This publication lias been made possible by the financial support of the
Dutch Ministry of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs (WVC), and the EFL Foundalion.
Organization of the Park symposium: David Louwerse (chairman), Vibeke Scheffener,
Frank van der Zanden (Panorama Foundation).
ISBN 90 6868 069 2
Copyright © 1993 Text by the authors and THOTH Pubhshers, Amsterdam.
Copyright © 1993 Drawings and photographs: Hectic Pictures, H. Werlemann (p. 44),
M. Wessels (p. 121), 1. Bakker and T. Binnerts (p. 128).
All other drawings and photographs by the authors.
Editors; Martin Knuijt, Hans Ophuis, Peter van Saane
Cover Design: Locomotlv, Rotterdam
Typography and layout: Hans Lemmens (bNO), Amsterdam
Printing: Veenman Drukkers, Wageningen, the Netherlands
No part of this book may be reproduced i n any form without written permission from
THOTH Publishers, P.C. Hooftstraat 57-1, 1071 BN Amsterdam, the Netherlands
(Tel. 20:6732327 Fax 20:6730294)
I N T R 0 D U C TD
On 6-7 February 1992, a symposium entitled 'The Parle', initiated by the Dutch
PANORAMA Foundation, was held i n Rotterdam, the Netherlands. During the
symposium lectures were presented by seven park designers: Bernard Huet
(France), Adriaan Geuze (the Netherlands), Andreu Arriola (Spain), N o r f r i e d Pohl
(Germany), Peter Latz (Germany), Steen H0yer (Denmark) and Clemens Steenbergen
(the Netherlands). The symposium was introduced by the chairman o f the
PANORAMA Foundation, David Louwerse (the Netherlands).
The presence o f many different tendencies i n contemporary park design i n Europe
was the starting point o f the symposium. Speakers, architects and landscape architects
were selected because they represented certain countries, specific schools o f thought
or had authentic personal views. They were invited to illustrate their views w i t h
their o w n designs.
A group o f guest commentators provided comments and led the discussions
f o l l o w i n g each lecture. These were Gerrit Smienk (School o f Architecture,
Amsterdam), Bert van Meggelen (School o f Architecture, Rotterdam),
Cristophe Girot (ENSP, Versailles), Peter de Zeeuw (University o f Technology, Delft),
Paul Achterberg (landscape architect), Ymkje Repko (landscape architect),
V/outer Reh (landscape architect) and Eric Luiten (landscape architect).
The symposium offered a broad overview o f different design approaches and
their underlying thoughts as w e l l as an intensive exchange o f ideas. This
publication draws together some o f the underlying themes f r o m the lectures. It
contains edited versions o f the lectures held at the symposium as well as nine
thematic chapters, w r i t t e n by the editors, i n w h i c h the various opinions o f the
designers are juxtaposed and grouped thematically. The themes, w h i c h can be read
independently, foUow the texts o f the lectures and serve as a reference to the
discussions at the symposium.
The Editors: Martin ICnuijt, Hans Ophuis, Peter van Saane and David Louwerse,
chairman PANORAMA foundation.
 Clemens Steenbergen HIMIII© RUSTICO The formal strategy and grammar of landscape architecture

INTRODUCTION

I n a recent i n t e r v i e w the architect Bernard T s c h u m i said the f o l l o w i n g : ' I n

the s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a great e m p t i n e s s arose i n
a r c h i t e c t u r e. T h e re w e r e t w o d i v e r g e n t m o v e m e n t s . Some p i n n e d there
f a i t h o n the h i s t o r y o f architecture. I n order t o r e d e f i n e the d i s c i p l i n e they
began to emphasize m e m o r y , t y p o l o g y a n d m o r p h o l o g y . I n this f a s h i o n
they r e t u r n e d to the centre. B u t i t seemed t o m e - perhaps because o f m y
nature o r instincts - that y o u have to g o to the borders. I w o u l d never f i n d
a n y t h i n g n e w i n the centre. I can o n l y enter n e w territories at the edge, i n
the m a r g i n . A n d w h a t is the m a r g i n o f architecture? I t is the place w h e r e i t
touches o n other territories [ . . . ] . Because I was m o v i n g along the borders,
I t h o u g h t I c o u l d raise the real questions. B u t i f I h a d m o v e d t o w a r ds the
centre, t o w a r d s h i s t o r y , t h e n I c o u l d o n l y have d u g deeper i n t o that same
centre. 1
Does this reveal the ' d i l e m m a ' i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the profession? Is
there any p o i n t i n r e t u r n i n g t o the past, to the 'centre' o f the p r o f e s s i o n a l
practice, o r s h o u l d the ' m a r g i n ' be explored? Can y o u actually learn any-
t h i n g f r o m history?
You have to mak e a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the
p r o f e s s i o n a n d the revealation o f the architectural k n o w l e d g e a n d i n s t r u -
ments h i d d e n i n i t . I t is n o t a q u e s t i o n o f r o m a n t i c i z e d m e m o r i e s o f h i s t o r -
ical m o d e l s and templates. N o r a q u e s t i o n o f a sketch o f the regularities o r
stylistic characteristics. O u r c u r i o s i t y is m a i n l y f o c u s e d o n the analysis o f
116 FIG. 1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE CAN BE APPROACHED AS A CONTINUOUS the d y n a m i c s o f n e w spatial discoveries. I n this w e can still f i n d , even 117
TRANSFORMATION (BOMARZO)
now, pointers f o r the i n c l u s i o n o f the landscape i n architectonic c o m p o s i -
t i o n . I t is a q u e s t i o n o f d i s c o v e r i n g the timeless d i m e n s i o n s o f the m u t u a l
i n v o l v e m e n t o f architecture a n d landscape. W e w i l l then be at the centre
o f the p r o f e s s i o n , b u t at the same t i m e balanced o n the borders o f t r a d i -
t i o n a n d t o p i c a l i t y , t h e o r y a n d design, architecture a n d landscape.

