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MENTAL HEALTH AND

OUR CHANGING CLIMATE:


IMPACTS, IMPLICATIONS, AND GUIDANCE
March 2017
2 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONTENTS

THIS GUIDE IS BROUGHT TO YOU BY WHY WE OFFER THIS REPORT 4


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6
I. CONTEXT 9
Our Changing Climate: A Primer 10
AUTHORS EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS The Climate and Health Impacts on Humans 11
Susan Clayton Ashlee Cunsolo, PhD, Director, Labrador Institute of Linking Physical Impacts, Mental Health, and
Whitmore-Williams Memorial University 14
Community Well-Being
Professor of Psychology Victoria Derr, PhD, Assistant Professor, Environmental
College of Wooster Studies, California State University, Monterey Bay Comprehending Climate Change 16

Christie Manning Thomas Doherty, PsyD, Licensed Clinical Psychologist Climate Solutions Benefit Mental Health 18
Visiting Assistant Professor, II. MENTAL HEALTH AND CLIMATE CHANGE 20
Paige Fery, Research Coordinator, ecoAmerica
Environmental Studies
Macalester College Elizabeth Haase, MD, Chair, Climate Psychiatry Committee, Mental Health Impacts 21
Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry Associate
Kirra Krygsman Professor, University of Nevada, Reno, School of Medicine Impacts on Individuals 22
Research Manager
ecoAmerica John Kotcher, PhD, Post-doctoral Research Fellow, Center for Impacts on Community and Society 29
Climate Change Communication, George Mason University
Meighen Speiser The Problem of Inequity 31
Chief Engagement Officer Linda Silka, PhD, Psychologist, Senior Fellow, Senator George
J. Mitchell Center for Sustainability Solutions III. ADDRESSING THE MENTAL HEALTH IMPACTS 39
ecoAmerica
Lise Van Susteren, MD, Psychiatrist, Private Practice Building Resilience 40
Jennifer Tabola, Senior Director, Climate for Health, ecoAmerica Tips to Support Individuals 42
Tips to Support Communities 45
SPECIAL THANKS REVIEWERS
What Individuals Can Do 53
ecoAmerica is grateful to ecoAmerica and the American Psychological Association thank
the John D. and Catherine the following reviewers who provided valuable feedback on What Mental Health Professionals Can Do 55
T. MacArthur Foundation drafts of this report: Daniel Dodgen (Department of Health
REFERENCES 58
for its generous support. and Human Services), Chandrakala Ganesh (California State
University, East Bay), Caroline Hodge (University of Michigan
GLOSSARY 68
MBA/MS Candidate 2018), Howard Kurtzman (American
Psychological Association), Joshua Morganstein (Department
of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health
Sciences & Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress), Susan
Suggested citation
Schneider (University of the Pacific), Robert Ursano (Center
Clayton, S., Manning, C. M., Krygsman, K.,
Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the
& Speiser, M. (2017). Mental Health Health Sciences & Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress),
and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Michael Wright (Licensed Social Worker, Author), and Michael
Implications, and Guidance. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological
Yogman (Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and
Association, and ecoAmerica. Family Health, American Academy of Pediatrics).
4 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 5

WHY WE OFFER THIS REPORT

When you think about climate change, mental health might not be the first thing that Throughout the report are
comes to mind. Americans are beginning to grow familiar with climate change and its health A CLOSER LOOK: six essays from mental
impacts: worsening asthma and allergies; heat-related stress; foodborne, waterborne, health professionals that
and vector-borne diseases; illness and injury related to storms; and floods and droughts. A Clinical Psychologist’s Take on Climate Change dive into particular topics
However, the connections with mental health are not often part of the discussion. Thomas Doherty, PsyD page 28 of expertise on mental
Climate change is a human-caused problem, which is more health and climate change.
It is time to expand information and action on climate and health, including mental health.
difficult to cope with than disasters that are beyond human
The health, economic, political, and environmental implications of climate change affect all control. Mental health professionals can help give people
of us. The tolls on our mental health are far reaching. They induce stress, depression, a sense of power over how they respond.
and anxiety; strain social and community relationships; and have been linked to increases
in aggression, violence, and crime. Children and communities with few resources to deal Inuit Mental Health and Climate Change
with the impacts of climate change are those most impacted. Ashlee Cunsolo, PhD page 33
To compound the issue, the psychological responses to climate change, such as conflict The Inuit are a prime example of communities that have
avoidance, fatalism, fear, helplessness, and resignation are growing. These responses are experienced the mental distress and loss of cultural
keeping us, and our nation, from properly addressing the core causes of and solutions for identity brought on by a changing landscape and
our changing climate, and from building and supporting psychological resiliency. environmental conditions.

To help increase awareness of these challenges and to address them, the American Children’s Emotional Responses to Climate Change
Psychological Association and ecoAmerica sponsored this report, Mental Health and Our Elizabeth Haase, MD page 36
Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance. This is an updated and expanded Direct experience with and future unknown effects of
version of our 2014 report, Beyond Storms & Droughts: The Psychological Impacts of Climate climate change can cause children to exhibit symptoms
Change, which explored how climate change can impact mental health and provided of PTSD, such as phobic behavior, panic, nightmares,
guidance to engage the public. This updated report is intended to further inform and and anxiety.
empower health and medical professionals, community and elected leaders, and the public.
Our websites offer webinars and other resources to supplement this report. Resilience in the Face of Climate Change
On behalf of the authors, the many professionals who contributed directly and indirectly to Victoria Derr, PhD page 41
this work, and all those involved in expanding awareness of and action on climate and Research with a diverse sample of youth students, age 11–15,
mental health, thank you for taking the time to review and share this important resource. in Boulder, Colorado, showed that youth views of resilience
We invite your feedback, and as the field continues to grow, we’ll continue to update this work. stem from complex social and environmental supports.

Finding a Place for Psychology in Climate


Change Deliberations
Linda Silka, PhD page 47
New England is an example of vital infrastructure that is
at risk from rising sea levels and of opportunities for
psychologists to work with professionals in various fields
to prepare for the effects.
Howard S. Kurtzman, Ph.D. Bob Perkowitz
Acting Executive Director for Science Founder & President
Our Moral Obligation: The Duty to Warn and Act
American Psychological Association ecoAmerica
Lise Van Susteren, MD page 57
Growing numbers of climate Cassandras are being
debilitated by anxiety about future harm to the planet.
Where is the collective health effort to address this issue?
The time is now for mental health professionals to act.
6 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 7

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Thus far, most research and communications on the impacts Climate solutions are available now, are through the loss of social identity and
of climate change have emphasized the physical health widespread, and support psychological cohesion, hostility, violence, and interpersonal
effects, while mental health has been secondary. Building health. Increasing adoption of active and intergroup aggression.
upon Beyond Storms and Droughts: The Psychological Impacts commuting, public transportation, green
of Climate Change, the goal of this updated report is to spaces, and clean energy are all solutions Psychological well-being includes positive
increase awareness of the psychological impacts of climate that people can choose to support and emotions, a sense of meaning and
change on human mental health and well-being. The report integrate into their daily lives. These climate purpose, and strong social connections.
provides climate communicators, planners, policymakers, solutions, among others, can help to curb Although the psychological impacts of
public health professionals, and other leaders the tools and the stress, anxiety, and other mental climate change may not be obvious, they
tips needed to respond to these impacts and bolster public illnesses incurred from the decline of are no less serious because they can lead to
engagement on climate solutions. economies, infrastructure, and social identity disorders, such as depression, antisocial
that comes from damage to the climate. behavior, and suicide. Therefore, these
The impacts of climate change on people’s physical, disorders must be considered impacts of
mental, and community health arise directly and indirectly. Major acute mental health impacts include climate change as are disease, hunger,
Some human health effects stem directly from natural increases in trauma and shock, post- and other physical health consequences.
disasters exacerbated by climate change, like floods, storms, traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
wildfires, and heatwaves. Other effects surface more compounded stress, anxiety, substance Building resilience is essential to address
gradually from changing temperatures and rising sea levels abuse, and depression. Climate change– the physical and mental health impacts of
that cause forced migration. Weakened infrastructure and induced extreme weather, changing weather climate change. Many local governments
less secure food systems are examples of indirect climate patterns, damaged food and water resources, within the United States and in other
impacts on society’s physical and mental health. and polluted air impact human mental health. countries have created plans to protect and
Increased levels of stress and distress from enhance infrastructure, but these plans tend
Some communities and populations are more vulnerable to these factors can also put strains on social to overlook the support needed to ensure
the health-related impacts of climate change. Factors that relationships and even have impacts on thriving psychological well-being. There
may increase sensitivity to the mental health impacts include physical health, such as memory loss, sleep is an opportunity to include the resilience
geographic location, presence of pre-existing disabilities disorders, immune suppression, and changes capacity of individuals and communities in
or chronic illnesses, and socioeconomic and demographic in digestion. the development of preparedness plans.
inequalities, such as education level, income, and age.
In particular, stress from climate impacts can cause children Major chronic mental health impacts RECOMMENDATIONS
to experience changes in behavior, development, memory, include higher rates of aggression and This report concludes with four sets of
executive function, decision-making, and scholastic achievement. violence, more mental health emergencies, recommendations designed to help readers
an increased sense of helplessness, put these research findings into action.
The connection between changes in the climate and hopelessness, or fatalism, and intense
impacts on a person can be difficult to grasp. Although feelings of loss. These feelings of loss may Tips to support individuals. This section
people’s understanding and knowledge of climate change be due to profound changes in a personally provides strategies for practitioners,
can increase by experiencing the effects directly, perception, important place (such as one’s home) and/ policymakers, and communicators to build
politics, and uncertainty can complicate this link. Psychological or a sense that one has lost control over personal attributes and social support that
factors (like psychological distance), a political divide, events in one’s life due to disturbances from will help to prepare for and recover from
uncertainty, helplessness, and denial influence the way people climate change. Additionally, a sense of loss climate change–related mental trauma.
comprehend information and form their beliefs on climate regarding one’s personal or occupational The following are a few of the top
change. Research on the impacts of climate change on human identity can arise when treasured objects are recommendations:
well-being is particularly important given the relationship destroyed by a disaster or place-based
among understanding, experiencing, and comprehending 1. Build belief in one’s own resilience.
occupations are disrupted by climate change.
climate change. People’s willingness to support and engage 2. Foster optimism.
in climate solutions is likely to increase if they can relate Personal relationships and the ways in 3. Cultivate active coping and
them to local experiences or if they see the relevance to their which people interact in communities and self-regulation skills.
own health and well-being. Additionally, individuals who have with each other are affected by a changing 4. Maintain practices that help to
higher perceived environmental self-efficacy, or the sense of climate. Compounded stress from a changing provide a sense of meaning.
being able to positively contribute, are more motivated to environment, ecomigration, and/or ecoanxiety 5. Promote connectedness to family,
act on climate solutions (Sawitri, Hadiyanto, & Hadi, 2015). can affect community mental well-being place, culture, and community.
8 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance

Tips to support communities. This section is for people,


I. CONTEXT
organizations, and mental and public health professionals who
are at the forefront of and/or are interested in strengthening
communities’ responses to acute events and confronting
gradual changes in the climate, in order to alleviate adverse
mental health outcomes. The following are several of the topline
recommended strategies for protecting well-being and
alleviating adverse mental health outcomes:
1. Assess and expand community mental
health infrastructure.
2. Reduce disparities and pay attention to
populations of concern.
3. Engage and train community members
on how to respond.
4. Ensure distribution of resources and
augment with external supplies.
5. Have clear and frequent climate–mental
health communication.

What individuals can do. At home and in the community,


people can take actions in their everyday lives to buffer
against some of the projected impacts, and these actions can
also provide a greater sense of individual security and control.
The following are several of the topline actions individuals
can take:
1. Make and practice household emergency plans.
2. Participate in mindset training to prepare for
adversity and adaptation through increased
awareness of our emotions.
3. Care for oneself through healthy habits.
4. Connect with family, friends, neighbors, and
other groups to build strong social networks.

What mental health and other professional leaders can do.


Health professionals and fellow leaders are uniquely positioned
to foster new levels of support for climate solutions. Considered
the nation’s most highly trusted and accessible messengers,
health professionals reach a breadth and diversity of
Americans. The following are several of the topline
opportunities for health leaders:
1. Become a mental health–related
climate-literate professional.
2. Engage fellow public and mental health professionals.
3. Be vocal, model leaders within your communities.
4. Support national and international climate–mental
health solutions.
10 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 11

OUR CHANGING CLIMATE: A PRIMER THE CLIMATE AND HEALTH IMPACTS ON HUMANS

Our climate is changing ACCELERATION Health is more than the absence of disease. Areas that endure a natural disaster face a
at an accelerated rate and From wildfires and drought in California to severe flooding in Health includes mental health, as well as number of risks and difficulties. Direct
continues to have profound Maryland to Alaskan communities threatened by rising seas, physical well-being, and communities that physical impacts range from brute physical
impacts on human health. we are clearly living through some of the most severe weather fail to provide basic services and social trauma to more pernicious effects, like
This change jeopardizes events in U.S. history as a result of damage to our climate. These support challenge both. As we think about increased incidence of infectious disease,
not only physical health impacts on our environment will, in turn, affect human health the impacts of climate change on our asthma, heart disease, and lung problems.
but also mental health. This and community well-being (Melillo, Richmond, & Yohe, 2014). communities, we need to recognize not only These physical health impacts interact with
section provides a primer the direct effects but also the indirect mental health impacts, which is why they are
on the geophysical impacts CHANGES WORLDWIDE consequences for human health based on detailed in this report on page 39.
Climate change is creating visible impacts worldwide, including damage to the physical and social community
of climate change.a many here in America. As seen in the tripling of heat waves In this section, we use floods, the most
infrastructure. Regardless of how these
between 2011 and 2012, weather patterns introduce lasting impacts surface, whether they occur within a common form of natural disasters (EM-DAT,
impacts, such as food insecurity (Duffy & Tebaldi, 2012; matter of hours or over several decades, the 2011, as reported in Alderman, Turner,
Hatfield et al., 2014). Similarly, rising sea-surface temperatures outcomes of climate change are interconnected & Tong, 2012), as an example to illustrate
have been connected to increasing rates of disease for marine the ways in which direct health impacts of
life and humans (Doney et al., 2014). Sea levels are estimated to all facets of our health.
disasters come about.
to increase anywhere from 8 inches to 6.6 feet due to warmer This section reviews the primary ways in
temperatures by 2100, putting 8 million Americans living in Major and minor acute physical injury
which geophysical changes affect human
coastal areas at risk for flooding (Parris et al., 2012). In terms Natural disasters lead to increased rates of
of our economy, Hurricane Sandy cost the United States health, in the short and long term.
death and injury. The most common causes
around $68 billion in total (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 2016). Droughts caused by increases in ACUTE IMPACTS: of mortality during floods are drowning and
temperature and changing weather patterns cost California DISASTER-RELATED EFFECTS acute physical trauma (e.g., being struck by
$2.7 billion in 2015 and Texas $7.62 billion in 2011 (Howitt, Recent increases in natural disasters illustrate debris; Alderman et al., 2012). This past year
MacEwan, Medellín-Azuara, Lund, & Sumner, 2015; Guerrero, the relationship between the acceleration of alone, deaths from flash floods have more
2011). As these climate disturbances become more dramatic climate change and severe weather. than doubled the 10-year average (National
and persistent, we must prepare for these climate conditions. Weather Service,
2016). During and
COMMUNITIES ARE IMPACTED after a flood,
Our communities’ health, infrastructure, and economy are many people
directly connected to our climate (Krygsman, Speiser, Wood, sustain non-fatal
& Barry, 2016). As temperatures increase, we experience higher injuries, such as
levels of pollution, allergens, and diseases (Krygsman, Speiser, cuts and broken
Merse, Marx, & Tabola, 2016). Severe weather events threaten bones. Among
our businesses and vulnerable communities. Pollution and other impacts,
drought undermine our food and water supplies, and the latter more frequent
increases the prevalence of wildfires that can destroy homes rainfall can lead
and communities (Ziska et al., 2016). Although all Americans to an increase in
are affected, certain populations of concern will feel the impacts traffic accidents
more severely (U.S. Global Change Research Program [US- (Leard & Roth,
GCRP], 2016). Together, communities can build resilience 2016).
to a changing climate.

