Generators and Motors

EQUIPMENT
GENERATORS AND MOTORS
TRAINING MANUAL
Course EXP-PR-EQ150-EN
Revision 0.1
Exploration & Production
Equipment
Generators & Motors
EQUIPMENT
GENERATORS AND MOTORS
SUMMARY
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................7
2. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC MACHINES.................................................................8
2.1. ALTERNATORS AND MOTORS...............................................................................8
2.1.1. Differentiation ....................................................................................................8
2.1.2. Construction ......................................................................................................9
2.1.3. Electromagnetic induction ...............................................................................11
3. GENERATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ....................................................................12
3.1. GENERATION OF DIRECT ELECTRIC..................................................................12
3.1.1. Batteries ..........................................................................................................12
3.1.2. Photovoltaic cells.............................................................................................13
3.1.4. T.E.G. Thermo Electric Generator ...................................................................15
3.1.5. Rotating generators .........................................................................................16
3.1.5.1. Energy conversion .....................................................................................16
3.1.5.2. Symbol .......................................................................................................16
3.1.5.3. Construction ...............................................................................................16
3.1.5.4. Principle of a DC generator ........................................................................17
3.1.5.5. Different DC machine types: ......................................................................19
3.2. GENERATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT ......................................................21
3.2.1. Principle of an AC generator ...........................................................................21
3.2.2. Permanent magnet generator..........................................................................24
3.2.3. Principle of a basic alternator ..........................................................................26
3.2.3.2. Alternator with 2 pairs of poles ...................................................................26
3.2.3.3. Alternator with 'x' pairs of poles..................................................................27
3.2.4. Rectifiers/Inverters ..........................................................................................27
4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES –ALTERNATORS .........................................................29
4.1. PRINCIPLE AND FUNCTION OF POWER ALTERNATORS .................................29
4.2. MAIN COMPONENTS.............................................................................................31
4.2.1. Stator...............................................................................................................31
4.2.2. Rotor................................................................................................................32
4.2.3. Exciter .............................................................................................................32
4.2.4. Bearings ..........................................................................................................33
4.2.5. Resistance Temperature Detectors .................................................................34
4.2.6. Space Heater ..................................................................................................34
4.2.7. Supporting Frame............................................................................................34
4.3. ALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION ..........................................................................35
4.3.1. The single phase synchronous generator........................................................35
4.3.2. The three phase synchronous generator.........................................................36
4.3.3. AC generator in general ..................................................................................37
4.3.4. Rotor construction ...........................................................................................39
4.3.5. Insulation .........................................................................................................40
4.3.6. Cooling ............................................................................................................41
Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

Last revised: 04/06/2007 Page 2 / 179
Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.3.7. Neutral Earthing Resistor ................................................................................42

4.3.8. Insulated Bearings...........................................................................................42
4.4. GENERATOR EXCITATION ...................................................................................43
4.4.1. Conventional excitation ...................................................................................43
4.4.2. Static excitation ...............................................................................................44
4.4.3. Brushless excitation (general case).................................................................44
4.4.4. Brushless excitation (without pilot exciter).......................................................45
4.4.5. Brushless excitation (with pilot exciter)............................................................46
4.4.6. Diode bridge ....................................................................................................46
4.4.7. Alternator parts................................................................................................48
5. ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS AND PROTECTIONS ................................................50
5.1. GENERATOR CONNECTIONS ..............................................................................50
5.1.1. The Delta system ............................................................................................50
5.1.2. Delta connected generator ..............................................................................51
5.1.3. The wye (star) system .....................................................................................53
5.1.4. Wye (star) connected generator ......................................................................54
5.2. GENERATOR PROTECTIONS...............................................................................56
5.2.1. ANSI codes for Protections .............................................................................56
5.2.2. Typical one line diagram generator protection.................................................57
5.2.3. Details on generator protection .......................................................................59
5.2.3.1. Protection functions connected to generator neutral current transformers.59
5.2.3.2. Protection functions connected to voltage transformers.............................59
5.2.3.3. Protection functions connected to line-side current transformers (for parallel
operation only) ........................................................................................................59
5.2.3.4. Generator mechanical protection functions connected to sensors .............59
5.2.4. Practical checks performed by operators ........................................................60
5.2.4.1. Review .......................................................................................................60
5.2.4.2. Active reverse power protection .................................................................61
5.2.4.3. Reactive reverse power protection (Loss of excitation) ..............................62
6. ALTERNATOR OPERATION AND CONTROL..............................................................64
6.1. Load adjustment of a generator (or alternator)........................................................64
6.2. Automatic voltage regulators (AVR) ........................................................................65
6.2.1. AVR set-point ..................................................................................................66
6.2.2. AC Generator voltage regulation .....................................................................66
7. GENERATOR PARALLELING AND SYNCHRONISING ...............................................68
7.1. CONDITIONS FOR PARALLELING........................................................................68
7.1.1. Introduction......................................................................................................68
7.1.2. Condition 1: same phase operation .................................................................69
7.1.3. Condition 2: same frequency...........................................................................71
7.1.4. Condition 3: same voltage ...............................................................................73
7.1.5. Condition 4: Synchronising (timing) or phasing ...............................................74
7.2. SYNCHRONISM/PARALLELING ............................................................................77
7.2.1. Ready for coupling ..........................................................................................77
7.2.2. Coupling operations with a one phase alternator lamp:...................................77
7.2.3. Coupling operations with a three-phase alternator lamp: ................................79
7.2.4. Coupling operations with a synchronoscope ...................................................80
7.2.5. Coupling tolerances.........................................................................................81
7.3. PARALLEL CONTROL OPERATION......................................................................81

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.3.1. Taking the load................................................................................................81

7.3.2. Load sharing....................................................................................................81
7.3.3. Droop and Isochronous control mode .............................................................84
8. ALTERNATOR MAINTENANCE....................................................................................87
8.1. DIODE REPLACEMENT .........................................................................................87
8.2. Varistor replacement ...............................................................................................91
8.3. DRYING WINDINGS ...............................................................................................92
8.3.1. Space Heaters.................................................................................................92
8.3.2. Forced Air........................................................................................................92
8.4. OPERATING DIFFICULTIES ..................................................................................93
8.4.1. General............................................................................................................93
8.4.2. Troubleshooting table ......................................................................................93
8.4.3. Insulation Resistance ......................................................................................93
9. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS..........................................................................................95
9.1. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WITH PERMANENT MAGNETS .................................95
9.2. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WITH A COILED ROTOR ............................................97
9.2.1. Advantages of the synchronous motor (coiled rotor) .......................................97
9.2.2. Drawbacks of the synchronous motor (coiled rotor) ........................................98
9.3. OTHER SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS......................................................................99
9.3.1. Linear motors ..................................................................................................99
9.3.2. Synchronous asynchronous motors ................................................................99
9.3.3. Step-by-step motors ........................................................................................99
9.3.3.1. 'Lavet' step-by-step synchronous motor ...................................................102
9.3.3.2. Step-by-step synchronous motor with prongs ..........................................103
9.3.3.3. 'Escap' step-by-step synchronous motor..................................................103
9.3.3.4. Hybrid step-by-step synchronous motor...................................................104
10. Three-phase asynchronous motor .............................................................................105
10.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE ...................................................................................105
10.1.1. The magnet principle ...................................................................................105
10.1.2. Creation of the rotating field ........................................................................106
10.1.3. Slip ..............................................................................................................107
10.1.4. Synchronism speed .....................................................................................108
10.2. CONSTRUCTION ...............................................................................................109
10.2.1. The stator ....................................................................................................109
10.2.2. The rotor......................................................................................................110
10.3. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROTORS .............................................................111
10.3.1. Cage rotors..................................................................................................111
10.3.1.1. The resistant cage rotor .........................................................................111
10.3.1.2. Single cage rotors ..................................................................................112
10.3.1.3. Double cage rotors.................................................................................113
10.3.1.4. Deep slot rotors......................................................................................113
10.3.2. Coiled rotor (ring rotor) ................................................................................114
11. OTHER TYPES OF MOTORS ...................................................................................115
11.1. SINGLE-PHASE ASYNCHRONOUS MOTORS..................................................115
11.1.1. Construction ................................................................................................115
11.1.1.1. The stator ...............................................................................................115
11.1.1.2. The rotor.................................................................................................115
11.1.2. Operating principle ......................................................................................115

Equipment
Generators & Motors
11.1.3. Start of a single-phase motor with capacitor................................................116

11.1.3.1. Two-phase motor with permanent capacitor ..........................................116
11.1.3.2. Motor with a permanent capacitor and "1/3-2/3" coil. .............................116
11.1.3.3. Motor with a starting capacitor (and "1/3-2/3" coil) .................................117
11.1.4. Three phase motor with single-phase..........................................................119
11.1.4.1. With capacitors.......................................................................................119
11.1.4.2. With a "pilot motor"or phase converter transformer................................121
11.1.4.3. With a frequency converter ....................................................................122
11.2. DC MOTORS ......................................................................................................123
11.2.1. Introduction..................................................................................................123
11.2.2. Construction ................................................................................................123
11.2.3. Operating principle ......................................................................................124
11.2.4. Different types of DC motors .......................................................................126
11.2.4.1. Excitation in parallel (separate or shunt) ................................................126
11.2.4.2. Excitation in series .................................................................................127
11.2.4.3. Excitation in series and parallel (compound)..........................................127
12. OPERATION OF ASYNCHRONOUS MOTORS .......................................................128
12.1. CONNECTIONS..................................................................................................128
12.1.1. Connection box or terminal plate.................................................................128
12.1.2. Rotation direction ........................................................................................129
12.1.3. Other coupling for stator windings ...............................................................130
12.1.3.1. Motors with pole coupling.......................................................................130
12.1.3.2. Motors with separate stator windings .....................................................131
12.1.4. The nameplate ............................................................................................132
12.2. SPECIFIC OPERATING CONDITIONS ..............................................................134
12.2.1. Mechanical protection..................................................................................134
12.2.2. Cooling ........................................................................................................134
12.2.3. Motor for explosive atmosphere ..................................................................136
12.2.3.1. Increased safety EEx ‘e’.........................................................................136
12.2.3.2. Flame-proof casing ‘d’ ............................................................................137
12.2.3.3. Pressurised casing ‘p’ ............................................................................138
12.2.3.4. Non-sparking ‘n’ .....................................................................................138
12.2.4. Operation at 60Hz .......................................................................................138
12.3. BASIC SCHEMAS - MOTOR SUPPLY ...............................................................140
12.3.1. Direct start-up for a three-phase motor via a motor current breaker............140
12.3.2. Direct start-up for a single-phase motor via a contactor ..............................141
12.3.3. Start of protection for a motor with 2 rotation directions ..............................142
12.3.4. Delta wye start-up .......................................................................................144
12.4. MOTOR PROTECTION DEVICES......................................................................146
12.4.1. Heat protection ............................................................................................146
12.4.2. Electromagnetic protection ..........................................................................146
12.4.3. Protection via magnetothermal circuit breaker ............................................147
12.4.4. Disconnector switch and fuse switch ...........................................................148
12.5. SPEED REGULATION........................................................................................149
12.5.1. Voltage regulator .........................................................................................149
12.5.2. Eddy current regulators ...............................................................................149
12.5.3. Ward Léonard unit .......................................................................................150
12.5.4. Frequency regulation...................................................................................151

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.6. COMPARISON OF THE OPERATION OF VARIOUS MOTORS ........................153

12.7. MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................................154
12.7.1. Insulation measures ....................................................................................154
12.7.1.1. High voltage motor (high voltage, 5.5-6kV) ............................................154
12.7.1.2. Low voltage motor (230/400V) ...............................................................154
12.7.1.3. Low voltage cable ..................................................................................155
12.7.2. 'Heavy" maintenance works ........................................................................156
12.7.2.1. Replacement of bearings .......................................................................156
12.7.2.2. Drying, baking ........................................................................................156
12.7.3. Motor maintenance table (Troubleshooting) ................................................157
13. EXERCISES ..............................................................................................................162
14. PRACTICAL EXERCISES .........................................................................................168
14.1. BUILD A SMALL DC MOTOR .............................................................................168
15. GLOSSARY ...............................................................................................................173
16. FIGURES...................................................................................................................174
17. TABLES .....................................................................................................................178
18. SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES...................................................................................179

Equipment
Generators & Motors
1. OBJECTIVES
The aim of this course is to enable a future operator to understand the basics of the
generation of electric current, and how to use the current to operate motors, mainly in view
of an oil-based industrial site.
At the end of this course, in the field of instrumentation and regulation, the
participant should be able to:
Define the generation principle for alternating current
Define the generation principle for direct current
List the different types of generators and/or alternators
List the different types of electric motors
Make decisions concerning the different components of an alternator and a motor
Explain the use and operation of alternators
Determine the regulation factors for an alternator
Couple an alternator to a network
Define the principles and use of electric protection for an alternator
Define the principles and use of electric protection for a motor
Be familiar with the basic maintenance of a power alternator on a site
Be familiar with the maintenance required on motors on a site

Equipment
Generators & Motors
2. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC MACHINES
2.1. ALTERNATORS AND MOTORS
2.1.1. Differentiation
An alternator is a rotating machine which

transforms mechanical energy into electric
energy. The alternator is also known as an
AC generator.
Figure 1: Early 20th century. Alternators in a

hydro-electric room in Hungary
AC generators (alternators) produce single-

phase or three-phase current (two-phase and
six phase current is not mentioned here) with
a frequency of 50 or 60Hz.
DC current (in a rotating machine) is generated with a

dynamo, a rotary convertor, or an exciter. The production of
direct current is an indispensable element for the operation of
the alternator which requires excitation (hence the term
exciter) in the form of magnetic induction to produce AC.
Figure 2: Example of a motor
A motor is a rotating machine which transforms electrical

energy into mechanical energy.1
Figure 3: Three Siemens' motors
1
In English the term motor always refers to an electrical machine, whereas the term engine refers to a
combustion machine. In French, the term motor is qualified by thermal (combustion) or electrical.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
2.1.2. Construction
An alternator or motor consists of:
A ROTATING component: the ROTOR
Figure 4: Alternator rotor
A STATIONARY component: the STATOR
Figure 5: Motor/alternator stators

Equipment
Generators & Motors
An alternator must rotate at a constant speed to produce a current at a constant

frequency. It rotates at the synchronism speed.
An alternator is also known as: A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
A synchronous machine (alternator) is also a motor, and is thus known as a "synchronous

motor". As a motor and an alternator are strictly identical, the term "synchronous machine"
is more appropriate.
It is clear that an alternator connected to a turbine will never be used as a motor, however
it may become a motor and drive the turbine, therefore protection relays are required.
The synchronous machine requires an Auxiliary part: EXCITATION
The exciter produces direct current which in turn generates a magnetic induction which
regulates the current (and therefore the power) generated by the stator for the alternator
and regulates the synchronism speed for the synchronous motor.
"Traditional" motors are ASYNCHRONOUS MACHINES.
I.e. the motor does not rotate at the synchronism speed (that of the alternator), but at a
slower rate due to the power required for the transmission shaft.
The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed of the motor is
known as SLIP.
Example: the nameplate of the motor indicates, 20kW – 1475 rpm. For a required power of
20 kW, the motor will rotate at 1475 rotations per minute, i.e. with a slip of 25 revolutions
(the synchronism speed corresponding to 1500 rpm)
The induction part of an alternator is generally integrated in the rotor and the AC
production part in the stator (or vice versa).
A motor always has its AC receiver in the stator, and the electromagnetic receiver in the
rotor, thus creating the rotation movement.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
2.1.3. Electromagnetic induction
A quick reminder of basic physics:
In 1820, the physician, Hans Christian

Oersted, discovered that the needle of a
magnetic compass moved when placed
next to a live wire. He observed that the
needle turned to be perpendicular to the
current.
Figure 6: Compass
And the rest is history!
On the basis of this principle, it is

possible to recreate the magnetic field
initially generated by a permanent
magnet, using live conductors.
Figure 7: Recreation of the magnetic

field
The permanent magnet produces a

current, which in turn generates a
magnetic field.
Direction of arrows:
Tail – pointing towards the sheet
Head – pointing towards you
A magnetic field may create a current and an electric current will create a magnetic field.
By "rotating" the field and current, an electric generator (or alternator, dynamo) or motor is
created. The alternator receives mechanical energy to produce the field and current, the
motor receives the current, a magnetic field is produced and is transformed into
mechanical energy.
This leads to the generator/alternator applications and the motor described in the following
chapters. See electromagnetic induction in the course on 'electricity'.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
3. GENERATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
3.1. GENERATION OF DIRECT ELECTRIC
Several sources of direct current are present on the site - batteries, photovoltaic cells,
rectifiers, rotating generators. This is the subject of the following paragraphs.
3.1.1. Batteries
See the "Batteries" course.
The term "battery" in languages

other than French also refers to
all cells used in everyday ‘items’
(radios, mobile telephones,
torches, etc.).
Figure 8: Examples of batteries
These cells are also used in instrument cabinets and computers as "back up" devices.
The alternative French term ‘pile’, or cells is open to confusion as they are referred to as
rechargeable and non-rechargeable. In theory, a cell cannot be recharged. The term
"accumulator" should be used for rechargeable cells (note: this paragraph refers
specifically to the French term "pile").
The term ‘accumulator’ refers to car batteries, which is correct. The word accumulator
should be used for any source of direct current in static form which may be discharged and
recharged.
Figure 9: Examples of accumulators

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The conventional lead acid battery (accumulator) is present on site in vehicles (onshore,
etc.), to start combustion engines for fire pumps and emergency generators.
The set of batteries is present in ‘UPS’, incorporated in cabinets or in a battery room.
Figure 10: Examples of UPS
And if the EDG battery is flat, if the UPS batteries do not have the capacity to last for the
duration of the shut-down, it will not be easy to restart the main alternator.
3.1.2. Photovoltaic cells
These are "sun panels" for platforms supplying indicator lights and/or remote transmission,
instruments, etc.
Photovoltaic cells take their energy from any light source and "light" in general. Solar
energy is an inappropriate term, "light energy" would be more accurate.
A photovoltaic cell is an electronic component which, when

exposed to light (photons), generates electric voltage (this
effect is known as the photovoltaic effect).
Direct current is obtained at approximately 0.5V.
Figure 11: Photovoltaic cell
Photovoltaic cells consist of semi-conductors

with a silicon (Si), cadmium sulphide (CdS)
or cadmium tellurium (CdTe) base.
Figure 12: Structure of a photovoltaic cell

Equipment
Generators & Motors
They exist in the form of two thin plates in close contact. They are also known as "photo-
galvanic".
This semi-conductor is sandwiched between two metal electrodes and the entire unit is
protected by glass.
Photovoltaic cells are mounted on the panels in series and in parallel.
The set of cells is connected to a set of batteries (with regulator).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
3.1.4. T.E.G. Thermo Electric Generator
Figure 13: TEG ‘battery' installed on a Total platform (Peciko)
Figure 14: TEG principle
A TEG unit consists of cells which have the particular characteristic of producing voltage
and current when subject to a certain temperature.
On a platform, natural gas is burned in each TEG, the heat emitted in combustion is
transformed into electric energy in each cell.
As is the case for photovoltaic cells, the TEG cells are mounted in series and in parallel
and are connected to a set of batteries and a voltage regulator.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
3.1.5. Rotating generators
3.1.5.1. Energy conversion
The term direct current (DC) machine would be more accurate, as a DC generator (or a
dynamo, exciter or rotary convertor) is the same machine as the DC motor. Let's take a
look at DC generators and then we can forget about motors…..
Electric energy supplied = Motor = Useful mechanical energy

Mechanical energy supplied = Generator = Useful electric energy
3.1.5.2. Symbol
Figure 15: Rotating generator symbols
3.1.5.3. Construction
Figure 16: Magnetic circuit of a two-pole machine

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The machine includes:
A magnetic circuit including a stationary part, the stator, a rotating part, the
rotor, and the air gap, the space between the two components.
A magnetic field source known as the field system (mounted on the stator) is
created using coils or permanent magnets. Field coils for both motors and
generators are always supplied with a secondary and direct source of energy.
An induced electric circuit (the rotor), is subject to the effects of this

magnetic field; the collector and the brushes allow for access to the electric
circuit of the rotor.
3.1.5.4. Principle of a DC generator
Figure 17: Simple DC generator
I.e. a turn rotating in a magnetic field (field systems). The current generated in the turn is
"collected" via the 2 sections of a slip ring with brushes (in graphite) on the stationary part
(stator) consisting of 2 commutator (or switch) segments (in copper, attached to the
rotor) which "switch" with each rotation.
The switching function is essential. Each side of a turn rotating on its axis passes near to a
north pole, and subsequently a south pole, and so on. Therefore, the magnetic induction
intercepted by the turn regularly changes direction due to the angular position of the rotor.
To avoid the torque produced by the electromagnetic force (emf) reversing at the same
rate, the current in the turn must be regularly inverted. This is the task of the collector.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 18: EMF (‘e’) pulses produced by a DC generator
The torque produced by the passage of the current in a turn would be approximately
sinusoidal without the presence of the collector. This resembles a rectified sinusoid
thanks to the collector.
Pulses are not however desirable. Therefore