Clemens Steenbergen
 O n this basis, the development o f landscape architecture can be approached
as a c o n t i n o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g ' k n o w l e d g e a b o u t landscape
architecture' ( f i g . 1 ) . A n e w p r o g r a m is constantly presenting itself, w h i c h
has to be 'assimilated' i n t o the e x i s t i ng set o f i n s t r u m e n t s . The e x i s t i n g set '••••DG
o f i n s t r u m e n t s i n landscape architecture is b e i n g ' d e p l o y e d ' here to solve
n e w expressive, situational and p r o g r a m m a t i c p r o b l e m s . H o w e v e r , i n so lu • • • I
d o i n g the p r o g r a m m u s t n o t s i m p l y be f i t t e d i n t o the t r a d i t i o n a l design;
Villa d'Este
n e w c o m b i n a t i o n s also have to be f o u n d , j u m p s i n scale made and n e w
elements a d d e d, so that n e w 'models' are d e v e l o p e d . T h e w a y s along
w h i c h this process takes place have l o n g been obscure. I n f o r m a l t h e o r y
now e v o l v i n g i n recent design and research, h o w e v e r , n e w h g h t , f r a g m e n t -
ary t h o u g h i t still is, is b e i n g shed o n the m e c h a n i s m o f t h o u g h t i n creative
spatial design. I n this, particular processes are especially i m p o r t a n t f o r the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f landscape architecture. I n order to u n c o v e r these, the evo-
l u t i o n o f the city par k i n term.s o f landscape architecture w i l l f i r s t be s u m -
marized, T h e n the c u r r e n t park design w i l l be e x a m i n e d . This has to be
m a d e usable f o r discussion as a design m o d e l . T h e r e f o r e i t is b r o k e n d o w n
i n t o t w o parts; an u r b a n design a n d an architectural q u e s t i o n . The w h o l e
w i l l lead to a d e f i n i n g o f the state o f c o n t e m p o r a r y landscape architecture
as an architectural d i s c i p l i n e .

THE DEVELOPMENT OF T H E CITY PARK AS A LANDSCAPE

Stouriiead
ARCHITECTURAL MODEL

The d e v e l o p m e n t o f W e s t e r n European landscape architecture, the creation

o f the city park as a landscape architectural m o d e l , its i n t e r w e a v i n g i n t o a
n e w ' u r b a n ' p r o g r a m and the e m b e d d i n g i n the u r b a n structure has been a
vast and c o m p l i c a t e d process. This process can be presented schematically
i n a n u m b e r o f leaps or ' p h a s e s ' ( f i g. 2).^
Birl<entieadparl<

P h a s e 0 As starting p o i n t y o u c o u l d take an enclosed garden, as the exter-

ior space o f the house. There w e r e still n o f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f the sur-
r o u n d i n g landscape. The garden was the centre.
P h a s e 1 The landscape became an ' o b j e c t o f landscape architecture'. The
118 f o r m a l reladonships w i t h the landscape w e r e l a i d d o w n b y means o f the
b a l c o n y o p e n i n g o n t o the landscape, lines o f sight to the h o r i z o n and the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o n u m e n t a l b u i l d i n g s i n the landscape. The garden became
an i n t e r m e d i a r y .
FIG. 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY PARK AS A LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURAL MODEL
Phase 2 The place o f the house as the centre o f the l a y o u t was relativized,
the landscape m o r p h o l o g y was i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the design, and p r o c e e d i n g
gardens f o l l o w e d a circular pattern. The garden developed i n t o a subsistant 119
landscape park.
P h a s e 3 The landscape park was used as the m o d e l f o r the p u b l i c city
p a r k . I n d o i n g so, the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the landscape p a r k 'was t u r n e d i n -

Clemens Steenbergen Clemens Steenbergen

 side-out', and l i n k e d to the u r b a n m o r p h o l o g y . T h e v i e w o f the l o r d f r o m
the steps o f his house Avas exchanged f o r an e q u a l i ty o f v i e w s : the t o u r
( ' b e l t ' ) is c o n v e r t e d i n t o an u r b a n pattern o f c i r c i d a t i o n ; city a n d nature
change places. 'The w i l d e r n e s s' was placed at the centre o f the m o r p h o l o g y
o f the park. The o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n city ( c u l t u r e ) and landscape (nature)
was made m a n i f e s t i n the design o f the park.

T h e l^th. c e n t u r y p u b l i c p a r k The 1 9 t h c e n t u r y p u b l i c park is an ex-