HEALTH IS IMPACTED
As severe weather events, poorer air quality, degraded food
and water systems, and physical illnesses increase, the direct
and indirect impacts on health must be understood (USGCRP, Figure 1. Depicts the
many different ways
2016). The next section highlights the physical health impacts
a. For more information on climate climate change
of climate change, and the following sections delve deeper impacts human health
change, the causes, and the role
of human activity, view the National into the mental health impacts, and what can be done to (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention
Climate Assessment report protect human well-being.
[CDC], 2014).
12 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 13

THE CLIMATE AND HEALTH IMPACTS ON HUMANS

Infrastructure, food, and water Fahrenheit each year as he or she does and mental illnesses, which have detrimental
The direct effect of a natural disaster is often exacerbated by now by the end of the century (Houser, impacts on development (Perera, 2016).
a cascade of indirect consequences that follow. Natural Hsiang, Kopp, & Larsen, 2015). This increase
disasters can lead to technological disasters (such as power will likely push Arizona’s above-95-degree Water and food supply
outages), breakdowns in the water, sewer, and other days from 116 today to as many as 205 Nutrition and food safety can be affected
infrastructure, or urban fires. For instance, the risk of carbon by 2099 (Gordon, 2014). In contrast, because climate change can lower crop
monoxide poisoning related to power outages increases as a extreme winter storms can expose people yields, reduce the nutritional quality of
result of climate change–induced disasters (Bell et al., 2016). to hypothermia and frostbite (Bell et al., food, interrupt distribution chains, and
Disruptions to medical infrastructure, including the provision of 2016). Altered growing seasons and ocean reduce access to food because families
medical supplies, can transform minor issues into major and temperatures change the timing and lose income. For example, higher CO2
even fatal problems. In addition, disruptions in other types of occurrence of diarrhea, fever, and abdominal concentrations lower the levels of protein
services (e.g., cell phone communication, transportation, cramps from pathogen transmissions in and essential minerals of widely consumed
or waste management) add stress and difficulty during the raw food (like Salmonella; Ziska et al., crops such as wheat, rice, and potatoes
aftermath of a disaster. These disruptions may impact people’s 2016). Additionally, changing weather (Ziska et al., 2016). Barriers to food
physical health by making it more difficult to access health patterns influence the expansion of the transport, such as damage to infrastructure
care or by potentially increasing exposure to pests or migration patterns of animals and insects. and displacement of employees, affect food
hazardous substances (e.g., when there is no garbage pick-up; This expansion has already begun to result markets by increasing food costs (Lal et al.,
Bell et al., 2016). Loss of income while businesses are closed in the spread of vector-borne illness, such 2012). Droughts, floods, and changes in
due to natural disasters can be a major threat to food security, as Lyme disease, malaria, dengue fever, the availability of fertile land lead to hunger
especially for non-professionals or small business owners. plague, and Zika virus to new U.S. geographic and malnutrition, though these changes are
areas (Beard et al., 2016; Shuman, 2010). less likely in wealthy countries, such as the
After effects For example, vector-borne illnesses carried United States (Friel, Butler, & McMichael,
Additional health threats follow in the wake of a disaster.
by mosquitoes can capitalize on receding 2011; McMichael, 2013). Nevertheless, there
Floodwater has been shown to introduce toxic materials,
floodwater for mosquito breeding. will be an increased likelihood of a global
water-borne diseases (e.g., respiratory illnesses, skin infections,
food market crisis as climate change
and neurologic and gastrointestinal illness where there are Respiratory issues and allergens accelerates (Paloviita,Järvelä, Jokinen,
poor hygiene resources), and vector-borne illnesses (e.g., People exposed to ozone air pollution, Mononen, & Sairien, 2016). A two-degree
West Nile; Trtanj et al., 2016). Other after effects of flooding which is emitted mostly by cars and Celsius increase in temperature places
include heart attack, heat stroke, dehydration, and stroke, industrial facilities and is intensified by 100–400 million people at risk of hunger,
particularly when the affected areas lack the necessary warmer temperatures, are more likely to according to the World Bank (Friel et al.,
medical supplies (Jonkman, Maaskant, Boyd, & Levitan, visit the hospital for respiratory issues, 2011; McMichael, 2013).
2009, p. 687 as reported in Alderman et al., 2012). In addition, suffer from asthma, and die prematurely of
post-flood mold due to fungal growth inside houses can strokes or heart attacks (Fann et al., 2016). General fitness
worsen allergy or asthma symptoms. Hotter and drier summers increase the Increased average temperatures and
frequency and intensity of large wildfires decreased air quality also lead to changes
MORE GRADUAL HEALTH EFFECTS that contribute to smoke inhalation (Bell et in the type of activities that people engage
Ongoing effects of climate change include rising sea levels, al., 2016). Pollution contributes to higher in, particularly outdoor activities and
increases in temperature, and changes in precipitation that levels of pollen and translates into longer recreation. These changes, in turn, may be
will affect agricultural conditions. The impacts on human and more prevalent allergy seasons (Fann associated with increased rates of obesity
health are less dramatic in the short term but in the long run et al., 2016; Seeley, 2012). and cardiovascular disease. Although
can affect more people and have a fundamental people may compensate by exercising in
impact on society. Fetal and child development
indoor environments, reduced access to
Climate-driven physical stress on mothers
Severe and changing weather the restorative potential of outdoor
can cause adverse birth outcomes, such
Periods of higher-than-normal heat result in higher rates of environments may indirectly increase
as preterm birth and low birth weight (Bell
heat exhaustion, heat cramps, heat stroke, hospital admission stress and bypass the long-term emotional
et al., 2016). Scientific research shows that
for heart-related illnesses, and death (Sarofim et al., 2016). children and developing fetuses are at benefits of taking physical activity outdoors
It’s estimated that the average American citizen will experience particular risk from air pollution, heat, (Hartig & Catalano, 2013; Pasanen,
between 4 and 8 times as many days above 95 degrees malnutrition, infectious diseases, allergies, Tyrvainen, & Korpela, 2014).
14 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance ecoAmerica 15

LINKING PHYSICAL IMPACTS, MENTAL HEALTH, AND C OMMUNITY WELL-BEING

This section is an overview of the interrelation among


physical health, mental health, and community well-being.

CAL HEALT
We will expand on each topic later in this report.
MENTAL HEALTH YSI H ENTAL HEALTH
The ability to process information and make decisions
PH M
without being disabled by extreme emotional responses is
threatened by climate change. Some emotional response is Injuries/fatalities Depression,
normal, and even negative emotions are a necessary part of stress, and anxiety
Vector-borne disease
a fulfilling life. In the extreme case, however, they can interfere
Heat stroke Strains on social

TE
with our ability to think rationally, plan our behavior, and
relationships
consider alternative actions. An extreme weather event can Asthma

ACU
be a source of trauma, and the experience can cause SOCIAL
disabling emotions. More subtle and indirect effects of Allergies nomic inequa Complicated grief
eco ility of hea lity
climate change can add stress to people’s lives in varying ab lth
vail cial cohesio care Substance abuse
degrees. Whether experienced indirectly or directly, stressors a so n

ici L
Chronic lung

AL

hn A
to our climate translate into impaired mental health that can Post-traumatic

ty

PHfrastr
age, et IDU

in
result in depression and anxiety (USGCRP, 2016). Although disease hys
ical im
stress disorder

ADU
p pa

YSIucture
everyone is able to cope with a certain amount of stress, o

INDIV
Cardiovascular

ct
Ge
the accumulated effects of compound stress can tip a Loss of personal

CAL
s
disease

R
person from mentally healthy to mentally ill. Even uncertainty identity

G
can be a source of stress and a risk factor for psychological
distress (Greco & Roger, 2003). People can be negatively
Malnutrition Helplessness
affected by hearing about the negative experiences of Reduce and fatalism
others, and by fears—founded or unfounded—about their
fitness
own potential vulnerability.

PHYSICAL HEALTH AND MENTAL HEALTH V


UL E

S
Compromised physical health can be a source of stress
NER T I
that threatens psychological well-being. Conversely, mental
IL I
health problems can also threaten physical health, for AB
example, by changing patterns of sleep, eating, or exercise
and by reducing immune system function.

COMMUNITY HEALTH Increased personal aggression


Although residents’ mental and physical health affect Disrupted sense of belonging
communities, the impacts of climate on community health
can have a particularly strong effect on community fabric Loss of community cohesion
and interpersonal relationships. Altered environmental
conditions due to climate change can shift the opportunities Increased violence and crime
people have for social interaction, the ways in which they Social instability
relate to each other, and their connections to the
CO
TH
natural world.
MM A L
U N IT Y H E
16 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 17

COMPREHENDING CLIMATE CHANGE

Witnessing the visible impacts PERCEPTION IS DIFFICULT impacts of climate change and the relevant about the topic were more likely to want to
of climate change may help Although most people are generally aware that climate benefits of taking action to address the avoid hearing about more negative
people overcome barriers to change is occurring, it continues to seem distant: something impacts can inspire hope among those information (Shepherd & Kay, 2012).
grasping the problem; that will happen to others, in another place, at some who dismiss climate change (Myers, Nisbet,
however, comprehension has unspecified future date (McDonald, Chai, & Newell, 2016). Maibach, & Leiserowitz, 2012). For instance, Worldviews and ideologies act as filters
many facets. This section Psychologists refer to this idea as psychological distance. conservatives showed decreased support to help increase or decrease concern
provides an overview of the Terms such as “climate change” and “global warming” draw for climate action when the negative health about climate change and motivate action
attitudes people have about attention to the global scale rather than the personal impacts effects were described as affecting people toward solutions. People do not perceive
climate change, to better (Rudiak-Gould, 2013). Additionally, the signal of climate in a faraway country as opposed to people the world neutrally. Instead, through
understand how awareness of change is obscured by the noise of daily and seasonal weather who live in the United States (Hart & Nisbet, directionally motivated cognition,
the health impacts may help 2012). Listing several health impacts is individuals strive to maintain a world
variation (Hulme, 2009; Swim et al., 2009; Weber & Stern, consistent with the ideology and values of
motivate action. 2011). All this makes the issue easier for people to push overwhelming, causing fatalism and their social groups (Kahan, 2012). Because
aside, particularly when faced with other pressing life issues. diminished engagement (Krygsman, of this, individuals whose worldviews
Speiser, Merse, et al., 2016). conflict with climate change realities
When people learn about and experience local climate actually may not perceive certain climate
impacts, their understanding increases. Local effects of UNCERTAINTY AND DENIAL effects (Hamilton & Stompone, 2013; Howe
climate change are often more personally relevant than the People feel uncertain about the threat of & Leiserowitz, 2013). Myers, Maibach,
general phenomenon of a warming climate, and particularly climate change and how to minimize the Roser-Renouf, Akerlof, and Leiserowitz
when knowledge of direct effects is combined with news damage. The media have been criticized (2012) found that individuals who were 1)
stories of the imminent risks of climate change (Akerlof, for promoting an inaccurate perception of either very concerned about or skeptical of
climate change (Antilla, 2005): for example, climate change tended to report personal
Maibach, Fitzgerald, Cedeno, & Neuman, 2013). Perceived that there is more scientific controversy
experience of impacts is associated with increased concern experience with climate change (or lack
about climate change than actually exists. thereof) based on their pre-existing beliefs
and awareness about climate change (Reser, Bradley, & Ellul, In some cases, information that increases
2014). Direct experience also increases people’s understanding about its existence; and 2) individuals less
perceptions of the reality of climate engaged with the issue of climate change
of climate change (Borick & Rabe, 2012, p. 796). However, change may feel so frightening that it changed their beliefs about the existence
direct experience does not necessarily lead to behavior leads to denial and thus a reduction in of climate change based on perceived
change. For example, experiencing water shortages may concern and support for action (McDonald personal experience with its impacts.
increase behavior changes in water use but not encourage et al., 2015). In addition, communicating Ideologies of climate change and action
other sustainable behavior. Similarly, research suggests scientific information is not easy; this may also contribute to widespread
experiencing temperature change has no impact on water- complexity itself may be a problem. One psychological denial. The distress of climate
use behavior (Haden, Niles, Lubell, Perlman, & Jackson, 2012). study showed that people who received change can manifest in negative reactions
more complex information on environmental to climate activism. These reactions are
A PARTISAN ISSUE problems 1) felt more helpless and more reflected in outlets such as social media,
Politically polarized in the United States, climate change is inclined to leave the problem to the and researchers believe this behavior
government; and 2) those who felt ignorant
perceived as an issue that belongs with the political left shifts others to denial. (Davenport, 2017).
(Dunlap, McCright, & Yarosh, 2016), which can suppress belief
and concern and discussions about solutions. For example, of Key Takeaways: Comprehending Climate Change
the 36% of Americans who are personally concerned a great
Barriers Solutions
deal about climate issues, 72% are Democrats, and 27% are
Republicans (Pew Research Center, 2016). Political orientation Learning and experiencing the local
Climate change is often perceived as
can make open conversations about climate impacts and effects of climate change make the
global, distant, and difficult to understand.
solutions difficult, and make those who are concerned about problem more tangible and a reality.
climate change feel isolated or paranoid in some circles
Political affiliation drives a wedge in the Talking about the health impacts of
(Geiger & Swim, 2016).
public’s awareness of and beliefs about climate change resonates across the
Concerns about health impacts provide common ground climate change. political spectrum.
for discussion with both ends of the political spectrum
The complexity and a fear of climate Connecting climate impacts to practical
(Maibach, Nisbet, Baldwin, Akerlof, & Diao, 2010; Petrovic,
change drive people to feel uncertain solutions encourages action while
Madrigano, & Zaval, 2014). Describing the health-related
and in denial. building emotional resiliency.
18 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 19

