A PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING

OF
PRE- AND POSTSTACK MIGRATIONS

VOLUME 1
(POSTSTACK)

by

John C. Bancroft, Ph.D.

University of Calgary

Course Notes Series Editor

Roger Young
 A PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING
OF
PRE- AND POSTSTACK MIGRATIONS
Volume 1
(Prestack)

by
John C, Bancroft, Ph.D.

Sixth Edition

Copyright January 2004

No figures or examples may be reproduced by any

means without permission from the author.

ii
Contents
Abbreviations and symbols
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1.2
1.1 Recording and processing ...................................................................... 1.4
1.2 Zero-offset migration............................................................................. 1.12
1.3 Prestack migration ................................................................................ 1.16
1.4 Three main poststack migration methods ............................................. 1.18
1.5 Relationship between Seismic and Geology......................................... 1.20
1.6 Modelling .............................................................................................. 1.22
1.7 Points to Note in Chapter 1................................................................... 1.23

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero offset

2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................. 2.2
2.1 Ray tracing with compass ....................................................................... 2.4
2.2 Modelling with diffractions..................................................................... 2.10
2.3 Fourier transform modelling .................................................................. 2.15
2.4 Ray tracing modelling with constant interval velocities ........................ 2.25
2.5 Exploding reflector model ..................................................................... 2.30
2.6 Huygens method of wave front modelling ............................................. 2.40
2.7 Eikonal method of grid modelling .......................................................... 2.46
2.8 Modelling 3-D data................................................................................ 2.50
2.9 Points to note in Chapter 3 ................................................................... 2.53

Chapter 3 Bits and pieces

3.1 Circles ellipses and hyperbolas ............................................................. .3.2
3.2 Velocities (instantaneous, interval, average, RMS, stacking,
migration, and DMO) .............................................................................. 3.8
3.3 Fermat’s principle ................................................................................. 3.18

iii
 3.4 The Fourier transform ........................................................................... 3.29
3.5 Aliasing in one and two dimension........................................................ 3.36
3.6 Trace interpolation to reduce aliasing ................................................... 3.50
3.7 The wave equation(s) ........................................................................... 3.52
3.8 Derivatives and the wave equation ....................................................... 3.54
3.9 Time and depth migration ..................................................................... 3.58
3.10 Points to note in Chapter 3 ................................................................... 3.66

Chapter 4 Poststack migration

4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................. 4.2
4.1 Migration by compass and ray tracing .................................................... 4.4
4.2 Hagedoorn migration .............................................................................. 4.8
4.3 Kirchhoff migration ................................................................................ 4.10
4.4 F-K direct Fourier transform migration .................................................. 4.30
4.5 Downward continuation migration ......................................................... 4.46
4.6 Various algorithms for downward continuation ..................................... 4.54
4.7 Migration of 3-D data ............................................................................ 4.72
4.8 Testing migration .................................................................................. 4.82
4.98 Pojnts to note in Chapter 4 ................................................................... 4.88

Chapter 5 Examples of migration

5.1 Dip models with constant velocity ........................................................... 5.2
5.2 Practice examples................................................................................... 5.6
5.3 Assorted migrations of real data ........................................................... 5.12
5.4 Assorted migrations of ray-trace model ................................................ 5.24
5.5 Migration velocities varying from 80% to 150% .................................... 5.34
5.7 Comparison of 2-D and 3-D migrations................................................. 5.52
5.8 Migration tests with constant velocity and a single trace....................... 5.56
5.9 Migration test of velocity profile............................................................. 5.60
5.10 Points to note in Chapter 5 ................................................................... 5.64

iv
Chapter 6 Special topics on migration
6.1 Moving window migration........................................................................ 6.4
6.2 Side-swipe .............................................................................................. 6.6
6.3 Oblique reflectors.................................................................................... 6.8
6.4 Overlapping reflections ......................................................................... 6.10
6.5 Recording times and migration aperture ............................................... 6.12
6.6 Lateral resolution and Fresnel zones .................................................... 6.16
6.7 Migration of spatially aliased data ......................................................... 6.22
6.8 Aliasing in time to depth conversions.................................................... 6.32
6.9 Frequency changes due to migration.................................................... 6.34
6.10 Cascade migration ................................................................................ 6.36
6.11 Surface elevation, datums, and migration............................................. 6.38
6.12 Example problem on recording time and aperture ................................ 6.52
6.13 Points to note in Chapter 6 ................................................................... 6.54

