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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY.
This is occupying a prominent place in mod-
ern psychological literature. There is a "Journal
of Abnormal Psychology," devoted especially to
its problems. A variety of fascinating questions
fall under this heading, a few of which I have
briefly touched upon in the section dealing with
"The Structure of the Mind." Space prevents
further treatment here. The reader may con-
sult such a book as Dr. Isador H. Coriat's "Ab-
normal Psychology" for further particulars.
ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY.
A vast literature exists upon this subject also.
Darwin's "Expression of the Emotions" is, of
course, classical. Lindsay's "Mind in the Lower
Animals" (2 vols.), and Mills's "Animal Intel-
ligence" are useful books. Some original and
ingenious speculations are contained in Ouspen-
sky's "Tertium Organum." A most interesting
work, from a practical point cf view (that of a
trapper anJ hunter) is "How Animals Talk,"
by William J. Long. A study of the so-called
"talking animals" is "Lola: a Contribution to
J PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
the Thought and Speech of Animals." Chapters
on the marvellous horses of Elberfeld are con-
tained in Maeterlinck's "Our Unknown Guest,"
and in my own "Modern Psychical Phenomena."
The question of Instinct in animals has also
received extensive treatment. C. Lloyd Morgan's
works are classical in this respect: "Habit and
Instinct," "Instinct and Experience," etc. See
also Chadbourne's "Instinct in Animals and
Men," and McDougall's treatment of the subject
in his "Social Psychology," in his "Psychology,"
and a number of articles on this subject in the
"Journal of Abnormal Psychology," and similar
periodicals.
RELIGIOUS PSYCHOLOGY.
Avoluminous literature also exists upon this
subject. Attacks upon religion are to be found
in such books as Leuba's "Belief in God and
Immortality," and Theodore Schroeder's writ-
ings, which endeavor to trace all religion to sex.
On the other hand, are to be found such books
as Barrow's "The Validity of the Religious
Experience," and William James' "Varieties of
Religious Experience." An extensive study of
Mysticism is Poulain's "The Graces of Interior
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 9
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.
The mindof the pupil, the aims of the teacher,
methods of instruction, school work, etc., form
the subject-matter of this branch of knowledge.
A useful book in this connection is Hugo "Mun-
sterberg's "Psychology and the Teacher."
BUSINESS PSYCHOLOGY.
Of late years, much has been written concern-
ing this topic. Many works upon it have been
issued, among which one might mention Link's
"Employment Psychology," and Atkinson's
"Psychology of Salesmanship."
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY.
The most noteworthy book dealing with this
question is undoubtedly William McDougall's
"Social Psychology." Since the publication of
this book, a number of others have been issued,
but the student would do well to begin with
this one. Much useful material is also to be
found in H. G. Wells' "Outline of History."
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
This covered by any popular book, such as
is
the present one.
CROWD PSYCHOLOGY.
An individual in a crowd is usually lost, more
or less —mentally no less than physically. If
10 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
the crowd is carried away by some emotion or
intense excitement, so is the individual in it.
Crowd psychology is generally primitive; emo-
tions overrule intellect. An interesting work
upon this subject is G. LeBon's "Psychology of
the Crowd." See also McDougall's "The Group
Mind," and Trotter's "Instincts of the Herd in
Peace and War."
DREAM PSYCHOLOGY.
This is covered by such books as Freud's
"Dream Psychology," Walsh's "Psychology of
Dreams," Coriat's "The Meaning of Dreams,"
etc. See also the little book upon "Dreams" in
the present series, and the references therein
given.
ORIENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.
This extensive, in one Svmse, sparse in an-
is
other. Orientals have written much about them-
selves, but largely concerning their mystical
states. Rhys Davids's "Buddhist Psychology"
is perhaps a good summary of the Hindu
Teachings (a section of them). The various
Sacred Books of the East give, perhaps, as
good a clue to their inner life as any.
SUPERNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY.
This, naturally, falls within the province of
Psychical Research (See the volumes upon this
topic in the present series). F. W. H. Myers*
"Human Personality" is d classic; an excellent
and sane book is Prof. Th. Flournoy's "Spirit-
ism and Psychology," translated by the present
writer.
