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This modern periodic table lists elements according to their atomic number, if they
were arranged according to atomic mass potassium and argon would be the wrong way
round.
Elements having the same number of electrons in their outermost shell are placed in
vertical columns called groups. They have similar chemical properties.
From left to right, across each horizontal row (period) of the periodic table, a
particular energy level is gradually filled up with electrons; in the next period, the next
energy level is filled with electrons.
This video explains about the Atomic Number
But how did we get to this state of knowledge?
Development of the Periodic Table
The list of elements was originally conceived in order of “atomic weight”.
Newlands – Law of Octaves. Every eighth element seemed to be similar, rather like
every eighth note in music. One example he used was Li, Na, K.
Mendeleev – He made the table two-dimensional rather than a list. He arranged the
elements in order of atomic weight but had the Newlands Octave elements underneath
each other. The vertical columns are called groups and the horizontal rows are called
periods. The term periodic refers to the fact that the properties swing to and fro like a
pendulum.
Some elements had not been discovered at the time of Mendeleev writing up his table
so he left gaps to indicate where elements ought to be. This was brave because a
theory with gaps in it looks a bit silly unless you can explain why the gaps are there.
Later chemists discovered elements to fit in the right places and they were amazed to
find that the properties were very much like those Mendeleev had predicted.
When the noble gases were discovered, argon was a problem because if the elements
are arranged in order of atomic weight, argon and potassium should swap places.
Fortunately, more detailed theories about the structure of the atom were being
proposed. If these theories (using protons, neutrons and electrons) were right, it would
be more sensible to arrange the elements in order of atomic number (number of
protons). If this is done, the problem of argon and potassium is solved. We now know
that the group number of an element tells us the number of electrons it has in its outside
shell.
Magnesium Mg 2,8,2
Calcium Ca 2,8,8,2
Group 1 Elements
The elements in group 1 are called the alkali metals. They belong to
the left-hand column in the periodic table. They are very reactive and
must be stored in oil to avoid contact with air or water.
The alkali metals are soft, reactive metals. They react vigorously with
water and become more reactive as you go down the group.
Common properties
The alkali metals have the following properties in common:
they are very soft and can be cut easily with a knife
they have low densities (lithium, sodium and potassium will float on
water)
they react quickly with water -
producing hydroxides and hydrogen gas
their hydroxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions
In general:
group 1 metal + water → group 1 metal hydroxide + hydrogen
2M9(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)
(M stands for the symbol of a Group 1 metal)
Trends within the periodic table
In the formation of sodium chloride, the electron from the highest energy level of a
sodium atom transfers to the highest energy level of a chlorine atom
Reactivity High (react vigorously with water Low (do not react so vigorously with water
or oxygen) or oxygen)
Common properties
The halogens have the following properties in common:
they are non-metals
they have low melting and low boiling points
they are brittle when solid
they are poor conductors of heat and electricity
they have coloured vapours
their molecules are diatomic (each contain two atoms) - eg chlorine, Cl2
Trends within the periodic table
Physical and Chemical trends in Group 7
Melting point and boiling point
The halogens have low melting points and low boiling points. You can
see from the graph that fluorine, at the top of Group 7, has the lowest
melting point and lowest boiling point in the group. The melting points
and boiling points then increase as you go down the group.
Colour
The halogens become darker as you go down the group. Fluorine is
very pale yellow, chlorine is yellow-green and bromine is red-brown.
Iodine crystals are shiny purple-black but easily turn into a dark
purple vapour when they are warmed up.
Reactivity
The halogens become less reactive as you more down the group.
Fluorine (at the top of the group) is the most reactive, while astatine
(at the bottom) is the least reactive.
Reactions
Halogens react with metals to form ionic compounds. In these
reactions, the halogen atoms each gain one electron to form ions with
a charge of –1.
Trends within the periodic table
You can see that the Cl and Br have ‘swapped places’, forming sodium
chloride and bromine (which turns the mixture brown).
In the exam, make sure your answers avoid terms like
‘stronger’ and ‘weaker’. Instead, write ‘more reactive’ and ‘less
reactive’.
Reactivity series
If you test different combinations of the halogens and their salts you
can work out a reactivity series for the halogens.
