
followers’ task-specific self-efficacy. Other and moods, whereas the behavioral inhibition
positive emotions (e.g., joy, liveliness) will system (BIS) regulates negative emotions and
influence self-efficacy indirectly, through an moods. Stimuli from the environment
associative effect of emotions on judgments influence people’s affective states, and the
(Blaney, 1986; George & Brief, 1996). resulting affective states will reinforce
Again, we refer to the recently published behavioral motivation. As charismatic leaders
model by Seo and colleagues (Seo et al., 2004) induce feelings of positive affect among their
suggesting that affect influences motivation followers, the followers will respond with an
partially through its influence on expectancy approach response that will strengthen their
judgments. These expectancy judgments connection to the leader. The affect will also
represent the level of confidence or the result in an approach response towards the
expectation of success that the individual has content of the stimulus (i.e. the goals) and will
in a certain outcome. This concept is closely therefore be positively related to the
related to task-specific self-efficacy, as it follower’s self-set goals. Therefore, we
addresses the perceived likelihood of task propose that:
accomplishment given effort on the task. Seo P-8: Positive emotions will
et al. (2004) propose that the expectancy positively influence followers’ self-set goals
judgments related to a task are predictive of
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership Volume 13, Number 1, 2006 11
a “strategic umbrella.” Based on the foregoing
Cognitive Processes review, we define vision as a broad,
As can be seen in Figure 2, the cognitive overarching value-based goal that represents
half of the detailed model begins with vision. the leader’s idealized future of the
Vision is the only element that is common to organization. In this definition, the idealized
all major theories of charismatic and future may take on ideological or moral
transformational leadership (House & Shamir, aspects, though we do not believe this is
1993). Given its centrality to this form of necessarily the case in all visions.
leadership, it is surprising that there have been As is depicted in the model, we assume
relatively few empirical studies of visionary that the process of vision formulation and
leadership. Larwood, Falbe, Kriger, and vision articulation is primarily cognitive.
Miesing (1995) found that top executives rated Conger and Kanungo (1998) argue that vision
their own vision statements using positive formulation is a logical and rational process,
descriptors (e.g., action-oriented, flexible, and includes elements such as evaluation of
strategic), and these descriptors could be the current conditions, environmental
reduced to a set of seven factors such as items scanning, and articulation of how the vision
relating to vision formulation or vision remedies problems in the current status quo.
implementation. Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996) Other writers also emphasize the cognitive
found that several positive follower effects aspects of vision, where it represents a
(trust in leader, perceived value congruence “conceptual roadmap” (Tichy & Devanna,
with the leader, goals for quality) resulted 1986, p. 128) or a “memory tool” (Conger &
when a trained actor provided a vision Kanungo, 1998, p. 158). Wofford and
emphasizing high quality. Baum, Locke, and Goodwin (1994) argue that vision,
Kirkpatrick (1998) found that entrepreneurial representing a leader’s broad, long-term
visions that possessed certain attributes (e.g., memory construct (schema), is a product of
brief, clear, future-oriented), were well various cognitive processes such as cognitive
communicated, and focused on growth were scripting (action plans for translating vision
associated with higher levels of business into goals) and encoding (e.g., expectations of,
venture growth. Despite these articles, which and attributions about, followers). To be sure,
are noteworthy exceptions, few studies in the there may be emotional aspects of vision
leadership literature have focused specifically communication (e.g., charismatic leaders may
on vision. use dramatic emotional expressions or
gestures to build commitment to the vision;
Vision Defined Gardner & Avolio, 1998), and follower
Given the relatively sparse research devotion to a charismatic leader’s vision may
attention, one may wonder just what a vision be the product of emotional or even irrational
is. As is true of any concept, vision has been processes (Weber, 1947). Nevertheless, as
defined somewhat differently among writers noted above, in most conceptualizations of
on the subject. Some definitions of vision vision, the concept is a relatively cognitive
merely emphasize the future-orientation of one.
vision, describing it as an “end-state” So what does it mean to be a visionary
(Gardner & Avolio, 1998, p. 39) or a leader? In part, a visionary leader is one who
“description of…the future” (Kotter, 1990, p. has a vision. Surprisingly, many leaders, even
36). Others, such as House (1995) and those at the top level, do not have a
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996), emphasize the discernable vision. Hart and Quinn’s (1993)
ideological nature of vision, indicating that it study of CEO’s revealed that vision setter was
represents shared values and often has moral one of the roles least likely to be pursued,
overtones. Still other definitions of vision even though it was positively related to
emphasize its goal-orientation; Sashkin (1986, performance. At the same time, it probably is
p. 59) comments, “All visions must not enough to merely have a vision—a leader
incorporate a goal.” Finally, some consider must know how to bring the vision to fruition.