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 11
BEHAVIORISM.
Tkis is a relatively new school in psychology,
and has been the subject for much controversy.
Its main contention is that behavior is the
key to a man's real, inner being, and that,
from this, his total self can be gauged. His
instinctive and emotional equipment his habits,
—
THE SENSES.
The generally recognized senses are:
five
fight, hearing, taste, touch and smell. These
depend upon certain sense-organs, (the eye,
ear, etc ), and also upon specific sense-centers
in the brain. The structure and physiology of
these organs can be found in any good text
book on the subject. Suffice it to say that, in
the case of the eye, for example, certain incom-
ing ether vibrations are converted, by the rods
and cones in the retina of the eye (by a wholly
mysterious process) into nerve-currents, which
a:c transmitted to the sight-centers in the
brain, wherein the sensation of sight occurs.
The ear converts sound waves into nerve-cur-
rents, which we then perceive as sound, etc.
Touch depends upon nerve-currents from the
periphery of the body. Smell and taste are
closely related; in fact, there are only four
primary tastes which are directly conveyed by
the nerves of the tongue. These are sweet,
salt, sour and bitter. All our other "tastes"
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 1%
are dependent upon the sense of smell. That
is why, when we have a "cold," and cannot
smell anything, food seems to nave no taste.
The primary tastes are obtained through the
"taste buds" in the tongue. Smell is a sense
about which relatively little is known.
In addition of these sensations, arising from
the sense organs, there are also other senses,
such as the muscular sense, the temperature
sense, etc. To what extent these may. be
properly classed as separate senses has been
disputed. The so-called "sixth sense" is theoret-
ically a sort of "second sight," of supernormal
origin, which orthodox psychology does not at
present recognize
The sensation of motion should perhaps be
mentioned in this place. Such sensations are
of two kinds: (1) sensations of objects
moving over our sensory surfaces; and (2)
sensations of our whole person's translation
through space.
The former of these has been much studied,
though little definite can be said regarding it
here. Curiously, while the sensation of a
moving object can be accurately determined,
it is most difficult to locate a number of
stationary objects on the skin (if the eyes are
closed). Thus, if one places the finger-tips
against the chest, one cannot tell how many
fingers are touching (after the first three).
Certain areas of the skin are also quite insen-
sitive; anaesthetic zones of patches sometimes
—
existing, especially in hysterical subjects, and
these can be pricked without involving any re-
action. These figure largely in the "witchcraft
14 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
trials," of themiddle ages, for it was held that
the witch was insensible to pain wherever the
Devil had touched her. Such spots were, there-
fore, searched for with long needles!
As to the sensation of movement through
space, we often experience this at night, in our
(See my little book
,,
so-called "flying dreams.
in this series on "Dreams.") The Hindus con-
tend, however, that this is an actual pos-
sibility; that the physical body can really be
lifted or "levitated," by means of proper breath-
ing exercises, etc. I have discussed this ques-
tion, briefly, in my volume in thia series de-
voted to "Yoga Philosophy."
SENSATION.
Sensation depends upon certain nerve-cur-
rents, which affect the brain, but are usually
localized or "felt" in a particular spot or area
of the body. If a finger is burnt, for example,
the pain is apparently felt in the finger; never-
theless the actual sensation takes place in the
brtiin, and if the sensory (or afferent) nerves
were cut, no pain would be experienced
Normally, we react to a stimulus of this kind
by immediately withdrawing the hand; this is
due to the motor (or efferent) nerve-currents,
which are sent out, commanding the muscles to
move the hand and arm in question A definite
"reaction" has then taken place. Reactions of
this sort are constantly going on, but most of
them never rise into consciousness. Only when
the sensation is powerful enough to rise above
the so-called "thresliold" does it rise into con-
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 15
INSTINCT.
William James defines Instinct as "the fac-
ulty of acting in such a way as to produce cer-
tain ends, without foresight of the ends, and
without previous education in the performance. ,,
Of late years, much controversy has arisen as
—
to instinct some authorities contending that
itdoes not exist, (in the old-fashioned sense of
the term) while others have postulated a num-
—
ber of different instincts all more or less
primitive and innate. (McDougall).