ample o f a city spatial type w h i c h has been d e v e l o p e d w i t h the h e l p o f the
set o f i n s t r u m e n t s o f landscape architecture.
The change o f the 1 8 t h c e n t u r y i m a g e o f 'a c i t y i n the landscape' i n t o
the 1 9 t h centur y one o f an 'island o f landscape i n a sea o f houses' is closely
connected to the s t o r m y rise o f the i n d u s t r i a l city and its spatial s h o r t - c o m -
ings. The p u b l i c p a r k marks a phase i n u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t i n w h i c h the
buUt surface o f the city was r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g , w i t h the landscape outside
the city b e c o m i n g m o r e and m o r e inaccessible f o r the m a j o r i t y o f the p o p u -
l a t i o n . The p u b l i c park is i n a certain sense a c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r the l a n d -
scape w h i c h h a d becom e inaccessible. W i t h the 1 9 th c e n t u r y p u b l i c p a rk
the c o n t i n u i t y i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the cit y and the landscape is
b r o k e n ; the landscape n o w acquires, i n an idealised f o r m , a place i n the
city.
The f i r s t European park w h i c h was l a i d o u t b y a m u n i c i p a l a u t h o r i t y ,
and w h i c h f o r m e d an i n t e g r a l element o f the d e v e l o p m e n t o f an i n d u s t r i a l
city was the Birkenhead park near L i v e r p o o l , designed b y Paxton. The p a r k
was very i n f l u e n t i a l and was a d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t m o d e l f o r later plans, such
as Central Park i n N e w Y o r k b y O l m s t e d ( f i g . 3) and the Amsterdamse Bos
b y V a n Eesteren and M u l d e r .
The 1 9 t h c e n t u r y landscape style p u b l i c park is specifically designed f o r
s t r o l l i n g , and based o n an A r c a d i a n i l l u s i o n . I t has an essentiaUy a n t i - u r b a n
character, and i m p l i e s a c r i t i q u e o f the c i t y and u r b a n society. The p r o j e c -
t i o n o f a pastoral i d y l l o n t o city h f e also plays a role here, w i t h i n the
b a c k g r o u n d the Rousseau-inspired ideal o f 'the n o W e savage', i n w h i c h a
n a t u r a l w a y o f l i f e is g l o r i f i e d . A t the t i m e o f its b i r t h (the V i c t o r i a n age)
FIG. 3
it was also i n t e n d e d as an i n s t r u m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n . I n the deeper sense the
CENTRAL PARK NEW YORK,
1 9 t h c e n t u r y p u b l i c park consists o n l y o f tableaux ( i m a g e s ) , i n w h i c h n o OLMSTED AND VAUX, 1 8 5 8 - 1 8 7 7 :
DEFINING URBAN FORM AND
120 other recreational p r o g r a m apart f r o m that o f the aristocratic c o u n t r y estate PROGRAM ON THE NATURAL
LANDSCAPE: RELIEF, EXISTING
can be a c c o m m o d a t e d ( s t r o l l i n g and w a l k i n g ) . H i s t o r y has s h o w n that TOPOGRAPHY, CONTOUR LINES,
AVENUES, PATHS AND ACTIVITIES,
practically every par k is n o w an e m p t y ' b o x o f nature' i n t o w h i c h mass ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPT,
BASIC IDEA
recreation cannot be f i t t e d .

