MTB181 April 1988

Dynamic Blade Stress on Marine Propellers Operating in Wake of Ship's Hull

Takao Sasajima*

In order to achieve reliable ship operation, it is indispensable to check the dynamic strength of propeller blades in the early design
stages. For this purpose, a modified quasi-steady approach was proposed for conventional propellers. This approach includes the
introduction of an averaged wake with weight function along the chord, contraction effect on the wake and a modification of
Kito-Izubuchi's beam theoly.
Comparison with full-scale data, obtained previously during a voyage of the container ship 'HAKONE MARU", showed
agreement with the results of the above approach. Also, the study was extended to cover Problems with the strength of highly skewed
propellers, which have recently become widely used to reduce propeller induced excitation forces. Due to the complexity of their
geometry, highly skewed propellers require careful strength design. By applying a propeller lifting surface program and the finite
element method, criteria were proposed for selecting skew. These criteria were shown to be useful by the blade stress measurements
of a skewed propeller series in non-uniform flow and also in transient conditions.

1. Introduction
In designing a marine propeller, there are two important
aspects to be considered: i.e., the hydrodynamic aspects,
including efficiency, propeller excitation, cavitation erosion
and propeller rpm matching; and the strength aspect caused by
hydrodynamic and centrifugal forces on propeller blades.
Since the latter, i.e., the strength of the propeller blade, is fatal
to the reliable operation of ships, great efforts have been made
to establish a standard method to ensure the strength of
propellers. For this reason classification societies have been
involved in this matter".
A marine propeller operates in the wake of a ship's hull.
Since the wake is not uniform, the propeller blade load varies
during each revolution of the propeller. This dynamic blade
load causes periodical changes in blade stress during each
revolution of the propeller. The strength of the propeller is
determined by the geometry of the blade, the level of dynamic
blade load and the mechanical properties of the material.
Strength design of propeller blades has been based mainly on
the mean blade estimated from the engine output characteris-
tics. The effect of dynamic load has only been taken into
account as the empirical safety factor of the design stress of
the material. The corrosion fatigue strength of the material,
such as Nickel aluminum bronze (NiAlBz), is considered to be
the basis for design stress by all classification societies(2)-(6),
since a propeller operates in corrosive sea water under
periodically varying loads.
After high speed single screw container ships were put into
service in the late 1960's some cases of propeller blade fracture
due to fatigue were reported in the early 1970's(7)-1". Even
though certain casting defects or thermal residual stress at
spots repaired by welding are responsible for the initiation of
fatigue fractures, it was concluded that dynamic load on
propeller blades was closely related to the fatigue fracture of
the blades. Thus the estimation of dynamic blade stress has
been recognized as being important in the course of propeller
design.
In order to understand the actual conditions of the blade
stress of a propeller, full-scale measurements were carried out
on the container ship "HAKONE MARU" during service.
This was done as part of a research project of the Shipbuilding
Research Association of Japan". The most difficult problem
in conducting full-scale measurements of propeller blade stress
Nagasaki Research & Development Center, Technical Headquarters
was to protect the strain gauges and lead wires against
corrosive sea water and hydrodynamic forces acting on the
protruding parts of the strain gauges. This was solved by
applying a new method and full-scale data were obtained
successfully on the propeller mounted on the container ship.
By referring to these full-scale data, a simple and useful
method of estimating dynamic blade stress was proposed. This
method comprised the beam theory, a modified quasi-steady
approach to estimating propeller load and the estimation of
wake distribution. Even though recent high speed computers
enable us to use the unsteady propeller lifting surface theory
and finite element method, the method proposed for conven-
tional propellers is a useful tool in the early stages of propeller
design.
On the other hand, in the late 1970's vibration problems in
ships became one of the most serious concern due to the strong
demands of ship owners to make ships comfortable in their
accommodation of crews("). There are two ship excitation
sources related to the propeller, i.e., shaft force and surface
force. Shaft force consists of 6 elements of fluctuating forces
and moments, caused by dynamic blade load, which are
transmitted to the ship's hull through the stern tube bearing.
The surface force acts on the ship's hull at the stern as pressure
fluctuations induced by the unsteady cavitation of the propel-
ler. Both forces are related directly to the geometry of the
propeller, the loading of the propeller and the wake of the
ship's hull. In the early 1970's, the idea of highly skewed
propellers was introduced to reduce shaft force("). Judging
from the interaction process involving a skewed propeller and
the wake of ship's hull, it is reasonable to believe that highly
skewed propellers are also effective in reducing surface force.
However, in designing highly skewed propellers, consider-
ation of strength becomes most important due to its
`boorneran'-type geometry. Not only bending, but also tor-
sional, moment ad on the blade, and blade stress distribution
on the propeller blade becomes quite complicated. Thus, the
simple beam theory cannot be applied and a more sophisticated
blade stress calculation method is needed.
In such circumstances, a series of skewed propellers for a
full ship was experimentally examined by measuring dynamic
blade stress in the wake in a cavitation tunnel and in transient
conditions in a towing tank. On the basis of the results, criteria
for designing highly skewed propellers from the viewpoint of
1
MTB181 April 1988