Instincts are certainly impulses —to perform
some action. They vary greatly in complexity,
and are by no means always blind or invar-
iable. They often resemble thought and yet —
it certain that no actual thought is con-
is
cerned in them. Instincts may be inhibited
PSYCHOLOGY ^OR BEGINNERS 17
EMOTION.
We know that practically all emotions give
rise to bodily expression. Darwin wrote an ex-
tensive monograph upon "The Expression of
the Emotions in Men and Animals." Pear,
anger, hatred, etc., find visible expression in
the face, and in the actions of the body. Com-
mon-sense seems to tell us that these- bodily
expressions are the results of the emotion; the
James-Lange theory of the emotions says that
the bodily expressions are the primary factors,
the internal emotions following after. Thus, we
feel sorry because we cry, etc. This theory was
for long popular among psychologists, but is to-
day questioned in many quarters.
Emotions of all sorts are certainly connected
in a very intimate manner with the body and
its internal mechanism. Healthful emotions
stimulate, while destructive emotions inhibit
13 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
and destroy. It has been claimed that emotions
actually cause the secretion of definite chemical
substances, which can be partially expelled in
the breath; varied emotions cause different
colored precipitates in a given solution, etc.
(Elmer Gates.) However this may be, there
can be no question of the beneficial effects of
healthful emotions, and the detrimental effects
of the reverse. It is not so much the effects of
the thought upon the body, as the emotion
aroused by and associated with that thought.
Peeling is the fundamental sensation of all
life. Strong feelings have been called emotions;
these are dependent largely upon the sympa-
thetic nervous system, although the glands of
internal secretion are also important factors.
These are stimulated by the emotion, and also
give expression to it.
Emotions have, of late years, been the sub-
ject of much study. It is now believed that the
various complex emotions are built-up, or com-
pounded of simpler ones. An analysis of these
complex emotions has resulted in their being
resolved into their component factors. On the
other hand, organized systems of emotional
tendencies (centered about some object) exist
in all of us, and these have been called "senti-
ments." This idea has played a large part in
contemporary psychological literature.
Dr. William McDougall, in his "Social
Psychology," has made a very ingenious an-
alysis of the various emotions. He shows at
considerable length how the complex emotions
are built-up from the simpler ones. Thus: —
gratitude is a compound of tender emotion and
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 1»
CONCEPTION.
"The function by which we mark-off, discrim-
inate, draw a line round, and identify as a
numerically " distinct subject of discourse is
called conception."We may therefore have con-
ceptions of objects, people, qualities, abstract
ideas, etc. Each conception is unique, separate,
and distinct for the subject thinking it. No two
conceptions can ever be quite alike; for no two
individuals conceive things in a similar man-
ner, and the same individual, conceiving the
same thing twice, conceives it in a different
way. The original conception plus, is always
conceived the second time. For, from the purely
physiological point of view, the brain has been
20 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
already somewhat by the first im-
modified
pression, and the second one reacts upon a
modified, and not an unmodified, substratum.
"History never repeats itself;" and no two
thoughts, and no two conceptions, can thus ever
be precisely alike.
PERCEPTION.
These two terms are often confused in the
public mind. Psychologically, however, they
are quite distinct. The consciousness of ma-
terial objects through the senses is called "per-
ception." We perceive them. On the other
hand, weconceive an idea. Perceptions depend
upon our senses and brain-processes; concep-
tions may be independent of the former. It is
true, however, that perceptions depend upon the
inner workings of the mind, as well as upon
sense-impressions.
When we perceive a thing, we recognize or
"know" that thing. But we do not yet think
about it, associate it with other things, etc.
This higher process of the mind has been
termed "apperception." It is applied to the
process by which the mind goes out to meet
the incoming perception, and elaborates it by
higher processes of association, etc. Thus,
through the sensation of sight, you perceive an
orange. But you do not yet say to yourself:
"This is a nice, juicy orange; I like oranges;
it will taste sweet; it will quench my thirst,"
etc. These associative processes of the mind
may be classed, roughly, under the process of
"apperception." They represent syntheses and
associations-
PSTCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS Z\
PERCEPTIOxN OF TIM?.
