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Department of Physics
Question Bank
Engineering Physics II – PH6251
UNIT-I – Conducting Materials
PART – A
1. What are the classifications of conducting materials?
Conducting materials are classified into
¾ Zero resistive materials. Ex.Superconductors
¾ Low resistive materials. Ex. Silver , Aluminium , Alloys
¾ High resistive materials. Ex. Tungsten, platinum ,Nichrome
5. Define the terms relaxation time, collision time and Mean free path of an electron.
Relaxation time: The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from
its disturbed position due to application of an external electric field is called relaxation time.
Collision time: It is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive collisions.
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Mean free path: The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied field is known as mean free path.
6. The mobility of electron in copper is 3x10-3 m2/Vs. Assuming e = 1.6x10-19C and me= 9.1x10-31
kg, calculate the Mean free time.
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9. What are the merits of classical free electron theory of metals?
¾ It is used to verify ohm’s law.
¾ The electrical and thermal conductivities of metals can be explained by this theory.
¾ It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.
¾ It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
10. Find the drift velocity of electrons copper wire whose cross sectional area is 1 mm2. When the
wire carries a current of 10 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes one electron of the
electron gas. Given n = 8.5x1028 /m3.
Drift velocity
11. A conducting rod contains 8.5x1028 electrons per m3. Calculate the electrical conductivity at
room temperature if the collision time for electron is 2 X 10-14 s.
13. What are the merits and demerits of quantum free electron theory?
Merits:
¾ This theory attracts the electron quantum mechanically rather than classically.
¾ It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity of
metals, photoelectric effect and Compton Effect.
Demerits
¾ Even though it explains most of the physical properties of the metals, it fails to state the
difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
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¾ It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some of the transport
properties of metals.
14. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.
Fermi level: It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at 0K.
Importance: It is the reference energy level that separates the filled energy levels and vacant
energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding to Fermi energy
level at 0K.
Importance: It determines the energy of the particle at any temperature.
15. Write down the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function and plot it as a function of
energy.
16. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0° K if the concentration of electrons is 8.5x1028 m-3
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and it is given by
19. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 W/m/k. Find the electrical conductivity and
Lorentz number when the metal possess relaxation time 10-14 seconds and 300 K.(Density of
electrons = 6 x 1028 /m3).
Electrical Conductivity
20. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.
m/s.
PART – B
1. i) Define Electrical conductivity. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of a metal by
using classical free electron theory.
Electrical conductivity: The quantity of electric charge flows in unit time per unit area of
cross section of the conductor per unit potential gradient.
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ohm–1 m–1
ii) Find the mobility of electrons in copper if there are 9x1028 valence electrons/m3 and the
conductivity of copper is 6x107 mho/m.
4.166 X
ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities for a metal with a relaxation time 10-14
second at 300 K. Also calculate Lorentz number using the above result. (Density of electrons
=6x1028 m-3).
Thermal conductivity
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K = 123.80 W/m/K
When an electric field of strength (E) is applied to the conductor, the force experienced
by the free electrons is given by F=–eE
From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the force acquired by the electrons can be written as
F=ma
Equating the above equations –eE=ma
Thermal conductivity:
The average kinetic energy of an electron at hot end ‘A’ of temperature (T) =
The average kinetic energy of an electron at cold end ‘B’ of temperature (T-dT) =
The net heat energy transferred from end A to B per unit area per unit time
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Amount of heat transferred per unit area per unit time is given by
Proof:
4. State and prove Wiedemann-Franz law. Why does the Lorentz number determined
experimentally does not agree with the value calculated from the classical theory.
Wiedemann-Franz law: This law states that “the ratio between the thermal conductivity and the
electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
metal”.
Proof:
T
5. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate the carrier
concentration in metals.
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The Fermi function F (E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a given energy
state, it does not gives the information about the number of electrons that can be filled in a
given energy state. To know that we should know the number of available energy states, so
called density of states
Density of state N (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present in a metal per
unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.
Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Carrier concentration
6. i) Starting with the density of energy states obtain the expression for the Fermi energy of an
electron at 0 K and hence obtain the expression for the average energy of an electron.
Carrier concentration
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=
ii) The Fermi energy of silver is 5.51 eV. What is the average energy of a free electron at 0 K.
7. i) Define mobility.