The most reactive halogen displaces all the other halogens from
solutions of their salts, while the least reactive halogen is always
displaced. It works just the same whether you use a sodium salt or a
potassium salt.
Test your understanding using this animation in which chlorine,
bromine and iodine are added to various halogen salts. Note carefully
the products which are present in the test tube after each reaction.
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Trends within the periodic table
The quest for a systematic arrangement of the elements started with the discovery of
individual elements.
Law of Triads - the middle element in the triad had atomic weight that was the
average of the other two members.
For example:
Calcium (atomic weight 40), strontium (atomic weight 88), and barium (atomic
weight 137) possess similar chemical prepares. Dobereiner noticed the atomic weight
of strontium fell midway between the weights of calcium and barium:
Ca (40), Sr (88), Ba (137) = (40 + 137) ÷ 2 = 88.
The law of triads worked for alkali metal triad (Li/Na/K) and the halogen triad
(Cl/Br/I) but couldn't be applied to all other elements.
Law of Octaves
English chemist John Newlands (1837-1898), having arranged the 62 known elements
in order of increasing atomic weights, noted that after interval of eight elements
similar physical/chemical properties reappeared.
Law of Octaves - elements exhibit similar behaviour to the eighth element following
it in the table.
Newlands was the first to formulate the concept of periodicity in the properties of the
chemical elements.
1. The positions of some pairs of elements are reversed when ordered by mass (K
and Ar).
2. Not all elements had been discovered at the time and Newlands left no
spaces for undiscovered ones.
3. Some groups contained elements with differing properties.
Mendeleev's table exhibited similarities not only in small units such as the triads, but
showed similarities in an entire network of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal
relationships.
1. He swapped the positions of certain pairs of elements (e.g. Ar and K, I and Te).
2. He also had to leave gaps in certain places, e.g. between gallium and arsenic
3. He predicted the properties of the missing elements and was proved correct in
each case.
Arranging the elements according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic
masses eliminated some of the inconsistencies associated with Mendeleev's table.
1. Soft, reactive metals with low density which must be stored under oil
2. Have one electron in the outer shell
3. Exhibit metallic bonding in which the outer electron from each atom is lost into
a delocalised ‘sea of electrons’ free to move between a lattice of metal ions
4. Relatively low melting points as the solid lattice is held together by the
electrostatic forces between the metal cations (1+) and a single delocalised
electron (1-) per atom
5. Good conductors of heat and electricity due to the ‘free’ electrons (lost from
the outer shell) which can ‘flow’ between the metal ions in the solid lattice.
Alkali elements react with non-metals to form white, soluble, crystalline ionic
compounds which have high melting points due to the strong attraction between the
metal cations (1+) and the negatively charged non-metal anions.
React with water to form hydrogen gas and the metal hydroxide which dissolves in
water to give an alkaline solution.
Reactivity
Alkali elements are more reactive going down the group as the outer electron (further
from the nucleus) is less strongly attracted to the positive nucleus and hence more
easily lost.
Group 7 (halogens) elements
Properties of halogens
Reactivity
React with metals (gaining an electron in the outer shell) to form ionic compounds
which have high melting points due to the strong attraction between the metal cations
(positive) and the halide anions (-1).
React with non-metals (sharing one electron in the outer shell) to form covalent
molecular compounds which have low melting points due to the weak intermolecular
forces of attraction.
Trend in reactivity
Halogens become less reactive going down the group as the outer electrons (further
from the nucleus) are less strongly attracted to the positive nucleus and hence
additional electrons are less easily gained.
More reactive halogens will displace non-metals of lower reactivity from their salts
Transition metals
1. Less reactive than group 1 metals (because their outer electrons are less easily
lost), reacting much more slowly with air and water
2. Form ionic compounds with various charges or oxidation states
3. In general, form coloured compounds
4. Produce insoluble hydroxides with characteristic colours when reacted with
sodium hydroxide.
1. Protons
2. Neutrons
3. Electrons
The protons and neutrons are present in the center of an atom, forming a small
nucleus. The electrons orbit around the nucleus in shells or energy levels.
Each element has a unique atomic number, which is also used to arrange the elements
in the Periodic Table.