CLIMATE SOLUTIONS BENEFIT MENTAL HEALTH

This section outlines how Physical commuting enhances a sense of well-being. Choosing less access to green space experienced use. As we discuss later in this report, the
climate solutions and to bike and/or walk (assuming it is safe and practical to do substantial negative mental health more climate-friendly behaviors become
lifestyle choices can curtail so) is one individual step that can help reduce the use of impacts (Alcock, White, Wheeler, Fleming, mainstreamed, the more they help
the mental health impacts climate change–driving fossil fuels. Physical commuting also & Depledge, 2014). However, although a populations of concern: children, elderly,
incurred when our economies, directly impacts depression, anxiety, PTSD, and other mental person’s physical and mental health is sick, low income, etc. Fortunately, tangible
physical and social illnesses (California Department of Public Health, 2016). determined to a large degree by the and effective climate solutions are available
infrastructures, and social People who bike and walk to work, school, appointments, neighborhood in which he or she lives, today to implement and build upon.
identities are eroded by and other activities not only reduce emissions and improve relocating to a greener neighborhood isn’t
climate change. These their physical health but also experience lower stress levels always an option. As planners and
solutions are available now, than car commuters (Martin, Goryakin, & Suhrcke, 2014). policymakers make decisions that will KEY TAKEAWAYS:
and the co-benefits support For instance, individuals who utilized the Washington, D.C. reshape the landscapes of our cities and Comprehending Climate Change
healthy cognitive function bikeshare program reported reduced stress levels and communities, it is important to recognize
and emotional resiliency. weight loss (Alberts, Palumbo, & Pierce, 2012). Similarly, the significance and role green areas have Climate solutions not only improve the
adolescents who actively commute to school show not in improving air quality, reducing stress, and quality of our air and food but also
only lower levels of perceived stress but also increased ensuring a healthy living environment enhance our cognitive abilities and
cardiovascular fitness, improved cognitive performance, for everyone. strengthen our mental health.
and higher academic achievement (Lambiase, Barry, & • Physical commuting, such as biking
Roemmich, 2010; Van Dijk, De Groot, Van Acker, Savelberg, Clean energy reduces health burdens.
Wind, solar, hydro, and other clean energy or walking, can reduce stress and
& Kirschner, 2014). other mental illnesses, as well as
as well as energy efficiency are not only
Public transportation invigorates community mental health. climate-friendly; they also reduce improve cognitive function and
Moving people from individual cars to public transit also particulates and pollution in the air. academic performance.
results in lower greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, Studies on air quality and children’s lung • Public transportation invigorates
several studies have shown that using public transportation development have shown that as air pollution community mental health by
leads to an increase in community cohesion, recreational is reduced, children display significant creating opportunities and networks
activities, neighborhood walkability, and reduced symptoms lung function improvements (Gauderman to increase community cohesion.
of depression and stress associated with less driving and et al., 2015). Further research revealed that • Green spaces reduce people’s stress
more exercise (Allen, 2008; Appleyard, 1981; Bell & Cohen, children exposed to higher levels of urban levels and promote positive social
2009; Berke, Gottlieb, Vernez Moudon, & Larson, 2007; pollution are more likely to develop interactions.
Wener & Evens, 2007 as cited in Litman, 2010). Meanwhile, attention problems and symptoms of
• Clean energy benefits lung function
traffic driving worsens air quality and contributes to reduced anxiety and depression, as well as lower
in children and can help prevent
productivity and increased healthcare costs (American academic performance and brain function
symptoms of anxiety and depression
Public Transportation Authority, n.d.). Sound transportation (Perera et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2009).
that are brought on by pollution.
systems and urban planning should be expanded as they Clean energy provides an opportunity to
lead to beneficial mental health and climate outcomes. protect populations of concern, such as
children, who experience these impacts
Green spaces diminish stress. Parks and green corridors have more severely.
been connected to improved air quality and can increase
mental well-being. For example, trees sequester carbon, Although the co-benefits are clear, more
and green spaces absorb less heat than paved surfaces and comprehensive research on the positive
buildings. More time spent interacting with nature has been mental health outcomes of climate
shown to significantly lower stress levels and reduce stress- solutions is needed to bolster support.
related illness. Interestingly, this evidence is supported across Research can further promote dynamic
socioeconomic status, age, and gender (Grahn & Stigsdotter, solutions as opportunities to improve our
2003). Likewise, individuals who move to areas with access health. It is important to increase awareness
to more green space showed sustained mental health of the daily choices we make, from how
improvements, while individuals who moved to areas with to get to work to the sources of energy to
American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 21

MENTAL HEALTH IMPACTS


II. MENTAL HEALTH AND The mental health effects of climate change are gaining public
attention. A 2016 government report (U.S. Global Change

CLIMATE CHANGE Research Program) reviewed a large body of research to


summarize the current state of knowledge. This report
builds on that knowledge, and considers the direct and
indirect effects of climate change on mental health.
We start by describing the mental health effects on
individuals, both short and long term, acute and chronic,
the stressors that accumulate in the aftermath of a disaster,
and the impacts that natural disasters have on social
relationships, with consequences for health and well-being.
We move on to discussing the individual-level impacts of
more gradual changes in climate, including impacts on
aggression and violence, identity, and the long-term
emotional impacts of climate change. Next, we discuss
the impacts of climate change on communities and on
intergroup and international relationships. Finally, we
address the problem of inequity—the fact that certain
populations are relatively more vulnerable to these mental
health impacts compared to others.
22 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 23

IMPACTS ON INDIVIDUALS

This section discusses how ACUTE IMPACTS violence, aggression, interpersonal mental and physical health. Stress can also
climate change has acute difficulties, and job-related difficulties be accompanied by worry about future
and chronic impacts, Trauma and shock (Simpson et al., 2011). disasters and feelings of vulnerability,
directly and indirectly, on Climate change–induced disasters have a high potential for helplessness, mourning, grief, and despair
individual well-being. Acute immediate and severe psychological trauma from personal Incidence of PTSD is more likely among (Neria & Schultz, 2012). Following disasters,
impacts result from natural injury, injury or death of a loved one, damage to or loss of those who have lost close family members increased stress can also make people more
disasters or extreme personal property (e.g., home) and pets, and disruption in or property (Wasini, West, Mills, & Usher, likely to engage in behavior that has a
weather events. Chronic or loss of livelihood (Neria & Schultz, 2012; Simpson, 2014). Individuals who experience multiple negative impact on their health (e.g., smoking,
impacts result from longer- Weissbecker, & Sephton, 2011; Terpstra, 2011). An early or long-lasting acute events—such as more risky behavior, and unhealthy eating habits;
term changes in climate. meta-analysis of studies on the relationship between than one disaster or multiple years of e.g., Beaudoin, 2011; Bryant et al., 2014; Flory,
This discussion emphasizes disasters and mental health impacts found that between drought—are likely to experience more Hankin, Kloos, Cheely, & Turecki, 2009).
the impacts experienced 7% and 40% of all subjects in 36 studies showed some form severe trauma and may be even more
directly by individuals; of psychopathology. General anxiety was the type of susceptible to PTSD and the other types Stain et al. (2011) found that people living
however, it also touches psychopathology with the highest prevalence rate, followed of psychiatric symptoms described above in a drought-affected area who had also
on indirect impacts by phobic, somatic, and alcohol impairment, and then (e.g., Edwards & Wiseman, 2011; Hobfoll, recently experienced some other adverse
(witnessing others being depression and drug impairment, which were all elevated 2007). For example, a study showed that life event were more likely to express a high
impacted), which have relative to prevalence in the general population (Rubonis & refugees exposed to multiple traumatic degree of worry about the ongoing drought
profound implications for Bickman, 1991). More recent reviews concluded that acute events experienced a higher rate of immediate conditions. Although not as dramatic and
mental health. traumatic stress is the most common mental health problem and lifetime PTSD and had a lower acute a disaster as a hurricane, drought
after a disaster (Fritze, Blashki, Burke, & Wiseman, 2008). probability of remission than refugees who is associated with psychological distress
Terror, anger, shock, and other intense negative emotions had experienced few traumatic events (O’Brien, Kerry, Coleman, & Hanigan, 2014;
are likely to dominate people’s initial response (Raphael, (Kolassa et al., 2010). The likelihood of Stanke, Kerac, Prudhomme, Medlock, &
2007). Interview participants in a study about flooding suicide is higher among those who have Murray, 2013), and one study found increased
conducted by Carroll, Morbey, Balogh, and Araoz (2009) been exposed to more severe disasters rates of suicide among male farmers in
used words such as “horrifying,” “panic stricken,” and (Norris, Friedman, & Watson, 2002). Australia during periods of prolonged
“petrified” to describe their experience during the flood drought (Hanigan, Butlera, Kokicc, &
(p. 542; see also Tapsell & Tunstall, 2008). Compounded stress Hutchinson, 2012). Several studies have
In general, climate change can be considered found that many victims of a flood disaster
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) an additional source of stress to our express psychological distress even years
For most people, acute symptoms of trauma and shock are everyday concerns, which may be tolerable after the flood (Alderman et al., 2012;
reduced after conditions of security have been restored. for someone with many sources of support Crabtree, 2012; Simpson et al., 2011).
However, many continue to experience problems as PTSD but can be enough to serve as a tipping
manifests as a chronic disorder. PTSD, depression, general point for those who have fewer resources or Impacts of stress on physical health
anxiety, and suicide all tend to increase after a disaster. who are already experiencing other stressors. High levels of stress and anxiety also appear
For example, among a sample of people living in areas Stress manifests as a subjective feeling and to be linked to physical health effects.
affected by Hurricane Katrina, suicide and suicidal ideation a physiological response that occur when For example, chronic distress results in a
more than doubled, one in six people met the diagnostic a person feels that he or she does not have lowered immune system response, leaving
criteria for PTSD, and 49% of people living in an affected the capacity to respond and adapt to a people more vulnerable to pathogens in
area developed an anxiety or mood disorder such as given situation. Thus, climate-related stress the air and water and at greater risk for a
depression (Kessler et al., 2008; Lowe, Manove, & Rhodes, is likely to lead to increases in stress-related number of physical ailments (Alderman et
2013). Similarly, 14.5% showed symptoms of PTSD from problems, such as substance abuse, anxiety al., 2012; Simpson et al., 2011). Sleep disorders
Hurricane Sandy (Boscarino, Hoffman, Adams, Figley, & disorders, and depression (Neria & Shultz, also increase in response to chronic distress
Solhkhah, 2014), and 15.6% of a highly affected community 2012). These problems often carry economic (Han, Kim, & Shim, 2012). Doppelt (2016) has
showed symptoms of PTSD several years after experiencing costs incurred by lost work days, increased described potential physiological responses
extreme bushfires (Bryant et al., 2014). PTSD is often linked use of medical services, etc., which, in turn, to the stress of climate change, such as
to a host of other mental health problems, including higher create additional stress for individuals and increased levels of the stress hormone
levels of suicide, substance abuse, depression, anxiety, society and have their own impacts on cortisol, which, if prolonged, can affect
24 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 25

digestion, lead to memory loss, and suppress the immune (Anderson, 2001; Anderson, Deuser, & disorientation associated with changes
system. The World Heart Federation (2016) lists stress as a DeNeve, 1995). In addition, heat can have a in the physical environment that were
serious risk factor in developing cardiovascular disease. negative effect on cognitive function, which expressed by residents of a town damaged
may reduce the ability to resolve a conflict by tornadoes, even by residents who had
Strains on social relationships without violence (Pilcher, Nadler, & Busch, not experienced personal loss (Cunsolo
Particularly in home environments, disasters precipitate a 2002). Although this impact can manifest Willox et al., 2012).
set of stressors that can strain interpersonal interactions as an acute impact (e.g., as a result of a
(Simpson et al., 2011). A review of research on the impacts heat wave), due to the pervasive warming Loss of place is not a trivial experience.
of natural disasters identified problems with family and trends, and the shifting of climate zones, it Many people form a strong attachment
interpersonal relations, as well as social disruption, concerns is listed under chronic impacts. to the place where they live, finding it to
about the wider community, and feelings of obligation to provide a sense of stability, security, and
provide support to others (Norris, Byrne, Diaz, & Kaniasty, Mental health emergencies personal identity. People who are strongly
2001). Families whose homes are damaged by a flood, storm, There is evidence that increases in mean attached to their local communities report
or wildfire may need to be relocated, sometimes multiple temperature are associated with increased greater happiness, life satisfaction, and
Disasters times, before settling permanently. Family relationships may use of emergency mental health services. optimism (Brehm, Eisenhauer, & Krannich,
precipitate a suffer. Separation from one another and from their systems This is true not only in hot countries, like 2004); whereas work performance,
of social support may occur. Children may have to attend Israel and Australia, and in parts of the interpersonal relationships, and physical
set of stressors a new school or miss school altogether; parents may find United States but also in relatively cooler health can all be negatively affected by
that can strain themselves less able to be effective caregivers. In addition, countries, such as France and Canada disruption to place attachment (Fullilove,
interpersonal even those who are able to remain in their own home may (Vida, Durocher, Ouarda, & Gosselin, 2012). 2013). For instance, Scannell and Gifford
still lose a sense of their home as a safe and secure Higher temperatures have been linked to (2016) found that people who visualized a
interactions environment (Tapsell & Tunstall, 2008). This has implications increased levels of suicide (Lee et al., 2006). place to which they were attached showed
for interpersonal connections, as a home provides the It appears that the distress of feeling too improved self-esteem and sense of
context for social relationships (Carroll et al., 2009). When hot can overwhelm coping ability for belonging relative to those who visualized
the physical home is damaged, it changes the dynamic of people who are already psychologically a place to which they were not attached.
the social relationships, often negatively. Domestic abuse, fragile. Climate emergencies can also
for example, including child abuse, often increases among exacerbate preexisting symptoms and lead Climate change is likely to have a significant
families who have experienced disasters, such as Hurricane to more serious mental health problems. effect on human well-being by increasing
Katrina or the Exxon Valdez oil spill (Fritze et al., 2008; migration. When people lose their home to
Harville, Taylor, Tesfai, Xiong, & Buekens, 2011; Keenan, Loss of personally important places rising sea levels, or when a home becomes
Marshall, Nocera, & Runyan, 2004; Yun, Lurie, & Hyde, 2010). Perhaps one of the best ways to characterize unsuitable for human habitation due to
the impacts of climate change on perceptions its inability to support food crops, they
is the sense of loss. Loss of relationship to must find another place to live. Although
CHRONIC IMPACTS place is a substantial part of this. As climate it is difficult to identify climate change as
Aggression and violence change irrevocably changes people’s lived the causal factor in a complex sequence
The psychological impacts of warmer weather on aggression landscapes, large numbers are likely to of events affecting migration, a common
and violence have been extensively studied. Lab-based experience a feeling that they are losing a place prediction is that 200 million people will be
experiments and field-based surveys have demonstrated that is important to them—a phenomenon displaced due to climate change by 2050
a causal relationship between heat and aggression (Anderson, called solastalgia. This psychological (Fritze et al., 2008). Migration in and of
2001; Simister & Cooper, 2005). In other words, as the phenomenon is characterized by a sense itself constitutes a health risk. Immigrants
temperature goes up, so does aggression. This influenced of desolation and loss similar to that are vulnerable to mental health problems,
researcher Craig Anderson (2012) to predict a demonstrable experienced by people forced to migrate probably due to the accumulated stressors
increase in violence associated with increased average from their home environment. Solastalgia associated with the move, as well as with
temperatures. The relationship between heat and violence may have a more gradual beginning due the condition of being in exile (Kirmayer
may be due to the impacts of heat on arousal, which results to the slow onset of changes in one’s local et al., 2011). Adger, Barnett, Brown, Marshall,
in decreases in attention and self-regulation, as well as an environment. Silver and Grek-Martin (2015) and O’Brien (2013) found being forced to
increase in the availability of negative and hostile thoughts described the emotional pain and leave one’s home territory can threaten
26 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 27