DC machines are equipped with several
turns, each connected to a pair of segments
on the collector. The figure opposite shows
the torque smoothing effect obtained by
using 2 turns rather than 1 turn at the rotor,
and therefore 4 rather than 2 segments at
the collector.
Figure 19: Smoothing effect
This assembly shows the magnetic

field of the stator created by an +
+
electromagnet, with 6 turns (or +
coils) on the rotor.
+
Consequently, the current and the +
voltage generated are 6 times more
+
regular with the same quantity of
collector segment pairs (split-ring
commutator or switch) as coils.
Figure 20: Six turn assembly

Equipment
Generators & Motors
For a smoother electromagnetic

torque, DC machines are created with
a large number of turns and segments.
Current and voltage are thus

"smoothed" out. Only ‘sinusoid’ peaks
are switched.
Figure 21: DC machine
3.1.5.5. Different DC machine types:
Question: why is the term "machine" used in the above paragraph instead of "generator"?
Permanent magnet machine:
DC generators with permanent magnets exist (coil-free field system) as a low power three-
phase alternator exciter.
Other machines:
3 types exist corresponding to the type of wiring between the rotor and stator
The general advantage of the DC machine is its flexibility to speed.
A DC generator can provide the same voltage over a range of speeds, simply by
modulating the current in the "field systems or inductors" of the stator.
A DC motor can achieve a wide range of speeds by varying the current either in the
“armature” or in the inductors (or the field systems) or in both.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
"Shunt" machine:
The stator and rotor are connected in
parallel.
The shunt motor produces a constant
N S
S torque, independently to speed.
Figure 22: Shunt machine

Figure 23: Shunt motor
"Series" machine:
The stator and rotor are connected in
series.
The series motor produces high torque,
particularly at low speed
Figure 24: Series machine

Figure 25: Series motor
"Compound" machine:
Combination of Shunt and Series, the field
systems are partially connected in series and
partially in parallel with the armature..
This leads to combined advantages for the

motor, which is the most used of the 3. It drives
the oil pumps, and the cooling water for a
generator.
Figure 26: "Compound" machine

Equipment
Generators & Motors
3.2. GENERATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
3.2.1. Principle of an AC generator
Figure 27: Principle of the generation of alternating current
If a turn is rotated in a magnetic field, voltage is induced at the terminals. This varies the
angle α between the turn plane and the magnetic induction.
The faster the rotation, the less time required
for cos α to pass from 1 to -1 and vice versa.
The amplitude of the induced voltage created
is proportional to magnetic induction and the
rotation speed of the turn.
Figure 28: Turn in a magnetic field
This is the principle behind an alternator. The following diagrams demonstrate the
sinusoidal form.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 29: Production of AC
The coil is moving (rotating) anti-clockwise.
From (a) to (b) at 90°
From (b) to (c) at 90°
From (c) to (d) at 90°
From (d) to (a) at 90°

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Exercise: a turn is rotating in a magnetic field (see figure above) and creating a current in
a resistance. If current exists, there will be voltage ‘e’ or ‘emf’ (electromotive force), as
shown below.
Indicate the corresponding numbers on the sinusoidal graph below (1-7) next to the letters
(a, b, c and d on the schema below):
(a) (b) (c) (d)
In fact, this comes down to assigning 7 figures to 4 letters (a-d). Several figures may exist
for one letter. The figure is the value of ‘e’ (+max, 0, -max).
2 6
1 3 5 7

Equipment
Generators & Motors
3.2.2. Permanent magnet generator
This is an AC generator, with a sinusoidal form, with a (permanent) magnet creating an

"emf" in a "peripheral" coil.
This generator can be used for a bike. In this case the term "bike dynamo" is used,
however the term "dynamo" does, in principle, apply to a DC generator and this term is
therefore incorrect when referring to an alternator powering a "bike".
However, as this term has been generally applied to bikes, we will simply specify by using
the complete term "bike dynamo".
Figure 30: A bike dynamo
The voltage produced can be called ‘e’ or equally ‘U’, ‘V’, ‘v’, ‘u’, ‘E’, etc…
Standards exist in this domain (regarding the representation abbreviation) but they are not
consistent at an international scale and are often criticised.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
In the figure below, 2 coils are shown (in series), however one single coil would be
enough.
Figure 31: Voltage induced by a magnet rotating in a coil
By rotating the magnet, the value of ‘U’ at time ‘t’ represents exactly the value of the sinus
of the positioning angle (α) of the magnet. A sinusoid curve is created for each complete
rotation of 360 deg. This is known as an "alternation".
U (at time ‘t’) = U sin α
Questions/Exercises:
With "bike dynamos", 1 full 360° rotation for 1 second produces an induced voltage at a
frequency of 1 hertz.
1) How many revolutions per second are required to achieve 50Hz?
2) The speed of rotating machines is expressed in RPM (Revolution Per Minute). At what
speed must the machine rotate in rpm to reach 50Hz?
3) At what speed must the machine rotate in rpm to reach 60Hz?
4) Is the central rotating magnet known as the "rotor" or the "stator"?
5) Are the coils capturing the induced energy (peripheral) in the "stator" or the "rotor"?
As you have answered these questions easily, you are aware that, with a bit of logic
(without using formulae), you can understand the relation between speed and
frequency. This is the basis of "synchronism".

Equipment
Generators & Motors
3.2.3. Principle of a basic alternator
The "bike dynamo" mentioned in the above paragraph is in fact a single-phase alternator.
The permanent magnet rotating at 1 revolution per second produces a voltage (and a
current) induced at the frequency of 1Hz at the terminals of the alternator
By rotating the magnet at 50 revolutions per second, a frequency of 50Hz is produced,

corresponding to a synchronism speed of 50 revolutions per second, i.e. 3000 rpm and
this for a "magnet" with one pair of poles (one ‘North’ and one ‘South’ pole).
3.2.3.2. Alternator with 2 pairs of poles
Figure 32: Alternator with 2 pairs of poles
This is the "same" alternator as in the previous paragraph with a second permanent
magnet added to the rotor. There are now 2 pairs of poles.
With one complete revolution, the passage of the stator coil next to the poles will be
increased, it will pass twice by a maximum and minimum.
One revolution produces 2Hz. For a frequency of 50Hz, a speed of 25 revolutions per
second will be required, i.e. 1500 rpm which is the synchronism speed (the speed
producing 50hz) for an alternator with 2 pairs of poles.
Question:
In view of the relation between frequency and speed (still no formulae), at what speed
(rpm) must an alternator with 2 pairs of 'North American' poles rotate to produce a
frequency of 60Hz?

Equipment
Generators & Motors
3.2.3.3. Alternator with 'x' pairs of poles
Questions:
This is obvious, and you will easily work out the different configurations of
frequency/speed/pairs of poles for all types of alternators (note: the same logic applies for
single and three-phase alternators).
What is the synchronism speed (rpm) for:
An alternator with 1 pair of poles and a frequency of 60Hz?
An alternator with 3 pairs of poles and a frequency of 50Hz?
All these types of alternators exist.
This is simply the basic principle behind the alternator. The following chapter will consider
"true" alternators, those producing electrical power on sites. Simply replace the permanent
magnet on the rotor with coiled field systems supplied with secondary direct current and
make the unit "a bit bigger" to create the 'synchronous machine'
3.2.4. Rectifiers/Inverters
This refers to UPS, battery chargers which produce "rectified" current from AC (generated
by an alternator).
This is not true direct current, which can be generated only by a battery.
+V
t
Figure 33: One phase rectified voltage/current with smoothed signal (rectifier or dynamo)

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The power alternator or the 'synchronous machine' requires rectified current within the
rotor to produce electromagnetic induction, generally in the form of one phase rectified
current.
The alternator generally uses an exciter (at the end of the shaft) to produce the energy
required for the magnetic field. If this exciter is a DC machine, the armature (the rotor) is
directly powered (with a set of rings/brushes).
The exciters are now (small) alternators producing rectified AC. The exciter/bridge rectifier
unit is mounted on the main shaft.
The technology will be considered in more detail later in the course.
Figure 34: One phase bridge rectifier and three-phase Graetz bridge
Rotor "field systems" do not require "smoothed" rectified current. The average value of a
one-phase rectified current is adequate (get your instructor to explain this to you if you do
not “grasp” it).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES –ALTERNATORS

This machine is both the industrial alternator for our sites and the synchronous motor
which is rarely found on "our" sites.
A Synchronous machine, known as an ALTERNATOR; it supplies AC when it acts as a

generator. When operating as a MOTOR, its rotation speed is imposed by the frequency of
the alternating current which supplies the stator windings.
4.1. PRINCIPLE AND FUNCTION OF POWER ALTERNATORS
A synchronous generator transforms electric energy (T, Ώ) into electric energy (V, I at
frequency f).
Introduction/reminder
The alternator is the key to energy for a facility, a site.
The AC generator converts the mechanical energy produced by the turbine (or heat
engine) into electric energy via electromagnetic induction.
Two types of "core" and "field" windings are required to achieve this.
The "main" current or operating current comes from the core (generally the stator).
DC (or rectified current) is injected in the field windings in order to create a magnetic field
of fixed direction (or polarity).
Figure 35: Alternator windings

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Relative movement between the core and field windings is required to produce voltage.
‘Relative movement' means movement of the magnetic field through the conductors of the
core or movement of the conductors through the magnetic field.
The stator and the rotor are used to produce this relative movement. The latter will rotate
in the stator windings, thus creating induced voltage.
According to standards and the country, the relation between frequency and voltage is as
follows for standard alternators:
Frequency 60Hz 50Hz
480 380 / 400
600 440
Voltage 2400 3300
4160 5500 / 6000
13800 11000
Table 1: Relations between frequency and voltage

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.2. MAIN COMPONENTS
Alternators have six main components: stator, rotor, bearings, space heater, temperature
detection and the supporting frame. We will now consider each of these components in
detail.
4.2.1. Stator
The stator is built with high-grade silicon steel laminations, precision punched, and
individually insulated. Low voltage windings are random-wound coils in lined, semi-closed
slots. High-voltage windings are form-wound in lined slots.
Wound cores are repeatedly impregnated with thermosetting synthetic varnish, and baked
for maximum moisture resistance, high dielectric strength, and high bonding qualities.
Windings are braced to withstand shock loads such as motor starting and short circuits.
Space heaters are available to minimise condensation during long shutdowns.
A space heater in the interior of the generator prevents the formation of condensate in the
generator windings after shutdown. The space heater is automatically switched on and off
by the turbine control circuit during the start-up and shutdown sequence unless the
systems select switch is in the off position. The only operator action necessary is the
verification of the heater’s operation upon generator shutdown.
Optional RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) sensors may be installed to monitor

generator winding temperatures.
Figure 36: Stator assembly

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.2.2. Rotor
At the centre of the rotor assembly is a high grade steel shaft that has four metal pieces
extending outward, two sets of cooling fan blades and a brushless exciter armature
mounted an the forward end. The flour metal "poles" are used to form the magnetic poles.
Coils of wire are wrapped around each metal pole to form a magnetic field opposite from
the one next to it (Figure under).
All four metal poles of the rotor form the second type of winding, the field winding.
During generator operation, DC current is passed through each pole winding to form
alternate north and south poles, which makes up the rotating magnetic field.
Figure 37: Rotor assembly
When a load is connected to the generator, current flux in the system. As this current
passes through the armature windings, heat is created that must be dissipated to prevent
damage. On some generators air is drawn in from both ends by the fan blades on the rotor
and circulated around the rotor and stator windings to remove the heat. The cooling air
usually exits through the top of the generator.
4.2.3. Exciter
A second, smaller generator is mounted inside the main generator. This smaller generator
is mounted on the forward end of the rotor shaft and is referred to as the brushless exciter
armature. In this exciter the armature rotates inside the stationary field windings mounted
on the frame.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
The brushless exciter produces three-phase AC voltage for use in the four magnetic poles
of the rotor. To use this AC voltage, it must be rectified to DC by the six diodes located at
the forward end of the rotor shaft. The six diodes furnish three-phase, full-wave
rectification for a very smooth pulsating DC current, which is fed directly to the main field
windings on the projecting poles.
The brushless exciter eliminates commutator, collector rings, brushes, and brush holders
making the generator a low maintenance machine.
The exciter consists of a 3-phase rotating armature type AC generator and a 3- phase full
wave rectifier. Excitation is available when the generator is carrying 150 percent rated
current for one minute.
The rotating armature and the rotating rectifier assembly are mounted on the generator
rotor shaft and are electrically interconnected with each other and with the generator field
windings.
The stator for the exciter consists of a wound-laminated core installed in a flange ring,
which forms an integral part of the generator front bearing bracket.
The complete exciter is enclosed and protected by a removable cover.
EXCITER
FIELD
Exciter field Exciter Rotating Generator Generator

(stationary) armature rectifier field armature
(stationary)
Rotating portion
Figure 38: Assembly of main parts stator/rotor/exciter
4.2.4. Bearings
The bearings in the typical mid-range generator are either the self-lubricated anti-friction
type or the sleeve bearing type. If the sleeve bearing type is used, the generator cooling
air effectively cools the oil passing through the bearings and oil reservoirs. A sight gage
located below the bearings is used to check the oil level in the reservoir.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.2.5. Resistance Temperature Detectors
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) monitor the temperature of the generator

windings and bearings. The RTD’s are connected to remote sensors that have warning
and shutdown set points to protect the components against high temperatures. The RTD’s
have a positive coefficient of resistivity.
That is, the element’s resistance increases as the temperature applied to the detector
increases.
Six detectors, two per phase, are installed in the stator slots between the top and bottom
stator coils. An RTD is also located on each of two bearings in the generator
A signal is sent to remote sensing devices that monitor the temperature of the stator and
bearings. The winding and/or bearing temperature monitors have warning and shutdown
set points, which are, initiated it the temperature problem persists.
4.2.6. Space Heater
A space heater in the interior of the generator prevents the formation of condensate in the
generator windings after shutdown. The space heater is automatically switched on and off
by the turbine control circuit during the start-up and shutdown sequence unless the
systems select switch is in the off position. The only operator action necessary is the
verification of the heater’s operation upon generator shutdown.
4.2.7. Supporting Frame
The generator frame supports the rotating and stationary components and serves as an
enclosure to protect the internal components. The generator has a rating of 2800 kW gas
fuel (2755 kW liquid fuel). The generator nameplate contains a host of valuable information
including rpm, amperage, insulation rating, power factor, voltage, kVA, and maintenance
information. The operator should know the location of the generator nameplate and
become familiar with the information on it.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.3. ALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION
4.3.1. The single phase synchronous generator
(Compared with a 3-phase).
Faraday’s induction law states that a conductor which rotates in a magnetic field will
induce an electromotive force (emf).
In a generator the magnetic field is created by the electromagnets; in other words the
poles of the generator.
An exciter (generator) is used to obtain this direct-exciter current. The exciter mounted
onto the alternating-current generator will be of the internal-pole type. The stationary part,
in which a single-phase winding is fitted, is located on the outside. The moving part used
to generate the magnetic field, is located on the inside (see fig. under).
The main advantage of the internal-pole type is that the alternating current from the stator
can be fed through stationary connections.
Figure 39: Construction principle of the internal pole of a single phase alternator
The emf induced in the stator winding will have a sine wave form relative to the time.
The direct current is fed to the rotor by means of carbon-brushes and two slip rings.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The relationship between the speed (n), the frequency (f) and the pole pair (p):
nxp 60 xf
f = or n = n = rpm
60 p
It is now time for minimum formulae, even if you do not need it. You already know the
relation between frequency, speed, and a pair of poles, seen in the previous chapter.
4.3.2. The three phase synchronous generator
In a three-phase or alternating-current machine the stator has three windings instead of

the one winding as on a single-phase machine. These windings are located and axed at
120° between them.
Figure 40: Generator with three stator windings: U-X, V-Y and W-Z.
The rotor excited by direct current has a north and a south pole. The rotor has therefore
one pair of poles; p = 1.
The rotating (changing) main field generates, or induces, voltage in the three-stator
windings.
The three emf's have the same frequency and are 120° “out of phase relative to each
other.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
By one revolution of the rotor (R= 1) in “t” seconds the stator coils embrace the maximum
rotational field at intervals of 1/3 x t seconds relative to each other. In ‘t’ seconds the field
rotates 3000 times (for 50 Hz and one pair of poles), which means that each stator emf's
reach its maximum value 120° in rotation or 1/3 T = 6.66 milliseconds in time after the next
one.
Figure 41: Electromotive force for each stator winding
Question:
Rewrite the phrase in italics above for a frequency of 60 Hz
And why not for 2 pairs of poles and 50 Hz?
No problem, you are able to find it, by thinking “logically”, you don’t need a formulae
4.3.3. AC generator in general
Figure under shows, in cutaway form, a typical A.C. generator in the 15-megawatt (20 000
hp) size range. The generator proper is enclosed in a box or “hood”; this is both to exclude
noise and to contain the closed ventilation system. It also assists purging before starting if
gas has been present. The rotating parts are coloured yellow and the stator blue.
The armature (normally the stator) windings carry the load current, which varies with the
loading. These windings have resistance and generate heat at a rate proportional to the
square of the current (W = I² R). The field’s exciting winding (normally on the rotor) also
carries current. It too has resistance and generates I² R heat.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 42: Cutaway of a typical A.C. generator – prime mover (turbine, motor) not
represented
These two sources of heat, together with iron loss heating, combine to raise the
temperature of the machine.
All the heat must be taken away by the cooling system if the temperature rise is to be held
below the designed limit. The generator is cooled by a shaft-driven fan which circulates air
in a closed air circuit through all the windings. The air, in circulating, passes through an
air/water heat exchanger.
The stator (armature) carries a 3-phase winding consisting of insulated conductors in slots
round the inside face.
These conductors must be insulated up to the full working voltage of the system.
Serious or sustained excess temperature of the winding will cause this insulation to
deteriorate or even to break down completely, resulting in an internal flashover.
The rotor windings, which provide the field, operate at a much lower voltage of the order of
70 or 120VD.C. (as a basic general range), so insulation is less of a problem.
Note: there is a “main exciter” and a “pilot exciter”. To be seen in next chapter excitation
and voltage control.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.3.4. Rotor construction
A.C. generators with rotating fields have rotors which fall into two-types: salient and
cylindrical Pole’s. They are both shown in the figure under
Figure 43: A.C. Generator rotor types
The salient-pole type is by far the most common with offshore generators and also with
the smaller sized onshore generators.
The salient-pole rotor is commonly used with 4-pole generators. Where there are six or
more poles, this is the only type which is practical.
The cylindrical rotor (sometimes also called “turbo type”) is, as the name implies,
completely cylindrical and has no projections.
The field windings are embedded and wedged into slots in the rotor surface in a similar
way to the stator slots. The rotor slots cover only part of the surface and are disposed
either side of the poles, the whole field winding forming a spiral around each pole centre.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Cylindrical rotors are very mechanically robust and are favoured for large, high speed
generators (3 000 or 3 600 rev/min), where centrifugal forces on a salient-pole rotor would
present severe problems. Consequently cylindrical rotors are common with 2-pole
generators and are sometimes used with 4-pole types. They are never used with six poles
or more, where the rotor construction would become far too difficult.
Question:
For the rotor picture above
How many pair of poles for the “salient” type?
How many pair of poles for the “cylindrical” type?
4.3.5. Insulation
Generator windings are insulated against the highest voltages to which they may be
exposed, and the insulation must withstand a certain specified maximum temperature
without deteriorating.
There are many insulating materials: The classification is as follows (as example of
standard BS2757)
Ultimate
Class Typical Insulating Material
Temperature
Y Cotton, silk, paper, etc. , unimpregnated 90 °C
A Impregnated cotton, silk, etc., paper, enamel 105° C
E Paper laminates, epoxies 120° C
B Glass fibre, mica 130° C
F Glass fibre, epoxy impregnated 155° C
H Glass fibre, silicone impregnated 180° C
C Mica, ceramics, glass, with inorganic bonding > 180° C
Table 2: Insulation materials

It should be noted that the classification letters do not follow an alphabetical sequence.
This is because there were originally only three classes - ‘A ‘, ‘B ‘and ‘C ‘.
Most platform and shore-installed generators are Class ‘B’ or ‘F’.
It does not depend on temperature rise alone; if, for instance, the ambient temperature is
40°C, a Class ‘B’ material may be used if the designed temperature rise will not exceed
90°C, so making the ultimate maximum temperature 130°C.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.3.6. Cooling
Generators used on platforms and in shore installations are generally air-cooled.
The air is circulated past the stator and rotor windings by a fan on the generator shaft.
The warmed air itself may be vented to atmosphere and not used again (‘Circulating Air ‘
or ‘CA”); or it may be water cooled in a separate cooler with a forced water circulation ( ‘
Circulating Air, Forced Water’ or ‘CAFW’ ); or in a radiator-type cooler ( ‘Circulating Air,
Natural Water’ or ‘CANW’).
A new international coding system for cooling methods has been introduced for all rotating
machines (BS 4999, Part 21).
First Digit Second Digit
0 Free circulation 0 Free convection
1 Inlet duct ventilated 1 Self-circulation
2 Integral component mounted on separate