Protons and neutrons have the same mass of 1 unit, while electrons are very light and
their mass can be ignored and taken as zero.
Atom has no overall charge, which means the there are equal number of negatively
charged electrons and positively charged protons. If we know the number of protons (or
atomic number) of an atom, this will be equal to the number of electrons of that atom.
Number of electrons = Number of protons
Example Question:
Solution:
From the provided data, we know:
Mass number: 23
Atomic number: 11
As we know:
Number of protons = Atomic number
Therefore,
Number of protons = 11
Since, Number of electrons = Number of protons
Therefore, Number of electrons = 11
As we know:
Therefore,
Number of neutrons = 12
Isotopes
All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. This proton
number or atomic number determines the chemical properties of an atom. However,
the number of neutrons may vary within the atoms of an element.
Or in other words,
Example
The atomic number of carbon is 6. All carbon atoms have the same atomic number, but
their mass number might differ because of different number of neutrons.
Most of the carbon atoms contain 6 protons and 6 neutrons, and has a mass number
12. However, some carbon atoms also exist with 6 protons and 8 neutrons, which gives
it a mass number 14.
12
C and 14C are isotopes of carbon.
Comparison of two isotopes of carbon
Electrons 6 6 Same
Protons 6 6 Same
Neutrons 6 8 Different
It is written as Ar or R.A.M.
Some of the elements exist in nature as a mixture of their isotopes in specific
proportions. The R.A.M of such elements is the average mass of the different proportions
of each isotope in the mixture.
oxygen 16
copper 63.5
iron 55.8
It’s important to note that atomic number and mass number are always whole numbers
because they are based on the number of sub-atomic particles, while the R.A.M. can
have fractions because it is the average mass of different isotopes.
Example
A sample of chlorine gas is a mixture of 2
isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. These
isotopes occur in specific proportions in the
sample i.e. 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-
37. Calculate the R.A.M. of chlorine in the
sample.
Solution
The average mass, or R.A.M. of chlorine can be
calculated using the following equation:
3550
=
100
R.A.M. = 35.5
Electron arrangement of the first 20
elements
The table below shows the electron arrangement for the first 20 elements in the
Periodic Table along with their Atomic number and symbols:
H
hydrogen
He
helium
Li
lithium
2.1
4
Be
beryllium
2.2
B
boron
2.3
C
carbon
2.4
N
nitrogen
2.5
8
O
oxygen
2.6
F
fluorine
2.7
10
Ne
neon
2.8
11
Na
sodium
2.8.1
12
Mg
magnesium
2.8.2
13
Al
aluminium
2.8.3
14
Si
silicon
2.8.4
15
P
phosphorus
2.8.5
16
S
sulfur
2.8.6
17
Cl
chlorine
2.8.7
18
Ar
argon
2.8.8
19
K
potassium
2.8.8.1
20
Ca
calcium
2.8.8.2
Group 1 – Alkali Metals
The Group 1 elements are placed in the vertical column on the left-hand side of the
periodic table. Group 1 elements form alkaline solutions when they react with water,
which is why they are called alkali metals. Lithium, sodium and potassium all belong to
alkali metals. All Group 1 elements have 1 electron in their outer shell.
Chemical Symbols:
Element Symbol Atomic No.
Lithium Li 3
Sodium Na 11
Potassium K 19
Rubidium Rb 37
Caesium Cs 55
Francium Fr 87
It is important to learn the physical and chemical properties of the first three elements
in this group. Francium is radioactive and is formed during the radioactive decay of
actinium. Its isotopes are exceedingly short-lived and thus little is known about this
element.
The decrease in melting and boiling points down the group can be explained by the additional
shell being added to the previous element causing the atomic radius to increase. The increasing
atomic radius means weaker forces between the atoms and so a lower melting and boiling point.
It is the reduced interatomic forces in these elements that make them relatively soft.
Similarly, on the application of heat the free moving electrons in the outermost shells gain a lot
of energy and transfer this through the metal via collisions with the other free moving electrons.