one’s sense of continuity and belonging. Because of the A loss of identity associated with climate
importance of connection to place in personal identity (e.g., change is also sometimes attributable to its KEY TAKEAWAYS:
Scannell & Gifford, 2016), such displacement can leave effect on place-bound occupations. This is Impacts on Individuals
people literally alienated, with a diminished sense of self and likely due to the close relationship between
increased vulnerability to stress. Although empirical research identity and place-based occupations, like Following disasters, damage to social or
on the psychological impacts of migration is rare, Tschakert, farming and fishing (Devine-Wright, 2013). community infrastructural components,
Tutu, and Alcaro (2013) studied the emotional experience Because severe storms and high temperatures such as food systems and medical services,
among residents of Ghana who were forced to move from disrupt economic activity (Hsiang, 2010), results in many acute consequences for
the northern region of the country to the capital, Accra, climate change may have an effect on psychological well-being.
because local conditions no longer supported their farming occupational identity in general. Loss of In contrast, gradual impacts of climate
practices. Also, respondents expressed nostalgia and sadness occupation has been associated with change, like changes in weather patterns
for the home left behind and helplessness due to changes increased risk of depression following and rising sea levels, will cause some of
in their environments, such as deforestation, that were de- natural disasters (Wasini et al., 2014). the most resounding chronic psychological
scribed as sad and scary. consequences.
Helplessness, depression, fear, fatalism,
Loss of autonomy and control resignation, and ecoanxiety Acute and chronic mental health effects
Climate change will intensify certain daily life inconveniences, Gradual, long-term changes in climate include the following:
which can have psychological impacts on individuals’ sense can also surface a number of different
of autonomy and control. The desire to be able to accomplish emotions, including fear, anger, feelings of • Trauma and shock
basic tasks independently is a core psychological need, powerlessness, or exhaustion (Moser, 2007). • Post-traumatic stress disorder
central to human well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2011), and basic A review by Coyle and Van Susteren (2011)
services may be threatened due to dangerous conditions. described cases in which fear of extreme • Compounded stress
This may make mobility a challenge—particularly for the weather approaches the level of phobia • Strains on social relationships
elderly and those with disabilities. Exposure to unwanted and the “unrelenting day-by-day despair” • Depression
change in one’s environment can also reduce one’s sense (p. viii) that can be experienced during a
of control over one’s life (Fresque-Baxter & Armitage, 2012; drought (p. viii). Watching the slow and • Anxiety
Silver & Grek-Martin, 2015), which, in turn, has negative seemingly irrevocable impacts of climate • Suicide
impacts on mental health (Schönfeld, Brailovskaia, Bieda, change unfold, and worrying about the
• Substance abuse
Zhang, & Margraf, 2016). future for oneself, children, and later
generations, may be an additional source • Aggression and violence
Loss of personal and occupational identity of stress (Searle & Gow, 2010). Albrecht • Loss of personally important places
A more fundamental loss is the loss of personal identity tied to (2011) and others have termed this anxiety
mundane aspects of daily life. Losing treasured objects when • Loss of autonomy and control
ecoanxiety. Qualitative research provides
a home is damaged or destroyed is one way in which climate evidence that some people are deeply • Loss of personal and occupational
change can significantly impair an individual’s sense of self affected by feelings of loss, helplessness, identity
and identity. This is because objects help provide a continuing and frustration due to their inability to feel • Feelings of helplessness, fear,
sense of who we are, particularly objects that represent like they are making a difference in stopping fatalism, solastalgia, and ecoanxiety
important moments in life (e.g., journals), relationships (e.g., climate change (Moser, 2013). Some writers
gifts or photographs), or personal/family history (e.g., family stress the possible detrimental impact of
heirlooms; Dittmar, 2011). Interviewees in a study conducted guilt, as people contemplate the impact of
by Carroll et al. (2009) indicated that flood victims were their own behavior on future generations.
particularly troubled by the loss of personal possessions, such Although the impacts of climate change are
as things they had made themselves or special things they not always visible, they perpetuate a delayed
had spent time and effort to procure or maintain. Although destruction that, like the damage to climate,
this may seem acute, the losses are permanent; the impacts are incremental and can be just as damaging
are persistent and therefore become chronic. as acute climate impacts (Nixon, 2011).
28 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 29

IMPACTS ON COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY

SOCIAL COHESION AND COMMUNITY CONTINUITY In addition to the effects on


A CLOSER LOOK Compounded stress from climate change has been observed individual health and well-
A Clinical Psychologist’s Take on Climate Change, Thomas Doherty, PsyD among various communities. For example, Cunsolo Willox et al. being, climate change
(2013) examined the impacts of climate change on a small affects how individuals
Research on the mental health impacts of An unexpected benefit for me of Inuit community.b Members of the community, who all reported interact in communities and
disasters typically distinguishes between confronting these complex, troubling a strong attachment to the land, said they had noticed changes relate to each other. For
events that are considered natural or issues is that I regularly interact with in the local climate and that these changes contributed to example, natural disasters
technological (Doherty & Clayton, 2011). people who take climate change as negative effects on themselves. As a result of altered can have a negative impact
Because natural disasters may seem part of seriously as I do, such as public health interactions with the environment, community members on community bonds. A
the natural order, and are considered to be officials from around the United States reported food insecurity, sadness, anger, increased family changing climate will likely
beyond human control, they are relatively using the Centers for Disease Control and stress, and a belief that their sense of self-worth and affect aspects of community
easier to cope with in psychological terms. Preventions’ Building Resilience Against community cohesion had decreased. Elders expressed well-being, including social
These calamities tend to bring people Climate Effects (BRACE) framework. specific concern for the preservation of Inuit language and cohesion, aggression, and
together to help those impacted. Such interactions allow me to maintain my culture as they directly influence mental well-being and social relationships.
Technological disasters, meanwhile, are creativity and motivation, avoid isolation, social cohesion (Ostapchuk, Harpers, Cunsolo Willox, Edge,
typically caused by human accident or and find a sense of shared purpose with & Rigolet Inuit Community Government, 2015).
negligence and often involve long-term, others. As a psychologist, I know that
mysterious risks. These disasters tend to engaging with climate change leads to Social cohesion and social capital can protect communities
divide communities over how to compensate consciousness-raising about one’s against mental and physical health impacts during a climate-
those affected and hold accountable environmental identity and ethics. related disaster. Regardless of socioeconomic or cultural
those who were responsible. Poorer areas backgrounds, communities with high levels of social capital
tend to be at higher risk for these incidents, Any of the interlinked problems within and community leadership experience the quickest
and community divisions often come climate change—poverty, inequality, loss of recoveries after a disaster and the highest satisfaction
down to privilege, class, and race. treasured places, species extinction, threats with community rebuilding (Aldrich & Meyer, 2014).
to our well-being or livelihood—can hook us
Climate change combines natural and emotionally and intellectually. These issues When local conditions become practically uninhabitable,
technological elements. Human technologies lead to feelings of curiosity and insight, as ecomigration, leading to environmental refugees, can result.
are driving vast changes in global climate well as fatigue and despair. Clinicians can Such migrations erode social networks, as communities
and weather, increasing the risks for a help individuals to thrive in the face of disperse in different directions. Because social networks
range of natural disasters. Climate change climate change by identifying which provide important practical and emotional resources that
is an emergency that affects and divides specific issues activate their unique are associated with health and well-being, the loss of such
the global community. vulnerabilities or personal worries and networks places people’s sense of continuity and belonging
developing a specific plan or activity to at risk. The current Syrian conflict, which has resulted in
I have counseled many people experiencing give them a sense of control about how mass migration, may partially stem from climate change–
varying crises of meaning and responsibility they respond. driven precipitation changes, rising mean sea levels, and a
about climate change: a scientist who has decrease in soil moisture. These climate impacts were
sailed in the “Pacific garbage patch,” Similarly, the BRACE model can help exacerbated during the drought from 2007 to 2010 due to
distressed by neighbors’ consumer habits; communities seeking to become more human disruptions within natural systems, leading to crop
an environmental engineer who has “run resilient by anticipating local health or failure and large-scale conflict, hunger, and desperation.
the numbers” and doesn’t see a way to economic impacts, identifying vulnerable Although such civil unrest cannot be attributed to a single
effectively address carbon emissions; a groups that need protection, and proactively cause, recent evidence suggests climate-caused drought may
ranger in Glacier National Park, trying to implementing a community-wide adaptation have played a significant role in the unraveling of an already
remain positive while educating visitors plan that can be reevaluated as more vulnerable political and ecological climate (Kelley, Mohtadi,
about these receding landmarks; and a becomes known about changing local Cane, Seager, & Kushnir, 2015).
person shocked by a news story about the conditions. Coping with climate change
dire consequences of rising ocean requires insight and perseverance. AGGRESSION
temperatures. Cooperation among professionals can Heightened anxiety and uncertainty about one’s own future
help people adapt and thrive. can reduce the ability to focus on the needs of others—
negatively impacting social relationships with friends and
30 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 31

THE PROBLEM OF INEQUITY

co-workers (Palinkas, Downs, Petterson, & likely to promote crime by “increasing strain, RISK-PRONE AREAS The impacts of climate change
Russell, 1993), as well as attitudes toward reducing social control, [and] weakening Communities in which people’s livelihoods are directly are not distributed equally.
other people in general. social support.” tied to the natural environment, through agriculture, Some people will experience
fishing, or tourism, are at greater risk. Some parts of the natural disasters firsthand,
Interpersonal violence Intergroup attitudes can also be negatively
world are geologically more vulnerable to storms, rising some will be affected more
High temperatures associated with climate impacted by climate change. In a recent study,
seas, wildfires, or drought. There are detailed reports of gradually over time, and some
change may increase people’s aggressive survey respondents displayed more negative
farmers in Australia who have been negatively affected by will experience only indirect
tendencies. Aggression can also be attitudes toward policies to support minorities
prolonged periods of drought caused by changing weather impacts. This section describes
exacerbated by decreased access to stress- and immigrants when temperatures were
high (Cohen & Krueger, 2016). An experimental patterns (Hanigan et al., 2012). Additionally, communities some of the populations that
reducing green spaces and supportive social
study showed that people who were in low-lying areas, such as coastal Louisiana and islands in are more vulnerable to the
networks. Rising levels of frustration in
thinking about climate change became more the Chesapeake Bay, are losing their land to erosion and mental health impacts of
society consequently lead to interpersonal
hostile to individuals outside their social rising seas (Davenport & Robertson, 2016). This past year, climate change, including
aggression (such as domestic violence,
assault, and rape). Ranson (2012) calculated group (that is, people they consider to be residents of Isle de Jean Charles, Louisiana, became the first people who live in risk-prone
that between 2010 and 2099, climate unlike them) and more likely to support climate refugees in the United States; a $48 million budget areas, indigenous communities,
change would cause an estimated additional the status quo and its accompanying social was allocated to relocate residents to a less flood-prone low-income groups, certain
30,000 murders, 200,000 cases of rape, inequities (Fritsche, Cohrs, Kessler, & Bauer, area (Margolin, 2016). Inhabitants of indigenous communities communities of color, women,
and 3.2 million burglaries due to increased 2012). Hostility toward individuals outside often depend on natural resources for their livelihoods and children, older adults, and
average temperatures. one’s social group can be a way of affirming are located in geographically vulnerable regions (e.g., people with disabilities or
one’s own group identity in the face of a Cunsolo Willox et al., 2013, 2014; Maldonado, Colombi, & chronic illnesses. A thorough
Intergroup aggression perceived threat. In a vicious cycle, lower Pandya, 2013). review of demographic
Climate change may increase conflict levels of social cohesion and connectedness, differences in vulnerability to
through several mechanisms. Violence may greater social inequalities, lack of trust Communities that lack resources, both physical and climate change can be found
increase when competition for scarce natural between community members and for financial, can experience climate impacts more severely. in Dodgen et al. (2016).
resources increases or when ecomigration institutions, and other factors that inhibit This can be demonstrated by higher incidents of extreme
brings formerly separate communities into community members from working together weather within impoverished communities. In disasters,
contact and they compete for resources, are associated with intergroup aggression socioeconomically disadvantaged communities often suffer
like jobs and land. In a recent meta- analysis, (Norris, Stevens, Pfefferbaum, Wyche, the most. For example, following Hurricane Sandy, lower-
Hsiang, Burke, and Miguel (2013) found & Pfefferbaum, 2008). income residents reported weak or absent social support
evidence that climate change can contribute networks and had the greatest percentages of severe mental
to the frequency of intergroup violence (i.e., distress and diagnosis of depression or anxiety after the
political conflict and war). For example, in KEY TAKEAWAYS:
hurricane. Furthermore, 35% of children living in a household
Houston, Texas, crime rates increased Impacts on Community and Society
that earns less than $20,000 annually experienced feelings
significantly following Hurricane Katrina, of sadness, depression, fear, or nervousness following the
although Katrina migrants have not been • Decreased sense of cohesion hurricane (Abramson et al., 2015).
definitively sourced as the cause (Anderson &
• Disrupted sense of continuity
Delisi, 2011). Meanwhile, restraints on crime
and belonging
INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES
weaken when existing social institutions are Indigenous communities are at risk of losing their cultural
disrupted, thus increasing the probability of • Increased interpersonal aggression, heritage, as well as their homes. Imperiled indigenous
criminal behavior. For example, when such as domestic abuse and crime communities are found around the world, including the
government resources are devoted to United States. In Alaska, for example, some native Alaskans
• Increased intergroup aggression,
damaged infrastructure from natural have seen their villages literally vanish due to the thawing
disasters, those resources may be diverted such as political conflict and war
permafrost, and others are facing a similar outcome in the
away from criminal justice systems, mental near future (Chapin et al., 2014). For indigenous communities,
health agencies, and educational institutions, climate change may threaten not only their physical home
all of which tend to help mitigate crime but also their lifestyle, including access to traditional food
(Agnew, 2012). Agnew (2012) further pointed b. A small native Inuit community of 259 members is located
and culturally meaningful practices (Cochran et al., 2013;
in Rigolet, Nunatsiavut, within the Canadian province of
out that the effects of climate change are Newfoundland and Labrador.
32 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 33