Our perceptipn (or sense) of tinu differs con-
siderably at diflerent ages, and under different
circumstances. When we are bored, tired, etc.,
time seems to move slowly; when we are in-
terested or excited, it flits by rapidly, etc. A
certain span of time always seems shorter to
old people than to young ones. A year is an
enormous period to a child; whereas an old
man will often exclaim: "How the years have
flown!" Time which is busily occupied seem;
short, but it seems a long period, when looked
back upon. A waiting period, on the other hand,
in which nothing is accomplished, seems in-
terminable during its passage; but it seems ex-
tremely brief, when viewed in retrospect. This
is probably due to the fact that many actions
seem to occupy a long period of time, whereas
a span in which nothing of importance hap-
pens seems to have taken-up no time at all.
The shortest period of time which we can
appreciate is about 1/500 of a second. Exner
recognized two electric sparks to be successive
when the second followed the first at that in-
terval. On the other hand, the longest period
of time which we can accurately distinguish
from longer or shorter bits of time, according
to Wundt, is 12 seconds. We probably have no
sense of "empty" time; but of the flow of
events in time. It has been suggested that
the pulse may be a sort of natural clock, en-
24 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
abling us to appreciate time as it flows (for
instance in sleep), but this hardly serves to ex-
plain many such cases. The same may be said
of the idea that some unknown, but constant,
feature in th^ brain activities is the source of
our perceivi>*i time at all.
When we oecome unconscious, time is obliter-
ated altogether; the sense of time is also
seriously impaired under the influence of cer-
tain drugs (e. g., hasheesh), so that a second
may appear to consume hours, and vice versa.
It has been proved by experiment that subjects
under hypnosis, and some natural somnambules,
have a remarkable sense of time, and can reckon
it with uncanny accuracy. Our conscious mind
is notoriously bad at this sort of thing. The
subconscious mind is the "ready reckoner,"
therefore, which must be added to its other ac-
complishments!
ATTENTION.
When we "pay attention" to a thing, the con-
sciousness is narrowed down to a point, as it
were, and concentrated like the beam of a
searchlight. The greater the degree of atten-
tion, the more this narrowing process takes
place, until the subject may be lost to all save
the immediate object of his inward study. At-
tention may be either voluntary or involuntary;
we may read a book with deep interest, or
stand fascinated by some horrible spectacle,
from which we are unable to avert our eyes.
We may pay attention to objects of sense, or to
ideal or represented objects (intellectual atten-
tion). Attention may also be connected with
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 25
DISCRIMINATION.
The word "discrimination" is popularly used
in two senses (1) we speak of a man having
"good discrimination," meaning by that a sort
of good judgment. (2) Discrimination, in the
psychological sense, however, means the notic-
ing of any part of an object, as distinct from
the whole.
All sensations tend to fuse and become a sin-
gle compound; discrimination singles these out,
and separates them. Such differences may be
felt, if they are really different, and different
enough; further, they must fall more or less in
succession upon the same organ, and not simul-
taneously. If they do, they are apt to blend
hopelessly. Especially is this the case if the
elements of the impression have never been ex-
perienced singly before. If we are familiar with
a thing, we can begin to discriminate the ele-
ments going to compose it. It is, however, true
that only such elements as we are acquainted
with, and can imagine separately, can be dis-
criminated, within a total sense impression. If
a thing be associated at one time with one thing
26 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
and at another time with another, this may
become a separate "thing" for the mind, which
singles it out, by an act of discrimination, and
places it in a position by itself. Such acts of
discrimination may be greatly improved by
practice.
ASSOCIATION.
This is the peculiar quality of the mind, by
means of which two or more ideas or memories
are coupled together. Association is thought to
take place largely in the higher centers in the
—
brain the frontal lobes. Nearly all our higher
education consists in association, and our
mental lives are largely dependent upon it.
Genius is said to consist, largely, in making
associations, and seeing resemblances, which
other people do not. Upon association memory
largely depends.