blade strength were proposed. Then, based on these criteria, Design conditions
ship's hull. propeller
survey design was conducted using the lifting surface theory
and finite element method, and practical guidance in selecting Principal specifi- Principal specifi -
the skew angle of highly skewed propellers was proposed. cations of ship cations tf prOpeller

As an example of the application of this method, a highly

skewed propeller was designed for a container ship. Model I
charts iWake data
I-Propeller
tests were conducted in a simulated wake in a cavitation
IOpen -wa er I Model wake I
tunnel. The results were discussed focussing on the fatigue characte istics distribution

strength of the material and it was shown that the criteria and
guidance were useful. I Ship's wake I
distribution
In this paper, two kinds of topic relating to blade strength
are discussed. In Chapter 2, a method of estimating the t't

Effective wake
dynamic blade stress of conventional propellers is discussed in distribution

reference to full-scale measurement data. In Chapter 3, the

strength design criteria for highly skewed propellers and a Averaged average
wake distribution wake distribution
practical guidance in selecting skew angle are both proposed IWeighted
on the basis of ex-periments and design studies. Finally, the
Quasi -steady calculation of torque,
conclusions obtained from these studies are summarized and Thrust fluctuations of one btade

proposals are made for the scope of future works which should
be conducted. Radial load
distribution