Appendix 1 Solving the wave equation ............................................... Appen.-1.1

Appendix 2 The Fourier transform ..................................................... Appen.-2.1

Appendix 3 Diffractions, statics, and downward continuation .................. Appen.-3.1

References: Author sort ......................................................................... Ref. 1

Numerical sort ................................................................... Ref. 10

v
Abbreviations and symbols
AVO amplitude verses offset
DMO dip moveout
NMO normal moveout
PSM prestack migration
PSPM prestack partial migration
COS Constant (limited) offset section
CDP Common depth point
CRP Common reflection point
CMP Common midpoint (preferred over CDP)
CSP Common scatter point

source (shot) location

receiver location
[ ] reference number at back of text
x, y horizontal surface distances, y required for 3D surveys
z vertical depth
t, T recording time, usually two-way time
T0 zero-offset time (collocated source and receiver)
h half offset distance between source and receiver
he equivalent offset computed for prestack migration
Vins instantaneous velocity, actual velocity of rock (P-wave,
isotropic...)
Vnmo velocity for applying normal moveout
Vstk velocity for best stack (= Vnmo)
Vave velocity that relates total depth to total time
Vrms velocity that compensates for Snell's law.
Vint interval velocity, Vave, or Vrms over a convenient interval
Vmig should be RMS (not stacking) or interval velocities
Vdmo should use RMS (not stacking) for NMO moveout
(x, t) dimensions usually for a 2-D seismic section
(x, z) dimensions usually for a 2-D depth migrated structure

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(x, h, t) prestack volume of traces from a 2-D line
(x = h, t) usually a source (shot) record
(x = xCMP, h, t) usually a CMP gather
(x, h = h0, t) constant offset section when h constant
(x, y, t) dimensions for a 3-D seismic data set
(x, y, z) dimensions for a 3-D depth migrated data set
F-K Fourier transform of an (x, t) section into a frequency,
wavenumber (k) domain (F, K)
one-way time traveltime from either a source or receiver to a scatter point or
reflector; two-way time divided by two
two-way time total time to travel from source to reflector and back to the
receiver
section seismic record displayed with horizontal distance and vertical
time axis (sometimes the vertical axis is in depth)
structure representation of the geology
wave equation many forms of this equation are found and usually relate the
acoustical pressure with position and time
Eikonal equation relates time and position of wave fronts: slowness vectors
acoustic typically refers to analysis of the P-wave
elastic typically refers to P- and S-wave propagation
focusing collapsing diffracted energy to clearest image
positioning moving seismic energy to the correct gological location
imaging usually referes to migration and seismic inversion
imaging condition location on a processed time section that corresponds to the
migrated output, usually at t = 0;
coincident location of the source wave front with back
propagated receiver part of the wave front (shot migration)
migration use of seismic data to create a subsurface image that attempts
to match the geological structure
inversion estimate geological parameters from seismic data; modify
geological structure to optimize migration
kinematics aspects of timing, usually intuitive (not amplitudes, phase,
etc.)
amplitudes usually difficult

vii
To Janice Fay, John, James, Jeffory, Janenne, Jared, and Joel.
Additions: Campion and Julia, Justin and Jordan, and Karen and Connery

Remember the time when I had my original drawings spread across the kitchen table...
and Joel (4 at the time) showed me how fast he could spin the mixer blades...
and the blades were fresh from a chocolate cake mix...
and...