2 Outlet duct ventilated
shaft
3 Dependent component mounted on the

3 Inlet and outlet duct ventilated
machine
4 Frame surface cooled
5 Integral heat exchanger (using

5 Integral independent component
surrounding mediums)
6 Machine-mounted heat exchanger 6 Independent component mounted on the

(using surrounding medium ) machine
7 Integral heat exchanger (not using 7 Independent and separate device or

surrounding medium) coolant system pressure
8 Machine-mounted heat exchanger

8 Relative displacement
(not using surrounding medium )
9 Separately mounted heat exchanger
Table 3: Coding system for cooling methods

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Where it is desired to specify the nature of a coolant, the following letter code is used in
conjunction with the cooling code:
Gases: Air A
Hydrogen H
Nitrogen N
Carbon dioxide C
Helium L
Liquids: Water W
Oil U
4.3.7. Neutral Earthing Resistor
The star-points of all high-voltage generators on platforms are earthed through a current
limiting ‘neutral earthing resistor’ (NER). Its purpose is to limit the fault current fluxing
through the generator if an earth fault develops anywhere on the system.
Neutral earthing resistors are therefore given a maximum current rating for a maximum
time - for example, '200A for 30 s’. (in High Voltage)
The NER unit sometimes contains also a current transformer to measure the presence of
any earth-fault current before initiating the protection.
See course “electricity” for neutral system management.
4.3.8. Insulated Bearings
Bearings of a large machine are often insulated to prevent stray currents (Eddy currents)
from circulating through them. Such currents can arise from emf's being generated in the
rotor shaft due to stray magnetic fields. Under fault conditions these stray fields can be
very large. Figure under shows how such currents may flux through the bearings.
Figure 44: Insulation of bearings

Equipment
Generators & Motors
These currents, if allowed to flux, would arc across the bearing surface and cause small
craters, acting like corrosion, destroying quickly the same bearing. (Corrosion is caused by
natural electric current between 2 metallic parts being in contacts through an electrolyte –
same as a battery).
For reasons of safety the shaft must be at earth potential.
The insulation of the pedestal is carried out by a shim of insulating material between the
base of the pedestal and its stool.
4.4. GENERATOR EXCITATION
Or the different ways to supply the Direct Current inducing magnetic field in the rotor.
4.4.1. Conventional excitation
Figure 45: Conventional excitation
Typical schematic of a ‘conventional’ method where a driven D.C. exciter (in this case belt-
driven) feeds its D.C. output through slip-rings to the main generator field.
The Field current for the exciter itself (the D.C. generator) is supplied by a rectifier bridge
itself piloted by the voltage regulator (AVR) of the main generator.
Note: at start of this unit, there is no voltage, no power from the main 3 phase’s
distribution in which the AVR is taking its “energy”. The D.C. exciter needs current in its
(stator) field winding to provide in turn the current in the main generator (rotor) field
winding to build power output…
The exciter is using at start the “remnant magnetic field” of its own iron frame (it is like a
small permanent magnet) which can provide at least a small current in its output, enough
to have voltage output of the main generator, and the AVR can start to have current to
“help” the remnant field. And the loop is going on, increasing up to the regulation values.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.4.2. Static excitation
Figure 46: Static excitation
The rotating D.C. exciter is replaced by a static electronic exciter.
Note: at start, same as for the conventional excitation there is no power output of the
generator, no D.C. current to give to the rotor windings.
Two solutions: for small generators, this system is also using the remanent field
magnetism of the rotor, building gradually the voltage up at generator output.
In practice, (second solution), the rectifier bridge is supplied by a common 3 phase’s
source and not directly from the concerned generator itself. This applies in ‘important’
distribution where several generators are in parallel.
4.4.3. Brushless excitation (general case)
Figure 47: Brushless excitation – general case
A further significant development is shown in above schematic. Here the shaft-driven

rotating exciter has been restored, but it now takes the form of an A.C. generator of the
fixed-field type mounted on the main shaft itself. Its A.C. output is taken through
connections inside the shaft, through a diode bridge which rotates with the shaft, to the
Equipment
Generators & Motors
main rotating field of the generator. The field is thus excited by D.C. without the need for
brushes and slip-rings. It will be seen that this exciter cannot be belt-driven; it must be
integral part of the main shaft.
The principal advantage of brushless excitation over the other two first types is that
the absence of brush-gear and slip-rings greatly eases the maintenance problem.
Under short-circuit conditions or sudden ‘big’ load request (on main 3 phase’s distribution)
the generator’s output voltage will drop heavily – it might even vanish.
To overcome this, a method, improvement of the present one here, is employed which
makes use of the short-circuit currents themselves to provide the missing excitation, this is
the next paragraph
4.4.4. Brushless excitation (without pilot exciter)
Three heavy duty current transformers are arranged in the generator output lines as
shown in Figure below.
Under short-circuit conditions when the generator output voltage is very low, the short-
circuit CT's pick up the heavy short-circuit conditions - a necessary requirement in network
operation so that protection may operate reliably.
Figure 48: Brushless excitation without pilot exciter

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.4.5. Brushless excitation (with pilot exciter)
Figure 49: Brushless excitation with pilot exciter
With large brushless generators this different method is used. Instead of drawing excitation
power from the generator output, the AVR has only a voltage-sensing connection.
As in the conventional case, the excitation of the generator is now independent of the
generator’s output voltage and so is maintained even under short-circuit conditions and
without the use of short-circuit CT's. This is the arrangement on almost all platforms main
generators.
4.4.6. Diode bridge
On the Figure below, the diodes are shown for clarity as inside the shaft between the
exciter and the main generator. The exciter output is 3 -phase, and the diodes are in fact a
3-phase full-wave bridge, requiring six diode elements. Clearly they cannot be buried in
the middle of the shaft, and in practice they are mounted on a rotating plate on the
extreme end of the shaft at the exciter end, (as shown in Figure, in green).
This makes them easily accessible for inspection, testing or replacement.
A point on the use of diodes should be noted: If one of the six should fail, either by open or
short-circuiting, harmonic currents flux in the main field circuit. These harmonics are
reflected into the field circuit of the main exciter and are detected by a ‘ diode failure’ relay

Equipment
Generators & Motors
tuned to respond to the principal harmonic frequency; the alarm (or trip) signal from this
relay is time-delayed by 10 or 15 seconds to prevent false operation.
Figure 50: Diode Bridge of an A.C. generator
Caution: (for maintenance operation)
When megger testing a generator field system (exciter + main field winding) all
diodes must be first disconnected or short-circuited to prevent the megger voltage
(500V) being applied across them and breaking them down.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
4.4.7. Alternator parts
Figure 51: Brushless generator - exercise
Exercise:
Name the different part of this machine, even those not requested and even those not yet
seen…
And then only you can go to next page…

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Power output
connection terminals
Stator armature +
windings 3 phase
Shaft mounted
fan for air cooling
Exciter ( small
A.C. generator)
Diode Bridge
Rotor and 4
poles windings
Figure 52: Brushless generator – exercise solution
Simple recommendation:
Suppose that you are in charge of assembling this type of generator (French, Leroy-
Somer, 50 Hz 1500 rpm) with a diesel engine (American, Caterpillar set for 60 Hz at
1800 pm).
When you do a running test, especially over a speed test (set at 2100 rpm on engine
for 60 Hz), do not be surprised if the winding parts of the generator rotor necome
“loose” (over speed of generator being 1750 rpm).
And if it was not your lucky and the over speed of engine was set even higher than
2100 rpm and the generator had already run for hours (at 1800 rpm) for load test, do
not blame the generator manufacturer…

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5. ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS AND PROTECTIONS
5.1. GENERATOR CONNECTIONS
AC generators are usually constructed so that they have two types of output connections,
wye (star) or delta. (Y or ∆)
The output wires are called leads. There may be 6 leads or 12.
They are connected to the three-phase winding in the armature and then brought out to be
connected externally to switchgear.
It is the way that they are connected externally that determines whether a system is delta
or wye.
Each coil group in an armature is wound with a designed number of wires in each coil of
the group. Each coil has a start wire and a finish wire, and to make a coil group, the coils
are simply connected together with a start end and a finish end.
One coil group is installed in the stator to form one phase.
5.1.1. The Delta system
For the delta system the phases are arranged in a triangle shape. The important thing to
remember is that to connect a winding for a delta output, you must connect the start of one
coil group to the finish of another, and this is done for all starts and finishes, T1 to T6, T2
to T4, T3 to T5
T1
T5
T6 T1
2’ 1 T6
3 3’
3’ 1
T3
1’
3 1’ 2
T3 2’ 2 T4
T4
T5 T2 T2
Figure 53: Delta system

Equipment
Generators & Motors
In a delta system, line voltage is equal to phase voltage....
E line = E phase
...while line current is equal to phase current times the square root of 3.
I line = I phase x 3
I (amp) line
I (amp) phase
Balanced
Load
E phase E line
Figure 54: Current and voltage in a Delta system
5.1.2. Delta connected generator
The next illustration is an example of a delta system. It is a three-wire delta connected

generator. Note the wires leaving the generator from T1, T2, and T3. Metering of these
wires is taken through potential and current transformers.
For delta connection, the start and finish wires are connected to form the triangle. T1 to
T6, T2 to T4, and T3 to T5. T1, T2, and T3 go to the system as line leads, as seen in the
previous paragraph

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 55: Typical delta connections, 3 wire generator

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5.1.3. The wye (star) system
Wye connected systems can be either three-wire or four-wire depending on the needs of
the plant. In a wye-connected generator, the coil groups are connected in a way that forms
the letter Y.
To connect wye, all three finish wires are connected to external load circuitry, while all start
wires are connected in a common junction
T1, T2, and T3 are line leads going to the distribution system, while T4, T5, and T6 are
junctioned together for a common or neutral connection.
The neutral may or may not be grounded and the system may be operated as either a
three-wire or four-wire system.
T1
T1
T5
1
1’ 2’ 1 T6
T4 2’ 2
3 3’
T6 T3
T5 T2
1’ 2
3’
3
T3 T4
T2
Figure 56: Connection diagram and windings arrangement for a wye connection
In the wye (or "star") system, the relationship of line current to phase current is that they
are equal...
I line = I phase
... and line voltage is equal to phase voltage times the square root of 3.
E line = E phase x 3
Let’s look at an example to illustrate the advantage of this system. If the voltage line to line
were 400 volts, then the phase voltage would be 400 volts divided by the square root of 3.
E line
E phase =
3

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Since the square root of 3 is 1,732 then in our example we have 440 / 1.732 = 230 volts
Many power distribution systems use 220/230 volts for lighting and portable power.
Some typical lines to line voltages produced at 50 cycles per second are:
380 - 415 - 3000 - 3300 - 5500 - 6000 - 6300 - 6700 - 11000
Phase voltage for any of the above cases would be that voltage divided by 3
A precautionary procedure is to take voltage readings at the secondary of step down

transformers, rather than at the primary voltage terminals in the generator connection box
located on top of the generator or elsewhere. The nameplate of any generator will show
the number of phases, usually three-phase, and line to line voltages as well as other
pertinent data.
5.1.4. Wye (star) connected generator
This illustration shows a generator in an installation, which is connected as a typical Wye

four-wire system.
On the wye drawing the wires leaving the generators are N, T1, T2, and T3.
These also go through potential and current transformers for the purposes of metering. For
the wye system the connections should be T1, T2, and T3 to load, and T4, T5, and T6
together as a common or neutral. So as you can see below all the start wires are
connected together and all the finish wires are connected to the load.
Figure 57: wye (star) connection

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 58: Typical wye connected, 4 wire, generator

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5.2. GENERATOR PROTECTIONS
The protection system of a generator aims to protect the machine against the internal
defects and protect the network against dysfunction, which can disturb it
The principal defects, which can affect a generator, are:
The overload
The external short-circuits between phases (on the network)
The short-circuit interns between phases
The intern defect between phase of the stator and mass
The defect between the rotor and the mass
The cut of a phase or the inversion of two phases
The loss of excitation
Generator running as a motor
A frequency too weak or too high
A voltage too weak or too high
5.2.1. ANSI codes for Protections
The required protections are using specific ANSI coded relays
Relay function ANSI Code

• Differential protection 87 G
• Stator ground-fault protection 51 NG
• Under impedance protection 21 G
• Over-voltage protection 59-1 and 59-2
• Rotor ground-fault protection 64 F
• Field failure protection 40
• Under-voltage protection 27
• Reverse power protection 32-1
• Current unbalance protection 45 P and 46 G
• Overfluxing (frequency) protection 59 / 81 G
• Overload protection 51-1 G
• Overload protection 49 G

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5.2.2. Typical one line diagram generator protection
Figure 59: Typical one-line diagram generator protection

Equipment
Generators & Motors
500 KV Generator Protection

A
2000/1
2000/1
500/1
87 T Transf. Diff.
500/1
400 MVA 87 T Transf. Diff.
500/16 KV mcb 51 G E/F back up
3Ø VT
59 Over voltage
mcb
59 N Earth fault
Power supply
V / HZ Over excitation
51 Time log O/C
15000/5 AVR
87 G Gen. Diff.
32 Rev. Power
SCR
400 MVA
16 KV G 40 Loss of field
60 HZ
64 F Field E/F
21 Imp. Prot.
15000/5
46 Negative sequence
15 27 N3
KV 100 % E/F
3 59 N1
10 A
Figure 60: Example for generator synchronised on network

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5.2.3. Details on generator protection
5.2.3.1. Protection functions connected to generator neutral current

transformers
32P: reverse active power
32Q: reverse reactive power serving as loss of field (for generators above 1 MVA)
46: negative sequence (for generators above 1 MVA)
49: thermal image
51: overcurrent
51G: earth fault
51V: voltage restrained overcurrent
87G: generator differential protection (for generators above 2 MVA)
(Note: 46, 49, 32P and 32Q can also be connected to the line-side current transformers)
5.2.3.2. Protection functions connected to voltage transformers
25: synchronism-check (for parallel operation only)
27: undervoltage
59: overvoltage
81: overfrequency and underfrequency
5.2.3.3. Protection functions connected to line-side current transformers (for

parallel operation only)
67: directional overcurrent (not required if 87G is used)
67N: directional earth fault (on core balance CT for better sensitivity)
5.2.3.4. Generator mechanical protection functions connected to sensors
49T: stator temperature (recommended for generators above 2 MVA)

Equipment
Generators & Motors
49T: bearing temperature (recommended for generators above 8 MVA)
64F: rotor earth fault protection
5.2.4. Practical checks performed by operators
All the numbers, type of electrical protections enumerated here above are (usually) not
within the burdens of a production operator. The main purpose of listing them is for you,
operator, when you are inside the electrical switchgear room to be able to understand a
“minimum” about electrical equipment.
Don’t worry, the electrician himself does not remember the link between number and type
of protection; just ensure that at least he knows the use of theses different protections. He
should also be able (the maintenance electrician) to check/verify the calibration settings of
each installed device. – Check if it is in the planned maintenance.
Nevertheless, the “normal” and/or “universal” operator is supposed to check the

parameters of his ‘power plant’, principally here the power indication active reactive
powers and the power factor (cos φ).
5.2.4.1. Review
In “electricity” course, you can see details about active, reactive power and cos φ. Let’s
see here the principle of having a reverse power
Neutral
rotation point
P: active power (+) G

V
φ
Q: reactive power (+)
3 Ph
S: apparent power
Synchronized
I amp Ph
I on a network
Figure 61: Principle of reverse power
An alternator synchronised on a network is providing Active power (P) and reactive power
(Q), with a power factor (cos φ) averaging 0.85

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5.2.4.2. Active reverse power protection
(ANSI code Code 32 P)(P for active)
This protection is used to detect an inversion of the sign of the active power in the absence
of electric fault.
This protection is used in particular to:
protect a motor against generator operation when there is a supply shutdown and
it continues to run by its load;
protect a generator against motor operation, which can deteriorate the driving
engine.
Neutral
point
rotation
P: active power (-) G

V
φ
Q: reactive power (+)
3 Ph
I Synchronized
S: apparent power (-)
I amp Ph on a network
Figure 62: Active reverse power protection
A generator set connected to a power network continues to turn synchronously even if the
prime mover (diesel or turbine) is no longer energy supplied, the main breaker being kept
closed. The alternator then functions as a synchronous motor. Operating in such a
way may be detrimental to the prime mover.
Figure 63: Active power protection relay schematic representation

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5.2.4.3. Reactive reverse power protection (Loss of excitation)
(ANSI code 32 Q)(Q for reactive)
This protection is used to detect the field loss of the synchronous drives
Neutral
rotation point
I
S: apparent power (-)
-φ
Q: reactive power (-) G
V
P: active power (+)
3 Ph
Synchronized
I amp Ph on a network
Figure 64: Reactive reverse power protection
The break or the short-circuiting of the excitation coil of an alternator is a serious fault. It
either causes the alternator to function as an asynchronous generator, or it stops the
conversion of energy and causes an increase in speed.
The consequences are overheating of the stator because the reactive current can be
raised and an overheating of the rotor because it is not designed for induced currents.
An important induced current circulates in the rotor and causes an overheating.
D.C. current crossing the rotor (called inductor) carries out the energisation of the
synchronous drives
The field loss can be due to a fault in the DC feeder or to a fault of the rotor (breakdown,
short-circuit, etc).
When a field loss appears, the drive compensates the drop of the magnetising power of
the rotor by absorbing reactive power on the network.
The reactive power of the machine is then negative.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 65: Protection against excitation losses by a reactive reverse power relay.
In practice the relay can be set to check the cos φ permanently, threshold being between
0.91 and 0.93. It means that the relay “sees” the reactive power going dangerously
towards ‘0’ with the possibility of becoming negative;
On your power plant, please check value of cos φ. A power factor of 0.90 is very good,
power consumption speaking but it is going to a limit for the safety of the generator.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
6. ALTERNATOR OPERATION AND CONTROL
6.1. Load adjustment of a generator (or alternator)
Function of an alternator is to deliver active power. The fact that there is also reactive
power is not the “responsibility” of the generator; it is the consequence of the load
characteristics.
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF AN INCREASE OF THE

ACTIVE POWER DELIVERED BY A GENERATOR
ON THE FREQUENCY? ON THE VOLTAGE?
The frequency decreases The voltage decreases

When the load of an Three causes are at the
alternator increases, its origin of this reduction
speed decreases
• The speed
• The voltage drop by load
increase
If speed decreases, the • The armature reaction

frequency decreases in which decreases the
the same proportions inductive flux
HOW TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT THE VOLTAGE AND THE

FREQUENCY ?
Figure 66: Reactive power management
The load control is therefore done on active power.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
For example on an EDG (Emergency Diesel Generator) working in manual control there
are only 2 potentiometers, one for motor speed, the second for voltage adjustment.
Speed adjustment is seen in turbine and/or engine courses, from the generator it is simply
a digital or analogical instrument request: “please, increase or decrease”
A motor (hydraulic or A generator with D.C. current,

thermoelectric turbine) exciter (or other system) is
provides the mechanical installed at the shaft end to provide
energy to the alternator the D.C. current necessary to the
Speed adjustment inductor of the generator.
Field excitation current adjustment
Figure 67: Example of Emergency Diesel Generator
To maintain a constant frequency and voltage, these two simultaneous operations are
necessary:
Control speed by action on the turbine (or engine) regulation
Control the excitation current by action on the shunt field rheostat of the exciter
(see drawing above) or through any static of rotating adjusting device
Practically, these two operations can be carried out by a speed regulator and a voltage
regulator.
6.2. Automatic voltage regulators (AVR)
The name AVR for Automatic Voltage Regulation could be interpreted another way. As
in fact, it is the load (the power) which is regulated, an increase in current decreases the
voltage and inversely, it could be said Ampere Volt Regulator (This is a personal
interpretation which is not an official one…).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The AVR are nowadays entirely electronic; they take their operating power from either the
main output or the shaft-driven high-frequency sub-exciter (typically at 400Hz) or from the
network or UPS’s.
.
6.2.1. AVR set-point
Like any closed-loop servo, an automatic voltage regulating system maintains a constant
voltage within the given level of errors; at whatever level it has been set. This level is
referred as being the ‘set-point’.
6.2.2. AC Generator voltage regulation
When a load is applied to the terminals of a generator previously running at no load and
without AVR control, the terminal voltage will drop by an amount which depends on the
nature of the load. This drop of voltage is called the ‘regulation’ of the generator at that
load. It is usually quoted at full rated load, that is, at the full-load rated current and rated
power factor and is expressed as a percentage of the no-load or system voltage. Thus, if
V0 is the no-load voltage and V the generator terminal voltage at full rated load and power
factor and with the excitation unaltered, then
V0 − V
× 100%
V0
is the percentage full-load regulation.
3 Ph
Generator
Receiving current breaker
Field winding for 1, 2 or 3 phases
Power supply
AVR
Receiving voltage values
Voltage adjustment
Modulating field current
Figure 68: Voltage regulation AC generator

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The AVR is a “box” receiving the “image” essentially of voltage, either between 2 or 3
phases and sending in output the required current in field winding to compensate the
voltage variation. The AVR is like an “ETC” as per the instrumentation standard of “Voltage
Transmitter Controller” … Many AVR’s includes the “image” of line current which acts as a
derivative action anticipating the load demand. The AVR then becomes like a JTC for
Power Transmitter Controller…

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7. GENERATOR PARALLELING AND SYNCHRONISING
7.1. CONDITIONS FOR PARALLELING
7.1.1. Introduction
At some time in the life of an industrial plant, the existing load carrying capabilities may
need to be increased.
It may be necessary to accommodate a peak load during a portion of a day, or a

permanent expansion of the load may be planned in the installation.
One solution would be to replace the existing generator set with a larger unit. A more cost
effective and efficient solution would be to place another generator set into the system to
assist in carrying the load, that is, parallel the first unit with the second.
On line Generators Stand-by Generators
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
? When to close?
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 69: Distribution with several generators in parallel
When two sources of power are installed in parallel, the system voltage will be that of the
individual sources, but the amperage capacity of the system will be the sum of the
amperages of the units in parallel.
This means that by operating two or more units in parallel, system voltage can be
maintained at the desired value, and the load carrying ability of the system is increased.
Units of different kW ratings can be paralleled as long as individual voltages are the same.
Several units can be paralleled as long as they can divide the load proportional to their
individual ratings.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Successful paralleling depends on similar response of motors and sensitivity of the speed
control governors, similar response of voltage regulators and presence or absence of
cross current compensation devices.
There are four conditions that must be met by the on-coming generator and the bus
(network) before paralleling can take place.
They must have the same phase rotation.
They must operate at the same frequency.
They must operate at the same voltage.
They must be synchronised, or in-phase.
And then, only when those 4 conditions are simultaneously present, the stand-by
generator is running at synchronous speed, the voltage is adjusted, in phase, it means that
it is synchronised, closing of the main loading breaking can be done
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
Order to
Ready? – Go ! close
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 70: Generator synchronising
Closing of the main breaker is the finalisation of the synchronising phases. Let’s see the 4
“pre” conditions in detail.
7.1.2. Condition 1: same phase operation
Phase rotation is determined by the connections to the bus.