2. Estimation of dynamic blade stress on conventional

Blade stress
propellers calculation

2.1 Introduction Fig. 1 Flow chart of dynamic blade stress

In order to estimate the dynamic blade stress on a
full-scale propeller operating in the wake of a ship's hull, there
are three steps to be considered.
These are:
estimation of the ship's wake
estimation of the dynamic blade load of a propeller
operating in the ship's wake
estimation of the blade stress on a propeller
The flow chart for dynamic blade stress estimation is summa-
rized in Fig. 1.
(1) Estimation of ship's wake
The first step is to estimate non-uniform velocity or wake
distribution in the propeller plane. Due to the spatial
non-uniformity of axial and tangential velocities caused by
the separation of the boundary layers on a ship's hull, the
angle of attack of the relative flow to the propeller blade
section changes during each revolution of the blade, which
induces unsteady pressure distribution and thus, force on the
blade. This unsteady force or spatially changing load to the
blade is called dynamic blade load.
Usually, nominal wake distribution in the propeller plane
of the model of a ship is measured using a 5-hole or 8-hole
Pitot tube') and recently using an LDV system in a towing
Wile's). If we consider the large difference between the
Reynolds number reached in model tests (-107 range) and
that reached in full-scale conditions (-109 range), it can
easily be expected that correction is to be introduced to the
result of model tests.
Sasajima et al."6) were the first to introduce the method of
estimating the wake distribution of a ship from model test
results, taking into account the difference in boundary layer
thickness and frictional resistance. This method, with those
used by Hoekstrau7) and Dyne", is called extrapolation-
type and used today, since direct calculation of the wake
field using the viscous flow theory is still beyond our
estimation
means"9) . In this paper, Sasajima's method was simplified
so that it could easily be used in the early stages of propeller
design"(20.
Estimation of dynamic blade load
In estimating dynamic blade load, there are three methods,
the quasi-steady method, the unsteady lifting line theory
and the unsteady lifting surface theory. The quasi-steady
method, which was first introduced by Lewis(77) in the field of
ship hydrodynamics, was extended by MaCarthy(73) in 1961
to estimating thrust and torque changes of propellers in a
wake. The advantage of this method is simple and still gives
good approximation if the unsteadiness is not so great. Even
though a more rigorous unsteady lifting line theory(24) and
unsteady lifting surface theories(")-("), are available nowa-
days, this method is still useful for checking propellers in
their early design stages, since detailed data are not always
available in the early stage of propeller design and high
speed computer calculation requires a lot of time. That is
why, in this paper, modification of the quasi-steady method
was proposed.
Estimation of blade stress
Blade stress calculation methods have changed from the
beam theory(") to the shell theory(3)(32) and to the finite
element method (FEM)(33)(34). This movement is closely
related to changes in the type of marine propellers being
used. For conventional propellers, the beam theory gave a
good estimation of the blade stress around the root, but with
the increase in the area of propeller blades doubt arose as to
whether the propeller blade could be represented by a simple
cantilever. So attempts were made to represent the propeller
blade as part of a shell. These attempts, however, were not
so successful(32) and the FEM, which was developed and used
for structural analysis, was introduced into blade stress