Clemens Steenbergen Clemens Steenbergen

 ï'ibie p e o p l e ' s p a r ï r That is w h y i n m o d e r n u r b a n design the landscape
park f o r s t r o l l i n g i n was abandoned. The p u b h c park was converted i n t o
the Volkspark, the people's park, a m o r e p r o g r a m m a t i c a l l y d e f i n e d space to
be used f o r p o p u l a r assemblies a n d recreation. The e m a n c i p a t i o n o f the
f u n c t i o n a l p r o g r a m as bearer o f the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the park made a n e w
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the landscape possible. The people's par k was also seen
f r o m the outset as a c o m p o n e n t o f an u r b a n structure o f greenery which
i n c l u d e d parts o f the s u r r o u n d i n g landscape.
W i t h the people's park a c r u c i a l phase i n the architectural e v o l u t i o n o f
the c i t y p a r k was reached. U n t i l t h e n the landscape a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m
c o u l d be r e d u c e d to its o r i g i n s i n nature. I n the people's park and the re-
lated u r b a n greenery the architectonic f o r m was l i n k e d to the w o r l d o f
m e c h a n i z e d p r o d u c t i o n . The par k became a recreational m a c h i n e . Instead
o f nature, the p r o g r a m became the source o f u n i t y . A f u n c t i o n a l scheme
c o u l d be d e r i v e d f r o m this, w h i c h h a d to lead to an o b j e c t i v e scientifi c
f o r m . B u t to translate the f u n c t i o n a l scheme i n t o a spatial d e s i g n , the
architect i n reality still h a d to call u p o n his subjective capacity f o r expres-
s i o n . To this end, there was m u c h f a l l i n g back o n h i s t o r i c a l Itahan and
F r e n c h m o d e l s f r o m 1 7 t h c e n t u r y garden architecture. F u r t h e r m o r e , the
design was orientate d to m o d e r n architecture. A l i m i t a t i o n o f the people's
park is c o n t a i n ed i n the p r o g r a m itself, that is, i n the unequivocalness o f
the l i n k i n g o f the par k w i t h sport and recreation.
H o w e v e r , the essential q u e s t i o n raised b y the m o d e r n people's park is i n
the already m e n t i o n e d lacuna b e t w e e n the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n a l scheme a n d
the subjective aesthetic o r g a n i z a t i o n . Can this lacuna be f i l l e d in? Is there a
general a r c h i t e c t u r a l language o r g r a m m a r w h i c h can m e d i a t e between
f o r m and f u n c t i o n ? This q u e s t i o n has been e x a m i n e d b y the architectural
h i s t o r i a n A n t h o n y Vidler, A c c o r d i n g to h i m , because o f the doubts about
the i d e o l o g y o f progress, architects are once again t u r n i n g t h e i r a t t e n t i o n
to the past i n the c o n v i c t i o n that the rules o f architecture are n o t to be
f o u n d i n nattare or t e c h n o l o g y b u t o n l y i n architecture i t s e l f ^ I n order to
reveal the g r a m m a r o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h a t is essential is n o t so m u c h a
d e s c r i p t i o n , as a n e w tracing o f i t , an i m a g i n a r y rehearsal o f the design
process o f relevant h i s t o r i c a l m o d e l s . T h r o u g h such e x p e r i m e n t a l redesign-
i n g the architectural means can be catalogued a n d the spatial d y n a m i c s o f
122 the m o d e l can be d e f i n e d . I n this f a s h i o n , this b u i l d i n g i n the i m a g i n a t i o n
can free the creativity needed f o r the c u r r e n t desig n o f space. For the sake
o f convenience the par k design has been split i n t o t w o design questions.
The u r b a n design q u e s t i o n relates to the strategy o f landscape architecture
w i t h regard to the c o n t e m p o r a r y city. The architectural q u e s t i o n relates to
the rules o f the landscape architectural staging.
Clemens Steenbergen
THE STRATEGY OF URBAN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
I f w e regard the city as an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f architectural stiuctures, then
f o u r landscape architectural operations can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d that refer to
the w a y the cit y and landscape are j o i n e d together.* The city park is the
place par excellence w h e r e this contact is revealed.
The topography The f i r s t o p e r a t i o n o f landscape architecture refers to the
treatment o f the t o p o g r a p h y . Every city has its o r i g i n s i n a g i v e n landscape
s i t u a t i o n and has m o r p h o l o g i c a l characteristics w h i c h are related to this,
f o r example t h r o u g h its l o c a t i o n b y the sea, i n a h i l l y r e g i o n , o n a p l a i n ,
next to a l a g o o n and so o n . The m e d i e v a l o c c u p a t i o n was to a great extent
l i n k e d to t o p o g r a p h y . I n the r e c l a m a t i o n w o r k a n d i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
defenses i n particular, this f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n to the given o f the site became
clear. D u r i n g the Renaissance, e x p e r i m e n t a l studies w e r e made o f the poss-
ible connection between a geometric plan and natural topography. The
idea arose that there was an ideal system o f p r o p o r t i o n s w h i c h c o u l d be
d e r i v e d f r o m natur e a n d that the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n and nature
c o u l d be developed w i t h i n this rational system, The geometric system there-
f o r e is a f r a m e w o r k o f measurements w h i c h is l a i d over the landscape a n d
w i t h i n w h i c h the i n t e r f e r e n ce b e t w e e n the scales and direction s o f the p l a n
and o f the t o p o g r a p h y are dealt w i t h . I n the 1 7 t h c e n t u r y f o r m a l F r e n c h
p l a n , the c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n the g e o m e t r y o f the p l a n and the n a t u r a l -
ness o f the site f o r m , o r i g i n a l l y elaborated i n local situational terms, evolved
i n t o an e x c i t i n g dialectic. I n the art o f English landscaping, a t t e n t i o n was
s h i f t e d f r o m abstract g e o m e t r y to an expressive structure o n the basis o f
causal, m o r p h o l o g i c a l connections.
M o d e r n architecture e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h d i s c o n n e c t i n g t o p o g r a p h y and
f o r m . The landscape became a n e u t r a l tableau, reduce d to its m o n u m e n t a l
aspects. The p l a n was p r o j e c t e d o n t o this as an a u t o n o m o u s i n t e r v e n t i o n .
The city o f today is b e c o m i n g a tapestry o f f r a g m e n t s . The landscape is
b e i n g d e f o r m e d , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n u r b a n structure a n d the l a n d -
scape has been lost. Is the chaos inevitable? Perhaps w e can m a n i p u l a t e the
chaos. W e can t r y to expose once again the landscape o r i g i n s o f the city.
This w o u l d be possible f o r example b y e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h p r o j e c t i o n s o f
the f o r m a l types o f landscape a r c h i t e c t u r e o n t o the t o p o g r a p h i c base. 123
T h r o u g h such a r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f the t o p o g r a p h y o f the c i t y b o t h the
u r b a n f r a g m e n t s and their setting i n the landscape c o u l d be reorganised.
The landscape architect w o u l d t h e n act as ' d i r e c t o r ' o f the u r b a n stage.
Clemens Steenbergen
 T h e p i c t n j j c i i i g s y s t e m The second o p e r a t i o n relates to the p i c t u r i n g o f
nature. I n the Itahan Renaissance, u n s p o i l e d nature was an essential ele-
m e n t o f the villa p r o g r a m , as a decor f o r the aristocrat's stay i n the c o u n -