That is, Phase A of one source must be met by Phase A of the second source.
Phase B of one meets Phase B of the other, and C phase meets C phase

Equipment
Generators & Motors
rotation rotation rotation rotation

Ph A Ph A Ph A
Ph A
Ph C Ph B Ph C Ph B Ph B Ph C
Ph C Ph B
Generator on line or network Generator to synchronise Generator on line or network Generator to synchronise
Figure 71: Same phase operation
It means not only rotating the same direction, but each pair of phases matching
Ph A Ph A
OK !
Ph C Ph B Ph C Ph B
Generator on line or network Generator to synchronise
Figure 72: Phases are matching – OK!
Figure 73: Phase rotation OK, corresponding phase to be connected together
This requirement is critical, and if not met, the powerful magnetic forces in the stators
would cause the rotors to turn in reverse direction.
The orders of the phases are not important, B C A to B C A or C A B to C A B are equally

correct.
A phase rotation meter can be used to check phase sequence of the bus and of the
oncoming generator.
If potential or instrumentation transformers are used to step down the generator and bus
(network) voltages for the phase rotation meter of synchronising lamps, extreme care must
be taken to insure that proper primary to secondary polarities are maintained, so as to give
the correct signal to the phase rotation meter. (leave to the commissioning electrician !)
Swapping or interchanging any two of the generator lines can change the phase
sequence.
The phase sequence can also be changed by changing the direction of generator rotation.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.1.3. Condition 2: same frequency
The second condition for paralleling is that both sets operate at the same frequency. In the
figure below you can see that turbine generator set 1 and turbine generator set 2 have
different frequencies. TG2 is running faster than TG1,
Figure 74: Frequency differential 1
TG 1
1 Hertz
TG 2
Figure 75: Frequency differential 2
The difference in speed is called "slip frequency". To match the oncoming generator
frequency to bus frequency adjust the speed control switch/potentiometer on the
generator panel until both frequency meters indicate the desired frequency.
The "slip rate" is the time rate of change or the speed with which the generator frequency
is approaching the bus frequency. Figure under shows both generators running at the
same frequency.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
TG 1
TG 2
1 Hertz
1 Hertz
Figure 76: Both generators running at same frequency 1
Both curves can be superposed
TG 1
TG 2
Figure 77: Both generators running at same frequency 2

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.1.4. Condition 3: same voltage
A third condition, voltage matching is accomplished by providing a higher (or lower)

voltage adjusting signal to the voltage regulator via the voltage adjust rheostat located on
the control panel. Check the voltmeters on each generator panel.
Figure under shows a difference in voltage amplitude and not in frequency.
V1
TG 1
1 Hertz
V2
TG 2
Figure 78: Voltage differential (frequency OK)

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.1.5. Condition 4: Synchronising (timing) or phasing
Generators that are synchronised will have their rotors north poles facing in the same
position (Figure under). We consider the North pole giving the maximum induction (so
maximum voltage) to one phase coil at an instant time ‘t’. At the same instant South pole is
giving half the induction (sin 30°) to the2 other phases (in reverse voltage).
Ph A Ph A
Instant value
Reference phase at instant ‘t’
of B & C
for synchronising synchronise
Ph C Ph B Ph C Ph B
Figure 79: Two rotors with two north pole / phase facing the same direction at ‘t’
The north poles can be at any simultaneous clock position, not just the condition shown in
figures above. (A two-pole rotor has been used for simplicity.)
Equipment
Generators & Motors
The act of paralleling in the example shown would entail closing the output circuit breaker
of the oncoming generator (assuming one unit is connected to the bus/network).
CAUTION
The circuit breaker must never be CLOSED when the rotors of two generators are not in
the same position, because the powerful magnetic forces generated in the rotors will
cause the rotors to spin rapidly in an attempt to achieve identical positions. The rule of
"likes repel, unlike attracts" is true, and when violated, as in figures below, the rotors will
stop instantly and reverse direction or spin rapidly in the same direction in an attempt to
achieve the same directional positions.
When this occurs, damage to the turbine generating system will occur. Damage may
consist of broken shear couplings, shafts, gearboxes, line voltage/current surges, and loss
of power.
TG 1 TG 2 TG 1 TG 2
Figure 80: Phases ‘A’ in opposition at 0 & 180° and in the same opposition at 90 & 270°
It is possible to matched voltages and frequencies, and still be "out of phase". Figure
under shows bus voltage (TG-1) and oncoming generator voltage (TG-2) to have the same
voltage amplitude. Speed is also equal because the two rotors have completed one
revolution in the same amount of time.
Ph A
30° out
TG 1 of phase
TG 2
Ph C Ph B
Generator to
Generator on line or network synchronise
Figure 81: Generators to synchronise 30° out of phase
The phase angles, however, are not the same. Phase angle is the relative electrical
degrees between the oncoming unit voltage wave and the bus voltage wave.
Detection of the relative phase angle and closure of the circuit breaker at or as nearly
possible to zero phase angle is the most important and critical factor in paralleling.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The figures under illustrates voltage phase angles in electrical degrees.
TG 1
Ph A Ph A
TG 2
TG 1 TG 2
Ph C Ph B Ph C Ph B
Figure 82: In phase 0) phase angle between the two generators
TG 1 TG 2
Ph A
Ph C
TG 1
TG 2
Ph C Ph B
Ph A
Ph B
Generator on line or network
Generator to synchronise
Figure 83: 90° out of phase or 90° phase angle
TG 1 TG 2
Ph C
Ph A
TG 2
TG 1
Ph B Ph A
Ph C Ph B
Generator to
TG 1 TG 2
synchronise
Ph A
Ph B
TG 1
Ph C
Ph C Ph B TG 2
Ph A
Generator on line or network
Achieving zero phase angle will be described under the heading "methods of paralleling".
Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.2. SYNCHRONISM/PARALLELING
7.2.1. Ready for coupling
The conditions in the previous paragraph have (almost) been satisfied.
The phases are correctly positioned, "commissioning" have done their job or
these machines have already been paralleled.
The unit (turbine + generator) has been rotating for a (short) while at synchronism
speed (approximately) i.e. 3000 or 1500 rpm.
Voltage has been adjusted.
You simply need to bring the 2 "rotating fields" in phase and press on the close
button of the coupling circuit breaker by turning or modifying the turbine or engine
speed (4th condition).
The synchronism system is clearly manual, hassle-free under automatic version, it runs by
itself.
7.2.2. Coupling operations with a one phase alternator lamp:
I.e. a GT2 alternator (one phase) which we suggest couple in parallel with several others
connected to the PN bars, or coupling bars. The network (or GT1) has an emf E1.
If we organize the unit as shown below in which L1 and L2 refer to the lamps connected
between the coupling and the switch terminals.
Figure 86: One phase alternator, lamp coupling

Equipment
Generators & Motors
a) Alternator GT2 rotates at a speed near to the synchronism speed, N =

60 f / p (f = frequency of the D. D. P. E1 between the bars).
b) GT2 has been excited in order to have E2 (between its output terminals) at the same
value as E1, the indications being on 2 different voltmeters connected to points E1 and E2.
The first condition for coupling has been satisfied. We then observe that lamps L1 and L2
show beats. The closed circuit (P – GT2 –N) is subject to an emf equal to e1 + e2 in
instantaneous value (algebraic sum) and to:
Figure 87: Algebraic value of ‘E’ (vector quantity)
However, as the frequency of E2 is not equal to that of E1 (the speed needs to be

adjusted), vector E2, as compared with vector E1 which is considered as fixed, rotates with
an angular speed equal to the slip between the pulses for the two emf.
Therefore E varies between ‘0’ and (E1 + E2) limits.
Figure 88: Variations in E
In the first case, lamps L1 and L2 are extinguished. in the second case, lamps L1 and L2
are lit at maximum. Caution: the lamps must be able to accept twice the voltage of E1
or E2 as the 2 voltages act cumulatively (in instantaneous values).
c) Let us act on the speed of alternator GT2, in order to slow the beats of the lamps. The
coupling switch is closed if a lamp is extinguished for approximately three seconds.
Vector E is zero at extinction of a lamp, i.e. emf E1 and E2 are in phase in the shared
circuit (P – GT2 –N) to the outside network.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.2.3. Coupling operations with a three-phase alternator lamp:
Exactly the same process is used. The phase order was defined earlier.
Figure 89: Coupling with a three-phase alternator lamp
The first three conditions are satisfied, therefore the three lamps come on and go out
simultaneously at a speed which is inversely proportional to the slip in speed between the
two sources E1 and E2.
The speed of GT2 must be adjusted (carefully) until the lamp beating speed is low (lit for at
least 5 seconds) and when the lamps are out, close the coupling switch.
Should the 3 lamps start operating randomly, this means that the first condition of the
"phase order" is not satisfied. Configuration could be similar to the following figure.
Figure 90: Example with "unsatisfied phase order"

Equipment
Generators & Motors
With this situation, do not attempt to couple….. start again at zero.
Tip: with three-phase circuits, in commissioning (and initial testing), at least 2 lamps
must be connected to the terminals of 2 phases of the coupling circuit
breaker/switch, even if all "other devices" demonstrate that the circuit is working
fine. An error is always possible. With at least 2 lamps, you are 100% certain to
couple the right phases…
7.2.4. Coupling operations with a synchronoscope
Coupling may be manual or automatic, lamps are replaced with a "rotating field slip
indicator", i.e. the synchronoscope, included in the coupling unit.
Figure 91: Example with the ABB system, complete and compact SYNCHROTACT CSS,
ready for assembly
Figure 92: Diagram of the device operating principle
In MAN mode, the functions are manually adjusted using push buttons from the front
section. Measurement values will be indicated on the instruments. The shut down order
will be released in the conditions corresponding exactly to the phases if the release and
close push buttons are pressed simultaneously.
In AUTO mode, the voltage and frequency of the alternator will be automatically adjusted
to the tolerance value. The shut down order for the circuit breaker considers its closing
time in the conditions corresponding exactly to the phases.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
7.2.5. Coupling tolerances
Acceptable limits for voltage, frequency and synchronism deviations are generally:
Voltage: + or - 5%
Frequency: 0.1-0.5Hz - The network frequency is then monitored using a relay.
Synchronism or phase lag: 5° max.
7.3. PARALLEL CONTROL OPERATION
7.3.1. Taking the load
Considering one generator on line on a network, in parallel with other generators, coupling
(synchronising) has been successful, we want it to take some load.
Only 2 controls are available on the couple turbine/generator or engine/generator, the

Voltage adjustment of the generator (AVR) and the speed control of the prime mover.
To take load for the “new arrived” generator, the speed control will increase/decrease the
active power (“real” power on the shaft). When the voltage increases, the active power
increases. In fact, the voltage on the network does not move. Instead the current output
increases and the (reactive) power taken by the generator increases.
In manual control, the operator increase up to the desired value.
In automatic control, the “share” of the power will go (gradually) up to the pre-set value
which can be in equal percentage for all generators or depending a ratio function of power
capacity of the concerned generator.
7.3.2. Load sharing
Or the balancing of power between generators and this depending the configuration of the
power plant
Identical generators

Equipment
Generators & Motors
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW 3 MW
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 93: Identical generators load distribution
In this power plant, all generators identical, generally power is share in equal percentage
Unbalanced power capacities
G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph G 3Ph
10 MW 10 MW 3 MW 3 MW 1 MW 0.6 MW
Bus bars
Load distribution
Figure 94: Non-identical generators
It is impossible to ask the last generator (0.6KW) to share same power with the 10MW
ones. There will be a load sharing system which can be:
By ratio of individual power capacity, or by permanent manual adjustment
By centralised power sharing system, given independent orders to each generator

control circuit, it is the “Load sharing” in which an additional control box is added
to each unit in complement of its AVR and speed control
And if you are familiar with site electrical installation, Woodward control material is
installed on numerous plants, here after some pictures of Load control, Load & speed
control devices.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The 2301A Load Sharing and Speed Control is

available in forward- or reverse-acting systems and in
several speed ranges for applications requiring either
droop or isochronous speed control. Models are
available with either accelerating or decelerating ramps.
Figure 95: Load sharing and speed control
The Automatic Generator Loading Control (AGLC)

can be used with any Woodward load sharing and
speed control circuit with either built-in or external load
sensors. It is designed to provide soft loading or
unloading of a generator set to an isochronous load
sharing system or to base load setting at controlled
rates. The electronic ramps are easily adjusted from
five seconds to five minutes for 100% load change.
The load and unload ramp rates adjust separately
Figure 96: Automatic Generator Loading Control
And so on, we cannot edit here the complete Woodward operating and instruction manuals
and anyway the load sharing + control of alternators is a complete course by itself.
Hereafter a schematic configuration with load sharing example. We shall see nevertheless
in next paragraph the meanings of ‘(isochronous’ and ‘droop’.
Prime movers Gas Turbines
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
SC1 SC2 SC3 SC4 SC5 SC6
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
AVR1 AVR2 AVR3 AVR4 AVR5 AVR6
LS1 LS2 LS3 LS4 LS5 LS6
Communication bus or wires between LS’s

LS0
Load distribution bus-bars

Total load Iamp and
V volt inputs for LS0
Figure 97: Load sharing principle example schematic

Equipment
Generators & Motors
SCx is for Speed Controller receiving the rpm indication and sending back signal to prime
mover governor
AVRx is the Automatic Voltage Regulator receiving voltage and current of its generator
and sending back field current
LSx is the Load Sharing “box” dialoguing with each generator / prime mover SC & AVR
and interconnected with the master LS0 which checks the total load
7.3.3. Droop and Isochronous control mode
Isochronous operation provides constant turbine speed for single unit operation and for
parallel units provides proportional division of load between units while maintaining fixed
frequency on an isolated bus.
Speed control, in isochronous mode, for each prime mover is (nearly) independent, the
turbine (or engine) governor acts as a single regulator, watching and adjusting “its” speed
to the fixed synchronism value.
52 Hz
51Hz
Time
50 Hz
49 Hz
Isochronous response
48 Hz to increase in load
47 Hz
Figure 98: Isochronous response form for frequency on a bus bar
In Speed Droop the prime mover governor operates to decrease speed with increasing
load. This is the mode that is commonly used to operate generators in parallel, as it allows
them to share load in proportion to rated load.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
52 Hz
51Hz
Time
50 Hz
49 Hz
Droop response to
48 Hz increase in load
47 Hz
Figure 99: Droop response
But, what about the frequency control? I want the network to be at 50 Hz permanently!
Other generators have to be in ‘isochronous’ on the network to keep the frequency at

desired value. The one in “droop”, generally a smaller one, running “under speed” is just
(by this system) maintaining its load at the same value leaving the other generator the task
of taking the increase. The AVR, not concerned by the droop is still controlling at the set
voltage.
Droop mode is pres-set as project/commissioning values; they are in the range of 3% or

5%, for 50%, 100% of load,
52 Hz
5% droop for rated Hz at 100%
51Hz 3% droop for rated Hz at 100%
50 Hz
49 Hz
48 Hz
47 Hz
Load
50% 100%
Figure 100: Example of droop mode settings

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Only one setting is applied to one machine, if all generators in parallel have the same
droop curve, the frequency varies accordingly, the user have to accept the change in
frequencies function of the load
Problems begin to occur when machines in parallel have different droop settings. Leave it
to the specialist….

Equipment
Generators & Motors
8. ALTERNATOR MAINTENANCE
WARNING: before initiating maintenance procedures, disconnect all power sources to the
machines and accessories; replace all grounding connections prior to operating.
Failure to observe these precautions may result in injury to personnel.
GENERAL: The instructions related to general maintenance, cleanliness, inspection, and

cleaning insulation as covered in the generator Instructions in any manufacturer
maintenance instruction manual apply to al type all alternators (including the brushless
excitation systems).
Cleaning the exciter windings and rectifier assembly at regular intervals is recommended.
CAUTION: if it becomes necessary to take out and dry a rotor (in oven), remove the
rectifier assembly prior to dry the rotor.
8.1. DIODE REPLACEMENT
This work has to be done by a qualified technician, or at least permanently supervised by

one; it is an operation/intervention relatively frequent on an alternator, let’s say the first
cause of trouble and if it becomes necessary to replace any of the silicon diodes, the
following Instructions should be observed. The listing of directives given hereafter is for
information taken out from an instruction manual.
Figure 101: Diode bridge assembly on a brushless generator

Equipment
Generators & Motors
It is recommended that identical diodes, as originally furnished, be used as

replacements. The replacement diodes should be ordered by the manufacturer’s
renewal part number.
Always tighten or loosen a diode by turning the nut and holding the hex on the
diode body stationary.
Clean the heat sink thoroughly around the diode-mounting hole. Be sure there are
no raised areas that would prevent the diode from seating tightly against the heat
sink. This mounting surface and the diode-mounting surface must be flat, smooth
and clean to ensure maximum heat transfer from the diode to the heat sink.
Diode pigtails should be positioned such that they are not in tension and do not
exert a strain on the diode.
Some diodes may have leads soldered to them. If it becomes necessary to solder
a new lead to the diode, it must be removed from the heat sink, or the lead must
be installed before the diode is mounted. Since diodes can be damaged by
excessive beat during soldering, use a low-melting solder such as 60 percent tin,
40 percent lead, and apply heat just long enough to make the solder connection.
Use only rosin core solder, and clean surfaces before soldering. During the
soldering operation the diode can be held by installing the nut on the diode stud
and lightly clamping the nut in a vice. Care must be exercised in holding the diode
during soldering to avoid providing a good heat sink to the diode which may result
in overheating of the diode and/or a poor solder joint.
Check the threads on the diode stud to see that they are clean and free of burrs.
The nut should turn freely by hand the full length of the thread. It the diode is one
which was removed from a 530 type rectifier assembly, and is to be reinstalled,
remove all trace of glue (“Loctite”) from the stud and nut threads prior to
Installation.
Before mounting the diode, apply a coating of Burndy "Penetrox A" or equivalent
to the diode heat sink mounting surface.
When installing a diode, use one of the following procedures appropriate for the
type of rectifier assembly furnished:
• TYPE 1. Install the diode in its proper position, Install the locking plate, and
install the diode nut. Torque the nut to its proper value (see Table under),
and bend up the tab on the locking plate to lock the nut in position.
• TYPE 2. Install the diode in Its proper position and Install the spring washer
such that the surface at the outside diameter is In contact with the heat
sink. Coat the threads of the diode stud with ‘Loctite’ "Screwlock", or
equivalent, put the nut on the stud, and torque the nut to its proper value
Immediately (see Table under).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Torque (inch/pounds)
Hex size
Stud size across flats
(inches)
Maximum Minimum
1/1” – 28 11/16 30 25
3/18” – 24 1 1/16 100 95
¾” - 16 1 1/4 300 285
Table 4: Semiconductor mounting torque
CAUTION: after the Loctite has been applied to the diode threads and the
nut installed, the nut must be torqued to its proper value as quickly as
possible and before the Loctite begins to set. Failure to do so may result in
false torque readings, improper diode mounting, and diode failure.
When installing diodes, a torque wrench must be used. The nut on the diode
should be torqued to its specified value. For diodes furnished, the torque limits of
the table must be observed.
CAUTION: Both forward and reverse polarity diodes are used in the exciter
an arrow on the diode case indicates rectifier assembly diode polarity. When
replacing diodes be certain that replacement rectifiers on each heat sink are
of the proper polarity.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 102: Typical type ‘1’ rectifier assembly
Figure 103: Typical Type ‘2’ rectifier assembly