Durkalec, Furgal, Skinner, & Sheldon, 2015; Rigby, Rosen,


Berry, & Hart, 2011; Voggesser, Lynn, Daigle, Lake, & Ranco, A CLOSER LOOK
2013). Chief Albert Naquin of a Louisiana tribal community Inuit Mental Health and Climate Change, Ashlee Cunsolo, PhD
threatened by climate change stated, “We’re going to lose
all our heritage, all our culture” (quoted in Davenport & “We are people of the sea ice. If there’s no can’t go out on the land, they don’t
Robertson, 2016). Cunsolo, Willox et al. (2013) reviewed more sea ice, how can we be people of the feel like people.”
case studies of several Inuit communities and reported sea ice?” The circumpolar north is warming 2. Increased drug and alcohol usage
weakening social networks, increased levels of conflict, and at more than twice the rate of the global Many mental health professionals
significant stress associated with relocation or even thinking average. As a result, local indigenous expressed serious concern about
about relocation. In evocative language, Inuit community peoples are at the frontlines in experiencing increases in drug and alcohol use,
members interviewed by Durkalec et al. (2015) reported climate change effects. Inuit in Canada still which interviewees described as a
that an inability to go out on the sea ice (due to a changing carry out active traditions of hunting, way to fill the newly “empty” time
climate) would make them feel like they “have no health” trapping, fishing, foraging, and harvesting, from decreased opportunities for
and “can’t breathe,” and they would “be very sad,” “be lost,” and as a result, even a subtle alteration in the land-based activities.
climate and environment can impact their
or “go crazy” (p. 21). 3. Reduced self-efficacy and self-
mental well-being.
regulation As previously mentioned,
The loss of any community is tragic, but the impact on
For the Inuit, the land is everything. many expressed concern over
native communities is particularly notable because it losing control of their traditions and
diminishes the cultural heritage and because indigenous • It is family, the source of cultural
continuity. A local leader stated, “We livelihoods, which, in turn, leads to
communities are often defined by a special connection to a loss of cultural identity and
the natural environment (Cunsolo Willox et al., 2012, 2013, feel part of the land. It’s me. It’s us. It’s
my people. I always feel that sense of self-worth. One hunter explained,
2014; Durkalec et al., 2015). This connection includes “If a way of life is taken away
belonging, and that attachment.”
traditional patterns of behavior and environmental because of circumstances that you
knowledge about the specific local ecosystem—knowledge • It is a place of solace and healing, have no control over, then you lose
that is disappearing (Ford, Pearce, Duerden, Furgal, & Smit, foundational for all well-being. “I think control of a part of your life.”
2010)—and about how to adapt to changing environments for the Inuit, going out on the land is
just as much a part of our life as 4. Amplification of existing stressors
that could help us as a broader society as we adapt to the Finally, climate change compounded
consequences of climate change (Wildcat, 2013). breathing...So if we don’t get out, then,
for our mental well-being, it’s like you other mental health threats by
are not fulfilled.” removing a source of healing, cultural
strength, food security, and autonomy.
“We are people of the sea ice. Five Inuit communities in Nunatsiavut, A counselor stated, “When people
Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada have are unable to spend time on the land,
If there’s no more sea ice, how can been working together to proactively study they have more time to dwell on the
we be people of the sea ice?” the relationships between climate change negative, to remember things like
and mental health in the North. This research residential school experiences when
- one member of the inuit communities, Canada
discovered wide-ranging consequences for they felt really trapped and unable
individual and community well-being: to leave.”
1. Strong emotional reactions It is clear that climate change is no longer
Emotional responses to the climatic abstract or theoretical. People globally, such
and environmental changes included as the Inuit in the North, are experiencing a
“sadness,” “fear,” “anxiety,” “stress,” range of psycho-social responses. Climate
“distress,” and “frustration.” People change impacts on mental health must be
called the changes “devastating,” further understood and considered in policy
“scary,” and “depressing.” A young and decision-making for mitigation,
hunter explained, “People like to go adaptation, and health responses.
out on the land to feel good. If they
34 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 35

CHILDREN AND INFANTS and ecomigration, but also by the mental Disasters may cause children to lose their
Climate change has a big impact on young people. Children health of their caregivers (Simpson et al., social support networks to a greater extent.
are more vulnerable to many of the effects due to their 2011). Children also have the potential to be During adversity, people draw upon all of
small size, developing organs and nervous systems, and rapid emotionally affected if they become separated their personal resources—emotional and
metabolisms (Bartlett, 2008). Children are more sensitive to from their primary caregivers. Similar to material. Although social networks can fill
temperature, because their physiological regulatory systems physical experiences, traumatic mental the gaps when individual resources become
may be less effective (e.g., they sweat less) and because experiences can have lifelong effects. Of depleted during extreme trauma (Hobfoll,
they are more likely to depend on others to help them regulate course, early childhood is critical for brain 1989; Ungar & Liebenberg, 2013), the
their behavior (Zivin & Shrader, 2016). Their small size development. Studies have documented resources available from a tight-knit
makes very young children more susceptible to dehydration, that high levels of stress during childhood community may not go far, especially if
and children under age five living in poverty represent 80% can affect the development of neural the network is small or the community is
of victims of sanitation-related illnesses and diarrheal pathways, in ways that impair memory, poor. When disasters hit an area, they affect
disease (Bartlett, 2008). executive function, and decision-making in everyone and put entire neighborhoods in
later life (e.g., Shonkoff, Garner, & the need of help. A study of children impacted
Climate impacts may have long-term and even permanent Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of by Hurricane Katrina found that those
effects, such as changing the developmental potential and Child and Family Health, Committee on who were hit hardest by the storm also
trajectory of a child. Currie and Almond (2011) reviewed Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent experienced less social support, likely
evidence that even minor disturbances during childhood Care, and Section on Developmental and because people in their immediate support
may have effects on health and earning potential that last Behavioral Pediatrics, 2012). network were themselves suffering (Banks
into adulthood. Studies have shown that children who & Weems, 2014).
experience a flood or a drought during key developmental
periods are shorter, on average, as adults (Bartlett, 2008).
Fetuses are vulnerable to heat waves, with research shows Children are more vulnerable to many
that exposure to heat waves especially during the second
and third trimesters of pregnancy leads to a lower average of the effects due to their small size,
birth weight and possibly a greater incidence of preterm developing organs and nervous
birth (Kousky, 2016). Malnourishment or severe threat to
systems, and rapid metabolisms
health during the early years is associated with fewer years
of schooling and reduced economic activity as adults, (Bartlett, 2008).
as well as with behavioral and motor problems and reduced
IQ (Kousky, 2016). Additionally, early exposure to disease
provoked by climate change can have a major and permanent
Children are also at increased risk from
impact on neurological development, as can be dramatically
disruptions to the educational system
seen in children exposed prenatally to the Zika virus (e.g.,
(Kousky, 2016). Natural disasters, in particular,
Mlakar et al., 2016).
can damage or destroy schools or make
Children can experience PTSD and depression following them inaccessible to teachers and students.
traumatic or stressful experiences with more severity and After Hurricane Katrina, for example,
prevalence than adults. After climate events, children 196,000 public school students had to
typically demonstrate more severe distress than adults change schools, and many of them missed
(Fritze et al., 2008; Somasundaram & van de Put, 2006). a month or more of schooling. In this case,
Furthermore, the prevalence of distress is also higher; because the hardest-hit school districts
higher rates of PTSD were found in children two years after were also some of the worst-performing
a flood (Fernandez et al., 2015). Children’s mental health ones, some students benefitted by
can also be affected not only by their experiences of transferring to better schools. However,
stressors, such as natural disasters, extreme weather, the effects on school achievement were
negative (Kousky, 2016).
36 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 37

DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES ers, farmers, farm workers, fishermen,


A CLOSER LOOK transportation workers, and utility work-
Some communities of color are prone to
Children’s Emotional Responses to Climate Change, Elizabeth Haase, MD ers (Benedek, Fullerton, & Ursano, 2007).
experience increased impacts. A persistent
reality in American culture is the existence Inequitable health outcomes may arise
Children’s fears about climate change preoccupied with securing the animal’s directly through workers’ exposure to
of environmental injustice: Some racial and
revolve around known and mysterious safety; his inability to leave his dog behind increased temperatures, air pollution, and
ethnic groups tend to be more exposed
future effects. Direct experience with when necessary curtailed his friendships, extreme weather, and indirectly through
to environmental risks and to have fewer
natural disasters can cause symptoms of as well as his academic and extra-curricular vector-borne diseases, increased use of
financial and political resources to buffer
post-traumatic stress disorder, including achievement (Haase, notes). pesticides, and many other elements
the impact (e.g., Grineski et al., 2012; Parks
panic symptoms, nightmares, and phobic (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
Children also develop symptoms because & Roberts, 2006). This is partly, but not
behavior. For example, some pre-school 2016). According to the U.S. Environmental
they fear losing control over an unknown completely, explained by economic status.
children who lost their homes to Hurricane Protection Agency, outdoor workers will
future. Often obsessive-compulsive Communities with fewer resources and
Sandy developed a phobic avoidance of be the first to endure the effects of climate
behaviors result, such as picking up every greater exposure, for example, in Phoenix,
rain, waves, and thunder that generalized to change, as they will be exposed to extreme
piece of garbage on the way to school Arizona, are likely to experience greater
panic about getting in bathtubs, going to heat, which can cause heat stroke,
or running relentlessly through “what if” rates of high temperature impacts than
school (which they feared might flood), exhaustion, and fatigue. As natural disasters
scenarios. One young patient, terrified that majority groups (Luber & McGeehin,
and going to swimming lessons. occur more frequently, such as wildfires
climate ruin would leave him poisoned by 2008). Lower-income communities are
more likely to have outdated infrastructure, and flooding, firefighters and paramedics
The emotional dysregulation children toxins, developed a rigid nightly schedule
such as a lack of extreme weather warning face increased safety risks. Agricultural
experience after environmental trauma of self-improvement to prepare and educate
systems, inadequate storm surge workers face increased vulnerability to
reflects the idiosyncrasies in ascribing himself. Only by checking off every evening
preparedness, and clogged or inadequate allergens, insects carrying diseases, such
agency and causality of small children. ritual could he ward off panic attacks and
storm sewer systems, which places these as West Nile, and pesticide exposure that
A four year old whose parents’ discipline insomnia (Haase, notes). In Inuit and
communities at greater risk for the impacts are increased by changing weather and
method was withholding toys held her Aboriginal cultures, youth are reporting
of climate change. Areas with a high insect migration patterns (U.S. Environmental
mother responsible for losing her dolls to higher rates of suicidal thinking and
number of residents who lack access to Protection Agency, 2016).
Sandy and had rages in which the child depression linked to lost social rewards
accused her mother of “taking and killing” because nature-based activities are no health care or health insurance, or already
ADDITIONAL POPULATIONS
her dolls (Felix, Haase, & Haller, 2016). longer available to them (Hersher, 2016). experience poor health (Edwards &
Wiseman, 2011), are more likely to be
OF CONCERN
A three year old, grief-stricken about local Alienation and depression are common in
clear-cutting that was killing large numbers young people who have suffered climate affected by climate change. Communities Individuals of all ages with disabilities or
of beloved local animals, declared that he consequences and are living in a cultural are also less resilient when they are chronic mental or physical health issues
weakened by social stressors, such as may experience climate-related impacts at
would destroy the perpetrators by “calling setting that does not validate their
racism, economic inequality, and a greater extent (Page, Hajat, Kovats,
them a bad word.” climate concerns.
environmental injustices. Many of the & Howard, 2012). Often, people living with
Children, with less ability to articulate their Thankfully, emerging literature suggests communities in New Orleans that were disabilities have disproportionately far
feelings in language, are also more likely the possibility of post-traumatic growth affected by Hurricane Katrina possessed lower access to aid during and after
to regress, showing babyish behaviors, following natural disasters, reflected in all of these characteristics (Norris et al., climate-related disasters. Those with
or somatize, developing stomachaches or greater resilience and transformation to 2008; Yun et al., 2010), and the effects of mental health disorders can also experience
other physical symptoms to express upset, more sustainable lifestyles. Such progress racial disparities were clearly visible in the exacerbated symptoms due to natural
as did one child when his school cafeteria requires the developmental and aftermath of the storm (Luber et al., 2014). disasters. Degraded infrastructure creates
refused to recycle. psychological abilities to grieve and barriers for people with mental illnesses to
articulate feelings in a narrative format. OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS receive proper medical attention, leading
Finally, children are more dependent, and Interestingly, data shows that in particular, to additional negative mental and physical
Certain lines and fields of work are more
therefore are more vulnerable to separation prolonged reflective rumination on climate health outcomes. For instance, following
directly exposed to the impact of climate
reactions. One boy whose dog was harmed in combination with hope and coping the 2012 Wisconsin heat wave, 52% of all
change. These occupations may include
by a tornado that also destroyed his home advice from supportive caregivers brings heat-related deaths were among individuals
but not be limited to first responders,
and killed several peers became such positive transformation and healing. with at least one mental illness. Half of
construction workers, health care work-
38 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance

those suffering from mental illness were The stress directly related to supporting
III. ADDRESSING THE
MENTAL HEALTH IMPACTS
taking psychotropic medications, which a child makes women more affected by
impede one’s ability to regulate one’s climate change. Because of a mother’s
body temperature. These medications that frequent caregiver role, and because, on
treat mental illness are one of the main average, women have fewer economic
underlying causes of heat-related deaths resources than men, women may also be
(Dodgen et al., 2016). Additionally, those more affected, in general, by the stress
suffering from ongoing asthma and and trauma of natural disasters (Trumbo,
respiratory illnesses, like chronic obstructive Lueck, Marlatt, & Peek, 2011; Wasini et al.,
pulmonary disease (COPD), are more 2014). Possible loss of resources, such as
sensitive to reduced air quality. Moreover, food, water, shelter, and energy, may
inequalities in the incidence of those who also contribute to personal stress.
are chronically ill arise as a result of Epidemiological studies of post-disaster
several socioeconomic factors (Gamble et cohorts and the general population,
al., 2016). suggest that women are more likely to
experience mental health problems as a
Due to increased health and mobility result of trauma. For example, the
challenges, the elderly are very susceptible prevalence of PTSD in the general
to the risks of climate impacts. Higher rates population is reported to be approximately
of untreated depression and other physical twofold greater in women than in men
illnesses reported among seniors contribute (Somasundaram & van de Put, 2006).
to this increased vulnerability. Research
suggests the elderly, in particular, experience
declines in cognitive ability when exposed
to air pollution over the long term
(Dodgen et al., 2016). A study by Dominelli KEY TAKEAWAYS:
(2013) found that when infrastructure The Problem of Inequity
broke down (e.g., roads were impassable)
due to floods, heat waves, or freeze-thaw A number of populations are especially
events (all potentially climate-driven), vulnerable to the mental health effects
formal care services were not available to of climate change, including:
vulnerable people, such as the elderly.
They could not get to the services, and • People living in risk-prone areas
their normal services could not come
• Indigenous communities
through. Heat can have a particularly severe
impact on the elderly and on people with • Some communities of color
pre-existing mental health problems; some
of the medications associated with mental • Certain occupational groups with
illness make people more susceptible to direct exposure
the effects of heat (Martin-Latry et al.,
2007). Extreme temperatures or pollution • Those with existing disabilities or
can also make it more difficult for seniors chronic illness
to engage in regular outdoor activities, • Older adults, women, and children
thus depriving them of the associated
physical and mental benefits.
40 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 41