When electric field (E) is applied to metals, the electrons move in the direction
opposite to the field direction with the velocity ‘v’, then mobility of an electron is defined as the
velocity acquired by the electron per unit electric field (E).
Unit: m2V-1s-1.
iii) A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54x10-8 ohm/m at room temperature. For an
electric field along the wire of 1 Volt/cm, compute the average drift velocity of electron assuming
that there is 5.8x1028 conduction electrons/m3. Also calculate the mobility.
8. Write an expression for the Fermi energy distribution function F (E) and discuss its behaviour
with change in temperature. Plot F (E) versus E for T=0K, and T > 0K.
Fermi distribution function: The probability F (E) of an electron occupying a given energy
level is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function
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At T =0K and E= Ef
At T = any K
Due to the supply of thermal energy electrons in the lower energy level absorb
the supplied energy and move to higher energy level thereby creating vacant energy levels
below the Fermi energy level.
9. i) Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F (E) for the level just 0.01eV
above the Fermi level at 200 K.
ii) Evaluate the Fermi function of energy KBT above the Fermi energy.
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10. i) The density of silver is 10.5x103 kg/m3. The atomic weight of silver is 107.9. Each silver
atom provides one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20°C is 6.8 x107Ω-1m-1.
Calculate the density of electron and also the mobility of electrons in silver.
ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal with the relaxation time of
10-14 second at 300 K. The electron density is 6x1026 m-3.
Thermal conductivity K = L
K = 1.241 W/m/K.
iii) Calculate the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature in a metal. The Fermi velocity of
electrons in the metal is 0.86x106 m/s.
Fermi energy
Fermi Temperature
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UNIT-II – SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
PART A
1. Define semiconductor and mention its properties.
The material which has the electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators are
called semiconductors. It is special class of material very small in size and sensitive to heat,
light and electricity.
¾ The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meters.
¾ At 0K, they behave as insulators.
¾ They empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
¾ The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and
impurities.
¾ They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
¾ In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part in
conduction.
2. What is the band gap energy Eg ? Give its value for Germanium & Silicon.
Energy band gap (Eg) is the region of energies which are not occupied by the electrons
and is equal to the energy difference between minimum energy of conduction band (Ec) and
the maximum energy of valence band (Ev).
3. What are the differences between elemental and compound semiconductors? Give examples.
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6 They are used in the manufacture of They are used for making LED’s, laser
diodes and transistors, etc. diodes, IC’s, etc.
7 Examples: Ge, Si, etc. Examples: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.
6 Eg: Si, Ge, etc. Eg: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As,
etc.
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10. Why compound semiconductors are called direct band gap semiconductors? Give its
application.
During recombination the photons are emitted so they are called as direct band gap
Semiconductors.
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12. i) Define mobility.
Mobility is defined as the drift velocity acquired by a charge carrier per unit electric field
Strength. Its unit is m2 V-1 s-1
ii) Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long,1 mm wide, and 0.5mm thick at 300K.
For Ge, ni= 2.5 x 1019/m3, µe= 0.39 m2V-1 S-1 and µh= 0.19 m2V-1 S-1 at 300k.
13. Draw the diagram to show the variation of Fermi level with temperature of a p-type
semiconductor for high and low doping level.
14. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor increases while that of
metals decreases. Give reasons.
At 0K semiconductors behave as insulators. When the temperature is raised or when
impurities are added, their conductivity increases. In the case of conductors when the temperature
increases, the resistivity increases and hence the conductivity decreases.
15. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor at 0 K.
Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction band in an intrinsic
Semiconductors at 0 K. EF =
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In n-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level Ed and
In p-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level Ea and
the top of the valence band Ev EF =
16. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the position of EF at
T=300 k if mh* = 6 me*.
17. Given an extrinsic semiconductor, how will you find whether it is n-type or p-type?
19. The Hall Co-efficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is found to be 3.66x10-4 m-3/c.
The resistivity of specimen is 8.93x10-3 Ω m. Find the mobility and density of
charge carriers.
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dn = n =
dp = p =
2. Derive the intrinsic carrier concentration for intrinsic semiconductor and also calculate
the Fermi level and its variation with temperature.
n = p =ni
EF = log ( )+
EF =
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log i = log A -
iii) For an intrinsic GaAs, the room temperature of electrical conductivity is 10-6
(Ω m)-1. The electron and hole mobilities are 0.85 and 0.04 m2/V-s, respectively.