2
 MTB181 April 1988

Table 1 Principal dimensions of the "HAKONE MARU" and

its propeller Generating line
Hull Propeller 1.0 R

L(m) 175.00 D(m) 6.700 Direc. Right

Line of maximum
0.9 R
a.u.D(m) 26.00 P(m) 6.700 P/D 1.000 thickness

dm.(m) 9.50 A.,(m') 35.257 A p/ A. 0.834

(ton) 24 810 A,(mz) 23.000 21./A, 0.652

0.7 R Leading
Engine A(m2) 19.200 APIA., 0.545
edge
Type MAN K101 93/107E d(m) 1.280 d/D 0.191

Power (MCR) 27 800BHP 5 t/c) 0., 0.051

0.50
Rev. (MCR) 115rpm Rake(deg.) 8.0 Material NiAlBz Strain
Trailing
gauge
Sec. edge
R marks

calculation with a computer code. The FEM is indispensable
to designing highly skewed propellers, but for conventional
propellers, the beam theory is still useful if the load
distribution in a radial direction is properly used(35)(36). In
this context, Kito-Izubuchi's method") was modified.
In this chapter, full-scale measurements of blade stress on
a propeller are discussed first, because this study was
motivated by the occurrence of blade fractures in the early
1970's. It was thought that it was important to understand the
blade stress level of a high speed container ship in service.
Full-scale measurements of blade stress on propellers are not
necessarily new. In 1959, the 30th Committee of the Japan
Shipbuilding Research Association conducted full-scale mea-
surements of blade stress on a propeller mounted on a small
training ship("), but the data were limited due to the shortage
of measuring techniques and instruments. Also, Wereldsmes)
conducted full-scale measurements of blade stress on a
propeller mounted on a 42 000 DWT tanker in 1964 and in the
early 1970's in view of the same kinds of blade fracture trouble
experienced by high-speed ships. Full-scale measurements
were also conducted in the U.S.A.19' and in West
Germany (7)(8)(10).
Based on these full-scale data, a simple but useful method
of estimating dynamic blade stress was discussed. For this
purpose an averaged wake along the chord was introduced into
quasi-steady calculation, and the simplified wake estimation
method and beam theory were used(")(") as mentioned before.
For further improvement, an averaged wake along the
chord with weight function and the introduction of effective
wake was discussed")(").
2.2 Full-scale measurements of blade stress on marine
propeller
2.2.1 Methods of measurement
Full-scale measurements of blade stress were conducted
using the container ship "HAKONE MARU"(2°)(21). The
principal dimensions of the ship and the propeller are shown in
Table 1.
The arrangement of 28 strain gauges (9 three-component
strain gauges and 1 single strain gauge) on the face side of the
propeller blade are shown in Fig. 2. The points of measure-
ment were so chosen to avoid cavitation from the gauge and
lead-wire coatings based on cavitation tests on a model
propeller. The radial components of gauges No.1 through No.
5 were fixed along the tangent to the maximum thickness line
of the blade, while those of the other gauges were fixed in a
radial direction.
0.3R
Fig. 2 Arrangement of strain gauges on blade
Fig. 3 Strain gauges and coating after completion
The strain gauges and lead-wires were protected against
sea water corrosion by a double coating method, which was
newly developed through experiments in high-speed cavitation
tunnel and in preliminary full-scale application.Fig. 3 shows a
photograph of the blade treated in the above manner.
All the data measured by the strain gauges were recorded
on two paper-oscillographs and data recorders for later
detailed analysis, together with data specifying the measuring
conditions.
2.2.2 Full-scale measurements
Measurements were conducted during the 39th voyage of
the "HAKONE MARU" in August, 1972, between Kobe and
the west coast of the U.S.A.
The insulation resistance and zero point of the strain
gauges were checked whenever possible. The insulation
resistance of the strain gauges became almost constant at
about 400 KS2 after gradual fall in 10 days' submergence of the
propeller, shortly before departure from the port of Tokyo for
Los Angeles. Fluctuations in blade strain were measured with
sufficient accuracy, though the drift of zero point was inevi-
table to some extent.
Sea conditions were generally calm on the voyage and a
lot of data on the fluctuations in blade strain due to a
non-uniform wake were obtained. On the day before arrival in
Tokyo, the sea became quite rough and valuable data on the
fluctuations in blade strain due to the ship's motion were
obtained. Furthermore, turning tests with 4 rudder angles

3
AATB181 April 1988

1 revolution
Propeller top mark

Torque Thrust

Gauge mark : IOR Sea -water level detector

IT
IS
IR

Synchronous mark Propeller top mark L revolution

Acceleration

4411114t
Pitching

Rolling Rudder angle0

'---111. Fig. 4 Typical data reproduced

from data recorder
Gauge mark : 4R

Gauge mark :IR Tokyo -Los Angeles 64%, D.W. Load

N=11Orpm
0
0 0
8 CM. Al
o Sea trial
0
0
Kobe -Nagoya
o Tokyo -Los Angeles

6
°max
QA
A 0 ° 0,1
a caN2
O 41=1
0A
a. 08 A Z.
4
00 0 t
A da
a
t..r1.'6
.......,/ a
419 0.2 0.4 0,6 0.8 1.0