Equipment
Generators & Motors
8.2. Varistor replacement
Figure 104: Leroy Somer alternator showing varistor use
A varistor is a device whose resistance decreases as the voltage across it increases. Its
use is to eliminate the voltage spikes and have resistance load.
If it should become necessary to replace one of the varistors, the following instructions
should be observed.
Since the varistors have special characteristics, they should be replaced only with
the same type as originally furnished by the generator manufacturer.
A varistor can easily be replaced by following the procedure outlined for the type
rectifier assembly furnished. When removing a varistor or varistor assembly,
observe how the parts are assembled so that they can be installed in the identical
manner.
• Type 1. Remove the stud and insulating bushing on which the varistor is
mounted, and unbolt the varistor leads from the heat sinks
• Type 2. Remove the connection jumper between the varistor heat sinks,
and remove the bolt, which secures the varistor assembly to the heat sink.
Prior to mounting a new varistor, check all mounting surfaces, such as heat sinks, shims,
and the varistor faces, to see that they are flat and smooth.
Tighten the nut and bolt which secure the varistor assembly to the heat sink only
sufficiently to make a good electrical connection.
Excessive tightening may crack or damage the varistors.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
8.3. DRYING WINDINGS
Generators in service may inadvertently have their windings exposed to splashing or

sprayed water. Units that have been in transit or storage for long periods of time may be
subjected to extreme temperature and moisture changes causing excessive condensation.
Regardless of the source of moisture, wet windings should be thoroughly dried out before
operating the unit. If this precaution is not taken, serious damage to the generator can
result. The following procedures may be utilized in drying the generator’s windings. The
method selected will be influenced by winding wetness and situation limitations.
8.3.1. Space Heaters
An electric heater may have been supplied with the generator. When energized from a
power source other than the generator, the heater will gradually dry the generator. This
process can be accelerated by enclosing the unit with a covering and inserting additional
heating units.
A hole should be left at the top of the covering to permit the escape of moisture. Care
should be taken not to overheat various accessory equipment mounted with the generator.
When intervention is done on a generator (same for a motor equipped with space
heater) never forget to insulate (switch off and lock off) the space heater supply
generally in 220 or 380V………..
8.3.2. Forced Air
Another method to dry the generator is to run the set with no excitation. The natural flux of
ambient air through the generator will tend to dry the windings. This method can be
accelerated by adding a source of heat at the air intake to the generator. Heat at point of
entry should not exceed 80 C.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
8.4. OPERATING DIFFICULTIES
8.4.1. General
Occasional careful inspection of machines during operation is essential to detect any

improper operation, which may, in time, result in a serious failure.
Some operating difficulties of the brushless excitation system, which may occur, and their
causes, are given in Table under and should be corrected as soon as discovered.
8.4.2. Troubleshooting table
Affected part Difficulty What to check
Defective diode or varistor

Excessive exciter Shorted field turns in exciter or generator
Exciter
Field current Short in system wiring
Overloads
Reversed field leads

Generator output voltage will Exciter residual lost
not build up Open circuit in excitation system
Defective regulator
Generator
No control of generator output Defective regulator

voltage Open or short circuit in exciter system
Table 5: Generator troubleshooting
8.4.3. Insulation Resistance
If a generator has become damp in shipment or in storage or after ‘inactivity’, it is

advisable to measure the insulation resistance of the stator and rotor winding with a
megger (voltage adapted to the alternator voltage on stator and on rotor)
CAUTION: When using a megger to check insulation resistance of the stator, be certain to
disconnect all control equipment and/or radio-suppression capacitors at the generator and
exciter terminals.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
To megger the rotor of a generator furnished with an AC brushless exciter, short across
the heat sinks before applying power.
Failure to observe these precautions may result in damage to the rectifiers or other solid
state devices connected in these circuits
In accordance with established standards, the recommended minimum insulation
resistance for the stator winding is as follows:
Rm =kV + 1 where
Rm = recommended minimum insulation resistance of the entire stator winding In

megohms at 40°C (obtained by applying direct potential to the entire winding for one
minute), and
KV = rated machine voltage in kilovolts.
The above formula should also be used to establish the recommended minimum Insulation
resistance of the field winding by using field voltage in kilovolts in the above formula.
INSULATION RESISTANCE VALUES
Extract From Total Spec:
SP-COM-511 PRECOMMISSIONING ACTIVITIES
Values at commissioning time for a GENERATOR
The connections used for the insulation resistance tests shall be similar to the ones
used on the high voltage test. A 5000V Megger shall be used for testing the 5.5kV
windings and a 1000V Megger shall be used on the 440V windings, and exciter windings.
A 500V Megger shall be used for the anti-condensation heater and bearing pedestal tests.
The minimum acceptable insulation value shall be:
5.5kV generator windings - 150 Megohms

400V generator windings - 100 Megohms
Exciter windings - 100 Megohms
Anti-condensation heaters - 10 Megohms
Bearing Insulation - 1 Megohm
If the insulation resistance of a generator winding is below the minimum acceptable value
the polarization index (for electrician, it liaises with class of insulation) should also be
measured. A motorized Megger, or similar equipment, is required for the test.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
9. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
You are familiar with a synchronous motor as it is the same machine as an alternator.
The main characteristic of the synchronous motor is that the rotor, unlike asynchronous
machines, rotates without slipping at the speed of the rotating field, independently to the
load on the shaft (within the limits of the nominal power, obviously).
Two main and separate types of synchronous motors exist: magnet motors and coiled
rotor motors.
There is therefore no need to present this technology, it is identical to that of the alternator
described in previous chapters, i.e. coiled rotor. We will however consider its advantages
and drawbacks. The synchronous motor with permanent magnets (the bike alternator!) is
used for "small" machines.
9.1. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WITH PERMANENT MAGNETS
The motor rotor is equipped with permanent magnets, generally in lanthanide, to obtain a
strong field in a small space. The stator has three-phase windings.
Figure 105: Section of a synchronous motor with permanent magnets
These motors may accept substantial overload currents in view of rapid acceleration. They
are always combined with a speed regulator and these speed regulation drive units are
intended for specific purposes, such as robots or machine-tools for which a smaller volume
of motor, accelerations and passband are essential.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Magnets, fixed frequency, and possible start-up?
To allow a synchronous motor to start directly at the frequency of the network (without the
assistance of a squirrel cage – see asynchronous motor), specific conditions must exist in
terms of moment of inertia and resisting torque. The total inertia at the shaft must be
sufficiently low to allow initial step and resisting torque to be almost zero, which can be
obtained via a set of mechanical reduction gears.
If the alternator is one phase, it cannot, in theory, be started unless the rotor is stopped in
a position creating a torque when power is applied. This condition is obtained either using
a dephasing ring providing a rotating field or via carefully offset detent torque.
Figure 106: "SAIA" single direction synchronous motor with magnets
Single-phase synchronous motors with magnets include the small motors with multiple
poles and prong stators used in programmers and electro-mechanical watches.
Power is just a few watts and speeds reach just a few rpm. The structure in the following
figure shows a dephasing ring.
A 2-pole motor with ferrite permanent magnets which can operate with a single-phase
supply using its offset detent torque and the dissymmetry of the stator at the air gap (figure
below) has appeared on the market for low power (a few watts) alternators and replaced
asynchronous motors with shield coils in applications such as fruit presses and drainage
pumps. Its main advantage is its smaller size and thus reduced cost.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 107: Single-phase synchronous motor with magnets: section [Alten 94], "Mabuchi"
9.2. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WITH A COILED ROTOR
Synchronous machines with coiled rotors may be reversed and may operate as generators
(alternators) or motors. The machines were long generally used as alternators. Their use
as a motor was practically restricted to applications involving the need to drive fixed speed
loads despite relatively substantial variations in their resisting torque.
The development of direct frequency converters (cycloconverter type) or indirect frequency

converters operating via natural switching thanks to the ability of synchronous machines to
provide reactive power, allowed for effective, reliable variable speed electric drive units
which were particularly competitive in view of rival solutions, as power exceeds the
megawatt.
Although industrial synchronous motors with power ranging between 150 kW and 5 MW
can be found, most synchronous motors have an electric drive in excess of 5 MW,
generally with speed regulators. (Frequency variation = speed variation)
Operating characteristics
The motor torque of the synchronous machine is proportional to the voltage at the
terminals while, with asynchronous machines, it is proportional to the square of this
voltage.
Unlike the asynchronous motor, it can operate with a power factor equal to or close to
unity.
9.2.1. Advantages of the synchronous motor (coiled rotor)
The synchronous motor has a certain number of specific advantages as compared with the
asynchronous motor in terms of network supply with a constant voltage and frequency:
The motor speed is constant, independently of the load;

Equipment
Generators & Motors
It may provide reactive power and improve the power factor of an installation. It is
effectively used to this end in installations with a low cos φ (high inductive load).
It can accept relatively substantial voltage drops without kicking out (approx. 50%
due to overexcitation possibilities).
Figure 108: Synchronous motor improving the cos φ of an installation
9.2.2. Drawbacks of the synchronous motor (coiled rotor)
However, a synchronous motor with constant frequency and voltage, powered directly by
the power distribution system, has two drawbacks:
Starting is difficult. In fact, if the motor is not combined with a speed regulator,
starting must occur offload, either directly for small motors, or using a cranking
motor which will drive the motor at a speed near to synchronism before coupling
on the network.
It may kick-out if the resisting torque exceeds its maximum electromagnetic

torque. In this case, the start-up operation must be reset.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
9.3. OTHER SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
To complete our consideration of industrial synchronous motors, we could mention linear

motors, synchronized asynchronous motors and step-by-step motors.
9.3.1. Linear motors
Their structure is identical to that of synchronous-type rotating motors: they include a

stator (base) and a rotor (moving stem) developed in line. The base generally moves along
a guide following the moving stem.
This type of motor avoids using any type of intermediary kinematics to transform the
movement, thereby preserving the motor from play and mechanical wear.
9.3.2. Synchronous asynchronous motors
These are induction motors. When starting, the motor operates in asynchronous mode,
and when reaching a speed close to the synchronism, it switches to synchronous mode.
If mechanical load is high, it is unable to rune in synchronous mode and switches to

asynchronous mode.
This particularity is obtained via the special construction of the rotor and is generally used
for low power motors.
9.3.3. Step-by-step motors
Step-by-step motors rotate on the basis of the electric pulses supplying its coils.
Depending on the electric supply, they may be of different types:
Single pole if the coils are always supplied in the same direction and by a single voltage;
Two pole if the coils are supplied in both directions, alternately.
They create the north and south poles alternately.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Two pole with Single pole with

Hybrid two pole
permanent magnet variable reluctance
Operating
stages 2 phases, 4 wires 4 phases, 8 wires 2 phases, 4 wires
8 24 12
Step 1
Intermediary
phase
Step 2
Table 6: The three types of step-by-step motors
Step-by-step motors may be of variable reluctance, with magnets or both (above figure).
The minimum rotation angle between two modifications to electric pulses is known as a
step. A motor is characterized by:
The number of steps per revolution (per 360°). Standard values are 48, 100 or 200 steps
per revolution.
Motor rotation is therefore discontinuous. To improve the resolution, this number can be
increased in a purely electronic manner (micro-step operation).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 109: Current levels applied to the coils of a step-by-step motor to reduce steps.
By varying the coil current in levels (above figure), a field is created which slides from one
step to another leading to the effective reduction of the step.
Micro-step circuits multiply the number of steps transited by a motor by 500, climbing from
200 to 100 000 steps, to give an example.
Electronics control the chronology of these pulses and count them. Step-by-step motors
and their control circuit thus allow for the precise rotation of an axis in terms of speed and
amplitude.
This type of operation is similar to that of a synchronous motor when the shaft undertakes
continuous rotation, which corresponds to specified limits in terms of frequency, torque
and inertia for the load supplied (figure below). If these limits are exceeded, the motor
kicks out and stops.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 110: Maximum torque according to the step frequency.
A precise angular positioning is possible without a measurement loop. These power

motors are generally below the kW and supplied with low voltage for small models. In
industrial terms, these motors are used for positioning applications such as setting stops
for parting, valve control, optical or measurement devices, loading or unloading of
presses or machine-tools, etc.
The simple nature of this solution makes it particularly cheap to run (no feedback loop).
Step-by-step motors with magnets also have the advantage of maintaining torque when
stopped and with the power cut. However, the initial position of the mobile must be known
and considered by electronics in order to ensure effective control.
Below are a few examples of applications
9.3.3.1. 'Lavet' step-by-step synchronous motor
The single-phase structure, frequently used in watches and electric pendulums, is the
Lavet motor. The diameter of the two pole rotor with magnets is approximately 1-1.5mm
and torque is approximately 1 DN.m for watches.
The figure below shows such a motor which can rotate in one direction only.
Figure 111: Single-phase Lavet motor for ‘Minot 98’ and ’Seiko’ watches

Equipment
Generators & Motors
9.3.3.2. Step-by-step synchronous motor with prongs
The following figure shows the structure, and a photo, of a two-phase back-to-back
armature motor with prongs. The rotor is a multi-pole magnet in ferrite (sometimes in
NdFeB). The most frequent version is the motor with 48 steps per revolution and 12 pairs
of poles.
Figure 112: Two-phase magnet armature structure with prongs.
9.3.3.3. 'Escap' step-by-step synchronous motor
The 'Escap' disk magnet motor is unique of its type and consists of a rotor disk with a fine
axial magnet (Oudet 81). The stator is a U shape and consists of sheets excited by
globalised coils. The armature has two-phases.
This original architecture creates excellent acceleration and very high frequencies thanks
to low magnetic loss.
Figure 113: Portescap disk magnet motor (Oudet 81) - (Kenjo 92)

Equipment
Generators & Motors
9.3.3.4. Hybrid step-by-step synchronous motor
Finally, hybrid motors in their most frequent structure, that of an axial magnet on the rotor
and two teeth offset by a half-step to obtain an alternative inducting flux to the stator. The
most frequent type has two-phases each consisting of 4 stator poles with teeth and a rotor
with 50 teeth providing a resolution of 200 steps per revolution. 5-phase motors also exist.
Figure 114: Vexta hybrid step-by-step motor, 200 steps per revolution, 2-phase.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
10. Three-phase asynchronous motor

This chapter focuses on the presentation of three-phase asynchronous motors, the most
frequent types used on the sites to drive machines.
These motors are required for a great many applications due to their advantages:
standardized, they are sturdy, easy to maintain, easy to operate and inexpensive.
10.1. OPERATING PRINCIPLE
This chapter can (almost) be considered as a reminder as we have already studied the
principles of magnetism and the operation of synchronous and DC motors.
10.1.1. The magnet principle
The operating principle of an asynchronous motor depends

on the creation of an induced current in a conductor when it
cuts the lines of a magnetic field, hence the name
"induction motor". The combined action of the induced
current and the magnetic field create a motive force on the
rotor of the motor.
Let us image a turn ABCD with a short circuit, located in

magnetic field B, and mobile around the axis xy.
Figure 115: Creation of an induced current in a short circuit

turn.
If, for example, we rotate the magnetic field clockwise, the turn will be subject to a variable
flux and an induced electro-motive force, thus creating an induced current ‘i’ (Faraday's
law).
According to Lenz's law, the direction of the current is such that its electromagnetic action
resists the source of the current. Both conductors are therefore subject to Lorentz force F
(Laplace for French speakers), in the opposite direction to its movement relative to the
induction field.
The three finger rule with the right hand (action of the field on a current, (figure below)
easily identifies the direction of force F applied to each conductor.
The thumb is placed in the direction of the induction field. The index finger
indicates the direction of the force.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The middle finger is placed in the direction of the

induced current.
Figure 116: The right hand three finger rule can be used
to identify the direction of the force.
The turn is subject to a torque which causes its

rotation in the same direction as the induction
field, known as a rotating field. The turn will start
to rotate and the electro-motor torque created will
balance the resisting torque.
10.1.2. Creation of the rotating field
Three windings, geometrically offset by 120°, are each supplied by one of the phases of an
AC three-phase network
Figure 117: Principle of a three-phase asynchronous motor.
Windings are subject to AC with the same electric offset,

producing a sinusoidal alternating magnetic field. This field,
always created in the same direction, is at its maximum when
the current in the winding is at its maximum.
The field generated by each winding is the result of the

combination of the two fields which rotate in opposite
directions. Each field has a constant value corresponding to
50% of the maximum field.
Figure 118: Fields created by the three-phases.

At a given time t1 at any point in the period (figure above), the fields produced by each
winding can be shown as follows:
Field H1 decreases. The 2 fields therein will tend to increase their distance from
the axis OH1,

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Field H2 increases. The 2 fields therein will tend to decrease their distance from
the axis OH2,
Field H3 increases. The 2 fields therein will tend to decrease their distance from
the axis OH3,
The flux corresponding to phase 3 is negative. The field is therefore sent in the opposite
direction to the coil.
By superposing the three diagrams, we can conclude that:
The three fields rotate anti-clockwise and are offset by 120° and cancel each
other out.
The three fields rotate clockwise and are overlapped, These fields accumulate to
create the rotating field with a constant amplitude of 3Hmax/2. This field has one
pair of poles.
This field carries out a revolution during a time of the supply current. Its speed will depend
on the frequency of the network (f), and the number of pairs of poles (p). This is known as
"synchronism speed" and corresponds to the rotation speed of the alternator (or
synchronous motor) and which the asynchronous motor cannot reach due to the
phenomenon explained in the next paragraph.
10.1.3. Slip
Motor torque can only exist if induced current circulates in the turn. This torque is
determined by the current which circulates in the turn and which can only exist if the flux
varies in this turn. A difference must therefore exist between the speed of the turn and that
of the rotating field.
For this reason, a motor operating on the basis of this principle is known as an:
"asynchronous motor".
The difference between the synchronism speed (Ns) and the turn speed (N) is known as
"slip" (g) and is expressed in % of the synchronism speed.
g = [(Ns - N) / Ns] x 100
When operating, the frequency of the rotor current is obtained by multiplying the power line
frequency by the slip. At start-up, the frequency of the rotor current is therefore at its
maximum.
The slip established will vary according to the motor load and the level of the supply
voltage: the lower the load, the lower the slip, and the lower the voltage, the higher the
slip.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
10.1.4. Synchronism speed
This is once again a reminder, as we have already studied this for alternators.
The synchronism speed of an asynchronous motor is the theoretical speed at which it

would rotate if no slip occurs.
The synchronism speed of three-phase asynchronous motors is proportional to the

frequency of the supply current and inversely proportional to the number of pairs of poles
in the stator.
To give an example:
Ns = 60 f/p
Ns: synchronism speed in rpm

f: frequency in Hz,
p: number of pairs of poles.
This is clearly the same as for the synchronous machine.
For industrial frequencies of 50Hz and 60Hz and another frequency (100Hz), the rotation
speeds for the rotating field, or the synchronism speeds, according to the number of poles,
are given in the following table.
Rotation speed in rpm

Number of poles
50Hz 60Hz 100Hz
2 3000 3600 6000
4 1500 1800 3000
6 1000 1200 2000
8 750 900 1500
10 600 720 1200
12 500 600 1000
16 375 540 750
Table 7: Frequency according to the rotation speed of the rotating field
In practice, it is not always possible to increase the speed of an asynchronous motor by

modifying supply to a frequency exceeding that intended, even if the voltage is adapted. It
must be checked if the mechanical and electrical design of the machine allow for this.
The on load rotation speed of asynchronous motors are slightly less than the synchronism
speeds indicated in the table due to slip.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
10.2. CONSTRUCTION
A three-phase asynchronous motor (with squirrel cage) consists of two main sections: a
field system = stator + armature = rotor. Only this combination is possible, while an
alternator may have a fixed field system (in the stator) or a rotating field system (in the
rotor) and a fixed or rotating armature.
10.2.1. The stator
This is the stationary part in the motor. A supporting frame or light alloy frame will enclose
a crown of thin sheets (approximate thickness: 0.5mm) in silicon steel. These sheets are
individually insulated via oxidation or an insulating coating.
The lamination of the magnetic circuit

reduces losses via hysteresis and eddy
currents.
Figure 119: Stator in an asynchronous motor
The sheets are equipped with slots for the

positioning of the stator windings for the
production of the rotating field (three windings
for a three-phase motor). Each winding
includes several coils.
The type of coupling of these coils defines

the number of pairs of poles of the motor and
therefore the rotation speed.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
10.2.2. The rotor
This is the mobile element in the motor. As is the case for the magnetic circuit of the stator,
it consists of a collection of thin individually insulated sheets and forms a keyed cylinder on
the motor shaft.
Figure 120: Rotor (squirrel cage) on an asynchronous motor
The technology of this element allows for the distinction of two groups of asynchronous
motors: those with "squirrel cage" rotors, and those with "ring" coiled rotors.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
10.3. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROTORS
10.3.1. Cage rotors
Several types of cage rotor exist, they are all designed on the basis of the example of the
figure above (and below).
Figure 121: Exploded view of a cage motor
The following paragraphs mention motors starting with the least frequent and ending with
the most frequent:
10.3.1.1. The resistant cage rotor
The resistant rotor particularly exists in the single cage format (defined later). The cage is
sealed with two resistant rings (specific alloy, reduced section, stainless steel rings, etc.).
These motors have high slip levels with nominal torque.