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.
4. Explain the method of determining the band gap of a semiconductor. Also describe
the experimental determination of Band gap.
I = A e-Eg/2KT
Derivation for log Ri = log C +
Eg = 2 k
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5. Obtain an expression for the carrier concentration of electrons in the conduction band
of n-type semiconductor.
Density of electrons per unit volume is n=2 e (EF – EC )/KT
6. Obtain an expression for the carrier concentration of holes in the Valence band of p-
type semiconductor.
p= 2 e (Ev – EF )/KT
7. i) With neat sketches, explain how Fermi level varies with impurity concentration
and temperature in n-type semiconductor.
Explanation about the following diagram
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ii) With neat sketches, explain how Fermi level varies with impurity concentration
and temperature in p-type semiconductor
Explanation about the following diagram
Explanation of
i) Intrinsic range
ii) Exhaustion range
iii) Impurity range
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9. ( i) Derive an expression of Hall coefficient and mobility of charge carriers. Describe
an experimental setup for the measurement of Hall coefficient.
Hall Effect statement:
( ii) The Hall co-efficient of certain silicon was found to be -7.35x10-5 m3C-1 from 100 to 400
k. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 200 m-1 Ω-1,
calculate the density and mobility of the charge carriers.
(i) Since hall coefficient is negative the given semiconductor is n-type.
(iii) Mobility =
10. (i) For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width Eg = 0.7 eV, calculate the
concentration of intrinsic charge carriers at 300 k assuming that me*= mh * = m0
(rest mass of electron).
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(ii) The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5 ohm-m at 20°C and 2.0 ohm-
m at 32°C. Find the energy band gap in eV.
1.66 X
(iii) A sample of silicon doped with 1023 phosphorous atoms/m3. Find the Hall
voltage in a sample with thickness =100 µm, current, Ix=1mA and magnetic field
Bz=0.1 Wb/m2.(Assume electron mobility µe=0.07 m2/V.s)
Hall voltage
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UNIT -3 - MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
PART – A
1. Classify magnetic materials based on their magnetic moments.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom
can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called bohr magnetron. 1 Bohr
magnetron = µB = 9.27 x 10-24 Am2
Intensity of magnetization: The term magnetization means the process of converting a non-
magnetic material into a magnetic material. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume. I= Unit: Weber /m2.
Flux density: It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of forces passing normally through
unit area of cross section. B= Unit: Weber/m2 or Tesla.
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5. A magnetic field of 2000 A/m is applied to a material which has a susceptibility of 1000.
Calculate the (i) Intensity of Magnetisation and (ii) Flux density.
Intensity of Magnetization
Flux Density
Magnetic susceptibility: It is defined as the ratio between intensity of magnetisation and the
Magnetic permeability: It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density (B) inside the
7. A magnetic field of 1800 ampere/metre produces a magnetic flux of 3x10-5 Weber in an iron
bar of cross sectional area 0.2 cm2. Calculate permeability.
Retentivity is the amount of magnetic induction retained in the material even after the magnetic
field is removed.
Coercivity is the amount of magnetising field applied in the reverse direction to remove the
residual magnetism completely from the material.
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3 Susceptibility and permeability is high. Susceptibility and permeability is low.
4 Retentivity and Coercitivity are small. Retentivity and Coercitivity are large.
5 They have low eddy current loss. They have high eddy current loss.
6 These materials are free from These materials have large amount of
irregularities like strain or impurities. impurities and lattice defect.
The product of retentivity (Br) and coercivity (Hc) is called energy product. It represents
the amount of energy stored in the specimen. The value of energy product is very high for
permanent magnets.
Energy product = Br x Hc
¾ It should be pure i.e., the residual resistivity due to scattering by impurities (ρ0) should be
zero.
¾ It should be cooled below transition temperature i.e., the ideal resistivity due to scattering
by phonons (ρT) should be zero.
¾ Magnetic induction in the material should be zero when it is placed in external magnetic
field.
The temperature at which the normal conductor loses its resistivity and becomes a
superconductor is known as transition temperature or critical temperature (TC). The magnetic field
at which the superconducting property of a material disappears is called as critical magnetic field.
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15. What is isotope effect?
19. Calculate the critical current for a wire of lead having a diameter of 1mm at 4.2 K. Critical
temperature for lead is 7.18 K and H0 = 6.5x104 A/m.