1997 update: Times have changed, and now all the figures and diagrams are electronic. Any
smudges or miss-positioning within figures may be attributed to any of the above hackers.

Jan. 2003

The real glory of science

is that we can
find a way of thinking
such that the
law
is evident.
Feynman 1963 (Lectures on Physics Vol. 1, p26-3)

viii
Preface
Many years ago I was asked to gather material and prepare a series of lectures on
migration that would be suitable for people skilled in the area of seismic processing and
interpretation but lacking the mathematical skills usually associated with the topic.
These notes endeavor to present migration intuitively by relying on many diagrams.
Consequently, very little mathematical rigor is included, although some is retained in
Appendix 1, which contains examples of the 15 and 45 degree solutions to the wave
equation.
Many of the figures may be either a time section (x, t) with x the horizontal distance and
t vertical time, or a depth structure (x, z) with z the depth. Often the velocity is assumed
to be unity with equivalent time and depth scales that enable time and depth structures
to be plotted together, i.e., (x, t or z). It is also common practice to plot sections with the
vertical time scale calibrated to match the horizontal distance, enabling seismic dips to
be displayed with angles in degrees (rather than in slopes of time/distance). Care has
been taken to label the axis where appropriate, however, at times the labeling is left for
the participant to complete as an exercise. Sometimes the apparent ordering of the
figure parts (a), (b), (c) and/or (d) will not be in the usual order, but arranged in a
clockwise order to maintain a concept flow.
The notes begin with a brief overview in chapter 1 followed by poststack modelling
concepts in chapter 2. This chapter is important for three reasons; first, the modelling
principles are more intuitive than the migration principles, second, modelling becomes
part of depth migrations, and third, migration is the “inverse” operation of modelling.
Some background and related material such as geometry and aliasing are included in
chapter 3. Chapters 4 and 5 deal with poststack migration, and chapter 6 deals with
special topics that usually relate to poststack migrations.
Volume II deals with the prestack case where the source and receiver offsets vary.
Prestack modelling, dip moveout, and various prestack migration methods will be
presented.
The pages were prepared for course presentations by keep topics together on facing
pages, usually with text on the left and figures on the right. A large font was used to
enable simultaneous projection of the pages by an instructor, requiring little note taking
by the participant. A number of geometrical construction exercises have also been
included to help reinforce the basic concepts.
Two lists of the references are provided that are sorted by an ID number [..] and the first
author’s name. The author sort also uses the date for additional sorting and requires a
month and year for each reference. In some cases, when the month is not defined or is
not known, January is used, and in a few cases when the year is not known, the year
1940 is used. Any assistance in clarifying any of the references or adding ones that I
have missed would be greatly appreciated. Not all references are sited.

ix
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my thanks to the many people who have helped in the
preparation of this manual and to the many people who have guided me in my
geophysical career. Special thanks go to Don Simpson for his encouragement in the
preparation of the course, to Don Chamberlain who made it possible, and to John
Hodgkinson who was my tutor and mentor as I entered the field of geophysics. The
efforts of Mark Ng, Jim Montalbetti, and Dave Oldroyd who assisted in the preparation
and processing of examples were greatly appreciated along with help from Lisa Buckner
and other who assisted in editing.

Two teachers from my high-school days were Mr. Scott and Mr. Anderson, who were
very instrumental in reinforcing the point that all mathematical equations are related to
physical principles and that I should always find an intuitive appreciation for all
mathematical expressions.

Acknowledgment is also due to my family that has had to endure a great deal of stress
due to the "bear" in the home while the material was spread throughout many rooms
during preparation. Special thank are also expressed to my wife, Fay, for all her
encouragement and dedicated support, and to my father who was always willing to
spend the time to teach the fundamental principles of engineering and of life itself.

Appreciation is expressed to various companies that have assisted by providing

examples of tests and seismic data. They are Geo-X, Husky, Mobil, Shell, Veritas
Seismic, Ulterra Geoscience, and C and C Systems.