vision as a necessary part, or outcome, of the Locke (2003) notes that some visionary
strategy formulation process. For example, leaders fail because their visions are not
Mintzberg and Waters (1985) define vision as properly implemented. This is where goal
12 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Ilies, Judge, & Wagner
setting comes into play, as goals are the for followers that centers on the vision and
mechanism by which the vision will be leads to subordinate goals. In short, visions
implemented (Zaccaro & Banks, 2001). provide followers with a cognitive road map
that structures their activities; this cognitive
Vision and Goals road map leads to the setting of challenging
Despite their obvious connection, a goals. But are the goals of visionary leaders
vision and a goal are not the same concept, in necessarily challenging? Northouse (1997, p.
theory or in practice. Indeed, on several 132) notes that transformational leaders
dimensions—time-orientation (short-term “communicate high performance expectations
versus long-term) and specificity (specific for followers.” Similarly, Eden (1992, p. 184)
versus abstract)—what is desirable for a goal notes that transformational leaders create a
is the opposite of what is desirable for a vision “Pygmalion effect by expecting high
(Kirkpatrick, Locke, & Latham, 1996). performance from their followers.” He further
Though visions and goals are distinct, they notes that “one effective way to produce a
share many compatibilities. Both visions and Pygmalion effect is to set difficult goals”
goals are cognitive concepts that implicitly (Eden, 1992, p. 285). Thus, there is reason to
consider the discrepancy between the present believe a vision should lead to the setting of
state and a desired future condition. Conger challenging goals for followers.
and Kanungo (1998, p. 158) argue that vision At this point we should note that, though
is an overarching idealized goal that provides the common perspective in the motivation
for more specific, tactical goals. In this way, literature has been that specific, challenging
vision is linked to goal setting through a goals lead to the greatest performance, this
cascade process: A broad, long-term, stance is based primarily on lab studies
ambiguous vision is translated into more performed with simple tasks. This research
specific organizational strategies, which are has greatly illuminated the field. However,
then translated into specific, concrete, finite recent research has filled in important gaps in
goals (Zaccaro & Banks, 2001). In Wofford our understanding of how goals influence
and Goodwin’s (1994) cognitive theory, a individuals in situations or tasks of greater
transformational leader’s vision leads to goals complexity. Specifically, Kanfer (1996;
of increasing specificity. Thus, though visions Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), in her discussion
and goals are distinct concepts, a vision could of the resource allocation model, found that on
be argued to lead to goal-setting. Perhaps this complex tasks, initially emphasizing learning
link is strongest for transformational leaders, results in better skill acquisition, such that the
who may be better at persuasively individual is more adept at the task and is able
communicating their vision in a way that leads to reach a more objectively difficult
to follower goals (Kirkpatrick & Locke, performance goal later in the performance of
1996). Thus, the difference between a vision the task.
and a goal is the following (see Locke, 2003): Charismatic leadership could reasonably
(a) typically a leader has one vision but there evoke these higher level learning tendencies in
may be many goals that flow from that single followers, such that their abilities will be
overarching vision; (b) because of this, a further developed and they will subsequently
vision is usually more general, more distal, demonstrate greater performance on tasks.
and less individualized compared to a goal; (c) This encouragement to initially seek a learning
the relationship between vision and goals is orientation could be due to the feelings of
hierarchical, so that the specific goals are safety and inspiration that the charismatic
derived from the vision, and the attainment of leader evokes in followers. If a follower feels
the goals, in turn, fulfills the vision. inspired to greatness by the leader, the
While the foregoing provides a basis for follower would be more inclined to implement
linking vision to goals, it does not address the a learning approach and thus build skills and
question of specifically how the setting of competencies that would enable greater
direction on the part of the leader leads to subsequent performance. Accordingly, as
goals. Wofford and Goodwin (1994) argue abilities are increased, the follower will
that visionary leadership provides a schema experience a concomitant increase in self-
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership Volume 13, Number 1, 2006 13
efficacy, further encouraging the leader’s goal as their goal if they feel the goal
establishment of challenging, yet now- is appropriate or desirable. As Latham and
reachable goals. Locke (1991) point out, the most direct
Beyond its effect on the setting of method of influencing goal choice is for an
challenging learning and performance goals, authority figure (i.e., a leader) to assign a goal.
visionary leadership also should lead to goal Early and Lituchy (1991) conducted three
commitment. As Zaccaro and Banks (2001) studies and all three showed that self-efficacy
argue, one way that vision may lead to and self-set goals mediated the relationship
effectiveness is that the actions of the between assigned goals and performance.