Their start-up torque is high and the start-up current low (see graph below).
Yield is low due to losses in the rotor.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
These motors are, in principle, used for applications which benefit from slip in order to
adapt speed on the basis of torque, e.g.:
Several mechanically connected motors with distribution of load, such as the

rollers of a roll mill, or the drive unit for a lifting gate;
Winder/unwinder (or spooler) function using Alquist motors (*) intended for this
purpose;
Need for a high initial torque with a limited ringing current (lifting hoists or
conveyors).
These allow for speed to be varied by simple modification of voltage, however this
application is tending to disappear to the benefit of
frequency converters. While all motors are self-
ventilated, certain motors with a resistant cage rotor
are power ventilated (separate motorisation of the
fan).
Figure 122: Torque/speed graph per type of cage

rotor
(*) These power-ventilated asynchronous motors with

high levels of slip are used for speed variation. Their
current at setting is similar to their nominal current. Their
torque/speed properties are wide ranging. With variable
supply, it is possible to adapt this characteristic and to
set the motor torque according to the required traction.
10.3.1.2. Single cage rotors
Conductors are placed in holes or in slots placed around the rotor (outside of the cylinder
created by piling sheets) and connected to a metal crown at each end. The motor torque
generated by the rotating field acts on these crowns. To ensure that the torque is regular,
conductors are slightly tilted to the motor axis. The entire unit looks much like a squirrel's
cage, hence its name.
The squirrel's cage is generally fully moulded, (only very large motors are produced using
conductors inserted in slots). The aluminium is injected under pressure and the cooling
fins, cast in the same unit, ensure that the stator conductors are short-circuited.
These motors have a relatively low start-up torque and the current absorbed at start-up is
much higher than the nominal current (see graph below).
However, they have a low slip level at nominal torque.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
These motors are mainly used at high power to improve the yield of installations on pumps
and fans. They are also combined with variable speed frequency converters. Torque
problems and start-up current problems are fully solved in this manner.
10.3.1.3. Double cage rotors
These consist of two concentric cages, one fairly resistant outer cage with a small section
and one low-resistance inner cage with a large section.
At initial start-up, the rotor current is at a high frequency, the consequent skin effect means
that all of the rotor current circulates at the periphery of the rotor and therefore in a
reduced section of the conductors. At initial start-up, the rotor current is at a high
frequency, therefore the current only circulates in the outer cage. The torque produced by
the resistant outer cage is substantial and the inrush current is reduced (graph below).
At completion of start-up, the frequency decreases in the rotor, and the flux via the inner
cage will be easier. The motor will act as if it was built with one single cage with low
resistance.
When the regime is established, the speed is only slightly less than that for a motor with a
single cage.
10.3.1.4. Deep slot rotors
This is the standard format.
Rotor conductors are cast in the slots of the rotor, which are of trapezoid shape and the
small side of the trapezium is located on the outside of the rotor.
Operation is similar to that of the double cage motor: the amperage of the rotor current
varies inversely to the frequency.
Thus:
At initial start-up, torque is high and the ringing current low.
When the regime is established, the speed is similar to that for a motor with a
single cage.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
10.3.2. Coiled rotor (ring rotor)
Windings, identical to those on the stator, are placed in slots at the periphery of the rotor
(next figure). The rotor is generally three-phase.
Figure 123: Exploded view of a motor with an asynchronous ring rotor
One end of each winding is connected to a common point (wye coupling). The free ends
may be connected to a centrifugal coupler or to three insulated copper rings joined to the
rotor. Graphite-based brushes connected to the starter unit touch these rings.
Depending on the value of the resistances inserted in the rotor circuit, this type of motor
can create a start-up torque of up to 2.5 times nominal torque.
Start-up current is essentially proportional to the torque created on the motor shaft.
This solution has been increasingly dropped for electronic solutions combined with a
standard cage motor. The latter can solve maintenance problems (replacement of worn
supply brushes on the rotor, maintenance of setting resistances), reduce the energy
distributed in the resistances and thus substantially improve the yield of the installation.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
11. OTHER TYPES OF MOTORS
11.1. SINGLE-PHASE ASYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
The single-phase asynchronous motor, although less used in industry than its three-phase
equivalent, is however widely used for low power applications and construction
applications using the single-phase 230V network.
This motor is larger than the three-phase motor for the same power output.
In addition, yield and cosinus φ are much lower than for the three-phase motor and vary
considerably on the basis of both power and the manufacturer
11.1.1. Construction
The single-phase motor, as is the case for the three-phase motor, consists of two sections:
the stator and the rotor.
11.1.1.1. The stator
This consists of a number of pairs of poles and coils are connected to the power system.
11.1.1.2. The rotor
This is generally a squirrel's cage.
11.1.2. Operating principle
Let us consider a stator with two windings connected to the power system L1 and N
Figure 124: Operating principle of a single-phase asynchronous motor.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The single-phase AC creates a single alternating field H in the rotor which overlaps two
rotating fields H1 and H2 with the same value and in opposite directions.
When stopped, the stator still receives supply, therefore the fields maintain the same level
of slip as compared with the rotor and consequently produce two equal and opposite
torques. The motor cannot therefore start.
A mechanical impulse on the rotor will lead to a difference in slip. One of the torques will
decrease while the other will increase. The consequent torque will start the motor in the
direction required.
11.1.3. Start of a single-phase motor with capacitor
In order to solve this torque problem at start-up, the usual method is to insert a second coil
offset by 90° in the stator. This auxiliary phase is supplied by a phase lag artifice (capacitor
or inductance). The auxiliary phase may be removed following start-up.
11.1.3.1. Two-phase motor with permanent capacitor
Its coils consist of 2 equal phases each occupying half of

the slots. Direction is inverted simply by switching the
supply of the wires at terminals connecting to the
permanent capacitor, with a shared terminal at the other
side. Power is equal in both directions. This system is
used for very low powers.
This is generally used for controlling valves. The power

is "doped"... but for an intermittent service.
Figure 125: Two-phase motor with permanent capacitor
11.1.3.2. Motor with a permanent capacitor and "1/3-2/3" coil.
Its coil consist of a main phase using 2/3 of slots and the auxiliary phase using the
remaining third.
The auxiliary phase is permanently in the circuit, and in series with a capacitor known as
the "permanent capacitor".

Equipment
Generators & Motors
These motors have a low start-up torque: ST/NT (Starting

torque and Nominal torque) of 0.3-0.8. This is the
traditional bottom-of-the-range hardware store motor...
This motor can only be used for applications tolerating a

low start-up torque: centrifugal pumps, machines starting
off load, etc.
Figure 126: Permanent 1/3-2/3 capacitor
11.1.3.3. Motor with a starting capacitor (and "1/3-2/3" coil)
Coil includes two "phases": an "operating phase" or "main phase", and a "auxiliary phase"
or "start-up phase".
The coil for the operating phase, which occupies two thirds of the slots, have the
widest wire and the lowest ohm resistance.
The "start-up phase", which occupies the

remaining third of the slots.
The motor also includes a starter device, which

may be either a centrifugal contact, an amperage
relay or a voltage relay (depending on the
process) and cuts the capacitor after start-up
Figure 127: Starting amperage relay and

capacitor. I>

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 128: Typical start-up sequence for a two-phase motor with relay and capacitor
The so-called "start-up capacitor" is a high capacity electrolytic capacitor:

hundreds of µF, for Intermittent service (*). These motors have a high start-
up torque: ST/NT of 1.5-3 which is almost equivalent to the St/Nt for three-
phase asynchronous motors
(*) This type of capacitor cannot be operated longer than required for start-
up. It will explode if operated for longer periods.
Figure 129: Starting capacitor
The following also exist
Motors with starting capacitors and permanent capacitors
"Split-Phase" motors, with a high-resistance start-up phase
"Two-wire" motors with starting windings (or a inverted turns)
Etc….
It is impossible to list all types, however one question keeps coming up: how do you start
and operate a three phase motor with single-phase? AND, electricians should not ask this
type of question…. next paragraph.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
11.1.4. Three phase motor with single-phase
11.1.4.1. With capacitors
A loss of power of 30% must be acceptable and a loss of starting torque for circuits with 1
single capacitor.
A. Main phase = one three-phase phase, the auxiliary phase = two phases in series.
Figure 130: Three phase motor with single-phase: main phase = 1 phase & 1 auxiliary
phase = 2 phases
The two coils thus distributed have their respective axes offset by 90°, a capacitor of the
appropriate value will be used to supply the auxiliary phase.
This connection allows for a maximum of power in 220 V, maintaining the loss of 30% of
the original power (see table).
B. Main phase = two three-phase phases in series, one auxiliary phase = 1 three-
phase phase.
This connection with two phases in series for the main phase, although more logical for
matching the 2/3-1/3 coil of real single-phase machines, must be used with double voltage,
i.e. with single-phase 400 V.
Or, with 220 V, the expected power must be halved...

Equipment
Generators & Motors
C. Delta motor
Figure 131: Three phase motor with single-phase - delta coupling
The most frequent version
D. Main phase = two three-phase phases in parallel, one auxiliary phase = the
remaining phase
This is little used, as it only operates under certain conditions for coil schemas and with
small motors. (e.g. small machine-tool pumps, with a small number of slots).
E. Table of values of C
Should you wish to work it out yourself….
Height of Cd Cp Id 220
Triple- Single- In 220
the motor (starting (Permanent Starting
phase phase Current in
shaft in capacitor) capacitor) current in
power (kW) power (kW) 220V
mm (type) µF µF 220V
80 0.55 0.37 120 30 2.2 11.5
80 0.75 0.55 225 32 3.3 18
90 1.1 0.75 300 47 4.2 25
90 1.5 1.1 500 75 6.1 38
100 2.2 1.5 560 90 8.3 45
100 3 2.2 650 140 12.2 60
112 4 3 1100 250 17 90
Table 8: Values of C

Equipment
Generators & Motors
F. Types of capacitors:
Cd: "starting" type capacitor (electro-chemical for alternating 50hz, single phase
motor starting) 260/330V~ (added, during start-up, for 1-2 seconds, in // with the
permanent capacitor). Special dual contact-type switches with can be used,
including a "hold" contact, or rapid timing controlling a relay for the starting
capacitor.
Cp; "permanent" type capacitor (polypropylene or paper/oil) 400/450V~
11.1.4.2. With a "pilot motor"or phase converter transformer
A three-phase motor initially started off load, using the aforementioned methods, and a
second three phase motor can be connected to the terminals of this motor acting as a
generator: this is the "pilot" motor.
Figure 132: Three phase motor with single phase - phase converter rack
Additional motors may then be connected if the pilot motor is powerful enough. The
network thus created will then gradually increase its start-up capacity by adding new loads.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 133: Three phase motor with single phase - ISOMATIC (UK brand) three phase
converter
11.1.4.3. With a frequency converter
A frequency converter or frequency regulator * (or "inverter") is used. This device creates
three phases offset by 120° from the single phase 230V network, using a U/f law: 230V-
50Hz

Equipment
Generators & Motors
11.2. DC MOTORS
We have considered DC machines previously, as a generator and a DC motor are the

same thing. Let us take a closer look at the "motor" function of the DC machine.
11.2.1. Introduction
DC motors with separate excitation are still sometimes used to drive machines at a
variable speed.
These motors are easy to produce in small versions and are required for very low powers
and low voltages. They are also ideal for speed change, including for high powers (several
megawatts), with simple and inexpensive electronic technology and high performances
(changing interval generally of 1-100).
Their characteristics also allow for the precise torque regulation, with a motor or a
generator. Their nominal rotation speed, independent to the network frequency, is easy to
adapt to all applications in terms of construction.
They are however less sturdy than asynchronous motors and much more expensive, both
in terms of initial cost and maintenance, as they require regular maintenance of the
collector and brushes.
11.2.2. Construction
A DC motor consists of the following main components:
The field system or stator
This is a component in the fixed magnetic circuit to which a winding is attached in order to
produce a magnetic field. The electromagnet thus created includes a cylindrical cavity
between its poles.
The armature or rotor
This is a cylinder in individually insulated magnetic sheets perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder. The armature is mobile, rotates around its axis and is separated from the field
system by an air gap. The conductors are evenly distributed around the periphery.
The collector and brushes.
The collector is joined to the armature.

The brushes are fixed, they rub against the collector and supply the conductors of the
armature.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
11.2.3. Operating principle
If the field system is supplied, it creates a magnetic field (excitation flux) in the air gap,
directed according to the armature. This magnetic field "enters" the armature from the
north pole side of the field system and "exits" the armature on the south pole side of the
field system.
When the armature is supplied, the conductors placed under the same field system pole
(on the same side as the brushes) are subject to currents in the same direction and are
therefore, according to Lorentz's law, subject to a
force.
The conductors located under the other pole are

subject to a force of the same amperage in the
opposite direction.
The two forces create a torque which rotates the

armature of the motor
Figure 134: Production of torque in a DC motor.
If the armature for the motor is supplied with DC voltage or rectified U, it produces back
emf E of a value of
E = U – RI
RI represents the ohm voltage drop in the armature.
The back emf E relates to speed and excitation as follows
E=kωΦ
k is a constant for each motor,

ω, angular speed,
Φ, flux.
This relation demonstrates that with constant excitation the back emf E, proportional to ω,
reflects the speed.
Torque relates to the inducting flux and the current in the armature as follows:
C=kΦI
Reducing the flux will decrease the torque.
Two methods allow for an increase in speed.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Either increase back emf E, i.e. the constant excitation supply voltage: this is
known as "constant torque" operating;
Or reduce the excitation flux, i.e. the excitation current, while maintaining the
supply voltage constant: this is known as "defluxed” or “at constant speed”
operating.
This method requires the torque to decrease as speed increases (see graphs below).
Figure 135: Torque/speed graphs for a motor with separate excitation.
In addition, for high defluxing ratios, this type of operation requires motors which are
specially adapted (mechanically and electrically) to overcome switching problems.
The operation of such a device (DC motor) is reversible:
if the load opposes the rotation (resistant load), the device will provide torque and
act as a motor,
if the load tends to rotate the device (driving load) or opposes slowing down
(stopping phase for a load with a certain level of inertia), the device will provide
electric energy and act as a generator.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
11.2.4. Different types of DC motors
Figure 136: Different types of DC motors
11.2.4.1. Excitation in parallel (separate or shunt)
The coil, armature and field system are connected in parallel or supplied by two different
sources of voltage in view of the adaptation to the characteristics of the machine (e.g.:
armature voltage of 400 volts and field system voltage of 180 volts).
The inversion of the rotation direction is obtained by inverting one of the windings,
generally by inverting the armature voltage due to far tighter time restrictions. Most two
directional regulators for DC motors work in this way.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
11.2.4.2. Excitation in series
This motor is constituted in a similar manner to the motor with separate excitation, except
that the field system must accept the same current as the armature. The field coil is
connected in series with the armature coil, hence the name.
The inversion of the rotation direction is obtained either by inverting the polarities of the
armature or of the field system. This motor is essentially used under traction, particularly
for trolleys supplied with accumulator batteries.
With rail traction, the former motor coaches for the TGV used this type of motor. More
recent coaches use asynchronous motors.
11.2.4.3. Excitation in series and parallel (compound)
This technology combines the qualities of the excitation motor in series and the excitation
motor in parallel.
This motor has two windings per inducting pole. One is in parallel to the armature. It is
subject to a low current as compared with the working current. The other winding is in
series to the armature.
The motor flux accumulates if the ampere-turns for the two windings combine their effects.
The motor flux decreases if this is not the case, however this type of assembly is very
rarely used as it leads to unstable operation at high loads.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12. OPERATION OF ASYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

This chapter only concerns the "conventional" motor found on sites, i.e. the squirrel cage
motor.
12.1. CONNECTIONS
This clearly only concerns the cage motor as no other communication exists with the rotor.
12.1.1. Connection box or terminal plate
All motors have a minimum of 6 terminals for connection to the power supply.
We will not reconsider the principle of wye/delta

connections in this chapter.
Figure 137: Terminal plate for an 'average' size

motor
Figure 138: Wye-delta layout for stator windings, 6 output terminals

Equipment
Generators & Motors
In the example in the figure above,

delta windings are used for a three-
phase network with 220V, and delta
windings for a network with 380V.
Figure 139: Terminal plate for a

motor to be connected
The electrician has 3 laminations (or

contact fingers) (due to the
construction of the terminal plate). A wye layout only needs 2 laminations, what do you
think should be done with the third lamination?
Power is maintained for 220 and for 380V, and amperage is higher in the delta format
with the same ratio as for voltage.
12.1.2. Rotation direction
The phase order for a three-phase electric installation is (in theory) always the same.
If the phase order U, V, W is satisfied,

the (corresponding) connections to
terminals L1, L2, and L3 should rotate
the motor clockwise when viewing the
motor from the drive end.
Figure 140: "Conventional" rotation

direction for a motor
In practice, the test for the rotation direction of motors is always executed on the site,
and per motor (thankfully!).
If the motor rotates in the "incorrect direction" in testing, the 2 phases simply need
inversing.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.1.3. Other coupling for stator windings
12.1.3.1. Motors with pole coupling
It is possible to obtain a motor with two or more speeds by creating combinations of coils
corresponding to different numbers of poles in the stator.
Low speed High speed Low speed High speed
Figure 141: Dahlander delta/wye coupling (constant torque)
This type of motor only allows for speed ratios of 1 to 2 (4 and 8 poles, 6 and 12 poles,
etc.). It includes six terminals.
Low speed High speed Low speed High speed
Figure 142: Dahlander wye/wye-wye coupling (quadratic torque)
The network is connected to the three corresponding terminals for one of the speeds. The
terminals are interconnected for a second speed and the network is connected to the three
other terminals.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Generally, start-up is obtained by coupling to the network without any particular procedure,
both for high and low speeds (direct start-up).
In certain cases, if operating conditions so require, and the motor so allows, the starting
device will automatically switch to low speed before applying high speed or stopping.
Depending on the current absorbed by the low speed (PV) or high speed (GV) coupling,
protection may be provided by one heat relay for both speeds, or by two relays (one per
speed).
Generally speaking, these motors have a low yield and a low power factor.
12.1.3.2. Motors with separate stator windings
This type of motor consists of two electrically independent stator windings, allowing for two
independent speeds. However, their electrical properties are often affected by the fact that
the slow speed windings must accept the mechanical and electric constraints incurred in
the operation of the high speed motor. Therefore, these motors operating at low speeds
sometimes absorb more current than in high speeds.
It is also possible to produce motors with three or four speeds by coupling poles to one of
the stator windings or to the two windings. This solution requires additional terminals on
the coils.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.1.4. The nameplate
All information required is mentioned on the nameplate as shown in the following

examples:
Stator current
frequency Cos φ
Rated speed
power
yield
Number of phases
Maximum operating
temperature
Standard
amperage
absorbed for
a delta
coupling
Standard amperage
absorbed for a wye
coupling
Figure 143: Example of an nameplate for a Leroy-Somer motor

Equipment
Generators & Motors
In the following example (ABB motor), the ratio IA/IN = 4.7s must be combined with tE =
9s.
The starting current must be at least equal to 4.7 times the nominal current and must
not exceed a duration of 9 seconds. The appropriate protection device must be
planned.
Figure 144: Example of an nameplate for an ABB motor

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.2. SPECIFIC OPERATING CONDITIONS
12.2.1. Mechanical protection
All electric equipment (and

instruments) has an "IP"
protection level for the
entry of solid particles (1st
figure) and for the entry of
liquid particles (2nd figure).
See the "Electricity"
course.
Figure 145: Exploded view

of a squirrel cage
motor with protection
level IP 54
12.2.2. Cooling
The following are a few examples of the cooling principle,
Figure 146: Motor with air-air exchanger

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 147: Open motor with or without filter
Figure 148: Motor with air pulse cooler
Figure 149: Motor with air-water exchanger

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.2.3. Motor for explosive atmosphere
Motors must be certified for installation in a risk area and have the following sign on the
nameplate.
Corresponding to approval according to European standards if shown with the letters

‘CE’.
New European standards (US standards have always used this system) require the
indication of use in a gas area with the letter ‘G’. Other rating letters include ‘M’ for
Mines and ‘D’ for Dust
The nameplate must mention:
Example: EEx e IIC T3 (former standard with no indications)
xxx: certification number assigned by an official organism