Lithium
If a piece of hot lithium is lowered into a jar of chlorine, a vigorous reaction takes place forming
white powder that settles on the sides of the jar. This is the salt lithium chloride (LiCl). The
reaction can be written in the form of an equation:
lithium + chlorine → lithium chloride
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2LiCl(s)
Sodium
The reaction of sodium with chlorine is more vigorous than lithium. If a piece of hot sodium is
lowered into a jar of chlorine, the sodium burns with a bright yellow flame forming clouds of
white powder that settle on the sides of the jar. This is the salt sodium chloride (NaCl).
The reaction of sodium with chlorine can be written as:
Potassium
Potassium reacts more violently with chlorine than sodium does, showing how reactivity
increases down the group. The salt potassium chloride (KCl) is produced by this reaction. The
reaction can be written as:
potassium + chlorine → potassium chloride
2K(s) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(s)
The atoms get larger. The atomic radii increase with atomic number down the group. Each
succeeding element has its electron in one more shell than the previous element.
The outer electron gets further away from the influence of the nucleus. Therefore, the attractive
force between the nucleus and the electron gets weaker and so the electron is more easily given
up.
Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K)
Potassium is more reactive than lithium although they both need to lose only one electron to have full outer
shells. This is because the outer electron of potassium atom is further from the positive attractions of the nucleus
compared to the outer electron of lithium. Therefore, it is easier for potassium to lose its outer electron.
Trends in Group 1
Reactivity increases down the group.
Melting point and boiling point decreases down the group.
lithium red
sodium yellow
potassium lilac
Line spectra
All atoms give off light when heated, although this light is not always visible to the
human eye. A technique, known as spectroscopy, is used to split this light to form a line
spectrum. Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum which is used to identify
these elements. For example, the element helium was discovered by studying line
spectra emitted by the Sun.
A line spectrum is shown below:
The study of line spectra helped scientists discover some elements which was not
possible until the development of spectroscopy. Some elements, such as rubidium and
caesium, were discovered through spectroscopy.
Strong alkalis are corrosive. They must be stored under oil to keep water and oxygen
from air away from them. They must be used with care by following the proper safety
precautions like wearing goggles and gloves. Corrosive substances are labeled with
standard hazard symbols.
According to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of
Chemicals (GHS), corrosive substances are marked with the following symbol:
Corrosive
Group 7 – Halogens
The Group 7 elements are placed in the vertical column, second from the right-hand
side of the periodic table. All Group 7 elements have 7 electrons in their outer shell.
Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, all belong to Group 7.
Chemical Symbols:
Element Symbol Atomic No.
Fluorine F 9
Chlorine Cl 17
Bromine Br 35
Iodine I 53
Astatine At 85
Astatine (At), the last element in the Group does not occur naturally. It is a very
unstable, radioactive element first synthesised in 1940 by chemist in the USA. Its most
stable isotope 24085At has a half-life of 8.3 hours. The name Astatine is from the Greek
word 'astatos' meaning unstable.
Group 7 elements form salts when they react with metals. The term 'halogen' means
'salt former', which is why Group 7 elements are called halogens. In general the
halogens comprise the most reactive group of non-metals. The halogens are so reactive
that they cannot exist free in nature.
Structure of Halogens
Halogens consist of diatomic molecules. This means they exist as molecules, each with
a pair of atoms. Chlorine molecules have the formula Cl2, bromine Br2 and iodine I2.
Fluorine
(F2)
2.8 — 2.8
All halogens exist as diatomic molecules or in other words as two- atom molecules. The two atoms form a covalent b
Melting Boiling
Electron State at room temp. Point Point
Element config. (20°C) Colour °C °C
Predictions in properties
Colour
From the table of physical properties it can be inferred that the depth of colour of the
halogens increases in atomic number. Fluorine is pale yellow, chlorine is green, bromine
is orange and iodine is grey. Thus the colour of the Astatine not included in the table
can be deduced as being black.
The increase in melting point and boiling point can be explained by understanding Van
Der Waal forces. Although this topic is not required at GCSE level it is thought a brief
introduction would be useful in order to explain the trends in melting points and boiling
points in the Group 7 elements.
Van der Waals’ forces are forces that exist between molecules and are therefore
referred to as intermolecular forces. They are much weaker and different to the forces
of attraction that exist between the bonds (ionic or covalent) of the atoms in a molecule
which are referred to as intramolecular forces.