Association is a very complicated process,
which depends largely upon the brain. Various
anatomical schemes have been devised to ex-
—
plain and illustrate association, which may be
found in text books upon the subject. Associa-
tion may be partial or complete. Similarity is
one of its distinguishing characteristics (and
causes). Usually, objects which appeal to the
same sense are associated one with another;
but sometimes quite different sense-impressions
are associated, in a very odd manner. The sub-
ject may, e. g., associate a sense of smell with a
visual impression; or a sense of taste with a
definite sound, etc. These are the so-called
"synesthesias." Thus: "salt, for instance, is
described by one observer as dull red, hitter as
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 27
IMAGINATION.
Nearly all our imaginations are visual in
character; great composers may imagine the
orchestration of the masterpiece they are com-
—
posing so vividly, at times, that this amounts
to an auditory hallucination. But most of us
are mere or less limited to visual imaginings;
we "build air-castles in Spain," or imagine our-
selves in various scenes or situations, which
are seen by the "mind's eye." The explanation
usually put forward to explain this is that
"sensations, once experienced, modify the nerv-
ous organism, so that copies of them arise again
in the mind after the original outward stimu-
lus* is gone." No such mental copy, of course,
can arise in the mind, of any sensation which
has never been directly excited from without,
on this theory.
*
tS PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
This power of "visualization" differs greatly
in different individuals; some men are good,
others bad visualizers. Images of sounds, mus-
cular sensations, touch, etc., may also be re-
constructed. These again may be so vivid as to
amount to actual hallucinations.
Imagination consists in the power of the mind
to build-up mental pictures, and project them
into the future, just as memory-images are pro-
—
jected into the past into our life-experience.
Imagination is that power of the mind which
seems, in one sense, to pierce the veil. While
such imaginings are, as a rule, merely day-
dreams, never coming true, it is also a fact
that all great works must be thought of or
imagined, in some sense, before they are exe-
cuted, or come into being on the material plane.
Someone must have "imagined" the Pyramids
before they were built. Rightly used, then, im-
agination is a very valuable asset, which should
—
be cherished and utilized just as it can become
destructive, if abused. It had indeed been said
that a sense of humor and imagination are the
two things which distinguish us more than
anything else from the brutes.
Use your imagination, therefore, only keep it
well in leash —
like the thoroughbred horse
which it is!
WILL.
The Will that which seems more intimately
is
a part of our inner Self than almost any other
portion of our mental being. We feel when we
actually will a thing that we thereby set some
hidden energy in motion, which flows outwards,
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS zv
MEMORY.
A sensation, an emotion, an idea, etc., may
leave a more or less permanent memory which
can, perhaps, be recalled years later. Where
was this memory in the meanwhile? The usual
explanation is that a sort of groove or trace is
—
cut into certain brain cells, just as the record-
ing needle cuts a groove in the phonograph
record, recording at the same time the music;
and that the act of recalling a memory is
analogous to reproducing the music, by means
of a suitable device upon the phonograph. The
brain is, on this view, "the physical basis of
memory."
One difficulty which at once arises, however,
is that, inasmuch as all parts of the body are
constantly being made-over, and replaced by
new parts, these brain-cells must also be re-
placed (within a few weeks, months or years)
and the record would vanish with them. The
usual reply to this is that the newly laid-down
brain-celi in some way "inherits" the memory
32 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
from the old one, and hence somehow continues
to store its psycho-physical memories, which are
again passed-on when this cell is replaced, and
so on forever.
Needless to say, such an interpretation of the
facts strains our credulity. None other, how-
ever, has ever been forthcoming. But the in-
herent difficulty of the case has led some phil-
— —
osophers notably Bergson to defend the idea
that the brain is merely a mechanism for repro-
ducing memories, and that memory itself re-
sides within some spiritual storehouse, where
it remains until recalled. The legitimacy of
such a view, of course, rests upon the possible
proof of such a super-physical world as that
postulated.
Memory depends upon a variety of factors.