BUILDING RESILIENCE

Developing plans to adapt Climate change is no longer a distant, unimaginable threat;


and cope is critical in it is a growing reality for communities across the globe. A CLOSER LOOK
addressing the physical Recognizing the risk, many local governments in the United Resilience in the Face of Climate Change, Victoria Derr, PhD
and psychological impacts States (as well as other places around the world) have
of climate change. In this created preparation or adaptation plans for shoring up In collaboration with Resilient Boulder In the high school poetry project, students
section, we introduce physical infrastructure to withstand new weather and (a project of the Rockefeller Foundation’s described a personal moment of resilience.
psychological resilience, temperature extremes. These plans, while an important 100 Resilient Cities network), Growing Many of these stories included family losses
individually and on a step, generally overlook the psycho-social impacts of a Up Boulder (GUB) worked with an and coping with poor family health, the
community level. Resilience changing climate and do little to create or support the soft economically and ethnically diverse challenges of immigration, and surviving
can be defined as the ability infrastructure needed for community psychological well- sample of children and youth to develop Boulder’s recent flood. In 2013, Boulder
of a person (or a community) being (Baussan & Kelly, 2016). How can communities their perceptions of resilience within the experienced a 100-year flood, as well as
to cope with, grow through, prepare themselves to minimize suffering and promote city of Boulder, Colorado. In the pilot a 1,000-year rain event, which severely
and transcend adversity resilience in the face of the challenging impacts of climate phase of the project, children made a impacted the city and region, with many
(Hobfoll, Stevens, & change? Resilient communities can create the physical and mural with aspects of their community that families temporarily or permanently
Zalta, 2015). social infrastructure that makes them less susceptible to supported or inhibited resilience and took displaced. Some students wrote about
negative effects. pictures of their community that explained resilience in the context of this flood,
these concepts. In an in-depth phase, describing a family member handling it
On an individual level, resilience is built internally and externally elementary and high school students alone, without social support.
through strategies, such as coping and self-regulation, and explored resilience at various scales of the
community social support networks. Most people come community through drawings, identification Students focused on local issues that
through adversity with positive adjustment and without of assets and vulnerabilities, and impact their daily lives and their potential
recommendations for making Boulder to support resilience, including access to
psychopathology (Bonnano, 2008; Hanbury, Indart,
more resilient. Finally, high school students nature. Many across all age groups said
& Saklofske, 2013). In fact, some individuals may even
continued this work through a poetry nature, from views of the mountains from
experience what is called post-traumatic growth and come
project developed in partnership with their high school to small parks and open
through a significant disruption with the feeling of having
several Latino poets and the U.S. poet space, helped build resilience. However,
gained something positive, such as stronger social
laureate. Children and youth also shared many of the students in this research do
relationships or specific skills (Lowe et al., 2013;
their ideas with local leaders and developed not have daily access to nature despite
Ramsay & Manderson, 2011).
recommendations for increasing the living in a relatively green city. Greater
Even so, much can be done to increase the resilience resilience of Boulder’s young people. access to nearby nature could provide
capacity of individuals and communities, particularly in young people with sources for restoration
response to climate change. The following sections describe Across all methods, these young people and resilience.
factors that support psycho-social resilience in both. identified access to nature and family,
friends, and supportive networks (from In general, youth identified climate change
school and community) as critical factors in as negatively impacting their personal
supporting resilience, while global climate resilience and access to nature as
Resilient communities can create change was described as a vulnerability. supporting resilience. However, they tended
the physical and social infrastructure Concerns about climate change emerged to focus on many social and economic
from the first brainstorming session, in factors, such as poverty and immigration
that makes them less susceptible to which youth jotted down ideas for assets status, that are more directly seen and felt
negative effects. and vulnerabilities on large butcher-paper than climate change. This focus suggests
sheets. One student wrote “the news,” that for these students, as for many
and then many other students expanded others, climate change still seems to be
on this idea, adding many more news an abstract issue.
sources. Students largely hear about
climate change via news media, with little
opportunity to feel empowered or to take
positive, local action.
42 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 43

TIPS TO SUPPORT INDIVIDUALS

Some people seem to PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES AND ACTIONS coping resource. In addition to the social SOCIAL CONNECTION
function more effectively in 1. Build belief in one’s own resilience. support that is often provided by a faith 6. Support social networks. Individuals’
difficult situations than others Several personal dispositional characteristics are associated community, having a spiritual practice can personal capacity to withstand trauma
do. No single factor sets with individual resilience. People who feel positive about their help people manage and find meaning in is increased when they are connected to
highly resilient individuals ability to overcome a source of stress and trauma do better suffering during significant adversity their networks off-and online. One strategy
apart (Bonanno & Diminich, than people with lower self-efficacy. Belief in one’s own (Ramsay & Manderson, 2011). Mindfulness frequently noted in resilience studies is
2013). Instead, an individual’s resilience has been correlated with fewer symptoms of PTSD can be another type of practice, through cultivating and maintaining strong social
ability to recover from and depression after disasters (Shenesey & Langhirichsen- yoga and meditation, that gives people connections (Iacoviello & Charney, 2014).
trauma, or to experience post- Rohling, 2015). a greater sense of purpose and meaning Connectedness to others is a core
traumatic growth, depends on (Garland, Farb, Goldin, & Fredrickson, psychological need and an essential
2. Foster optimism. 2015). In each case, the ability to flexibly
a complex and dynamic set of People who are able to reframe and find something positive foundation for well-being (e.g., Deci &
factors. Here, we provide tips reappraise adverse events in a way that Ryan, 2011). During difficult times, people
in their circumstances tend to do better than people who enhances a sense of meaning is key for
on the factors of personal are less able to regulate their thinking, emotions, and actions turn to those they are close to, such as
promoting personal well-being. family, friends, and neighbors, for emotional
attributes and social (Bonanno & Diminich, 2013; Hanbury et al., 2013; Harper &
support designed to help Pergament, 2015; Iacoviello & Charney, 2014; Petrasek 5. Boost personal preparedness. support, as well as material help (e.g.,
practitioners, policymakers, Macdonald, Ford, Cunsolo Willox, & Ross, 2013; Prince-Embury, Mental health can be incorporated into money, food, or a temporary place to stay).
and communicators support 2013). Positively reappraising one’s circumstances helps existing disaster preparation efforts. Resilience scholars note that social support
individuals’ success in move one forward rather than becoming stuck in a cycle of Recommendations for short-term disaster is a critical protective resource during
becoming resilient. negative emotions. Additionally, optimism likely contributes or emergency kits often include things adversity (Kaniasty, 2012). Researchers
to a person’s ability to feel positive emotions during a hard like food, water, supplies, and medication. have found that higher levels of social
time, which may help people better recover and cope Yet items that can preserve and shore up support during and in the aftermath of a
(Terpstra, 2011). In a study of low-income mothers who mental health are also equally important disaster are associated with lower rates of
survived Hurricane Katrina, Lowe et al. (2013) found that to include (Missouri Department of Mental psychological distress (Greene, Paranjothy,
optimism helped the mothers adjust and grow after a Health, 2006). These items might include & Palmer, 2015; Self-Brown, Anderson,
disaster. Of course, excessive optimism may result in comfort items, such as spiritual or religious Edwards, & McGill, 2013). The positive
disappointment or surprise if the expected outcome does objects, pictures, blankets and toys for mental health impact of a strong social
not come to pass; therefore, the right balance is needed. small children, favorite foods or treats to support system, or the negative impacts of
supplement stable shelf food, recreational lower social support, can persist for years
3. Cultivate active coping and self-regulation. items such as books and games, and after a disaster, such as a hurricane (Banks
Another strength is active coping, which involves cognitive paper and writing instruments to journal & Weems, 2014). As described above, a
dimensions, such as maintaining an awareness of one’s own or write down important information. faith community, or any other tight-knit
thoughts and appraisals, and behavioral dimensions, such as Pets, which also provide some with a sense and supportive social network, can provide
continuously seeking solutions and support (Iacoviello & of comfort, must also be considered when significant emotional and material support
Charney, 2014). Self-regulation, or the ability to control one’s making emergency kits and plans (Centers (Cain & Barthelemy, 2008; Marks et al.,
immediate impulses in favor of a more considered, long-term for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). People living in areas most impacted
strategy, is another characteristic of resilient individuals 2016; American Red Cross, 2017). Public by Hurricane Katrina reported in an interview
(National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2015). agencies and other organizations may also study that their “church family” (p. 256)
want to encourage community members offered them a listening ear, empathy,
4. Find a source of personal meaning. to incorporate these items into their and moral support in the extremely difficult
Involvement in a faith community has been cited as a disaster preparation kits. Other facets aftermath of the hurricane (Marks et al., 2015).
protective factor for mental health in several interview studies of preparedness, including family,
with people experiencing trauma (e.g., Cline, Orom, Child, 7. Encourage connection with parents,
neighborhood, school, and work response
Hernandez, & Black, 2015; Fernando, 2012; Harper & Pargament, family, and other role models.
plans and other measures, can help
2015; Weine et al., 2014). For many, faith gives a sense of The supportof family and close connections
increase confidence and the feeling of
peace during difficulty (Marks, Hatch, Lu, & Cherry, 2015), are particularly important for children.
safety and reduce fear.
and studies have shown that having a spiritual practice tends Parents are likely the most central source
to boost an individual’s well-being and can be an important of support for children during trauma and
adversity, and children are at higher risk of
44 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 45

TIPS TO SUPPORT COMMUNITIES

long-term physiological and mental health connected can increase resilience because We know a great deal about what helps individuals become Building resilience for
stress burdens when parents themselves people are more likely to take adaptive more resilient. In contrast, little research has explored disasters and confronting
suffer acute levels of distress (Simpson et actions, such as preparing for flooding psycho-social resilience at the community level (Bonanno, the gradual changes due
al., 2011; Weine et al., 2014). Petrasek (Adger et al., 2013). Romero, & Klein, 2015). A resilient and healthy community is to climate change will
MacDonald et al. (2015) reported that not just the sum of many resilient individuals; it multiplies help communities alleviate
spending time with family and friends 9. Maintain connections to one’s culture.
individual capacity by bringing people together for joint action adverse health outcomes.
helps protect the mental health of youth New immigrant and refugee communities
and mutual support. Resilience also requires more than crisis Although these tips are
enduring the impacts of climate change are another vulnerable group whose
preparedness. To be resilient in the face of climate change, a targeted toward city, state,
on their land and environment. Parents mental health benefits from a connection
to culture, especially during adversity.
community must have the flexibility to respond to the entire and national planners and
and caregivers also serve as buffer against unpredictable array of potential climate impacts. Communities policymakers, a range of
trauma and protect children from neglect Weine et al. (2014) interviewed Burundian
and Liberian refugees, many of whom were must be ready for sudden traumatic events, such as extreme organizations (from public
and abuse by providing necessities, such storms, heat waves, and floods. Communities should also health agencies to faith-
as shelter and food (Kousky, 2016). adolescents who had recently moved to
the United States. The authors noted family make plans that include tools for the slow, unsettling alterations based communities) can
Support for children can come from cohesion, participation in religious traditions, of climate change, such as increasingly warmer winters or use these suggestions
outside the family as well. The National and cultural connectedness were resources changes in local wildlife and plant communities. to advance efforts and
Scientific Council on the Developing Child that protected individuals’ mental health strengthen communities’
Among other benefits, communities can be a source of response to disasters and
(2015) found that children and youth during difficult times. Refugees may find
optimize resilience during adversity if they
stability and safety for their citizens or members. Humans gradual climate impacts.
it particularly important to maintain
have the help of non-caregiver role models, cultural connections as their homes have fare better when they perceive the world around them
such as teachers or coaches. These role been disrupted (Fullilove, 2013). as orderly, predictable, and benevolent (e.g., Hanbury et
models are especially important following al., 2013; Kaniasty, 2012). As noted earlier, climate change
natural disaster events. Children look to brings great unpredictability and uncertainty for the future.
parents and other caregivers as models KEY TAKEAWAYS: Many people have difficulty coming to terms with the
in managing their emotions. Effective Tips to Support Individuals negative news they hear about climate change; they feel
coping strategies should be taught during loss and despair. Similar to natural disasters and other
this time, such as encouraging children to large-scale traumas, climate change may cause people to
In order to support individuals’ success
talk about the event or turning to other question their beliefs about themselves, the people around
in becoming resilient, the following are
resilient communities that have endured them, and the world (e.g., Harper & Pargament, 2015; Marks
tips to consider that address personal
natural disasters and recovered (Lazarus, et al., 2015). Similar to sufferers of physical trauma, people
attributes and support social cohesion:
Jimerson, & Brock, 2002). Support need tools to manage their anxiety and other feelings
networks, such as the National Alliance on 1. Build belief in one’s own resilience. (Bonanno, 2008). To help restore people’s equilibrium and
Mental Health’s Parents and Teachers as their faith that there is good in the world, here are some tips
2. Foster optimism.
Allies program, can help these role models to consider when building resilient communities.
identify children with mental illness and 3. Cultivate active coping and
relay the proper resources to parents. self-regulation. COMMUNITY SUPPORT AND PLANNING
4. Find a source of personal meaning. 1. Assess and expand community mental health infrastructure.
8. When possible, uphold connection to place.
Infrastructure plays an enormous role in shaping how
As climate change alters the landscape, 5. Boost personal preparedness.
vulnerable communities are to psychological impacts.
it also forces change upon cultures tied 6. Support social networks. A community with poor infrastructure is more vulnerable to
to the land. As already noted, indigenous
communities are experiencing rapid cultural 7. Encourage connection to parents, the physical impacts of climate change, which, in turn, affect
change as the climate warms and makes family, and other role models. mental health. Mental health infrastructure, in particular,
many traditional cultural practices difficult. should be assessed (Weissbecker & Czinez, 2011). Dominelli
8. Uphold connection to place.
Research in affected communities (2013) suggested that part of the assessment of the mental
indicates that people do not wish to leave 9. Maintain connections to health infrastructure should include questions about who
their homes, despite the changes they one’s culture. may be available on an informal basis to provide help, care,
may experience (e.g., Cunsolo Willox et al., medicine, and comfort when formal services break down.
2012). Staying in a place to which one feels For example, neighbors and community members are often
46 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 47