Reactivity of Halogens
The halogens get less reactive going down the group. Or in other words the reactivity
of the halogens decreases with increase in atomic number. This is the opposite trend to
that seen in the alkali metals in Group 1 of the periodic table.
Fluorine is the most reactive element in Group 7. In fact it is the most reactive of all
non-metals.
The reaction between sodium and a halogen becomes less vigorous down the group.
Fluorine reacts violently with sodium at room temperature. Chlorine reacts very
vigorously when in contact with hot sodium. Iodine reacts slowly with hot sodium.
As we go down the group, an additional electron shell is added thereby increasing the
atomic radii of the atom. The electrons in the outer shell move further away from the
nucleus as we go down the group and the attraction force between the electrons and
the nucleus become weaker and weaker. This weaker attraction in the larger atoms
makes it harder to gain electron. Therefore the ability of the atom to attract electron to
fill the outermost shell reduces, which means the reactiveness of the atom reduces.
Trends in Group 7
Melting point and boiling point increases down the group.
Reactivity decreases down the group.
Uses of Halogens
Fluorine
Fluorine compounds (Fluorides) are added to toothpaste to prevent tooth decay. In
some places fluoride is added to the water supply.
Chlorine
Liquid chlorine is added to drinking water at very low concentrations to kill bacteria.
Similarly chlorine is added into swimming pools to kill
bacteria.
Chlorine combines with hydrogen to form the industrially important hydrogen chloride.
This when dissolved in water forms hydrochloric acid, which is used in the manufacture
of metals, food plastics and many other products.
Bromine
Bromine is used in the manufacture of pesticides and fumigants.
Bromides of potassium, sodium and calcium are used in medicine in the manufacture of
sedatives.
Iodine
Iodine is extensively used in the pharmaceutical and therapeutic
industries. Iodine dissolved in alcohol is used as an antiseptic and
put on cuts.
Chemical Symbols:
Element Symbol Atomic No.
Helium He 2
Neon Ne 10
Argon Ar 18
Krypton Kr 36
Xenon Xe 54
Radon Rn 86
Helium
(He)
2
The highest occupied energy levels (outermost shells) of their atoms are full, making them unreactive.
Helium
The low density of helium is made use of in filling airships and balloons. Helium is
much less dense than air (lighter) and used in filling weather balloons, airships and
decorative balloons. Hydrogen was once used to fill airships and balloons but its high
reactivity made it dangerous.
The low boiling point of helium makes it a very useful coolant. Helium boils at -269°C
which is only 4°C above the lowest temperature achievable in theory called absolute
zero (-273°C). Helium is used to cool metals down to very low temperatures so that
they lose their electrical resistance and become super-conductors. Body scanners such
as the MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) used in hospitals have superconducting wire
in their coils so that they can conduct large electric currents in order to produce intense
magnetic fields. Helium is used to cool the conducting coils down to very low
temperatures so that they can display superconducting properties.
Neon
Neon is used in advertising signs also known as neon-signs. Neon glows a reddish
orange colour when electricity is passed through it in a vacuum discharge tube.
Only red signs contain pure neon. Other signs contain different gases and a chemical
coating on the inside of the glass tubing of the lights.
Argon
Argon is used to provide an inert protective atmosphere in the production of
titanium and other reactive elements. It is also used to provide an inert protective
shield around the hot metal when welding.
Argon is used in incandescent light bulbs instead of air as it will not react with the
tungsten filament even when it is white hot.
Low energy light bulbs and fluorescent tubes often contain argon gas and mercury.
When an electric current passes through the gas it generates ultra-violet light. A coating
on the inside surface of the tube or bulb is activated by the ultra-violet light causing it
to glow brightly.
Argon is also used to fill the space between the panes in double glazed windows.
Krypton
Like argon, krypton is used commercially to fill energy saving fluorescent lights.
Krypton is reactive enough to react with fluorine to produce krypton fluoride. Krypton
fluoride is used in lasers for the manufacture of semiconductors and integrated circuit
boards.
Krypton lasers are used by surgeons to treat certain eye problems and to remove
birthmarks.
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