A healthy brain is essential to a good memory;
good blood, bathing healthy nerve-cells being
here essential. Memory also depends upon (1)
interest, and (2) association. We remember a
thing which interests us; it makes an "impres-
sion" upon us. Also, if we associate a tiling
with other things, it helps us to remember it.
An isolated fact is hard to remember; but if it
is associated with a number of other things
which we know, or which also interest us, it is
more liable to be recalled. Any one of these
things may then recall the other event, by as-
sociation, and hence the given memory is more
readily accessible.
Memory is first of all recorded, t-hen ,-torad,
then recalled, and finally recognized or "placedr
after it is recalled. Some authors say that
memory consists in three stages, others in as
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 3a
many as five (Hyslop). This is merely a ques-
tion of the sub-division of the process involved.
It has been contended that there is no such
thing as a "good" or a "bad" memory; it all
depends upon the factors above mentioned.
Various artificial schemes have been devised
to improve and perfect the memory; and there
is no doubt that it is a faculty which can be
greatly improved by constant practice. In a
sense, everything is remembered, but it is not
vivid enough to be recalled. Such hidden mem-
ories can often be revived by means of Hypno-
tism, etc. In certain abnormal conditions, the
memory seems to be keenly stimulated, and
events, long forgotten, are recalled, which had
long before been forgotten by the conscious
mind. Many apparently "super-normal" phe-
nomena have been explained in this manner.
REASONING.
One thing which is held above
to elevate us
the brutes, more than all else, our reason.
is
"Man is a rational animal." Yet how few of us
reason, —at any rate systematically!
When in a
crowd, we are away by the psychology
carried
of the crowd; and we are swayed more by our
feelings and emotions than we are by our
reason, as a rule. Yet there can be no doubt
that pure reason is the highest type of think-
ing possible for the normal man.
Reasoning consists in carrying on a logical
.r^d connected eraix. of ill ought, each step ot
v o?ch follows logically from the one preceding
is dependent upon learning, sagacity and
f
it. I
comincn-sense. The essence of reasoning is, o/
5* PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
course, logic, which supposed to portray the
is
highest type of reason. We think about a thing
intellectually, when we reason. We arrive at a
conclusion by a logical train of thought. Each
thought is like the link in a chain. We may
arrive at the conclusion in some other way, by
some process of "intuition," or what not, but
reasoning constitutes the basis of our thinking,
and represents the solid rock, upon which most
men are content to build their intellectual
houses. And in order to reason well, system-
atically clear thinking is required.
SPEECH.
Normally, we communicate with one another
in three ways; by means of marks upon paper
(writing), by movements (sign language), and
by means of air vibrations issuing from the
vocal chords (speech). The question of the
origin of speech is a much disputed one, some
authorities contending that we gradually at-
tached meanings to certain primitive sounds;
others that we learned to exDress ourselves in
speech in order to express our thoughts.
There are certain definite areas in the brain
which send out the necessary motor currents,
rendering speech possible. Wehave two such
centers, one in each hemisphere, but we ordi-
narily use but one of them. Right-handed people
use the one in the left hemisphere, while left-
handed persons utilize the one in the right
hemisphere. Should this active area be injured,
—
the subject becomes dumb though the corres-
ponding area in the other hemisphere may be
quite intact. Hence the importance of teaching
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 36
HABIT.
We all know what is meant by forming habits
—either "good" or "bad." It is always easier to
do a thing a second time than at first. If any
specific action is performed a great number of
times, it becomes practically automatic, so that
we do not have to think about it at all. Every
step in walking is conscious at first; every
action in buttoning a button or tying a tie; in
time these actions become more or less un-
conscious. A habit, once formed, is hard to
break, but it is relatively easy to break in the
early stages of its formation.
Man has been defined as "a bundle of habits."
We hardly realize, perhaps, the extent to which
—
habit governs us not only in our physical
actions, but also in our trends and attitudes of
thought. "Habit second Nature?" exclaimed the
Duke of Wellington; "habit is ten times
nature!"
There is much truth in this assertion. When
we form a new habit, we cut a new groove in
the brain, so to speak, and nervous currents
find it much easier to travel over this beaten
path, rather than to cut a new one. Every time
that path is used, it becomes relatively easier
c
ABSTRACT THOUGHT.