II: equipment to be used on the surface (I refers to mines)
2: for the '"geographical" area on the site. Attention, the new standards are 1, 2 and 3
instead of the former standards which used 0, 1 and 2
G: for use in an area with a gas risk or vapour risk. Attention, equipment marked with
‘D’ must not be installed in a 'G' area and vice versa.
Nameplates mention the new identification markings (above) and the old markings, e.g.
EEx ‘e’ IIC T3. Let us consider the meaning of the small letters , ‘d’, ‘e’, ‘p’ and ‘n’
which apply to motors.
12.2.3.1. Increased safety EEx ‘e’
‘e’ particularly refers to
The motor, in normal operation, must have no components which may produce
an arc or sparks or reach dangerous temperature levels (self-ignition).
All of these precautions must have been taken when constructing the unit to
avoid the risk of ignition by any arc, sparks or high temperature which could be

Equipment
Generators & Motors
caused by a faulty electric contact (use of special terminals), heating, overload

or any other phenomenon.
The temperature restriction applies to both internal components and the outer
surface temperature.
The IP protection level must not be less than IP54.
All connections for live components must be safe.
The motor must have an earth connection via an internal terminal and an
external terminal.
Figure 150: The construction requirements of the ‘Ex’ motor with increased safety ‘e’
12.2.3.2. Flame-proof casing ‘d’
‘d’ particularly refers to
The motor casing must be constructed in order to contain any flame or

explosion which may occur inside without propagation into the surrounding
atmosphere and without causing any deformation.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
The motor may be liquid-proof, but is not systematically gas and vapour-proof.
Gas may circulate inside.
external terminal.
12.2.3.3. Pressurised casing ‘p’
‘p’ particularly refers to
The motor must operate with an internal pressure higher than the pressure of
the external atmosphere in order to avoid the entry of ambient air.
A positive pressure exceeding the external pressure by 0.5mb must be

maintained in the motor casing. Should this pressure difference be lost, the
electric supply (or supplies) of the motor must be immediately cut.
external terminal.
12.2.3.4. Non-sparking ‘n’
‘n’ particularly refers to
A motor which cannot be installed other than in area 3 (new standards), or area
2 (old standards).
A motor designed to avoid the production of sparks, flames, and high

temperatures in normal operation. (Idem to ‘e’).
The IP protection level must be a minimum of IP54 for connection units

(terminal plate) and IP44 for all insulated internal components.
external terminal.
12.2.4. Operation at 60Hz
A motor manufactured for 50Hz and a determined voltage may be used at 60Hz without
need for modification.
A motor manufactured for 60Hz and a specific voltage may be used at 50Hz.
Many motor nameplates indicate the properties for both 50 and 60Hz. The following
table summarises the possibilities.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
Data for 60Hz in % of 50Hz

Motor manufactured Service voltage for
for 50Hz 60Hz Additional output Additional speed
power in % in %
220V 220V 100 120
255V 115 120
380V 380V 100 120

415V 110 120
440V 115 120
460BV 120 120
415V 415V 100 120

460V 110 120
500V 500V 100 120

550V 110 120
575V 115 120
600V 120 120
Table 9: Use of a 50Hz motor at 60Hz
Example:
Parameter Data for 50Hz Conversion rate Data for 60Hz

Voltage 380V - 440V
Power 11kW 1.15 12,6kW
Current 23A 1.0 23A
Speed 1450rpm 1.20 1740 rpm
Table 10: Conversion example for 50Hz / 60Hz

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.3. BASIC SCHEMAS - MOTOR SUPPLY
Still concerns our cage motor shown

opposite
The following are a few examples of typical wiring systems for motors
The motor control chart systematically includes:
The power chart, with direct supply to the motor.
The control or command circuit chart.
See the "Electricity" course.
12.3.1. Direct start-up for a three-phase motor via a motor current breaker
Starting current:
A motor with a power supply has a "starting current" for a given period, approximately
proportional to the nominal current,
according to the type of motor and load.
Electric protection generally accounts for

this starting current by proposing two types
of protection, one for the nominal current (or
"normal" charging current) and the other for
the start-up peak.
Figure 151: Starting current for a cage

motor
Protection using a heat relay is

technologically more "inert" and waits for
the motor's current to stabilise at its service value.
Magnetic protection is quicker (and almost immediate) and will account for excessive or
abnormal starting currents. Magnetic protection is effective for both "strong" currents
and for short circuits:

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Protection (heat and magnetic) may be in the form of separate relays or incorporated
into circuit breakers or slave switches.
See the "Electricity" course for this technology.
Local control (only)
The device is a means of local manual control (close to the motor

On / Off on the slave switch), and protects against short circuits
and overloads.
Guaranteed protection
Via a heat and/or magnetic trigger or a magneto-heat trigger.
The slave switch is triggered manually.
Figure 152: Wiring chart, Direct start-up - slave switch
12.3.2. Direct start-up for a single-phase motor via a contactor
A single-phase motor is shown below. Protection and control are identical to those for a
three-phase motor. With a single-phase
motor, simply connect 2 poles in series for
Q1, KM1 and F1.
The wiring chart for a motor or for any

other unit always includes 2 separate
sections:
The power chart
The control chart
See the "Electricity" course.
Figure 153: Single-phase wiring chart -

Contactor start-up
NB: Q1 is a switch. Switches are not used in

the oil industry. Either isolating
(disconnecting) switches or circuit breakers are
used instead.
Equipment
Generators & Motors
Local control
The combination of a switch (Q1), a contactor (KM1) and a heat protection relay (F1) in a
case, allows the load to be cut and offers protection against overload.
In accordance with applicable installation standards, all start-ups must be protected
against short circuits via fuses or circuit breakers placed upstream.
Guaranteed protection
Via a three-pole heat protection relay against low and extended overloads. With single-
phase motors, 2 poles out of Q1, KM1, and F1 will be connected in series.
Locking of the opening of the case if the switch is not open.
Power circuit operation:
Manual closing of the switch Q1.

Closing of KM1.
Q1: Motor In size.
KM1: motor In size according to the category of use.
F1: Motor In size.
Control circuit operation:
Press "ON".
Closing of KM1.
Self-supply via the auxiliary KM1 contact.
Stop: press the "stop" button or trigger the heat protection relay FI.
12.3.3. Start of protection for a motor with 2 rotation directions
The power circuit includes an additional contactor to reverse the direction of operation.
The inversion of the rotation direction is obtained by crossing two of the supply phase
conductors. The third conductor is not modified. The direction of the rotating field is thus
reversed and, consequently, the rotation direction. Mechanical locking is required to avoid
short circuiting between two phases should the contactors KM1 and KM2 be closed
simultaneously.
Electric locking via the auxiliary contacts KM1 and KM2 in the control circuit will enable
mechanical locking should the former fail.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 154: Power circuit and control circuit
Control circuit:
Q is a contact which is directly connected to the fuse holder disconnector switch

(switch or disconnector). If Q is open, the control circuit will not be supplied.
Stop is a contact for stopping the motor.
F is a contact which opens if the motor is subject to overamperage.
bp1 and bp2 are push buttons which close and allow the motor to be controlled in
either direction.
km1 and km2 are contacts which close in relation to the other two contactors.
Contacts are also opened to prevent the possibility of transmitting a control to
rotate the motor in both directions.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.3.4. Delta wye start-up
Figure 155: Power circuit - Delta wye start-up chart - control circuit
Push on the buttons momentarily to transmit a control (S1 and S2).
Pressing the ON button (S2) will supply power to the wye contactor coil (KM1) and close
the contact. The contact will supply the line contactor KM2.
Once the contact KM2 is closed, it will automatically supply the coil KM2, start the timing
cycle and automatically ensure that contactor KM1 remains closed. It can be noted that
closing KM1 prohibits supply reaching KM3.
In this phase the motor is coupled in delta format and will increase in speed.
The preset interval for the timing device will pass and the timed contacts will be triggered.
The coil KM1 is no longer receiving supply (timed NC contact KM2 is open) and therefore
KM3 can be supplied together with the timed NO contact KM2.
KM3 closes and enables the activation of the delta coupling.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
It can be noted that closing KM3 prohibits supply reaching KM1 (this device is exclusive
and known as electric locking).
Pressing the push button S1 (STOP BUTTON) will stop the motor.
The amperage absorbed (proportional to the voltage applied) is 1/3 of the amperage that
the motor would have absorbed if it had started directly in the delta format. The peak value
of amperage generally reaches twice nominal amperage.
Starting torque (proportional to the square of the voltage applied) and maximum delta
torque are reduced to 1/3 of the values obtained with direct start-up. The value of starting
torque generally reaches 0.5 times nominal torque.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.4. MOTOR PROTECTION DEVICES
See the "electricity" course which includes details of the technology used and the principle
of controls and protection. The following paragraphs do however consider the principles
behind the main types of protection.
12.4.1. Heat protection
The three-pole heat relay protects against low and extended

overloads (thermal components).
As an option, a limiting additive is connected in series with the poles

of the motor circuit breaker, increasing the cutting ability of the
device.
Figure 156: Heat protection
12.4.2. Electromagnetic protection
Via maximum current relays
Protection of installations subject to frequent and substantial current rushes. This relay
also protects against short circuits.
Power circuit connection

Insert an electromagnetic relay in each
supply phase or wire.
Control circuit operation (schema):
2-wire control.
KM1 closed.
Substantial current rush.
Closing of F2, F3 or F4.
Opening of KM1 via F2, F3 or F4.
Immediate re-establishment of the contact
for the relay(s) triggered.
Closing of KM1 after pressing on the ON
button.
Figure 157: Electromagnetic protection

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.4.3. Protection via magnetothermal circuit breaker
Figure 158: Schematic representation of the single-pole circuit breaker.
With three-phase operation, 3 identical poles are mechanically joined. Action by one pole
will trigger the full three-pole assembly (or tetrapolar).
Heat protection and magnetic protection will mechanically trigger the circuit breaker for a
"problem" with one phase (only) or several phases. The use of circuit breakers is
preferable to (conventional) protection using fuses as it avoids all running on "2 legs"
which can occur if one fuse blows.
The circuit breaker may be reset manually or automatically. With a 'traditional' circuit
breaker, the motor control must be combined with a contractor, however low and medium-
power motor starting equipment will use remote controlled circuit breakers which combine
electro-thermal protection with the contactor.
Beware: a remote control slave switch works like a remote control switch, it requires
current to close and voltage to open. If it is not equipped with an automatic isolating device
(undervoltage coil), then it may be a source of “incidents”.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.4.4. Disconnector switch and fuse switch
The disconnector switch is a mechanical connecting device able to open and close a
circuit if the current is zero or almost zero in order to insulate the section of the installation
downstream from the disconnector switch.
The disconnector switch cannot cut or close a circuit.
The switch can cut the circuit and can be activated while on load.
Cutting must be visible either directly, by observing the separation of contacts, or

via a position indicator if the contacts are not visible.
The disconnector switch may be locked open with a padlock. This is a safety
measure on a circuit with individuals working downstream from the disconnector
switch
Figure 159: Remote

Figure 160: Socomec fuse Figure 161: Remote
mechanical
switch mechanical fuse switch
disconnector switch
The disconnector switch, the switch must include auxiliary contacts (closing) which
connect to the control circuit
Fuses:
Fuses must be sized according to the power of the motor, and must be strictly identical
and of type “aM” (motor protection). Caution: with 3 phase + neutral tetrapolar distribution,
there is no fuse in the neutral pole. A "neutral bar" will replace the fuse (see ‘electricity’
course).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.5. SPEED REGULATION
Variable speed driving of a load is possible via two techniques:
Gears between the motor rotating at a fixed speed and the component driven at
variable speed, this is the case of mechanical, hydraulic or electronic systems.
Operation of the motor at variable speed using electric or electronic solutions
We will now consider the second method of speed regulation which is the most frequent
on our sites.
12.5.1. Voltage regulator
This device is only used with low power asynchronous motors. It requires a resistant cage
motor.
Speed regulation can be obtained by increased motor slip after reducing voltage.
This technique is frequently used in fan, pump and compressor systems. The available
torque properties of this method give satisfactory results for these purposes. Frequency
converters have become competitive and are gradually replacing this solution.
12.5.2. Eddy current regulators
This consists of a drag cup directly

connected to an asynchronous motor rotating
at constant speed, and a rotor with a coil
supplied with DC
Figure 162: Schema of an eddy current

speed regulator
The movement is transmitted to the end shaft

via an electromagnetic connection. By
adjusting the excitation of these coils, it is
possible to adjust slip for the entire unit.
An embedded tacho-generator allows for accurate regulation of the speed.
A ventilation system allows for the evacuation of losses due to slip.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
This principle has been widely used for lifting machines, particularly site cranes. The basic
construction makes this a sturdy system, without wear and which can handle intermittent
operation or powers up to a hundred kW.
12.5.3. Ward Léonard unit
This device once very popular, consists of a motor and a DC generator supplying a DC
motor.
Speed regulation is achieved by adjusting the excitation of the generator. Low service
current allows for the control of power ranging up to several hundred kW for all speed
torque sectors. This type of regulator has been used on roll mills as well as mine lifts.
Figure 163: Schema of a Ward Léonard unit.
This speed regulation system was the most economical and the most advanced prior to
the arrival of semi-conductors, which rendered it obsolete.
The Ward Léonard unit is now a museum piece, you just need to know that "it existed" in
the name of history…

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.5.4. Frequency regulation
This is the current most popular solution for all powers.
Figure 164: Frequency converter flux chart
A static speed converter transforms three-phase AC supply with a fixed voltage and
frequency into AC supply with controlled variable voltage and frequency, via an
intermediate DC stage. A control/regulation circuit handles the various switches via power
semi-conductors.
Advantages
Full control of speed and torque
Light start-up
Reduced size and weight for the machines driven
Improved yield as compared with a "fully mechanical" system
Reduced maintenance.
Disadvantages
The introduction of components reduces the quality of the network (HARMONIC),

therefore it is sometimes necessary to filter (ANTI HARMONIC FILTER, which
explains the additional equipment on the premises)
Need to declassify equipment (motors, transformers, etc.)
Significant calorific dissipation on the premises (need for air conditioning).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
All constructors have their own technology, their programming system, and their own
operating instructions depending on the power range. Including all versions would take up
too much space here…
Leroy-Somer Hitachi Danfoss Nitram
Figure 165: A range of regulators proposed by some manufacturers
Figure 166: A range of "Altivar" regulators proposed by Schneider/Télémécanique

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.6. COMPARISON OF THE OPERATION OF VARIOUS MOTORS
Let us consider an overview of the above to conclude.
The following table allows for rapid identification of all existing motors, their main
characteristics and the fields of use.
The role played by three-phase asynchronous cage motors must be highlighted. Their
position as the "standard" unit today is reinforced via full satisfaction of operating
requirements in view of the development of electronic devices for speed regulation.
Cage + asynchronous Synchronou Rotor +

Asynchrono Step-by-
Motor type s + coiled permanent DC
us + rings step
Three- Single- rotor magnet
phase phase
Motor cost Low Low High High High Low High
Liquid-proof At request, At request, Possible, very

Standard Possible Standard Standard
motor expensive expensive expensive
Direct Impossible
Specific start-
network start- Simple Simple from a few Not planned Not planned Not planned
up device
up kW
Speed
Easy Very rare Possible Frequent Systematic Systematic Systematic
regulator
Cost of speed Increasingly Very Very Fairly Very Very

Economical
regulation economical economical economical economical economical economical
Performance
in terms of Increasingly Average to High to very
Very low Average High Very high
speed high high high
regulation
Constant or Mainly Constant or Constant or

Variable Variable Variable
Use variable constant variable variable
speed speed speed
speed speed speed speed
For high
Machine- Open loop
For low powers with
Industrial use Universal Decreasing tools, high operation for Decreasing
powers medium
dynamics low powers
voltage levels
Table 11: Overview of the operation of the various types of motors

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.7. MAINTENANCE
12.7.1. Insulation measures
On-site preventive maintenance provides for the measurement of the insulation of motors
and supply wires at least once annually.
This operation is carried out with the power supply cut to the line and motor
(consignment) via the general protection panel.
12.7.1.1. High voltage motor (high voltage, 5.5-6kV)
Each winding is tested for the earth and between each phase with a megohmmeter at the
voltage of 5000V. If the motor is equipped with a space heater, this item is tested at 500V.
When commissioning (new motor) the following values apply (total specifications).
Stator windings: 150 Megohms.
Anti-condensation resistance: 10 megohms.
Bearing insulation: 1 megohm (protection against eddy currents).
12.7.1.2. Low voltage motor (230/400V)
Each winding is tested for the earth and between each phase with a megohmmeter at the
voltage of 1000V.
If each phase cannot be tested

separately, the three phases will
be assessed collectively for the
earth.
Figure 167: Connection schema

for measurement per phase

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 168: Connection schema for general measurements
Stator windings: 10 Megohms.
Anti-condensation resistance: 10 megohms.
12.7.1.3. Low voltage cable
Measurements are taken using a megohmmeter 1000V for cables carrying service voltage
380/400V. Insulation must correspond to 1kV.
A 500v megohmmeter is used for other applications.
Figure 169: Example of a cable (reduction of superficial leakage effects)
400V cables: 50 Megohms.
Cables for 220/230V and lower: 10 Megohms.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.7.2. 'Heavy" maintenance works
12.7.2.1. Replacement of bearings
This is a relatively frequent operation.

Bearings must be paid close attention. They must be removed with an extractor and re-
assembled hot or with special tools intended for this purpose.
Implementation of semi-couplings and pulleys.
The semi-couplings and pulleys will be assembled using the appropriate devices and tools
to avoid damaging bearings.
Never use a hammer to implement a semi-coupling or pulley and never remove these
items using leverage against the motor frame.
12.7.2.2. Drying, baking
If bearing insulation is not adequate, the first solution is to disassemble the motor, recover
the stator, clean it, and dry it, depending on the size of the motor and resources.
The ideal solution is clearly to position the frame in an oven, but, in practice, with larger
motors, space heaters are placed inside the frame.
When the motor is dry, it is re-coated with an appropriate electric varnish.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12.7.3. Motor maintenance table (Troubleshooting)
The following table mentions a few ideas for maintenance and repairs
PROBLEM SOURCE INTERVENTION
Melted fuses Replace with fuses of the right type and size.
Motor starts due to an overload

Check and reset starting protection.
default
Compare the characteristics of the supply network

Inappropriate supply with the values on the motor nameplate and the load
factor.
Indicated by a roaring noise when the switch is

closed.
Open circuit in the coils or control
switch Check wire connections.
Also check that all control contacts are closed.
The motor
does not start Check that the motor and machine driven rotate
freely.
Mechanical problem
Check the bearings and lubrication.
Indicated by melted fuses.

Stator short-circuited
The motor must be recoiled.
Remove the motor plates and identify the

Stator coil incorrectly connected
connections with pilot lamps.
Defective rotor: Broken bars or

Change the rotor.
rings
Possible motor overload Reduce the load.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Missing phase Check the connection of phase conductors.
Change the type of size of the motor.

Inappropriate motor for the
application
Consult the manufacturer.
Overload Reduce the load.

Blocked motor
Cf. voltage value on the nameplate of the motor.
Voltage too low
Check connections.
Melted fuses
Open circuit
Check the overload relay, the stator and push
buttons.
The motor
Check the network connection, fuses and control
starts and then Supply default
cable.
stops
Inappropriate motor for the Consult the supplier concerning the selection of the
application motor.
Use a higher voltage or a transformer, or reduce the

load.
Voltage too low at the motor
terminals due to network
Check connections.
perturbations
The motor Check the conductor section.
does not reach
the required
speed Excessive start-up load Check the load accepted by the motor at start-up.
Presence of cracks in the rotor cage.