visionary leader galvanize support for the The establishment of a goal by a leader is
vision. In House’s (1977) theory, charismatic likely to produce a state of disequilibrium in
leaders articulate a vision, but also foster ties the follower. According to several theories of
with followers that lead to support of the self-regulation, this discrepancy moves the
vision. Because goal commitment results from individual to action in an attempt to reduce the
a rational appraisal that involves whether the discrepancy. Thus, the presence of a leader
goal can be achieved (Hollenbeck & Klein, and the goals the leader sets will have at a
1987), and transformational leaders help minimum, an effect on felt discrepancies in
clarify contingencies between follower effort the follower, leading to efforts to reduce that
and outcomes (House & Shamir, 1993), discrepancy. A charismatic leader will exert
visionary leadership should result in authority by appealing to the follower’s ideals
heightened goal commitment. Indeed, and values and, to the extent that the goals
Kirkpatrick et al. (1996) hypothesized a link presented by the leader are in alignment with
between visionary leadership and goal those values, the externally-set, externally-
commitment, although we are not aware of motivating goal would become internalized.
any empirical data on the subject. (Note that Close alignment of the goal with the
goal commitment component is not included individual’s values will result in integrated or
in the model presented in Figure 2 in order to identified motivation (more closely
keep it visually interpretable.) resembling intrinsic motivation), thereby
P-9: Visionary leadership will be resulting in greater commitment to the goal
positively related to goal setting. Specifically, and greater subsequent pursuit of the goal
visionary leaders will be more likely to set through increased intensity and enduring
challenging goals that will be associated with persistence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Further
follower commitment to the goals. evidence even suggests that if individuals
reject assigned goals, they maintain higher
Follower Goals and Motivation personal goals than if difficult goals had not
Having established the link between been set in the first place (Vance & Colella,
vision and goal setting, it remains to discuss 1990).
the effect of goals on follower motivation. P-10: Leader goal-setting behavior
Figure 2 shows that, first, goal setting leads to (leader assigning difficult, specific goals) will
follower self-efficacy and self-set goals. With be related to follower (a) self-efficacy and (b)
respect to the effect of goal setting on self- self-set goals.
efficacy, in Locke’s (1997, p. 379) integrative In sum, visionary leadership influences
model, assigned goals lead to greater self- followers’ self-efficacy and self-self goals
efficacy because they implicitly “express through leader goal-setting. But vision can
confidence in the subordinate.” Research also have a direct effect on followers’ personal
clearly supports the effect of assigned goals on (self-set) goals. Though goal setting, like other
self-efficacy (Gellatly & Meyer, 1992). motivation theories, is firmly anchored in the
Second, many studies have shown that conscious awareness domain (e.g., Locke,
assigned goals, such as those that would be set 2000), recent research on automatic goal
by the leader, are associated with higher self- activation suggests that goals can also be
set goals (Locke, 1997). According to Locke activated outside awareness and, in fact,
and Latham (1990), assigned goals lead to automatically-activated goals are pursued in
self-set goals because of goal choice. the same way as deliberate goals (e.g.,
Individuals are more likely to adopt their Chartrand & Bargh, 1996; see Chartrand &
14 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Ilies, Judge, & Wagner
in testing the model, and provide some movie (in contrast to the prediction derived
suggestions for future research. from the associative network model).
From the mood-as-information
Implications for Testing of the Model perspective, positive emotions induced by
In our view, even though they are transformational leaders will lead to
conceptually distinct, the affective and judgments of increased self-efficacy only if
cognitive motivational mechanisms proposed the emotions are somehow connected to
in our model are highly related to each other follower performance or goal progress. Such
and their effects on follower motivation are connection is realized when leaders celebrate
probably more complex than those proposed success and praise good performance. From
in the model. We have proposed a direct the mood-as-input perspective, because good
relationship between positive emotions and performance is positively valenced (people
self-efficacy but other relationships between expect to feel good when they perform well),
affective and cognitive constructs are likely to employees will tend to make positive
exist. For example, goals are thought to raise evaluations of goal progress and self-efficacy
arousal (Gellatly & Meyer, 1992), and positive when they experience positive affect (Martin
emotions should increase self-set goal et al., 1997). Positive goal-progress
difficulty (Baron, 1990). Thus, given the evaluations and high self-efficacy will lead to
strong “energetic arousal” component of challenging subsequent goals through the
positive emotions (Matthews et al., 1990; positive discrepancy creation (i.e., setting
Thayer, 1989, 1996), positive emotions and goals at a level higher than past performance)
self-set goals may be related positively in a bi- mechanism described by social cognitive
directional manner. theory (Bandura & Locke, 2003; Wood &
From a theoretical perspective, the direct Bandura, 1989).