try. The c o m p o s i t i o n o f this n a t u r a l decor was i n f l u e n c e d b y the paradigms
o f classical m y t h o l o g y . H u m a n i s t poets l i k e Petrarch r e f e r r e d to Arcadia and
the m y t h i c a l garden o f the Gods. N a t u r a l elements (earth, w a t e r , plants
and animals) w e r e a concrete and visual reality i n this. The architectoni c
treatment o f quotations f r o m classical l i t e r a t u re b r o u g h t the e n j o y m e n t o f
nature u p to the desired i n t e l l e c t u al and c u l t u r a l level.
This was also the case i n the f o r m a l F r e n c h garden. There, m o r e o v e r , all
nature was represented i n the garden as i n a s c i e n t i f i c .classification system.
' F r o m source to ocean', and as an i m a g e o f the l i f e cycle ( b i r t h - l i f e - d e a t h ) ,
the n a t u r a l landscape was c o m p l e t e l y r e f l e c t e d w i t h i n the garden.
I n the Enghsh landscape art the borders b e t w e e n Arcadia and the l a n d -
scape w e r e abandoned. N a t u r e was recognised as an organic orde r w i t h its
o w n laws w h i c h c o u l d be ' e x p l a i n e d ' b y m y t h i c a l images (genius l o c i ) .
The r e p e r t o r y o f m y t h o l o g i c a l images associated w i t h A r c a d i a disap-
peared i n m o d e r n architecture a n d u r b a n design. The emphasis came to l ie
o n the expression o f the technica l system. The p l a n was d e p r i v e d o f its
e m b l e m a t i c bearers o f m e a n i n g ; the landscape became a landscape w i t h o u t
a past. I t was s t r i p p e d d o w n to physical nature, w h i c h was cherished i n
nature conservation. A lasting d i v o r c e b e t w e e n c u l t n r e a n d nature, h o w -
ever, is u n t h i n k a b l e o n the u r b a n stage. I t is part o f the v e r y concept o f
the city to surpass the technocratic f o u n d a t i o n o f the landscape, not by
d e n y i n g i t b u t b y l o o k i n g f o r surplus values w h i c h can l e n d n e w s i g n i f i c -
ance to the landscape. I n this sense' the landscape architect has to set to
w o r k as creator a n d activate the landscape so to speak.
T h e space The d e s i g n i n g o f spaces is a t h i r d o p e r a t i o n o f landscape a r c h i -
tecture. ' F l o u r i s h i n g p e r i o d s ' o f landscape architecture can be r e c o g n i s e d
f r o m , a m o n g other t h i n g s , the spatiahty o f the designs w h i c h have been
created i n t h e m . Various Italian v i l l a designs f r o m the 1 6 t h a n d 1 7 t h cen-
t u r y reflected a cosmic c o n c e p t i o n o f space, i n w h i c h the city, the landscape
and the v i l l a still f o r m a single spatial w h o l e , m a d e perceivable b y the - i n
itself c o m p l e t e - m i c r o c o s m o f the v i l l a idea a n d the perspective v i e w e r .
124 The absolute c o n c e p t o f space a n d time was d e v e l o p e d i n the f o r m a l
design o f the 1 7 t h c e n t u r y . I n its h i g h p o i n t s , the French f o r m a l design
s h o w e d the dynamic s o f the conquest a n d s e g m e n t a t i on o f i n f i n i t e , ab-
stract t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l space. The city as a w h o l e is part o f the landscape
design. I t was placed as a m i r r o r - i m a g e , n o l o n g e r i n , b u t o p p o s i t e to the
p a n o r a m a o f the landscape.
Clemens Steenbergen
The English landscape design 'restored' to some extent the cosmic idea
o f space o f the 'ancient w o r l d ' , b u t placed i t i n m o d e r n times and added
the concept o f the landscape c o n t i n u u m , the m o v i n g space, an early i n d i -
c a t i o n o f the m o d e r n ' u r b a n ' time-space c o n t i n u u m .
K e e p i n g the structure o f h u m a n i n h a b i t a t i o n transparent, so that i t be-
comes s p i r i t u a l l y ' i n h a b i t a b l e ' , is a timeless task. N o t o n l y is the w o r l d
b e c o m i n g smaller b u t the e x p e r i e n c i n g o f i t c o n t i n o u s l y threatens to d i s i n -
tegrate. M a n y decisions are taken o u t o f a relativ e blindnes s to spatial
coherence. O f t e n , there is n o l o n g e r any p l a n n i n g or ' o v e r a l l ' coherence.
Spatiality is a means to restore the ' w h o l e n e s s ' o f the w o r l d as w e w a n t to
experience i t , to make a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the unobservable, the r e g i o n bey-
o n d the h o r i z o n .
W e m u s t l o o k f o r possibilities f o r b r i n g i n g the pieces o f the puzzle once
m o r e i n t o a spatial f r a m e w o r k . I n the city this means l o o k i n g f o r t y p o l o -
gical r e l a t i o n s h i ps i n the u r b a n space. Landscape architects also have to
once again o p e n u p the p o t e n t i a l o f emptiness, clarity and quiet. This cre-
a t i o n o f emptiness also means m a l d n g tangible the scale o f the landscape
i n the architecture and i n the city and creating spatial cormections across the
scales. H e r e the landscape architect plays the r o l e o f dramatist, c o n s t r u c t i n g
drama i n a play o f i n t u i t i v e references to the u n p r e c e d e n t ed s p l e n d o u r o f
the universe.
T h e p r o g r a m F i n a l l y , landscape a r c h i t e c t u r e has to d o w i t h programs
a i m e d at p r o d u c t i o n , r e c r e a t i o n and c u l t u r e . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the p r o -
g r a m f o r m s a f o u r t h o p e r a t i o n o f landscape architecture. I n the I t a l i a n
Renaissance the f u n c t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n and the u r b a n o c c u p a t i o n w e r e part
o f the A r c a d i a n e n j o y m e n t o f the landscape. N a t u r e , c u l t u r e , recreation a n d
p r o d u c t i o n w e r e l i n k e d together i n the V i l l a Rustica as recreational a g r i c u l -
t u r a l enterprise and the V i l l a U r b a n a as (Arcadian) u r b a n c o u n t r y house.
I n 1 7 th century f o r m a l French design the agrarian landscape was excluded.
A large-scale f o r e s t r y c u l t u r e w i t h avenues a n d radials was the decor f o r
c e r e m o n i a l u r b a n l i f e i n the o p e n air. W i t h i n the c o u n t r y estate the c u l -
tural-recreational p r o g r a m was a c c o m m o d a t e d i n c l o s e d - o f f bosquets. In
the D u t c h f o r m a l garden this was d i f f e r e n t . A large part o f the c o m p o s i t i o n
c o n s i s t ed o f elements w i t h a f u n c t i o n a l , p r o d u c t i v e character (pasture ,
o r c h a r d , vegetable g a r d e n ) . For this reason, i n the Netherlands the c i t y -
d w e l l e r ' s e n j o y m e n t o f nature r e m a i n e d d i r e c t l y l i n k e d W i t h the f u n c t i o n a l
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the landscape.
I n the Englis h landscape p a r k the landscape was i n c l u d e d i n the c o m p o -
s i t i o n as nature, b u t n o t as a p r o d u c t i v e landscape. I n the 1 9 t h c e n t u r y
park this was r e i n f o r c e d even m o r e . The recreational p r o g r a m was c o m -
 pletely detached from the p r o d u c t i v e landscape and the city was l i n k e d to
'nature'.
The frmctional contrast b e t w e e n the c i t y a n d the c o u n t r y s i d e , made
m a n i f e s t b y the rise o f the i n d u s t r i a l c i t y, and w h i c h was one o f the m o r e
p r o f o u n d reasons f o r the o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the city o n one side and the
park o n the o d i e r , is nowaday s disappearing. C i t y and c o u n t r y s i d e flow
i n t o eac h other f u n c t i o n a l l y ; the landscape is b e c o m i n g urbanized.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the architectural landscape and the
landscape w h i c h has g r o w n up ( ' t h e v e r n a c u l a r ' ) has l o s t its v a h d i t y