Two schools of philosophers — the "nominal-
ists" —
and the "conceptualists" for long waged
a wordy war as to whether or not the mind
could frame abstract or universal ideas. As a
matter of fact, it was ideas of universal or ab-
stract objects that was meant. These ideas
dealt largely with the sense of meaning, the
inner significance of the thing contemplated.
It is one of the unsolved mysteries of mind
how such a thing as abstract meaning can exist
at all, and how brain-changes can in any way
account for it. McDougall, as we know, is in-
r:tinea to question that they do so at all. Mean-
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 4?
CONSCIENCE.
Conscience was for long thought to be the
"voice of God" speaking to the spiritual ear of
man. Nowadays, a more matter-of-fact solution
has been sought, and, to a certain extent, found.
Modern psychological investigations have de-
prived conscience of its supernatural origin.
Until these newer researches were under-
taken, however, any clear understanding as to
the nature of conscience was impossible (See,
e. g. George W. Reid's "Conscience," and
Hastings Rashdall's "Is Conscience an Emo-
tion?") With a clearer understanding of the
subconscious mind, came greater light. We
now believe that conscience is, very largely, the
inhibitory action of a portion of the subcon-
scious mind, which inhibition is exercised
whenever the thoughts or the actions of the
individual run counter to those generally ac<
cepted by the community in which he dwells,
^0 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
or by his own individual up-bringing, or both.
It is a sort of Censor; but it is an acquired
thing, which has come into being, and evolved,
like everything else. What the conscience of
one man would prevent him from doing, an-
other will do without the slightest qualms.
Conscience is not, therefore, a universal prin-
ciple, judging good and bad, alike in all men.
It is a type of repression, exercised upon us
from within. Early moral precepts, etc., have
much to do "vith its formation. Here, then, we
rind the psychological basis for the existence
of conscien e, which is more or less active in
all of us, according to our heredity, environ-
ment, education, etc. It is a normal attribute
of 11)^ inner man.
INTUITION.
Tiiis is term loosely applied to certain
trie
inner feelings, giving rise to a form of convic-
tion as to the truth and reality (or the reverse)
of something then present in the mind. In-
tuitions are popularly supposed to be right,
and women are said to experience them far more
often than men! No statistical evidence is
available, so far as I know, upon either of
these questions; indeed, it may be said that
the whole subject has been grossly neglected,
from the psychological point-of-view.
Intuitions probably present themselves to
the mind as the result of subconscious menta-
tion. Ahidden and unknown process has been
going on within the mind, the result or product
of which finally emerges in vague form into
consciousness. Usually it takes the form of ?
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 61
more or less vague feeling. Miss Goodrich-
Freer, who had experienced many such in-
tuitions, attempted to analyze some of them,
from introspection, and contributed a valuable
Chapter entitled "How it Came into my Head;
the Machinery of Intuitions," in her book,
"Essays in Psychical Research." Her conclu-
sion is approximately that mentioned above.
Mr. Walter N. Weston has also written a book
entitled "Intuition," in which, however little
of value can be found.
INSPIRATION.
This term is generally employed ,o signify
"divine" —
inspiration ideas which are im-
planted directly into the human mind by some
external Divinity. Such a conception, need-
less to say, is not in accord with modern
thought. Throughout the ages, inspirational
addresses have been heralded as evidence of
the supernatural. The Pythoness at Delphi in-
haled the mystic vapor, rising from a cleft in
the rock, and gave forth her Oracular utter-
ances. (See Dempsey: "The Delphic Oracle";
H. N. Bate, "The Sibylline Oracles.") Even in
our own day, "mediums" give similar inspira-
tional addresses, at various spiritualistic cen-
ters.
It is not necessary, however, to consider
such utterances divine, or supernatural, for the
vast majority of them may be interpreted in
terms of psychology, with relative ease. They
are the products of the subconscious mind of
man. George N. Raymond has written an in-
teresting oook, entitled "The Psychology ot na-
52 PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS:
spiration," to which the reader may be referred
to further data upon this subject. While it is
somewhat religious in tone, it has some good
material in it. Like Intuition, this subject
has been much neglected by academic psychol-
ogy, and there is much need for a careful study
jf its various problems.