20. The critical temperature for Hg with isotopic mass 199.5 at 4.184 K. Calculate the critical
temperature when its mass changes to 203.4.
MαTc = constant
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Mα 1Tc1 = Mα 2Tc =
= x
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2. Explain ferromagnetic domain theory. Briefly explain different types of energy involved in
domain growth.
3. i) Draw the B-H curve (Hysteresis) for a ferromagnetic material and explain the same on the
basis of domain theory.
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materials in detail.
A given material has a susceptibility of 900. Determine the relative permeability of the material.
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ii) Iron has relative permeability of 5000. Calculate its magnetic susceptibility.
5. i) What are ferrites? Explain the structure of ferrites, properties and its applications.
These are compounds of iron oxides with oxides of other metals. Ferrites are the magnetic
compounds consisting of two or more different kinds of atoms. Generally ferrites are
Inverse spinel
Properties
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¾ They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.
Applications
Ferrites are used as transformer cores for frequencies upto microwaves. This is because
the eddy current problem which prevents the penetration of magnetic flux into the material is
so much less severe in ferrites than in iron.
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e. Meissner effect: When a weak magnetic field is applied to a superconducting specimen
at a temperature below transition temperature (Tc), the magnetic flux lines are expelled.
The specimen acts as an ideal diamagnet. This effect is called “Meissner effect”.
f. Isotope effect: In superconducting materials, “the Tc varies with the average isotopic
mass of their constituents”.
Tc α Mα
MαTc = constant
7. i) What is Meissner effect? Prove that all superconductors are perfect dia-magnet in
superconducting state.
For a superconductor, B = 0
Therefore, 0
Since
H+I=0
I = -H
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ii) Discuss the important features and the prediction of BCS theory.
¾ The cooper pairs are propagated through the lattice without resistance because the
electrons move in resonance with phonons.
Predictions
¾ It explains the existence of an energy gap between the ground state and first excited
state.
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ii) Explain High temperature superconductors in detail.
In a superconductor if the transition temperature is high i.e., greater than 100K, then it
is called high temperature superconductor.
a. Superconductors are used for the production of high magnetic field magnets.
b. By using superconducting materials, it is possible to manufacture electrical generators
and transformers.
c. Superconducting materials are used in the construction of very sensitive electrical
measuring instruments such as galvanometers.
d. Superconducting materials are used for power cables, which will enable transmission of
power over very long distances without any significant power loss or drop in voltage.
e. It is used to study tiny magnetic signals from brain and heart.
ii) Superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic field and a
critical field of 0.0306 tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
AC Josephson Effect: when a Dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction through
which super current is flowing, an AC current is noticed.
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DC Josephson Effect: the tunnelling of superconducting electron pairs through Josephson
junction leads to the flow of current without the application of voltage.
iii) SQUID: SQUID is the acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It
is a double junction quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions mounted on a
superconducting ring forms this interferometer. Squids are based on the flux quantization in
the superconducting ring. The total magnetic flux passing through the ring is quantized. It is a
weak ultra-sensitive measuring instrument used for detection of very weak magnetic field in
the order of 10-14 tesla.
iv) Magnetic Levitation: The magnetic levitation is based on the diamagnetic property of
a superconductor which is rejection of magnetic flux lines. A superconductor can be
suspended in air against the repulsive force from a permanent magnet. This magnetic
levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation without frictional loss.
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UNIT - IV – Dielectric Materials
PART – A
1. What are Dielectrics?
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipoles permanently or have an
ability to produce enormous induced dipoles by the application of external electric field.
(ε0)
If the medium has high dielectric constant, it is easily polarized and behaves as a good electric
insulator.
5. What are the types of polarization mechanism involved in dielectric material?
¾ Electronic polarization
¾ ionic polarization
¾ Orientational polarization
¾ Space charge polarization
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6. What are the differences between polar and non polar molecules?
S.No Polar molecules Non-polar molecules
1 These molecules have permanent These molecules do not have permanent
dipole moment even in the absence of dipole moments.
the electric field.
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¾ It must have high resistance.
¾ It must possess high dielectric strength.
¾ It should have adequate chemical stability.
¾ It must have high moisture resistance.
11. Calculate the polarization produced in a dielectric medium of dielectric constant 6 and it is
subjected to an electric field of 100 V/m. Given ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m.