t h r o u g h the m o d e r n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the l a n d . The landscape is n o l o n g e r a
p r o d u c t o f a n o n y m o u s f a r m i n g activity b u t the result o f landscape-ecolo-
gical, - t e c h n i c a l , -social a n d -aesthetic considerations. For the landscape
architect this n e w u n i t y b e t w e e n city a n d the landscape means a p o s s i b i l i t y
f o r developing n e w p r o g r a m m a t i c connections b e t w e e n the t w o . h i this con -
text w e s h o u l d n o t be t h i n k i n g m e r e l y o f an e x t e n s i o n and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n
o f the recreational p r o g r a m , as this happens i n t h e m e parks f o r example.
T h r o u g h reorganisations o f u r b a n and landscape programs new, experi-
m e n t a l c o m b i n a t i o n s are possible. H e r e , the landscape architect is c h o r e o -
g r a p h i n g activities w h i c h u n i t e city a n d landscape.
THE RULES OF T H E LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURAL STAGING
As has already b e e n m e n t i o n e d , i n order to be able to discuss the city park
as a design task i t is necessary to d r a w a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the u r b a n
d e s i g n a n d the a r c h i t e c t u r a l q u e s t i o n . T h e u r b a n d e s i g n q u e s t i o n en-
compasses the strategy o f landscape architecture w i t h r e g a r d to the city and
has been s u m m a r i z e d i n the f o r e g o i n g . The landscape architect emerges as
stage-director, creator, dramatist a n d choreographer.
The architectural q u e s t i o n relates to the rules o f landscape architectural
staging. I t is t h e r e f o r e abou t the p o s i t i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y landscape a r c h i -
tecture as an architectural d i s c i p l i n e . The i c o n o c l a s m o f the m o d e r n age
has l e f t us w i t h n o park m y t h i n w h i c h the need f o r a certain ' e m b l e m a t i c
order w h i c h reconciles us w i t h h f e ' can be p r o j e c t e d . W e find ourselves i n
a terribl e l i b r a r y . The l i b r a r y as systematic chaos. A l i b r a r y i n w h i c h are
126 stored aU the f r a g m e n t s o f aUegories and m e t a p h o r s. I t is u p to art to p u t
the f r a g m e n t s together a n d i n so d o i n g create n e w connections. N o t b y
s t i c k i n g t h e m together so that they still l o o k g o o d to some extent, b u t b y
b r e a t h i n g l i f e i n t o t h e m and b y f o r m i n g f r o m opposites an aUiance w h i c h
has n o t yet been s h o w n . The designer is t h e n , i t is true, a f r a g m e n t a l i s t ,
b u t w i t h an idea o f the conceivable w h o l e . '
Clemens Steenbergen
O n the basis o f the above, the p o s i t i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y landscape
architecture c o u l d be mad e clearer b y experiment s i n w h i c h the classical
( t r a d i t i o n a l ) types o f landscape architecture are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o n e w u n i t -
ies and f o r m the m a t e r i a l f o r a n e w staging o f the 'landscape theatre'.
I n the actual Catalan designs f o r parks a n d squares f o r example, the c o n -
cept o f the w a l l e d A r a b i a n garden (the oasis) and the R o m a n concept o f
the p u b l i c space such as the f o r u m , the u m b r a c u l o and the amphitheatre
are t r a n s f o r m e d and placed i n a n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p . A g e o m e t r i c a l l y o r d e r e d ,
w a l l e d ' i r m e r' park (square) and the 'outer' park can always be distinguished,
a landscape w h i c h complies w i t h the local situation (topography) ( f i g . 4 ) ,
The p o i n t o f departure, the l i b r a r y or catalogue o f these designs, could
consist o f a n u m b e r o f g i v e n types f r o m landscape architecture, or 'stage-
properties'. Examples o f such types w h i c h belong to the u r b a n decor include :
the gateway, the f o r u m , the promenade, the f o l l y , the steps, the h i p p o d r o m e ,
the maze, the theatre. Examples o f stage-properties w h i c h b e l o n g to the
n a t u r a l decor i n c l u d e the s p r i n g , the w o o d , the s w a m p , the r a v i n e , the
m o u n t a i n , the p l a i n , the river, the island.
Let us n o w l o o k f o r n e w m e t h o d s f o r w r i t i n g the scenario and f u r n i s h -
i n g the stage w i t h these stage-properties.
.Staging Central here is the concept o f staging. By staging is here u n d e r -
s t o o d the use o f one or m o r e ' f o r m a l schemes' o f landscape architecture i n
w h i c h the semantic relations o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f the
c o n c e p t u a l s y s t e m are s p a t i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d . W i t h the r a t i o n a l (Italian
Renaissance), the f o r m a l (French Baroque) and the p i c t o r a l (Enghsh l a n d -
scape art) staging the classic set o f i n s t r u m e n t s is i n p r i n c i p l e already
g i v e n . I n these stagings the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the architectoni c categories is
expressed i n variou s w a y s , f o r exampl e i n a theatrical f o r m , o n a single
spatial axis, or i n an A r c a d i a n c i r c u i t .
W i t h i n each o f these concepts a great n u m b e r o f variations is possible.*
A t the same t i m e this 'architectural series' leads to ' m u t a t i o n s ' , to n e w f o r -
m a l schemes, concepts and types.'' W h e n there are a n u m b e r o f f o r m a l
schemes or concepts, these c a n also be m i x e d u p together.^
I n fact, every design has s o m e t h i n g o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I n the general
sense, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n refers to the c o n v e r s i o n o f e x i s t i n g ( h i s t o r i c a l ) l a n d -
scape architecture c o m p o s i t i o n s w h e r e the o r i g i n a l semantic sttuctur e can 12/
be lost, the p r o g r a m can change a n d finally also the spatial stucture a n d
the basic f o r m o f the m o d e l . A n e x i s t i n g m o d e l can thus acquire a n e w
m e a n i n g . This can h a p p e n i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . '
Clemens Steenbergen
 )[Se(Cc;msii:rm€tioBi A first example is decoiiGtvtic-
t i o n . D e c o n s t r u c t i o n implie s an attitude, an
a r c h i t e c t u r al idea w h i c h is n o t a p r o d u c t o f its
t i m e b u t w h i c h existed earher. Laugier, f o r ex-
a m p l e , says i n h i s b o o k Observation sur I'Architecture
( 1 7 S 6 ) : 'There has t o be o r d e r a n d fantasy, r e -
lations a n d contradictions, coincidence, unex-
pected elements which enliven the picture;
great o r d e r i n details; c o n f u s i o n , u p r o a r a n d
t u m u l t i n the w h o l e .
A c c o r d i n g to T s c h u m i , Laugier's p r o n o u n c e -
m e n t s are n o t m e r e l y m e a n t as a r e a c t i o n t o the
strict order o f the f o r m a l design: 'Rather, they
raise an idea o f a d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f architecture
and they f o r m an early e x p e d i t i o n i n t o the
kingdom o f pleasure, against the a r c h i t e c t u r a l
o r d e r o f that t i m e . ' i *
D e c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e r e f o r e denotes a b r e a k i n g
d o w n o f the estabhshed architectural order , o f
the h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n technical
( f u n c t i o n a l ) a n d aesthetic r e q u i r e m e n t s , f o r t h e
b e n e f i t o f t h e p o e t i c expressiveness ( t h e pleas-
u r e ) . Existing values are n o t d e n i e d b u t t u r n e d
u p s i d e d o w n , so that relations a n d borders are
r e d e f i n e d . I n that sense d e c o n s t r u c t i o n is r e -
l a t e d to t h e concept o f m a n n e r i s m i n art h i s -
tory.