I reA,/;-7, I # r/ R

Fig. 6 Radial distribution of blade stress

ia
2
a
Yr.:
A
1

7
A cr cc N2 (1)

II
Torsional vibration of propeller shaft
2 od mode/141h order
This tendency is reasonable, since usually thrust T is roughly
1st mode/4th order
proportional to N and thus
a « T CC Kr leas CC NO (2)
601 80 - 100 120
N (rpm) and blade stress due to centrifugal force is
0. oc w . 632 cc N2 (3)
Fig. 5 Changes in blade stress during revolution
of propeller(1R) Thus, we can generally assume
a oc N2 (4)
were performed to examine the effect of oblique flow on blade Fig. 6 shows the radial components of blade stress
strain. measured along the maximum thickness line compared with
Typical examples of the measured data are shown in Fig. those calculated using the beam theory. Both the time-mean
4. By multiplying the Young's modulus of the blade material, value a and fluctuations in blade stress Zia have the same
i.e., E = 1.25 x 104 kg/mm2, the .measured strain is transformed tendency in a radial direction, and the time mean blade stress
into stress. calculated using the beam theory is a little lower than that
2.2.3 Results and discussion measured.
From the data obtained from routine measurements, The radial components of blade stress at blade section 0.3
changes in maximum blade stress am. and double amplitude of R are shown in Fig. 7. The maximum stress occurred between
blade stress ZIG,- at propeller shaft speed N were plotted first the maximum thickness point and the mid-chord point, and this
and are shown in Fig. 5. agrees with the results of examinations on the fractured
From these results, it was shown that if we consider a section of the propeller blades") and the results of other
higher propeller shaft speed range, say N>80rpm in view of full-scale rneasurements"°).
the accuracy of the data, the relation between cr and N can be Fig.'8 shows an example of the fluctuations in principal
expressed as follows: blade stress around the maximum thickness point of 0.3R
 MTB181 April 1988

T.E. tmax. L E.

Kobe -Nagoya
Tokyo -Los Angeles, 64% D.W. Load
N=107 rpm, 0.3R
Rudder angle 8= port 30°

"L

Gauge
8R 7R 1R.IS.IT 6R
Gauge mark Straight run ( N= 110 rpm)
mark } Measured
IR -- Steady turn ( N= 92.2 rpm)
0.215 0.43 0.65 0.825 1.0 Straight run ( N -= 110 rpm)
r1R= 0.3 I Calculated
x/c Steady turn ( N= 92.2 rpm)

Fig. 7.Chordwise distribution of blade I I I I I

60 120 180 240 300 360
stress 8 ( deg)

10
Tokyo-Los Angeles 64% D.W. Load
Rudder angle 8 =Starboard 30°

0
41-
5
Kobe -Nagoya , c/R= 0.3 . N= 107 rpm

0 Gauge 1
Gauge 7

II
Gauge mark Straight run ( N= 108.5 rpm) I
Measured
1R -- Steady turn (N= 89.9 rpm)
Straight run ( N= 108.5 rpm) }
r/R = 0.3 Calculated
Steady turn ( N= 89.9 rpm)
Face Back
i I

60 120 180 240 300 360

8 (dog)

Fig. 9 Comparison of blade stress in turning

conditions

with those in straight run.

90 180
8 ( deg.)
Fig. 8 Change in blade stress during one revolution
of propeller
during one revolution of the propeller. The blade stress
measured shows a high peak value at =0° (12 o'clock
position) and not so distinct peak value at 0=180° (6 o'clock
position). From this figure, the mean value of principal blade
stress at 0.3R was read as 5.7 kg/mnf
Turning tests were conducted after departure from Tokyo
with four rudder angles. Blade stress patterns in steady turn
with a rudder angle of 30° to port and 30° to starboard are
shown in Fig. 9, in comparison with those of straight run
measured a few minutes before the turning tests.
following features are to be noted:
(1) The maximum stress an,ux and the double amplitude of
fluctuations in blade stress ZI a decreased in comparison
Though the propeller revolutions decrease in steady turn,
time-mean stress a increases considerably.
In the turn to starboard, a decrease in the fluctuations in
blade stress is dominant. In the turn to port, on the other
hand, an increase in time-mean stress is dominant. In both
cases, stress on the port side of the propeller disc plane is
270 360
considerably affected by the turn of the ship.
Blade stress measurements in the following sea conditions
and ship motion were obtained:
Date : August 23, 1972
Sea : Rough
Beaufort scale : 5 (S. B. 150°)
Swell : 4 (S. B. 90°)
Ship motion : Pitching 1.3° (Tp = 12 sec.)
Rolling 4.4° (T, =15 sec.)
The maximum stress amax and double amplitude of blade
stress fluctuations LI a at gauge mark 6R are plotted together
with the ship's motion in Fig. 10. It can be said that the
fluctuations in blade stress in the period nearly equal to that of
the ship's motion are superimposed on those due to the
The non-uniform wake. A comparison of the blade stress patterns
with those of straight run in a calm sea shows clearly the effect
of ship motion on blade stress. Time-mean stress Fr and amax
show a tendency to increase.