the most available and the quickest to help those in the adjacent and demographically
people in their proximity (Dominelli, 2013). similar (poor and largely African American) A CLOSER LOOK
When assessing the community mental Englewood neighborhood. Heat wave– Finding a Place for Psychology in Climate Change Deliberations, Linda Silka, PhD
health infrastructure, here are some specific related deaths in Englewood were more
questions to consider: than three times that of Auburn Gresham, One of the overarching concerns about climate change. After four years of work,
and scholars attribute the low heat wave climate change is its impact on the we now have much more actionable
1. Does the community have a plan fatality rate in Auburn Gresham, which was infrastructure we all depend on. What strategies for how the people on the
to serve people in need after a lower than that of many very affluent happens to vulnerable neighborhoods ground can prepare for the coming
shock/disaster? Chicago neighborhoods, to the high social when roads and bridges are destroyed by climate change. In one of our most
2. Does the community have the cohesion facilitated through an urban extreme precipitation or when hurricanes exciting ICNet meetings, a leading climate
capacity to serve the potential landscape of shops, public spaces, and hit a coastal community, leaving emergency modeler involved in ICNet (Dr. Katherine
increased needs of people as community organizations (Klinenberg, services unable to reach the families hit Hayhoe of Texas Tech), alongside scholars
climate impacts grow? 2013). During the heat wave, people in hardest? How do communities get the from other disciplines, presented climate
the Auburn Gresham neighborhood were information they need to prepare for such change models to a room full of
3. Currently, can all community
more likely to check on one another, and events and build resilience in the face of infrastructure specialists from throughout
members access the mental health
thus, the most vulnerable, such as the the changing climate? New England. Participants repeatedly
care they need?
housebound elderly, had a lifeline. said afterward that for the first time they
4. What are the gaps, and what areas of In New England, many major cities are could see how they could actually use
service may need to be augmented? 3. Train the people who will serve the right on the ocean. Key parts of our climate change information to prepare for
community during a disaster. infrastructure—roads and bridges and coming challenges.
5. Is there a disaster mental
Following a disaster, when people are in the the like—could be underwater in the
health coalition?
throes of extreme distress and high emotion not-too-distant future. Various kinds of I was brought in as a social and community
Public health agencies are one channel for typical in the immediate aftermath (e.g., fear, expertise are needed for the complex task psychologist because the ICNet team
guiding and encouraging the expansion anger, terror, helplessness, shock, grief), it of preparing for these impacts. I’ve seen members realized that they needed
of infrastructure for adaptation and is crucial that the services available to them this firsthand as part of the Infrastructure expertise in cross-disciplinary
preparation. Although many public health be sensitive and interactive (Raphael, 2007). and Climate Network (theicnet.org), an communication. There is much that
officials do not yet perceive addressing However, in the rush to provide basic NSF-funded network that brings together psychology can contribute that too often
climate change as a priority for their necessities and to search for and rescue infrastructure engineers, climate scientists, goes untapped because it is not labeled
agencies, those who perceive greater risk missing or injured people, this type of and other researchers, such as psychologists, as relevant to climate change. Psychology
from climate change are more likely to compassion may not always be present. to strengthen communication across is central to much of what is being
have begun to address it (Syal, Wilson, Hobfoll (2007) offered five evidence-based relevant disciplines. Through websites, discussed, such as the worries the other
Crawford, & Lutz, 2011). principles to guide intervention in the workshops, webinars, and writing, ICNet disciplines expressed about how their
aftermath of a disaster or acute event and members have found innovative ways to findings will be implemented. Psychological
2. Facilitate social cohesion through to move rescue workers and responders overcome disciplinary differences, across research can help address group process,
community design. toward compassion. Communities that varying models of infrastructure failure community problem-solving, social
Individual mental health is better in implement these principles, by training first and climate uncertainty, in order to cohesion and connectedness, lack of trust
communities with stronger social fabric responders and others, can limit the long- provide information that can help between community members and
(Friedli, 2009). Strong community networks term negative psychological consequences communities prepare and adapt. institutions, differences in vulnerability,
more easily develop in neighborhoods with and trauma of acute events. The goals attitude–behavior links, heuristics and
spaces and organizations that bring As researchers from diverse fields of study, risk perception, and fear appeals.
include promoting the following:
people together, such as community we have talked together, shared models We psychologists have an important role
centers, parks, and a streetscape of shops 1. A sense of safety and approaches, and worked with to play in helping professionals from
and sidewalks. This idea was borne out 2. Calmness practitioners such as in-state departments different fields collaborate effectively to
during the 1995 Chicago heat wave, when 3. A positive sense of self and of transportation, in order to develop prepare for climate impacts.
an analysis comparing two neighborhoods a sense of community efficacy integrated roadmaps for addressing
showed that people living in Chicago’s 4. Connectedness
Auburn Gresham neighborhood fared 5. Hope
much better through the heat wave than (Continues on page 48)
48 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 49

It is also important that first responders or acknowledge their suffering. It is possible refugees, pregnant women, children, and Lachlan, Burke, Spence & Griffin, 2009).
and others be trained to recognize the that those feeling trauma from the gradual older adults are especially susceptible to This difference, in turn, can affect the
signs and symptoms of mental health impacts of climate change may experience a the psychological effects of climate change. likelihood and severity of psychological
distress, which vary widely across cultural similar need for informational and emotional (See “The Problem of Inequity” on page 31.) and other impacts on human well-being.
communities and stages of life. Equally support. One barrier to this kind of support Planners and policymakers should take this Communities should consider testing their
as important is cross-training between is a hesitance that many people feel to talk fact into account when developing programs warning systems to be sure that:
mental health and first responders. Those about climate change with others. It is critical and protocols to prepare for climate change.
suffering acute emotional trauma benefit that those communicating with impacted Planners may also choose to use climate risk 1. All residents are reached.
from immediate assistance (Madrid & Grant, people are seen as reliable, legitimate, and and vulnerability maps, like those that have 2. All residents understand what the
2008), and it is important that available credible (Stockholm Environment Institute, been used by the City of Toronto (Gower et warning means and the steps they
resources be focused upon those who 2016). Information from other communities al., 2010), to identify areas and populations should take to respond to it.
need them most. Critical incident stress that have already experienced significant that may be especially susceptible to impacts 3. The warnings are perceived as
management can be used to help alleviate disasters can be invaluable in helping on human well-being and plan accordingly. reliable and credible.
the potential for developing PTSD (Everly, communities prepare for climate changes.
Flannery, & Eyler, 2002). Among the DISASTER PLANNING 4. The warnings communicate that the
growing number of climate refugees forced 5. Reduce disparities. 7. Develop trusted and action-focused government and other organizations
to relocate, some experts recommend Communities as a whole cope better with warning systems. are actively taking steps to care for
having screening tools to assess losses an acute event when economic disparity is An effective warning system for severe the community.
in physical and psychological resources, reduced and the needs of the economically weather events can save lives, reduce
vulnerable are attended to in advance 8. Provide a fast response.
needs, and symptoms (Hollifield, Fullilove, injuries, and reduce property damage from After an acute trauma, support must be
& Hobfoll, 2011). Not everyone experiences (Iacoviello & Charney, 2014; Norris et al., 2008). disasters. Unfortunately, these systems do
Wickes, Zahnow, Taylor, and Piquero (2015), mobilized quickly. Many psychological stress
psychological distress after a disaster, and not always function as effectively as they symptoms stem from the early phases of a
some may be worse off if they are coerced in a study of Brisbane, Australia, residents, could, due, in part, to limitations and
found greater community-wide trauma after disaster (Simpson et al., 2011), and a sense
into participating in an unnecessary uncertainties inherent in forecasting that aid is slow in coming, non-existent, or
intervention (Bonanno, 2008). a flood in areas with high concentrations of technologies. However, warning systems are
economically vulnerable people in comparison distributed unfairly can contribute to people
also often less effective because individuals viewing their community as uncaring and
Diversity training is also essential for those with a similar community where residents ignore warnings or downplay them.
who work in community facilities, such as were more affluent. After the flood, affluent unavailable (Kaniasty, 2012). Those living
Research suggests a number of factors in the community itself, and organizations
designated cooling centers or shelters, neighborhoods with access to material that influence the likelihood people will
where people from all backgrounds may resources displayed greater resilience than located there, are often the quickest to
take warnings seriously and take protective come to others’ aid during a disaster
seek aid and assistance. Those running less well-off communities, regardless of their action. For example, people with little
these facilities must ensure a safe and level of social capital (Wickes et al., 2015). (Baussan, 2015), which underscores the
personal prior experience with a disaster importance of community engagement in
welcoming environment for all community A community with large resource disparities or who don’t understand the severity of
members regardless of gender identity, is not resilient. To broaden resilience climate resilience planning (see Section 11
possible impacts appear to be less “Engage community members” below).
age, racial or ethnic background, sexual community-wide, Baussan and Kelly (2016) motivated to take the warning seriously or
orientation, or religion (Phadke, Manning, suggested that communities do what they to seek further information (e.g., Knocke 9. Have a post-disaster plan.
& Burlager, 2015). can to reduce disparity by investing in & Kolivras, 2007; Lee, Meyer, & Bradlow, As noted earlier, psychological distress
affordable housing, expanding employment 2009). It is also possible that a warning following a disaster may linger for several
4. Provide clear and frequent information. opportunities, and improving public
In an example of a slowly evolving system that has been wrong on numerous years. Communities can alleviate some of
transportation. occasions may be perceived as unreliable, the long-term impacts with post-disaster
environmental disaster (an asbestos leak
in a Montana town characterized by high 6. Pay special attention to and thus is less likely to evoke a response planning, particularly targeting lower-
levels of uncertainty), people expressed vulnerable populations. (for a discussion, see Barnes, Gruntfest, resourced communities that tend to be
the need for clear information (Cline et As discussed throughout this report, not Hayden, Schultz, & Benight, 2007). Some harder hit materially and emotionally
al., 2015). Those affected by the disaster everyone will experience climate change in research also suggests that there may be (Baussan, 2015). One important element
also had unmet emotional needs because the same way. In particular, low-income important racial differences in how of a post-disaster plan is the return of
others in the community did not recognize communities, indigenous groups, immigrants, individuals respond to a warning (e.g., evacuated residents. Although people may
50 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 51

need to leave their homes in the case of institutions. One way to address this communities should work with individuals within the community are unlikely to be
disasters, their rapid return to their home inequity is by including conservation areas already involved in communication and able to replenish their own emotional
environments will avoid the more significant for community gardens and “foraging,” engagement to introduce a network that well-being when all are suffering from a
trauma associated with displacement. rather than zoning open space for supports collaboration of these skills communal resource drain (physical,
unused infrastructure. (Moser & Pike, 2015). Deep community financial, emotional).
engagement yields multiple benefits,
COMMUNITY ACTION such as utilizing local skills and maintaining Social cohesion can be cultivated by
11. Engage community members. cultural practices. As an intervention in Haiti bringing people together to discuss and
Scholars agree that adaptation and demonstrated, cultural sensitivity is an deliberate. People can forge closer social
resilience planning is most likely to succeed essential feature to ensure a program’s bonds, improve their communication, and
if the community is involved (Cox, 2012; acceptance and success (Bastien, 2012). come to agreement that residents will work
Moser & Boykoff, 2013; Moser & Pike, 2015; When community members are involved together when needed. At a minimum,
Norris et al., 2008). Top-down disaster in planning, there is a greater sense of strengthening social networks may require
planning decisions can be effective in autonomy and ownership, which is likely only that community members and
providing basic infrastructure, such as to increase their sense of efficacy. This can neighbors make an explicit agreement that
emergency responder training, shelters, help combat the denial and passivity that they will help each other during adversity
or emergency food, water, and energy undermine effective response (Ojala, 2012; (Briggs & Weissbecker, 2011). Community
supplies. However, given the unpredictability van Zomeren, Spears, & Leach, 2010) planners can also devise ways to provide
Communities can alleviate and unevenness of climate change impacts, and decrease the skepticism that some resources to existing social networks
(Norris et al., 2002), such as churches
some of the long-term there is no top-down, one-size-fits-all way communities feel toward external help
and other civic groups.
to prepare a community to respond to (Phadke et al., 2015). Community members
impacts with post-disaster climate change. Instead, planners should are also more likely to participate if 13. Provide opportunities for
planning work to help the community, as a social someone from their social network is meaningful action.
unit, prepare itself to collectively and already involved in efforts and reaches out Community engagement during a crisis
creatively respond to psychological and to them personally (Phadke et al., 2015). has further benefits. For one thing, it
10. Ensure equitable and transparent social adversity (Cox, 2012; Moser & Representation from people from a wide expands the reach of efforts to help those
distribution of resources. Boykoff, 2013; Norris et al., 2008). Focusing range of backgrounds in the community suffering; as the number of community
Following an acute event, distribution of on community-level capacities may also is more likely to highlight differential members involved in helping during a
relief or help may further divide a be the most efficient and effective way to vulnerabilities across groups, such as race, crisis increases, the number of people
community if it is perceived as being done build the resilience necessary for individuals class, gender, or economic status, and helped also grows. The people doing the
inequitably (Kaniasty, 2012). Of course, and communities to successfully prepare for allow them to be addressed during helping may benefit even more than those
distribution inequity often falls along the and cope with the potential psychological planning. According to Reed et al. (2013), receiving their aid. A well-known finding
divisions of pre-existing inequalities; those impacts of climate change (Cox, 2012; ameliorating these drivers of injustice and in psychology is that one’s own well-being
with greater power and privilege may Moser & Pike, 2015). Communities can also vulnerability should be the focus of climate increases through helping others. Research
receive a greater amount or more rapid coordinate messages and efforts across change resilience and adaptation planning. in trauma-impacted communities has
assistance than people who occupy a government and non-government
12. Increase cooperation and confirmed that this effect holds true
marginalized place in the community. organizations, which can multiply the
social cohesion. during personally difficult times (Kaniasty,
Perceived inequities such as these can strength and validity of the messages
One problem in mobilizing community 2012; Petrasek MacDonald et al., 2013).
lead to polarization within the community; before, during, and after disasters.
support after a community-wide traumatic For example, families experiencing trauma
this kind of tear in the social fabric of the
Community members should be engaged event is that those in the social network, report that helping others increased their
community and the concomitant loss of
in all stages of climate change resiliency whom an individual might otherwise count own ability to cope (Lietz, 2015). In a
empathy and connection to others are
work, beginning with advance planning and on for assistance or companionship, are study conducted after Hurricane Katrina,
harmful for individual, as well as group,
capacity building and continuing through likely to also be victims of the same trauma. interviewees emphasized the importance
functioning (Prince-Embury, 2013).
disaster management and recovery (Norris This makes it difficult for close neighbors to of “giving back” to others in their own
Inequitable distribution of resources can
et al., 2008). To scale up these strategies, come to each other’s assistance. People healing process (Marks et al., 2015, p. 256).
also create distrust of government and
Becoming involved in post-disaster
52 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 53

WHAT INDIVIDUALS CAN DO

community efforts may also have a self- ACTIONS AT HOME People can take tangible
reinforcing positive effect on people’s KEY TAKEAWAYS: actions at home and in the
Tips to Support Communities Have an emergency plan. For example, emergency-
perceptions of their own and the preparedness organizations, such as the Federal Emergency community to begin to
community’s resilience. When people Management Agency (FEMA), the CDC, and the American prepare for the projected
see firsthand that many others are Community planners, policymakers, and Red Cross, suggest having a household emergency plan impacts of climate change.
participating in resilience-building efforts, additional leaders may have experience that everyone is aware of and has practiced. They also These actions, in turn, can
they become more confident not only in preparing for the physical impacts of suggest creating an emergency kit with supplies, such as provide a greater sense of
the collective efficacy of the community climate change, but it is also important a flashlight, food and water, first aid supplies, and other individual security and
but also that help will be available when to be well-equipped for the potential things one might need during or after a disaster. Additional control. This section outlines
they themselves need it (Kaniasty, 2012; mental health impacts. Here are some items to include in an emergency kit, such as a book, some key steps individuals
Kaniasty & Norris, 2009). tips to help with preparing and religious literature or other spiritual items, journal, toys, or can take to prepare them-
responding to acute and gradual change: treats, can support mental health resilience. Awareness of selves for the mental health
Additional Resources for Responding to impacts of climate change.
Mental Health Needs After Disasters 1. Assess and expand the community your work or school’s emergency plans is also critical to
The following sites provide helpful mental health infrastructure. ensure a comprehensive plan. Doing so can help to alleviate
overviews of the steps emergency anxiety or worry, and potentially instill a sense of control
2. Facilitate social cohesion and security.
personnel and individuals can take to through community design.
care for themselves and others: Understand one’s own medical needs. Medications can
3. Train the people who will serve
• Centers for Disease Control the community during a disaster. have a wide number and variety of side effects, which can
and Prevention be intensified or present under certain changes in
4. Provide clear and frequent environment. For example, psychotropic medications can
• U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs information. impact body temperature regulation or water retention. In
• Washington, D.C. Government 5. Reduce disparities. extreme heat, this could lead to overheating and dehydration.
• American Psychiatric Association 6. Pay special attention to Ask your pharmacist to explain and provide documentation
vulnerable populations. on the side effects of your and your family’s medications
• Federal Emergency Management and include a cheat sheet of this information in your
Agency 7. Develop trusted and action- emergency kit.
• PreventionWeb focused warning systems.
8. Provide a fast response. Learn resilience interventions. Various intervention programs
• U.S. Department of Health and are offered to help people approach adversity with active
Human Services 9. Have a post-disaster plan. engagement and hope. For example, a capacity-building
• Substance Abuse & Mental Health 10. Ensure equitable and transparent intervention developed by Seligman and Peterson (2003)
Services Administration distribution of resources. aims to bolster people’s coping skills through a learned
• The National Child Traumatic optimism framework. The intervention helps people develop
11. Engage community members.
Stress Network a stronger sense of self-efficacy and feelings of control and
12. Increase cooperation and encourages them to practice adaptive strategies rather than
• International Critical Incidence social cohesion. disengaging from difficulty. In addition, resilience scholars
Stress Foundation 13. Provide opportunities for have noted the importance of staying physically active
• The Center for the Study of meaningful action. (Iacoviello & Charney, 2014). Physical activity helps regulate
Traumatic Stress mood and boosts confidence, which can be useful if one
must endure through trauma.