P = 4.425 X
12. A capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area 200 cm2 each separated by a dielectric
constant ε = 3.7 of thickness 1mm. Find the capacitance and the electric flux density when a
potential of 300 V is applied. (ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m).
Capacitance
14. The dielectric constant of a He gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic
polarizability of He atoms if the gas contains 2.7 x 1025 atoms/m3 and hence evaluate the
radius of the He atoms. Given ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m.
Electronic polarizability
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=
• It relates the microscopic quantity with macroscopic quantity
• It relates the dielectric constant of the material with polarisability.
16. If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000V/m and the resulting polarization is
4.3x10-8 C/m2. Calculate the relative permeability of NaCl.
18. Find the capacitance of layer of Al2O3 having 0.5 μm and area 2500 mm2 with εr = 8.
Capacitance
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When a dielectric material acquires electric polarization due to the external mechanical
pressure, it is called Piezo electricity and these materials are known as Piezo electrics.
1. Define the following. Give the necessary equations relating the above quantities.
a .Dielectric constant.
It is defined as the ratio of absolute permittivity of the medium to the
permittivity of free space.
b. Polarizability .(α)
The average dipole moment of a system is proportional to the applied electric field.
c. Polarization vector.
If ࣆ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of
molecules per unit volume , the polarisation vector is defined as dipole moment per unit
volume of the dielectric material.
=N
d. Electric flux density : The number of electric lines passing through unit area of
cross section.
e. Electric Susceptibility.
The polarisation vector is proportional to the applied electric field
strength.
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= = -1
2. Discuss electronic and ionic polarizations with examples in detail.
ELECTRONIC POLARISATION
Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons of an atom in opposite directions on the application of electric
field. Ex : Inert gases
Derivation for αe
Without electric field:
With electric field: When the dielectric is placed in an electric field (E), two phenomenon
occur. (i) Lorentz force due to the electric field tends to separate the nucleus and the electron
cloud from their equilibrium position. FL = -ZeE
(ii) After separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and electron
cloud which tries to maintain the original equilibrium position.
µind = αe E where αe = 4
IONIC POLARISATION
directions. This occurs in ionic dielectrics by the influence of external electric field. Ex: Ionic
Derivation for ( =
3. Explain the different types of polarization mechanisms involved in a dielectric material.
Electronic Polarisation: Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement of positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons of an atom in opposite directions on the
application of electric field. Ex : Inert gases
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Derivation for αe
Without electric field
With electric field
µind = αe E where αe = 4
Ionic Polarisation.
Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite
directions. This occurs in ionic dielectrics. by the influence of external electric field. Ex: Ionic
Derivation for
( =
Orientation Polarisation.
Orientation polarisation takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics
have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of an electric field.
Derivation for
αo =
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4. Explain the frequency and temperature dependence of all type of polarization in dielectrics.
If an alternating electric field is applied across the material, polarisation occurs as a
function of time. ie P(t) = P [1 - e-t/tr ]
Temperature Dependence
¾ Electronic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
¾ Ionic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
¾ Orientatinal Polarisation: increase in temperature decrease the polarisation.
¾ Space charge polarisation: increase in temperature increases the polarisation.
5. What is meant by local field in a dielectric? And how it is calculated for a cubic structure?
Deduce the Clausius – Mosotti relation.
When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field (E), two fields are exerted due to (i)
external Electric field (ii) dipole moment created. These long range Coulomb field which is
responsible for polarization of each atom or molecule is known as internal field or local
field and is given by,
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Eint = E1 + E2 +E3 + E4
=
6. i) A solid contains 5x1028 identical atoms /m3, each with a polarizability of 2x10-40 Fm2.
Assuming that internal field is given by the Lorentz relation, calculate the ratio of internal
field to the applied field. (ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m)
v) The dielectric constant of water is 80. Is water a good dielectric? Is it useful for energy
storage in capacitors? Justify your answer.
Though the dielectric constant of water is 80 at 20C or 293K it is not a good dielectric
material because of the following reasons.
1. At normal temperature the electrical conductivity of water is very high
2. At normal temperature current lead the voltage by a very less angle i.e., cos θ is
very less which leads to very high loss angle (δ) and hence tan δ is very high
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3. The dissipation factor and hence the power loss is very high. Thus water cannot be used
as dielectric for energy storage in capacitors.