5
MTB181 April 1988

Oakland -Tokyo 57% OW. Load Vs= 22.6kn : Full load, even keel
Sea state : Rough, Swell state : 4

Ship motion measured

using vertical gyroscope

°;,: 0

Phase
7.5 mark
6max

1.0 R
5

eld
't4
2.5
Propeller blade stress

0 llllllllllllllllllll
of gauge mark 6R

k 1 revolution
20 revolultions

Calm sea : r=3.63. d,= 6.07 , cla = 3.37 (kg/mm2)

Measured Estimated
6 8=4.16. e., =6.38. =3.08 (kg/mm2)
on model for ship

4 Fig. 11 Model and estimated ship's wake for

_ a
"HAKONE MARU"
2

8=-4.27, w,,,a =6.50, ,dd =3.05 (kg/mm2)

6

^4 Wake distribution measured on the model is transformed into

full-scale wake distribution by the following formula:
ws (y', z) = wm (y, z) (7)
where,
4 y' = Ky
2 The tangential component of the wake in the propeller
6 disc plane, which was measured on the model, is used in this
4
calculation without any correction.
4 Fig. 11 shows the estimated ship wake for the "HAKONE
21 MARU" under fully loaded conditions, in comparison with that
0 90
1 180 270 360
8 (deg.) measured in the towing tank.
Fig. 10 Changes in blade stress due to ship motion 2.3.2 Estimation of dynamic blade load
(1) Quasi-steady method of obtaining dynamic blade load
The ship motions recorded on this voyage were not so The quasi-steady method assumes that the characteristics
severe compared with those occurring in winter". So it is of a propeller at each phase of unsteady motion are
very important to see how the mean blade stress increases in approximated by those at the same phase in uniform flow.
higher seas. Thus, if we know the non-uniform flow field around the
2.3 Estimation of dynamic blade stress propeller, the flow speed and angle of attack of the flow at
2.3.1 Estimation of ship's wake each phase can easily be calculated. The characteristics of
In order to estimate the ship's wake distribution from the the propeller at each phase of unsteady motion are inter-
model wake measured in a towing tank, a one-directional polated from the open-water characteristics.
contraction method was used. If we choose a representative radius rp, hydrodynamic
The width of the wake in full-scale is narrower than that pitch angle fl(0) at angular position 0 can be expressed as
measured on the model in the towing tank. The ratio of the follows:
width of the wake may, in the first approximation, be taken as fl(0) = tan-1 -is (1 Wa(9)) (8)
the ratio of the boundary layer thickness at the end of the nVP +.18 Wt (0)
plates with the same length and Reynolds number for the where,
model and ships. Thus, the ratio can be expressed as follows: = nD . advance coefficient
K= 6'n4 - S
(5) xp = rp/ R
: ship speed
where,
d : displacement thickness of turbulent boundary layer at : rotational speed of the propeller
the end of a flat plate : diameter of the propeller
= 0.37 LRe-"5 (6) ws = 1 s
. axial wake fraction
: length of the corresponding plate : axial speed at position (xp, 0)
Re : Reynolds number v,
: scale ratio (Ls/Li) W=- Vs
(suffix s ships, M model) tangential speed at position (xp, 8)

6
 MTB181 April 1988

Generating line

Trailing Leading
edge edge

2.0 1.0 0 1.0

0/R 2.0

Fig. 13 Concept of averaged wake along chord

0.10

.1=0.76

0.08
fe, (8) 0.015 dK
(b) Changes in angle of attack
do

Fig. 12 Schematic explanation of quasi-steady method Present method

0.06
Lifting surface
The local advance coefficient can be obtained using local 0.01
theory

hydrodynamic pitch angle g(e) as follows:

J(6)= rxptan)6(0) (9) 0.04

1 - wa(0)
= .1s 1 + tan, w,(0)
0.005
where, 0.02

/30 = -b--- (10)