Rotor bars cut
Change of rotor recommended.
Locate the default with a control instrument and

Open primary circuit
repair.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Overload Reduce the load.
The motor is
slow to Check the resistance and the section of supply
Low voltage at start-up
accelerate cables, excessive current.
and/or collect
Defective squirrel cage rotor Replace with a new rotor.
The motor
rotates in the Switch wire connections on the motor or on the
Phase order error
wrong electrical panel.
direction
The motor
heats Overload Reduce the load.
abnormally
Ventilation slots in the frame or

Open the ventilation slots and check that cooling air
clogged stand, preventing the
can circulate freely.
motor from cooling
The motor A missing rotor phase Check connections for all conductors.
heats when
underloaded
Earthed coil Locate and repair.
Unbalanced voltage at the Check the conductors, connections and

terminals transformers.
The fan is rubbing against the air

Remove the problem.
fin
Friction noise
The fan hits the protective device Free the fan.
Assembly support unit Retighten the attachment bolts.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Motor alignment default Re-align
Inadequate rigidity of the assembly

Reinforce the stand
support
Unbalanced coupling Balance.
Unbalanced driven machine Re-balance
Defective bearings Replace
The motor
vibrates Offset bearings Re-align.
Offset balance weight Re-balance the motor.
Incompatibility between the

balance of the rotor and the Re-balance the coupling or the motor.
coupling (half key - full key)
Multi-phase motor running in single

Check any open circuit.
phase
Excessive axial clearance Adjust the main bearing or insert blocks.
Check and correct the assembly of plates or the main

Non-standardised air gap
bearing.
Noisy motor
Unbalanced rotor Re-balance

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Bent or non-aligned shaft Straighten or replace the shaft.
Overstretched belt Reduce the voltage.
Pulley too far from the motor

Move the pulley closer to the motor main bearing.
shoulder
Pulley diameter too small Use larger pulleys.
Alignment default Correct the drive alignment.
Hot ball
Respect the quantity of grease specified for the
bearings Lack of grease or too much grease
bearings.
Degradation of grease or Remove the dirty grease, clean bearings in-depth

contamination of the lubricant using oil and lubricate using new grease.
Reduce the quantity of grease, bearings must only

Excess lubricant
be half filled.
Main bearing overload Check alignment, side and axial pressure.
Broken bearing or deformed Thoroughly clean the bearing case and then replace
raceway the bearing.
Table 12: Motor maintenance table (Troubleshooting)

Equipment
Generators & Motors
13. EXERCISES
1. With regards a wye-delta connection for a cage motor: the network is three-phase
400V, the nameplate indicates a 380/660V motor, which type of connection is
required?
Wye
Delta
2. Excitation of a generator: 3 types of excitation exist for a power alternator, select the
right definitions from the following list and forget "dream" solutions
Dahlander system With DC generator
Eddy current principle With inverted polarisation
Brushless system With static converter
With coupled motor With permanent magnets
3. Use of a megohmmeter: what precautions should be taken when testing insulation

(generally) on an alternator)
Short-circuit the armature
Short-circuit the field systems
Short-circuit the stator windings
Disconnect the terminal plate
Disconnect exciter field systems
Short-circuit the rotor diodes
4. Control of an alternator: which system regulates the field current for the alternator
Speed control
The AVR
The stator current

Equipment
Generators & Motors
5. Complete the following table (Caution: per pole, and not pairs of poles).
Number of poles Speed Frequency
2 50Hz
1800 60Hz
6 1200
750 50Hz
8 60Hz
1000 50Hz
12 600
4 3000
6. Assign the main function to the corresponding alternator component.
Produce DC • • Rotor
Produce AC • • Stator
Produce a magnetic field • • Exciter
7. Which of the following rotates at constant speed?
The synchronous motor
The asynchronous motor

Equipment
Generators & Motors
8. Replace the missing words in the following phrases. Select the words from the list
List: Load - magnet - rotor - voltage - field windings - mechanical - coil -

Electromagnetic induction
Phrases:
The alternator converts …………. energy into electric energy using ……….
To produce electricity, a generator must have a ……… and a …………. with relative
movement.
The magnet, generally an electromagnetic magnet, and its wire coil are generally
known as………
The magnet and its coil (for an alternator) are assembled on the ……
The magnetic field induces ………….. in the stator windings which then produce a
current to supply the ……………
9. Identify the following and assign the controllers to the controlled items
Output voltage
Alternator speed
Frequency
Field current
10. In which section of the alternator is the service voltage induced?
Brushes
The core
The rotor
The field coil
11. With "bike dynamos", 1 full 360° rotation lasting 1 second produces an induced voltage
at a frequency of 1 hertz. How many revolutions per second are required to achieve
50Hz?

Equipment
Generators & Motors
12. The speed of rotating machines is expressed in RPM (Revolution Per Minute). At what
13. The speed of rotating machines is expressed in RPM (Revolution Per Minute). At what
14. What is the central rotating magnet known as?
The rotor
The stator
15. Are the coils capturing the induced energy (peripheral) in the "stator" or the "rotor"?
The rotor
The stator
16. A turn is rotating in a magnetic field

and creating a current in a
resistance. If current exists, there
will be voltage ‘e’ or ‘emf’
(electromotive force), as shown
below. Indicate the corresponding
2 6
numbers on the sinusoidal graph
below (1-7) next to the letters (a, b,
c and d on the schema above).
1 3 5 7
(a)
(b)
4
(c)
(d)
In fact, this comes down to assigning 7 figures to 4 letters (a - d). Several figures may exist
for one letter. The figure is the value of ‘e’ (+max, 0, -max).

Equipment
Generators & Motors
17. What is the synchronism speed (rpm) for an alternator with 1 pair of poles and a
frequency of 60Hz?
18. What is the synchronism speed (rpm) for an alternator with 3 pairs of poles and a
frequency of 50Hz?
frequency of 60Hz?
frequency of 50Hz?
21. Name the different parts of this machine:

Equipment
Generators & Motors
frequency of 60Hz?
23. At what speed (rpm) must an alternator with 2 pairs of 'North American' poles rotate to
produce a frequency of 60Hz?

Equipment
Generators & Motors
14. PRACTICAL EXERCISES
14.1. BUILD A SMALL DC MOTOR
You could construct a motor at home with almost nothing and with the help of your
children. Here's how:
Parts required to assemble the small motor:

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Stage 1: Construction of the field system
Place the field system part in its support. Using one or two rolls of copper wire,
create the field system with approximately 65 revolutions. Leave approximately
6cm of wire at each end.
Stage 2: Construction of the core
Place the two core parts on the motor shaft (2cm from the shaft end). Using the
second roll of copper wire, wind approximately 30 revolutions on each side of the
part. Leave approximately 6cm of wire at each end.
Using a small knife, remove the varnish on the two wire ends.
Then assemble both ends of the commutator.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Attach the following parts on the motor shaft:
o At one end: a black plastic tube with a length of 1cm.
o At the other end: a black plastic tube with a length of 1cm, the commutator
(pass the two wires in the two holes), and a black plastic tube with a length of
0.5cm.
o Cut the remaining wire ends.
Stage 3: Assembly of the motor
Attach the following parts to the assembly plate (using the holes):
o the two shaft supports
o the field system (constructed in stage 1)
o two paper pins (do not open immediately)
o two battery attachments.
Using a small knife, remove the varnish on the two field system wire ends.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Pass one end in the hole in a battery attachment. Rotate the wire to ensure a
reliable contact.
Pass the other end of the wire in a paper pin. Rotate the wire to ensure a reliable
contact.
Cut a length of approximately 10cm from the rest of the copper wire. Remove the
varnish on the two wire ends. Pass one end of the wire in the other paper pin.
Rotate the wire to ensure a reliable contact. Pass the other end of the wire in the
hole in the other battery attachment. Rotate the wire to ensure a reliable contact.
Turn the plate upside down. Insert the two brushes in the two small holes in the
centre. Insert the round ends of brushes in the two paper pins. Open the paper
pins to hold the brushes in place.
Place the core on the two supports. Check that the commutator is between the
two brushes.
Check that the two wires in the commutator are free of varnish and that contact
exists between the brushes and the commutator wires.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Stage 4: Testing of the motor
Insert a 1.5V AA battery in the battery attachments.
Slightly push in one direction to start the core rotating.

Equipment
Generators & Motors
15. GLOSSARY

Equipment
Generators & Motors
16. FIGURES
Figure 1: Early 20th century. Alternators in a hydro-electric room in Hungary ......................8
Figure 2: Example of a motor...............................................................................................8
Figure 3: Three Siemens' motors.........................................................................................8
Figure 4: Alternator rotor......................................................................................................9
Figure 5: Motor/alternator stators.........................................................................................9
Figure 6: Compass ............................................................................................................11
Figure 7: Recreation of the magnetic field .........................................................................11
Figure 8: Examples of batteries .........................................................................................12
Figure 9: Examples of accumulators..................................................................................12
Figure 10: Examples of UPS..............................................................................................13
Figure 11: Photovoltaic cell................................................................................................13
Figure 12: Structure of a photovoltaic cell..........................................................................13
Figure 13: TEG ‘battery' installed on a Total platform (Peciko) ..........................................15
Figure 14: TEG principle ....................................................................................................15
Figure 15: Rotating generator symbols ..............................................................................16
Figure 16: Magnetic circuit of a two-pole machine.............................................................16
Figure 17: Simple DC generator ........................................................................................17
Figure 18: EMF (‘e’) pulses produced by a DC generator..................................................18
Figure 19: Smoothing effect...............................................................................................18
Figure 20: Six turn assembly .............................................................................................18
Figure 21: DC machine ......................................................................................................19
Figure 22: Shunt machine..................................................................................................20
Figure 23: Shunt motor ......................................................................................................20
Figure 24: Series machine .................................................................................................20
Figure 25: Series motor .....................................................................................................20
Figure 26: "Compound" machine .......................................................................................20
Figure 27: Principle of the generation of alternating current ..............................................21
Figure 28: Turn in a magnetic field ....................................................................................21
Figure 29: Production of AC...............................................................................................22
Figure 30: A bike dynamo ..................................................................................................24
Figure 31: Voltage induced by a magnet rotating in a coil .................................................25
Figure 32: Alternator with 2 pairs of poles..........................................................................26
Figure 33: One phase rectified voltage/current with smoothed signal (rectifier or dynamo)
...................................................................................................................................27
Figure 34: One phase bridge rectifier and three-phase Graetz bridge...............................28
Figure 35: Alternator windings ...........................................................................................29
Figure 36: Stator assembly ................................................................................................31
Figure 37: Rotor assembly.................................................................................................32
Figure 38: Assembly of main parts stator/rotor/exciter.......................................................33
Figure 39: Construction principle of the internal pole of a single phase alternator.............35
Figure 40: Generator with three stator windings: U-X, V-Y and W-Z. ................................36
Figure 41: Electromotive force for each stator winding ......................................................37
Figure 42: Cutaway of a typical A.C. generator – prime mover (turbine, motor) not
represented ................................................................................................................38
Figure 43: A.C. Generator rotor types................................................................................39
Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 44: Insulation of bearings........................................................................................42

Figure 45: Conventional excitation.....................................................................................43
Figure 46: Static excitation.................................................................................................44
Figure 47: Brushless excitation – general case .................................................................44
Figure 48: Brushless excitation without pilot exciter ..........................................................45
Figure 49: Brushless excitation with pilot exciter ...............................................................46
Figure 50: Diode Bridge of an A.C. generator....................................................................47
Figure 51: Brushless generator - exercise .........................................................................48
Figure 52: Brushless generator – exercise solution ...........................................................49
Figure 53: Delta system .....................................................................................................50
Figure 54: Current and voltage in a Delta system..............................................................51
Figure 55: Typical delta connections, 3 wire generator......................................................52
Figure 56: Connection diagram and windings arrangement for a wye connection.............53
Figure 57: wye (star) connection........................................................................................54
Figure 58: Typical wye connected, 4 wire, generator.........................................................55
Figure 59: Typical one-line diagram generator protection..................................................57
Figure 60: Example for generator synchronised on network..............................................58
Figure 61: Principle of reverse power ................................................................................60
Figure 62: Active reverse power protection........................................................................61
Figure 63: Active power protection relay schematic representation...................................61
Figure 64: Reactive reverse power protection ...................................................................62
Figure 65: Protection against excitation losses by a reactive reverse power relay. ...........63
Figure 66: Reactive power management ...........................................................................64
Figure 67: Example of Emergency Diesel Generator.........................................................65
Figure 68: Voltage regulation AC generator.......................................................................66
Figure 69: Distribution with several generators in parallel .................................................68
Figure 70: Generator synchronising...................................................................................69
Figure 71: Same phase operation......................................................................................70
Figure 72: Phases are matching – OK! ..............................................................................70
Figure 73: Phase rotation OK, corresponding phase to be connected together.................70
Figure 74: Frequency differential 1 ....................................................................................71
Figure 75: Frequency differential 2 ....................................................................................71
Figure 76: Both generators running at same frequency 1 ..................................................72
Figure 77: Both generators running at same frequency 2 ..................................................72
Figure 78: Voltage differential (frequency OK)...................................................................73
Figure 79: Two rotors with two north pole / phase facing the same direction at ‘t’ .............74
Figure 80: Phases ‘A’ in opposition at 0 & 180° and in the same opposition at 90 & 270°.75
Figure 81: Generators to synchronise 30° out of phase.....................................................75
Figure 82: In phase 0) phase angle between the two generators ......................................76
Figure 83: 90° out of phase or 90° phase angle.................................................................76
Figure 84: 120° out of phase or 120° phase angle.............................................................76
Figure 85: 180° out of phase or 180° phase angle.............................................................76
Figure 86: One phase alternator, lamp coupling ................................................................77
Figure 87: Algebraic value of ‘E’ (vector quantity)..............................................................78
Figure 88: Variations in E...................................................................................................78
Figure 89: Coupling with a three-phase alternator lamp ....................................................79
Figure 90: Example with "unsatisfied phase order"............................................................79

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 91: Example with the ABB system, complete and compact SYNCHROTACT CSS,
ready for assembly .....................................................................................................80
Figure 92: Diagram of the device operating principle.........................................................80
Figure 93: Identical generators load distribution ................................................................82
Figure 94: Non-identical generators...................................................................................82
Figure 95: Load sharing and speed control........................................................................83
Figure 96: Automatic Generator Loading Control ..............................................................83
Figure 97: Load sharing principle example schematic ......................................................83
Figure 98: Isochronous response form for frequency on a bus bar....................................84
Figure 99: Droop response ................................................................................................85
Figure 100: Example of droop mode settings ....................................................................85
Figure 101: Diode bridge assembly on a brushless generator...........................................87
Figure 102: Typical type ‘1’ rectifier assembly ...................................................................90
Figure 103: Typical Type ‘2’ rectifier assembly ..................................................................90
Figure 104: Leroy Somer alternator showing varistor use .................................................91
Figure 105: Section of a synchronous motor with permanent magnets .............................95
Figure 106: "SAIA" single direction synchronous motor with magnets...............................96
Figure 107: Single-phase synchronous motor with magnets: section [Alten 94], "Mabuchi"
...................................................................................................................................97
Figure 108: Synchronous motor improving the cos φ of an installation .............................98
Figure 109: Current levels applied to the coils of a step-by-step motor to reduce steps..101
Figure 110: Maximum torque according to the step frequency. .......................................102
Figure 111: Single-phase Lavet motor for ‘Minot 98’ and ’Seiko’ watches .......................102
Figure 112: Two-phase magnet armature structure with prongs......................................103
Figure 113: Portescap disk magnet motor (Oudet 81) - (Kenjo 92) .................................103
Figure 114: Vexta hybrid step-by-step motor, 200 steps per revolution, 2-phase. ...........104
Figure 115: Creation of an induced current in a short circuit turn. ...................................105
Figure 116: The right hand three finger rule can be used to identify the direction of the
force..........................................................................................................................106
Figure 117: Principle of a three-phase asynchronous motor............................................106
Figure 118: Fields created by the three-phases...............................................................106
Figure 119: Stator in an asynchronous motor ..................................................................109
Figure 120: Rotor (squirrel cage) on an asynchronous motor..........................................110
Figure 121: Exploded view of a cage motor.....................................................................111
Figure 122: Torque/speed graph per type of cage rotor ..................................................112
Figure 123: Exploded view of a motor with an asynchronous ring rotor...........................114
Figure 124: Operating principle of a single-phase asynchronous motor. .........................115
Figure 125: Two-phase motor with permanent capacitor .................................................116
Figure 126: Permanent 1/3-2/3 capacitor.........................................................................117
Figure 127: Starting amperage relay and capacitor. ........................................................117
Figure 128: Typical start-up sequence for a two-phase motor with relay and capacitor ..118
Figure 129: Starting capacitor..........................................................................................118
Figure 130: Three phase motor with single-phase: main phase = 1 phase & 1 auxiliary
phase = 2 phases .....................................................................................................119
Figure 131: Three phase motor with single-phase - delta coupling..................................120
Figure 132: Three phase motor with single phase - phase converter rack.......................121
Figure 133: Three phase motor with single phase - ISOMATIC (UK brand) three phase
converter...................................................................................................................122

Equipment
Generators & Motors
Figure 134: Production of torque in a DC motor. .............................................................124

Figure 135: Torque/speed graphs for a motor with separate excitation. ..........................125
Figure 136: Different types of DC motors.........................................................................126
Figure 137: Terminal plate for an 'average' size motor ....................................................128
Figure 138: Wye-delta layout for stator windings, 6 output terminals...............................128
Figure 139: Terminal plate for a motor to be connected ..................................................129
Figure 140: "Conventional" rotation direction for a motor.................................................129
Figure 141: Dahlander delta/wye coupling (constant torque)...........................................130
Figure 142: Dahlander wye/wye-wye coupling (quadratic torque) ...................................130
Figure 143: Example of an nameplate for a Leroy-Somer motor .....................................132
Figure 144: Example of an nameplate for an ABB motor.................................................133
Figure 145: Exploded view of a squirrel cage motor with protection level IP 54 ..............134
Figure 146: Motor with air-air exchanger .........................................................................134
Figure 147: Open motor with or without filter ...................................................................135
Figure 148: Motor with air pulse cooler ............................................................................135
Figure 149: Motor with air-water exchanger.....................................................................135
Figure 150: The construction requirements of the ‘Ex’ motor with increased safety ‘e’....137
Figure 151: Starting current for a cage motor ..................................................................140
Figure 152: Wiring chart, Direct start-up - slave switch....................................................141
Figure 153: Single-phase wiring chart - Contactor start-up..............................................141
Figure 154: Power circuit and control circuit ....................................................................143
Figure 155: Power circuit - Delta wye start-up chart - control circuit ................................144
Figure 156: Heat protection .............................................................................................146
Figure 157: Electromagnetic protection ...........................................................................146
Figure 158: Schematic representation of the single-pole circuit breaker. ........................147
Figure 159: Remote mechanical disconnector switch......................................................148
Figure 160: Socomec fuse switch ....................................................................................148
Figure 161: Remote mechanical fuse switch ...................................................................148
Figure 162: Schema of an eddy current speed regulator .................................................149
Figure 163: Schema of a Ward Léonard unit. ..................................................................150
Figure 164: Frequency converter flux chart .....................................................................151
Figure 165: A range of regulators proposed by some manufacturers ..............................152
Figure 166: A range of "Altivar" regulators proposed by Schneider/Télémécanique........152
Figure 167: Connection schema for measurement per phase .........................................154
Figure 168: Connection schema for general measurements ...........................................155
Figure 169: Example of a cable (reduction of superficial leakage effects) .......................155

Equipment
Generators & Motors
17. TABLES
Table 1: Relations between frequency and voltage ...........................................................30
Table 2: Insulation materials ..............................................................................................40
Table 3: Coding system for cooling methods .....................................................................41
Table 4: Semiconductor mounting torque ..........................................................................89
Table 5: Generator troubleshooting ...................................................................................93
Table 6: The three types of step-by-step motors .............................................................100
Table 7: Frequency according to the rotation speed of the rotating field .........................108
Table 8: Values of C ........................................................................................................120
Table 9: Use of a 50Hz motor at 60Hz.............................................................................139
Table 10: Conversion example for 50Hz / 60Hz ..............................................................139
Table 11: Overview of the operation of the various types of motors ................................153
Table 12: Motor maintenance table (Troubleshooting) ....................................................161

Equipment
Generators & Motors
18. SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES


Generators and Motors

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EQUIPMENT

GENERATORS AND MOTORS

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

4.3.7. Neutral Earthing Resistor ................................................................................42

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

7.3.1. Taking the load................................................................................................81

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

11.1.3. Start of a single-phase motor with capacitor................................................116

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

12.6. COMPARISON OF THE OPERATION OF VARIOUS MOTORS ........................153

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

Define the generation principle for alternating current

Define the generation principle for direct current

List the different types of generators and/or alternators

List the different types of electric motors

Make decisions concerning the different components of an alternator and a motor

Explain the use and operation of alternators

Determine the regulation factors for an alternator

Couple an alternator to a network

Define the principles and use of electric protection for an alternator

Define the principles and use of electric protection for a motor

Be familiar with the basic maintenance of a power alternator on a site

Be familiar with the maintenance required on motors on a site

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

2. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC MACHINES

2.1. ALTERNATORS AND MOTORS

An alternator is a rotating machine which

Figure 1: Early 20th century. Alternators in a

AC generators (alternators) produce single-

DC current (in a rotating machine) is generated with a

Figure 2: Example of a motor

A motor is a rotating machine which transforms electrical

Figure 3: Three Siemens' motors

An alternator or motor consists of:

A ROTATING component: the ROTOR

Figure 4: Alternator rotor

A STATIONARY component: the STATOR

Figure 5: Motor/alternator stators

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

An alternator must rotate at a constant speed to produce a current at a constant

An alternator is also known as: A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

A synchronous machine (alternator) is also a motor, and is thus known as a "synchronous

The synchronous machine requires an Auxiliary part: EXCITATION

"Traditional" motors are ASYNCHRONOUS MACHINES.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

2.1.3. Electromagnetic induction

A quick reminder of basic physics:

In 1820, the physician, Hans Christian

And the rest is history!

On the basis of this principle, it is

Figure 7: Recreation of the magnetic

The permanent magnet produces a

Tail – pointing towards the sheet

Head – pointing towards you

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

3. GENERATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

3.1. GENERATION OF DIRECT ELECTRIC

See the "Batteries" course.

The term "battery" in languages

Figure 8: Examples of batteries

Figure 9: Examples of accumulators

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ150-EN

The set of batteries is present in ‘UPS’, incorporated in cabinets or in a battery room.

Figure 10: Examples of UPS