Decomposition A second manner o f trans-

f o r m a t i o n is d e c o m p o s i t i o n ( f i g . 5 ) . U n l i k e d e -
c o n s t r u c t i o n this does n o t occur w i t h i n a single
f o r m a l scheme. D e c o m p o s i t i o n is i n the general
sense a i m e d at a n u n r a v e l l i n g o f t he visual-spa-
tial s t r u c t u r e o f usable h i s t o r i c a l m o d e l s a n d
the use o f the e x i s t i n g visual elements o r spatial
c o m p o n e n t s (also caUed ' q u o t e s ' ) i n a d i f f e r e n t , 129
n e w c o m p o s i t i o n o r staging. D e c o m p o s i t i o n is
the process w h e r e - b y t h e active c o m p o s i t i o n
elements are f r e e d f r o m their e x i s t i ng c o n t e x t
so that they can be a p p h e d i n a n e w staging.
FIG. 4 P A R C DEL C L O T , B A R C E L O N A , pREIXES AND M i R A N D A , 1 9 8 6 : T h e h i s t o r y o f landscape architecture has m a n y
ASSEMBLY OF LANDSCAPE A R C H I T E C T U R A L TYPES I N A N URBAN SPACE

Clemens Steenbergen
Clemens Steenbergen
 examples o f such d e c o m p o s i t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e the Palladian a g r i c u l t u r a l
v i l l a and Castle H o w a r d i n England.