7tXp

The relation is schematically illustrated in Fig. 12. If we

obtain the local advance coefficient, the thrust and torque 0.191 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
= r/R
coefficient at each angular position can easily be obtained
from the open-water characteristics of the peopeller. Fig. 14 Radial thrust and torque distribution
Introduction of averaged wake along blade chord
In order to include the effect of in-flow velocity changes Drag-lift ratio of the blade section;
along the blade chord, an idea to average the wake change e = constant for radial direction (13)

along the chord was introduced as follows: where,

1 r 6+6c x=r/R
M(6) = w(6,)d0, (11)
al_ 1- v7-.1 e-or co = 27rn
where, n : propeller revolutions
CL : angle between the generating line and leading m=4
edge : parameter determined by the advance coeffi-
67- : angle between the generating line and trailing cient J of the propeller
edge The turust and torque distributions are expressed as follows:
Fig. 13 shows the idea of an averaged wake and also an dT(x, J) = pca2R4AAnx20 _x4)(1 ___fPH
04)
example of an averaged wake for the estimated ship wake at
0.7 radius of the propeller. dQ(x, J) x4)(-P+ e)
dx = Peo2R5240(f)x2(1 (15)
Estimation of radial distribution of blade load 7CC

The radial load distribution explained below was used. It
was derived by modifying Kito-Izubuchi's method(36).
The modified method is based on the following two
assumptions:
C) Circulation distribution in radial direction;
= coR2A0(J) X (1 -e)
(15) in a radial direction and
An integration of (14) and
summation for the number of blades yield thrust T and
torque Q, which must be equal to those given by the
propeller open water characteristics at J. Thus, the
unknown parameters A0 (I)and e can be determined.
(12) Fig. 14 shows a comparison of the radial thrust and torque

7
MTB181 April 1988

Tokyo -LoS.Angeles
64.% D.W. Load
N = 110 r pm , r/R=0.3

Present method
0 Measured in. cavitation tunnel
(Uniform flow)

0.8 Principal stress ai }Measured

- Gauge mark : IR
0.6 --- ws estimated
mu averaged over the blade
width at each blade position
Calculated
using Wake
distribution

21.° 0.4
-- as measured at 0.7 It

120 180 240 300 360

J = 0.76
0.2 8 (deg)

Fig. 16 Comparison of blade stress changes during one

0 _ revolution
0.4
J = 0.95

6 0 Table 2 Comparison of mean, maximum and double

0. amplitude of fluctuating blade stress
0.1 I
Gauge number : 1
0.191 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
r/R Measured Ca1culted
Fig. 15 Comparison of radial blade stress .distribution Principal Radial
wm 2- 8 .
stress stress
Time-mean stress i (kg/mm) 4.93 4.28
- _
4.14 4.14. 4.14
distribution calculated by the method mentioned above and Maximum stress cr...(k.ginun2) 8.10 7.2-5 8.07 8.07 6.85
by available lifting surface calculations(42) for the propeller. Double amplitude of
2.3.3 Estimation of blade stress fluctuation of 26(kg/mm2) 4.64 4.55 5.20 5.87 4.05
Blade stress was calculated using the beam theory, first blade stress __
developed by Taylor("), and then modified by Kito-Izubuchi(36).
In the beam theory, the maxinnun stress at the line of the where, A is the sectional area of the blade section.
maximum thickness due to hydrodynamic force is expressed as Thus, the stress on the blade is obtained as the sum of (16)
follows: and (18),
= at +
= Mtcostgi + Mosinflf
(19)
(16)
4./y Fig. 15 shows a comparison between the radial distribu-
where, tion of blade stress calculated using the beam theory and that
M, : bending moment due to thrust measured in uniform flow. In this calculation, loading is
Mg : bending moment due to torque estimated by the method described in reference (42). It is shown
fif pitch angle of the face that the beam theory gives a slightly higher value at the blade
root, but this is not significant.
tgi = nx 2.3.4 Comparison with full-scale data
second order moment of inertia of area of the blade Fig. 16 shows a comparison of the blade stress changes
section during one revolution between full-scale measurement and
y : height from the face to the neutral axis at the point calculation by using the method mentioned above.
of maximum thickness of the blade section In the figure, both cases where the model wake and
The bending moment due to centrifugal force on the raked estimated full-scale wake were used are also included. From
blade is expressed as follows, disregarding the effect of skew, the figure, time-mean, the maximum and double amplitude of
Mc = Ws02R2.2.,3(.4 - x)tanOR cost?). (17) fluctuations in blade stress are taken and shown in Table 2.
where, The following should be noted:
: representative working radius of centrifugal force
xo There is a clear improvement in the accuracy of estimat-
OR: rake angle ing blade stress by introducing an averaged wake along the
W : weight of the blade in the outer radius than the radius chord in the quasi-steady approach, if we look at the blade
at which the stress is calculated. stress patterns around the 180 degrees position.
So, including the homogeneous tensile stress due to centrifugal The time-mean blade stress measured was higher than that
force, the total blade stress due to centrifugal force is calculated. One of the reasons for this may be the inaccu-
expressed as follows: racy of estimating the operating conditions of the propeller
Mc rco2 W in full-scale operation.
= 4./y +° A As for the dynamic blade stress component, i. e., the double