7. What is dielectric loss? Derive the expression for dielectric power loss.
Dielectric loss: When a dielectric material is subjected to an A.C voltage the electrical energy
is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of electrical
energy is called dielectric loss.
Expression for dielectric loss
PL = VI cos θ
PL = VI cos 90
PL = 0
For a practical dielectric material
PL = 2 f C V2 tan δ
tan δ – power factor
8. What are the different types of dielectric break down in dielectric medium? Discuss in detail
the various types of dielectric breakdown.
Dielectric breakdown: When the dielectric is subjected to a heavy voltage, beyond the critical
value it loses its insulation property because electrons start jumping from valence band to the
conduction band. Hence a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits large value of current
to flow through it. This is known as dielectric breakdown.
Types of dielectric breakdown
• Intrinsic breakdown and avalanche breakdown
• Thermal breakdown
• Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown
• Discharge breakdown
• Defect breakdown
Explanation of each breakdown and its characteristics.
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9. What is ferroelectricity? Explain the properties of ferro electric material. Give examples and
mention the applications.
Ferro electric materials
Some materials which exhibit electronic polarisation even in the absence of the applied
electric field and thus they produce electricity. This electricity is known as
Ferroelectricity. Materials are called Ferroelectric materials.
Ex:
1. Barium titanate. (Ba Tio3)
2. Potassium dihydrogen phosphate(KH2PO4)
3. Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate.(NH4H2PO4)
4. Lithium Niobate(LiNbO3)
5. Rochelle salt(NaKC4H4O6, 4H2O)
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UNIT – V ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
PART – A
1. Define Met glasses.
Metallic glasses are new type of engineering materials which shares the properties of
both metals and glasses. They are metal-metal or metal-metalloid alloy glasses having
amorphous nature.
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¾ Metallic glasses have high resistivity and they can be used to make computer memories,
magneto-resistance sensors etc.
¾ Since Metallic glasses can behave as superconductors, they are used in the production of
high magnetic fields.
¾ Metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and so they can be used in nuclear reactors.
¾ Metallic glasses are high corrosion resistant and they can be used in reactor vessels,
surgical clips, marine cables, etc.
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of top-down process. Instead of taking the material away to make structures, the bottom up
process selectively adds atoms to create structures.
Example: pulsed lased deposition, chemical vapor deposition, etc.
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PART – B
1. What are metallic glasses? Describe the preparation and properties and applications of metallic
glasses.
Metallic Glasses
Metallic glasses are amorphous metallic solids which combines both the properties of
metals and glasses. They have high strength, good metallic and corrosion resistance
properties. Eg: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu, etc.
Preparation Technique
Melt spinning method
Properties of Metallic Glasses
¾ Structural properties
¾ Mechanical properties
¾ Electrical properties
¾ Magnetic properties
¾ Chemical properties
Application of Metallic Glasses
¾ Structural application
¾ Electrical and Electronics
¾ Metallic glasses as transformer core material
¾ Nuclear reactor engineering.
¾ Bio medical application.
2. How are metallic glasses prepared? Explain how the melt spinner device can be used to
produce met glasses.
Preparation of metallic glasses
1. Twin roller
2. Melt spinning
3. Melt extraction
Melt spinning technique – Extreme rapid cooling of the molten metal alloy (rapid quenching).
Due to rapid cooling atoms are arranged irregularly and form metallic glasses.
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3. Explain the properties and application of metallic glasses also mentions its types with
examples.
Properties of Metallic Glasses
¾ Structural properties
They do not have any crystal defects.
They have tetrahedral close packing structure.
¾ Mechanical properties
They have extremely high strength.
They have high elasticity.
They have high ductility.
They are not work-harden but they are work-soften.
¾ Electrical properties
Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with temperature.
Eddy current loss is very small.
Temperature coefficient is zero or negative.
¾ Magnetic properties
They have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
They exhibit high saturation magnetisation.
They have less core losses.
Metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis loop.
¾ Chemical properties
They are highly resistance to corrosion due to random ordering.
They are highly reactive and stable.
They act as a catalyst.
Application of Metallic Glasses
¾ Structural application
¾ Electrical and Electronics
¾ Metallic glasses as transformer core material
¾ Nuclear reactor engineering.
¾ Bio medical application.