link between positive emotions and self- As a practical matter, one advantage of
efficacy is based on the associative network the proposed model is that measures of most
model of affect and cognition (e.g., Blaney, of the concepts exist. The Multifactor
1986; Bower, 1981), which suggests that Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ; Avolio et
emotions activate similarly-valenced al., 1995) has factors that assess idealized
memories and cognitions (e.g., Rusting & influence (charisma) and inspirational
DeHart, 2000). More recent models of affect motivation. Similarly, Conger and Kanungo
and cognition, however, suggest that the (1998) have developed a measure of
effects of affect on cognitions and behaviors charismatic leadership wherein one of the
are context-dependent. The mood-as- dimensions is “Vision and Articulation.” In
information model (Clore, Gasper, & Garvin, terms of the affect part of the model, we have
2001; Schwarz & Clore, 1983), for example, previously discussed two measures of
suggests that one’s current momentary mood emotional contagion, the Affective
provides information for cognitive Communication Test (ACT; Friedman et al.,
evaluations. Mood congruent judgments arise 1980) and the Facial Expressiveness Scale
only in situations in which people believe their (FES; Klein & Cacioppo, 1993). Many
current mood is attributable to the source that measures exist of energetic arousal and
is targeted by the evaluation (i.e., good positive affect (e.g., Thayer, 1986, Watson &
performance, in the case of self-efficacy Clark, 1994). As for the cognitive portion of
evaluations). In contrast, the mood-as-input the model, there is a voluminous literature on
model (Martin, Ward, Achee, & Wyer, 1993; the proper operationalization of the
Martin, Abend, Sedikides, & Green, 1997), components of goal-setting and self-efficacy
posits that the way in which mood induced by (see Wright, 1990).
specific stimuli is used as input to the Despite the availability of measures, a
evaluation process depends on the role complex series of decisions would need to be
fulfillment of the stimuli to be evaluated. For made in testing the model. For example, goal
example, negative moods induced by a sad difficulty can be measured in various ways,
movie signal that the movie has fulfilled it role and it appears that these measures have
and thus lead to positive evaluations of the implications for the relative validity of the
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership Volume 13, Number 1, 2006 17
goal difficulty concept (Wright, 1990). Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership
Another important issue is the type of task. development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Goal setting is more effective for relatively Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I.
simple than complex tasks (Wood, Mento, & (1995). Multifactor Leadership
Locke, 1987). Transformational leadership, Questionnaire technical report. Redwood
on the other hand, increases the intrinsic City, CA: Mind Garden.
meaning of work (work is seen as more Avolio, B. J., Howell, J. M., & Sosik, J. J.
challenging and intrinsically fulfilling; Bass, (1999). A funny thing happened on the
1985), and therefore could be expected to lead way to the bottom line: Humor as a
to improved performance on more complex moderator of leadership style effects.
tasks. Therefore, empirical validation of our Academy of Management Journal, 42,
model would suggest a close look at the 219-227.
strength of the proposed relationships in the Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of
context of both complex and simple goals. self-regulation. Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-
Conclusion 287.
As noted, we believe greater attention to Bandura, A. (2000). Cultivate self-efficacy for
the integration of research in leadership and personal and organizational effectiveness.
motivation can further our understanding of In E. A. Locke (Ed.), Handbook of
the effects of charismatic and transformational principles of organizational behavior
leadership. We have proposed in this paper (pp.120-136). Oxford, UK Blackwell.
that transformational leadership is an Bandura, A., & Locke, E.A. (2003). Negative
important factor in employee motivation, and self-efficacy and goal effects revisited.
we have put forward a model that specifies the Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 87-
mechanisms through which the influence of 99.
transformational leadership on employee Bargh, J. A. (1990). Auto-motives:
motivation is realized. In our view, this paper Preconscious determinants of social
will contribute to research in organizations by interaction. In E. T. Higgins & R. M.
stimulating further research to delineate the Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of
processes by which leaders exert motivating motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 93-
influence on their followers. We hope that 130). New York: Guilford.
such an approach will also be of benefit to the Barling, J., Weber, T., & Kelloway, E. K.
literature on motivation by convincing (1996). Effects of transformational
motivation scholars to take a broader view of leadership training on attitudinal and
work motivation and study other financial outcomes: A field experiment.
organizational factors that have distal Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 827-
influences on employee motivation. 832.
Baron, R. A. (1990). Environmentally induced
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