ACTIONS IN THE COMMUNITY


Develop and maintain social connections. Because of the
tremendous benefits of social support, it is essential that
people nurture their connection to family, friends, neighbors,
and other important social ties, such as people from their
54 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 55

WHAT MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS CAN DO

faith community. Taking the lead in 2. Be flexible and inclusive, respect Health and mental health practitioners have a unique role
organizing something that brings people cultural sensitivities, keep an open in influencing professional communities, the public, and
together, such as a community event, mind about what might need to be policymakers on the future well-being of our health and climate.
helps increase community social cohesion. changed, and make decisions with Education, awareness, communication, and involvement are
As already noted, participating in input from a variety of trusted key components in motivating engagement and action on
community-level action has multiple benefits community partners. climate solutions. This final section highlights opportunities
for the individual and the community. for health leaders to elevate their climate leadership.c
Projects can help increase awareness of
Support solutions to reduce and prevent available resources, such as the Disaster BECOME A CLIMATE-LITERATE PROFESSIONAL
further climate change. One way to take Distress Helpline. Importantly, these efforts In order to elevate leadership on climate change, awareness
action to address climate change within emphasize behaviors, thoughts, and of the potential impacts on mental health, as well as ways to
the community can be through public actions that can be learned and developed. protect it, must be increased.
awareness of clean energy or other Community skill-building can include
approaches to climate change mitigation. proactive resilience building, as well as • Use this report to increase knowledge about the mental
Discussing the co-benefits of clean trainings designed to organize community health impacts of climate change, and what you can do.
energy with family and friends spreads response in the aftermath of climate • Review the report’s reference material as needed to dive
the knowledge and facilitates change from disasters to reduce distress, foster short- deeper into available data and resources.
the ground up. This proactive approach term coping skills, and support • Assess for climate-induced anxiety, depression, etc.
can help provide those who are concerned long-term resilience.
about climate change some level of • Stay abreast of climate information, news, and the
breadth of solutions.
psychological “relief” and a sense of
accomplishment in helping others and KEY TAKEAWAYS: • Increase your capacity and skills to communicate
the environment. What Individuals Can Do effectively on climate change and mental health.

Start a community resilience project. Actions at Home ENGAGE OTHER MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
Building community resilience before
• Have household emergency plans Climate leadership can extend to fellow mental health
climate disruptions pays dividends in the
that are routinely practiced. colleagues, many of whom are just as concerned, and who
aftermath of trauma. Although these
would see benefit from being invited to engage on the
efforts traditionally might have been • Understand family medications issue. To help inspire and empower their leadership:
initiated by a government agency, and their side effects.
communities are beginning to understand • Learn resilience interventions. • Share successes, ideas, and best practices with your
that they are capable of organizing and professional associations and colleagues, and
spearheading such projects from within encourage them to join in taking a stand on climate.
and that these efforts can strengthen the Actions in the Community
• Facilitate a presentation or workshop at a regional or
fabric of communities in sustainable ways. • Connect with family, friends, national conference, and collaborate with peers to
Here are a few points to keep in mind when neighbors, and other groups to increase the power of your message. Colleagues will be
building a community resilience project: build strong social networks. more effective at making the connection between
• Support clean energy to prevent climate and mental health when they are given the
1. Gather a diverse team of
further climate change. education, tools, and ability to connect with and
stakeholders to create a shared
inspire their peers.
vision, catalog local resources, • Start a community resilience
identify gaps in services, and project.
create a manageable plan. BE VOCAL LEADERS WITHIN YOUR COMMUNITIES
Individuals in the mental health community have a respected
c. For additional resources, see
platform to influence and mobilize climate change discussions. ecoAmerica’s guide Let’s Talk Health
Their knowledge and network can influence the dialogue and Climate: Communication
and bring awareness to the interdependent relation of climate Guidance for Health Professionals.
56 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 57

change and mental health. They have the • Submit articles, letters to the editor,
opportunity to help guide our communities op-eds, and white papers on the topic A CLOSER LOOK
on a path of progress through clean, to newspapers, magazines, radio, Our Moral Obligation: The Duty to Warn and Act, Lise Van Susteren, MD
healthy climate solutions. social media, blogs, and TV outlets.
I am a doctor. A psychiatrist. Over the Why, then, are some mental health
• Educate local leaders on the mental • Offer to be media spokespeople on
climate and mental health. years, I have seen some of the darkest professionals slow to respond to this issue?
health impacts of climate change and parts of the human condition. Nothing has Are we in denial ourselves? Surely, we have
the mental health benefits of solutions. • Write a climate column for your prepared me for what I am now seeing. enough respect for science that the
• Encourage the broader community to organization’s blog, do podcasts, findings of 97% (Cook et al., 2016) of
protect and preserve personal, family, and/or share up-to-date news on Each day, our world devolves more quickly climate experts aren’t disputed. Surely,
and community health and mental social media. toward disruption from climate change. we don’t believe that destroying life is
health through climate preparedness • Participate in research efforts that get The news is coming at us from all sides— “not our problem.”
and prevention solutions. published for national distribution and CO2 emissions climbing, record-high
share your expertise on climate and temperatures, oceans increasingly We know change can be a challenge, but
• Have dialogues that enable
mental health through briefings with acidifying, coral reefs dying, ice sheets determined efforts to bring attention to
common ground.
key leaders and policymakers. melting, failing nations, the massive problems break down resistance. Action is
• Collaborate with fellow leaders to displacement of people. growing, but in the face of unprecedented
create community mental health • Collaborate with colleagues, community,
and climate advocates to influence danger, instability, and mounting impacts,
preparedness plans for climate- Those least responsible for the crisis will more is needed. We prod ourselves with
related disasters and impacts. policy design and outcomes. be hurt the most—the poor, the elderly, the questions, “Where are the journal
• Help create or support climate and the disabled, the emotionally vulnerable. articles, mission statements, letters to the
mental health programs and policies KEY TAKEAWAYS: The psychological toll is becoming more editor, the flood of calls to Congress that
locally and regionally. What Mental Health Leaders Can Do apparent—but much is being overlooked. show the full gravity of the crisis
I am seeing a growing number of climate registering? Where is the collective effort
• To illustrate commitment and
As trusted messengers, mental health Cassandras gripped by thoughts of future to break through denial and get people
authenticity, institute programs and
leaders have the opportunity to help harm, suffering from pre-traumatic stress to change—quickly?”
practices within your own organization
make the link between health and response (a before-the-fact version of
and personal behavior to reduce your
climate impact, such as energy saving climate. Here are some ideas to try: classic PTSD) because they know the Our canon of ethics says we have a duty to
programs, disaster preparedness world has not heard the warnings protect the public health and to participate
trainings, or incentives to use public • Become a climate-literate forcefully enough. in activities that contribute to it. Mental
transportation. professional and stay up-to-date health professionals are required in all 50
with current climate change news What can we do? Mental health states to report child abuse. It is a legal
• Coordinate communications efforts and communications best practices. professionals help people face reality, obligation, but it is also a moral one. Is it
and messages within your professional because we know living in denial can ruin any less a moral obligation to report that
community and at all levels of • Engage other mental health a person’s life. As the climate crisis unfolds, we are about to hand over a destroyed
government. professionals by facilitating we see people whose anger, anxiety, and
conversations and workshops that
planet for generations to come?
depression, caused by the shortcomings of
SUPPORT NATIONAL AND allow your colleagues to be more a previous generation, prevent them from Surely, in this time of crisis, as mental
INTERNATIONAL SOLUTIONS effective in inspiring action. leading productive lives themselves. health professionals, truth seekers and
Constructing solutions on a larger scale • Be vocal, model leaders within your We know about trauma from repeated healers, we will want to act. What are we
creates a clear and united approach to community by getting involved exposure to horrifying events. We are waiting for?
climate solutions and awareness of the locally to create support for trained, we are ethically bound, to respond
far-reaching impacts of climate change. climate solutions. to emergencies.
Health and climate experts, policy makers,
communicators, and other professionals have • Support national and international
the role and opportunity to set the stage solutions by publicly sharing your
for discussing relationship between climate expertise to influence the media,
and mental health. health leaders, and policymakers.
58 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 59

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68 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance American Psychological Association | ecoAmerica 69

GLOSSARY

Acute: A condition that is severe and Dysregulation: An abnormality or impairment Mindfulness: A mental state achieved by Self-efficacy: People’s belief in their own
sudden-onset. (pg. 24) in the metabolic, physiological, or psychological focusing one’s awareness on the present ability to succeed in a situation or to
regulation processes. (pg. 38) moment, while calmly acknowledging and accomplish a task. (pg. 44)
Adaptation: Modification to fit a changed accepting one’s feelings, thoughts, and bodily
environment or adjust to cultural surroundings. Ecoanxiety: A chronic fear of environmental sensations, used as a therapeutic technique. Self-regulation: A person’s ability to direct and
(pg. 25) doom. (pg. 29) (pg. 45) control his or her behavior and impulses. (pg. 26)

Agency: The feeling of being the agent Ecomigration: The migration of populations for Motivated cognition: A psychological Sense of self: An individual’s perception of his
exerting power over a given action. (pg. 38) economic or ecological reasons; often occurs as phenomenon that illustrates how incoming or herself, or self-image. (pg. 48)
a result of the deterioration of land. (pg. 31) information can be selectively interpreted and
Aggression: Hostile or violent behavior or Social capital: The aggregate of social resources
attitudes toward another; readiness to Environmental refugees: People who have used to reach specific, biased conclusions
or networks of relationships that enable a
attack or confront. (pg. 26) been forced to permanently or temporarily rather than ones based on an unbiased
community to function effectively. (pg. 31)
leave their traditional habitat because of a assessment of the evidence. (pg. 19)
Anxiety: A negative emotional state occurring natural or triggered environmental disturbance Social cohesion: The willingness of members
in some forms of mental disorder that cause Post-traumatic growth: Positive psychological
that seriously jeopardizes their quality of life of a society to cooperate with each other in
nervousness, fear, apprehension, and worry. change experienced as a result of a challenge
or existence. (pg. 31) order to survive and prosper. (pg. 31)
(pg. 24) or adversity in order to increase functioning.
Food insecurity: Being without reliable (pg. 42) Solastalgia: The lived experience of negatively
Arousal: Heightened physiological activity access to food that is sufficient in quantity perceived change to a home environment.
caused by reaction to stimuli. (pg. 26) Psychological distance: The extent to which
and quality. (pg. 10) (pg. 27)
an individual thinks about an event, person,
Cassandras: With origins in Greek mythology, Food safety: Handling, preparation, and storage or idea as abstract and separate from his or Somatize: To experience psychological distress
the Cassandra syndrome occurs when of food in ways that prevent food-borne illness. her current reality, instead of being concrete in the form of physical symptoms, such as
valid warnings or concerns are dismissed (pg. 13) and directly experienced. (pg. 18,6) headaches or stomachaches. (pg. 38)
or disbelieved. (pg. 59)
Group identity: Sense of belonging to a group. Psychopathology: A mental disorder in which Somatic: Mental disorders characterized by an
Causality: The mental experience that one (pg. 32) an individual displays amoral and antisocial emphasis on physical symptoms, such as pain
event follows another because one caused behavior and lacks the ability to love or establish or fatigue. (pg. 24)
the other. (pg. 38) Healthy community: A community with a meaningful personal relationships. (pg. 24)
strong social fabric and mutual support, that Suicidal ideation: Suicidal thoughts, or
Chronic: A condition that is a long-developing encourages civic involvement, allows people Phobic: Relating to phobia, which is a thoughts about how to kill oneself, which can
syndrome. Note that a chronic condition may to express themselves, and maintains structure persistent and irrational fear of a specific range from a detailed plan to a fleeting
cause an acute condition. (pg. 24, 29) and order (Moos, 2008). (pg. 47) object, activity, or situation that leads to a consideration that does not include the final
desire to avoid it. (pg. 24) act of killing oneself. (pg. 24)
Community efficacy: The sense within a Indirectly: An impact that is produced away
community that members have the resources from or as a result of a complex impact Resilient communities: Communities that Worldviews: Sets of deeply held beliefs and
and the ability to use them to achieve pathway. Also known as secondary or even continues to function and offers aid and attitudes about how the world works and how
common goals. (pg. 48) third-level. (pg. 24) kindness through adversity. (pg. 47) people should relate to one another. (pg. 19)

Critical incident stress management: Intergroup: A group that deals with two or Risky behavior: A lifestyle activity that places
An adaptive, short-term psychological helping more collections of different people; taking a person at increased risk of suffering a
process that focuses solely on an immediate place or being between groups. (pg. 23) particular condition, illness, or injury. (pg. 25)
and identifiable problem. It can range from
pre-incident preparedness to acute crisis Mental health: The ability to function Resilience: The ability of a person (or a
management to post-crisis follow-up. (pg. 50) cognitively and emotionally. community) to function in the face of
adversity, to survive, and, perhaps, even to
Directly: An impact that occurs through Meta-analysis: A statistical technique that thrive (Hobfoll, Stevens, & Zalta, 2015).
immediate interaction of an activity. (pg. 24) looks for significant patterns of results across The capacity to recover quickly from
multiple scientific studies. (pg. 24) adversity or difficulties. (pg. 10, 42)
70 Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Implications, and Guidance

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