4. What are shape memory alloys? Describe the characteristics of SMA and its applications.
Shape Memory Alloys: The ability of metallic alloys to regain its original shape while
heating or cooling is called as shape memory alloys. Ex: Ni-Ti alloys, Cu Zn Al, Cu Al Ni, Au-
Cd, Ni-Mn-Ga and Fe based alloys.
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Phases of Shape Memory Alloys
Austenite – High temperature phase having cubic structure.
Martensite – Low temperature phase having monoclinic structure.
Characteristics of Shape Memory Alloys
1. Shape Memory Effect: the change of shape of a material at low temperature by loading
and regaining of original shape by heating it, is known as Shape Memory Effect.
2. Pseudo elasticity
3. Super elasticity
4. Hysteresis: It is defined as the difference between the temperatures at which a material is
50% transformed into austenite while heating and 50% transformed to martensitic while
cooling.
Advantages
1. Good bio-compatibility
2. Good mechanical properties and good corrosion resistance.
3. High power and weight ratio
Disadvantages
1. Poor fatigue properties.
2. Low energy efficiency
Applications
1. Eye glass frames
2. Toys
3. Helicopter blades
4. Coffee valves
5. Mirco- surgical instruments
6. Dental arch wires
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5. i) Mention the properties of Ni –Ti alloy.
¾ Ni-Ti alloy has high shape memory alloy.
¾ The density of Ni-Ti is 6450 Kg m-3.
¾ It is more flexible.
¾ It has high melting point.
¾ The transformation temperature varies from -200 C to 110C.
¾ It has high thermal stability and corrosion resistance.
¾ The thermal conductivity varies from 8.5 to 18 WK-1M-1.
Disadvantages
¾ Poor fatigue properties.
¾ Low energy efficiency
6. What are nanomaterials? Explain the preparation, properties and applications nanomaterials.
Nanomaterials are materials having grain sizes in the order of 1 to 100nm.
Synthesis
1. Top down approach – process of breaking down bulk material to nano size.
2. Bottom up approach – nanomaterials are made by building atom by atom.
Synthesis of nanomaterial’s
1. Pulsed laser deposition
2. Chemical vapor deposition
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Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction chamber
at elevated temperature usually under vacuum. As they pass over or come into contact with a
heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase. They are deposited onto the
substrate. The substrate temperature is critical and can influence what reactions will take
place.
Properties of Nanomaterials
1. Electrical properties
2. Optical properties
3. Chemical properties
4. Mechanical properties
5. Magnetic properties
Applications of Nanomaterials
1. Used to produce color paints
2. Used in thermal protection and current controlling devices.
3. Used in data storage
4. Used in hydrogen storage devices.
5. Used in drug delivery.
6. Used in semiconductor laser and CD’s.
7. Used as sunscreens.
nanotubes.
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ii) Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction
chamber at elevated temperature usually under vacuum. As they pass over or come into
contact with a heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase. They
are deposited onto the substrate. The substrate temperature is critical and can influence
what reactions will take place.
8. i) Explain Birefringence.
The appearance of double refraction under the influence of an external agent is known
as artificial double refraction or induced birefringence. The property of double refraction
can be induced in an isotropic material by the application of (i) a mechanical strain (ii) an
electric field or (iii) a magnetic field.
9. Explain the origin of non-linear optics? How are second harmonic wave generated.
Non – linear optics: In some materials, the intensity and frequency of the output is not
linearly proportional to the intensity and frequency of the incident light input. This effect is
called nonlinear effect.
Ex: Lithium tantalite, Lithium niobate, Barium sodium niobate, etc.
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Second harmonic generation: second order generation represents the generation of new
frequencies with the help of crystals such as quartz, LiO3, etc.
In nonlinear medium for higher fields i.e., higher intensities of light the nonlinear effects are
observed.
10. Explain biomaterials, classification and its modern application in field of medicine.
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of medicine are
known as biomaterials. These materials are used to make devices to replace damaged or
diseased body parts in human and animal bodies.
Classification of biomaterials
¾ Metals and alloys biomaterials
¾ Ceramics biomaterials
¾ Polymer biomaterials
¾ Composite biomaterials
Applications
¾ Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and used for implant hip
endoprosthesis.
¾ Ni-Ti shape memory alloy is used in dental arch wires, micro surgical instruments,
blood clot filters, guide wires, etc.
¾ Ceramic implants such as Al2O3 with some SiO2 and alkali metals are used to make
femoral head.
¾ Carbon has good biocompatibility with bone and other tissues.
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