GENIUS.
Genius is a term hard to define, though we
all have a more or less clear idea as to what
is meant by a genius. He is a man who stands
apart from his fellows, head-and-shoulders
above them, mentally or artistically. But what
is it that thus causes him to rise above others?
Is it vision? Is it originality? clever antici-
pation? breadth? constructiveness? concentra-
tion? patience? common-sense? Doubtless
genius is all this, but it is also more! A genius
can perform feats which another man can not,
try as he will; and more than that, he per-
forms them without effort or without training,
very often! A certain type of genius amounts
to what we term a "prodigy," and then we have
cases of musical, mathematical or artistic
genius. These gifts are often exhibited very
early in life, for no apparent reason; they last
for a few years, and then disappear. Few
youthful prodigies retain their gifts into adult
iife. Often, their possessor is not even nor-
mally gifted with reason and common^sense in
other directions. Such cases as these are un-
usually difficult to account for. Theosophists
are apt to turn to the doctrine of "reincarna-
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 53
INSANITY.
Until the present generation, the word In-
sanity was popularly thought to mean either
imbecility on the one hand, or a raving maniac
or the other. We now know that this idea
is quite untrue; insanity is a disease of the
mind, just as small-pox is a disease of the
body. Moreover, we speak of insanities, and
not insanity; for there are many varieties
all shading-off one into another. A physician
who deals with such cases is called an "alian-
ist"* and the terms psychiatry, p3ycho-path-
ologj, abnormal psychology, etc., are employed
tc designate various branches of the study of
the diseased mind.
Certain types of insanity are, of course, due
to actual brain disease. A degeneration of the
physical substance of the brain may have taken
place. In other cases, however, no such gross
degeneration can be traced, and we must as-
sume microscopic alterations, or blood changes,
or nerves improperly functioning, or purely
physical changes and dissociations, as explained
above. There has grown-up an extensive litera-
ture on insanity, within the past few years. A
good primary book of this character is Dr. Ber-
nard Hart's "Psychology of Insanity." See also
Dr. Charles Mercier's "Sanity and Insanity."
PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS 5v
INTELLIGENCE-LEVELS.
The tests conducted upon the male adult
population of the United States, during the
Great War, revealed the astonishing tact that
Ine average mental "age" was approximately
twelve years; that is to say, the average adult
possesses an intelligence of a boy at that age.
The body may have grown, but the mind has
not! Of course, many were above that level;
but many fell below, and the above represented
the average. In many other countries, the
average would certainly have been far tower.
The majority, therefore, do not possess
normal adult minds; there has been an arrested
development. A scale of mental development
was accordingly constructed, and individuals
were placed somewhere in that scale. The hu-
man mind may be anything, from a genius to
an idiot. In this scale, there were many "defec-
tives." Those individuals who possessed a
mentality of from eight to twelve years, were
classed as "morons"; those who ranged from
three to seven years, "imbeciles"; and those of
two, and under, "idiots."
The mental-age or intelligence-level of any
person may be ascertained by special tests, de
vised for the purpose. These tests were origi-
nated by the psychologist Binet, but Terman
and others have greatly extended and amplified
the original methods. Such tests have now
been conducted extensively, and the result*";
show us that surprisingly low levels of in-
telligence are the rule, and not the rare excep-
tion. The importance of an extensive educa-
5C PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
tional campaign is therefore manifest; and the
Editor of this series, Mr. Haldeman-Julius, is
carrying on one of the most important cam-
—
paigns in the world today by spreading gen-
eral culture and education. For, by this means
alor.e, and by suitable eugenic measures, can
the human race be elevated and improved, with
each succeeding generation.
average man
thinks of the future, he usually
pictures a variety of conflicting events and
conditions. He has nothing definite in mind.
There is no actual leadership therefore in the
l>© PSYCHOLOGY FOR BEGINNKrtS
mind, and notbing of great worth can be ac-
complished. . . .