E x p e r i i a a e n t a l s t a g i n g The concepts o f d e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d d e c o m p o s i t i o n
are characterized b y the shared m e a n i n g o f their prefixes. I f w e d r o p these,
t h e n the dissecting character o f the w o r d s disappears. Thus, w e arrive f i -
n a l l y at the synthesis, at the n e w e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g i n g . M a n y possibilities
are i m a g i n a b l e here. T w o extremes are: m a n i p u l a t i o n o f chance and m e t i c u -
lous staging ( f i g . 6 ) .
Bernard T s c h u m i defends the p o s i t i o n that l a y i n g a u t o n o m o u s structures
across each other (reflections o f d i f f e r e n t systems f r o m w h i c h the space or
society is constructed) negates every experience o f structure.
The idea is that t h r o u g h a c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f systems ' t h r o w n together'
w h i c h can n o l o n g e r be c o m b i n e d i n t o an i d e o l o g y , a n e w f o r m o f spatial-
i t y can arise w h i c h replaces t h i s . T s c h u m i cahs this e f f e c t ' t r a n s g r e s s i o n ' ,
w h i c h can m e a n b o t h o v e r l a p p i n g and exceeding.!^ This structure carries
i n i t the seeds o f a n e w staging b u t the result is u n c e r t a i n .
A l o n g s i d e this, b u t also s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , there is the assembling. I n this,
e x i s t i n g visual-spatial a n d f u n c t i o n a l - s p a t i a l f r a g m e n t s are chosen, pro-
cessed and t u r n e d against each other so that a condensatio n o f the spatial
structure (a m u t u a l p e r m e a t i o n o f the f r a g m e n t s ) is created and thus a d i s -
placement o f m e a n i n g is archieved.
By c u t t i n g u p a n d p r o c e s s i n g (interpreting) existing material, and
assembling these 'estranged' f r a g m e n t s i n t o a c o m p o s i t i o n a n e w u n i t y is
created, w h i c h is d i f f e r e n t than a stylistic or p r o g r a m m a t i c u n i t y .
The special m e a n i n g o f assembling ( a n d other possible e x p e r i m e n t a l sta-
gings) f o r the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the landscape architectura l design is that
w i t h i t a d y n a m i c is available to absorb a n d revise the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
city and landscape, as this t o o k shape i n the 1 9 t h c e n t u r y city p a r k a n d the
f u n c t i o n a l i s t city greenery. The designer o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y city p a rk is
n o l o n g e r t i e d to the classical or m o d e r n i s t paradigm s o f the m e a n i n g o f
the landscape a n d nature b u t f r o m n o w o n , i n assembling the landscape,
can make u n i n h i b i t e d use o f landscape architectural catalogue a n d g r a m -
mar. N o t f o r d e s i g n i n g w i t h o u t engagement b u t i n orde r to explore n e w
balances b e t w e e n ' u t i l i t a ' and ' c o m m o d i t a ' , and to make these transparent.
130 A p a r t f r o m stage-director, creator, dramatist a n d choreographer the l a n d -
scape architect, f i n a l l y , is also a chess player w h o , lik e the E m p e r o r K u b l a i
K h a n , as he attentively f o U o w e d the moves o f M a r c o Polo, n o t i c e d that
certain pieces i m p l i e d or e x c l u d e d the p r o x i m i t y o f other pieces a n d that
they m o v e d a l o n g f i x e d lines. N e g l e c t i n g the d i f f e r e n c e s i n f o r m b e t w e e n
FIG. 5 SACRO BOSCO D I BOMARZO, BOMARZO, VICINIO ORSINI, 1 5 4 7 - 1 5 8 4 :
DECOMPOSITION OF THE RENAISSANCE GARDEN

Clemens Steenbergen
Clemens Steenbergen
the objects, K h a n described the w a y i n w h i c h they w e r e o r d e r e d with Notes
regards to each other o n the t i l e d floor. H e t h o u g h t ' I f every city is l i k e a
game o f chess, I shall, w h e n I have learned the rules, f i n a l l y possess m y
kingdom'."

1. Refer to H . van D i j k en D. Lambert: 'Een vraaggesprek met Bernard Tschumi'.

Arcliis 9 - 1988.
2. Ref. E. V. d. Kooy, W . Reli en C. M . Steenbergen: Het montagelandschap; het stedelijke park als
actude ontwerpopgave. Delft 1991.

3. A. Vidler: 'De derde typologie'. I n : L. van D u i n , H . Engel (ed.): Architectuiirfragmenten;

typologie, stijl en ontwerpmethoden. Delft 1991.

4. Ref C. M . Steenbergen: 'Het begraven landschap'. I n : Urban Design. Delft 1988.

5. Ref G. K o m r i j : Over de noodzaak van tuinieren. Huizingalezing 1990, pp.5 1-52.

6. For example, the Italian Renaissance villas i n Tuscany, Rome, Frascati and northern Italy
can be read as an i n f i n i t e series o f versions o f the same theme, that is, the architectural
connection to the landscape panorama. This 'arcMtectural series' can be f o u n d i n : P. H .
van der Ree, G. Smienk, C. IVl. Steenbergen: Italian Villas and Gardens; a corso di disegno.
Amsterdam, IVtunich, 1992.

7. For example, the f o r m a l French garden i n w h i c h the h o r i z o n is manipulated can be

understood as a transformation w h i c h is i m p l i c i t i n the 'architectural series' o f the
Italian Renaissance villa. Ref C. M . Steenbergen: De stap over de horizon; een ontleding van het
formde ontvverp in de landschapsarchitectuur. Delft 1990.

8. For example, i n the Enghsh landscape garden a f o r m a l layer is sometimes projected

onto a pictoral plan, creating ambiguity.

9. P. S. J. Laugier: Observation sur I'Architecture. Paris, 1756.

10. B. Tschumi: The pleasure of orchitecture. Paris, 1985.
11. See also: W. Reh, G. Smienk en C. Ivl. Steenbergen: Architectuur en Landschap;
rationele, formele en picturale enscenering. Delft, 1985.
12. Ft. van Dijk: ' W i t h a little help o f m y friends; Tschumi's v u u r p r o e f i n La Villette'. 1 33
Archis 9 - 1988.

13. I . Calvino: Invisible cities. N e w York, Ffarcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974.

FIG. 6 SPOOETUNNELTRACE ROTTERDAM, REM KOOLHAAS:

ASSEMBLY OF URBAN AND LANDSCAPE FRAGMENTS I N A CITY FIELD