8
 MTB181 April 1988

1.0 -F+ + Yamazaki , Z=4

0 Uniform flow
1.6 In wake

'IV
0.8
6'Zt.

1.4 43,
Tanibayashi,
0.6 1

1 -0.08k2
1.2 Eq. ( 20)
0.4

1.0
4 6 8 10 12
0.2
CT= 7 (1 /2) rp172 R2
Fig. 17 Relation between the contraction of flow \ Two - dimensional theory, IS (k)i
and propeller thrust loading coefficient
0.0
0 1 2 3 4
amplitude of blade stress fluctuations, conventional quasi- Reduced frequency k

steady calculation overestimates about 25% in case of the
model wake and about 37% in case of the ship wake. On the
other hand, the introduction of an averaged wake gives
values closer to those measured (10% underestimation).
2.3.5 Further improvement
Fig. 16 shows rather good agreement between the full-
scale measurements and the calculations using the averaged
wake along the chord, but there is still room for improvement.
If we check the dynamic blade stress estimation process, the
following can be related to the remaining discrepancy(").
Accuracy of ship wake estimation
Introduction of effective wake in calculation
Inclusion of unsteady effect
Even though the measurements of a ship's wake have been
reported recently("), a more sophisticated method than those
mentioned above is as yet unavailable. Thus, in this section,
items (2) and (3) will be discussed.
(1) Effective wake
Fig. 18 Amplitude of two-and three-dimensional response
advance coefficient.
(2) Inclusion of unsteadiness
The introduction of the idea to average the wake along the
blade chord considerably improved the estimation of the
dynamic blade load. Nevertheless, if we consider the
chordwise load distribution due to the steady motion of an
airfoil in an unsteady flow field, the two-dimensional
unsteady theory produces an additional vortex distribution,
which has the shape of a vortex distribution of a flat plate.
This means that, in averaging the wake along the chord, it is
worth introducing a weight function which includes the
effect of unsteadiness in the flow field.
Three kinds of weight function can be expected, including
the one already used.
1
fi(x) = ; Uniform weight (21)

An effective wake is a wake in which the effect of

propeller suction is included. The wake distribution fs(x) = (1 .X2)°'5

measured at the propeller plane is called the nominal wake. 8

It is understood that, due to the effect of propeller suction,
the boundary layers of a ship's hull towards the stern of the
ship change, and consequently the wake distribution
changes.
Based on experimental observations and theoretical
considerations, a simple method, was tried here(40). The
nominal wake in the propeller plane of radius Rs is assumed
to contract uniformly to the propeller disc of radius R
according to the relation given by the simple momentum
theory, since the contraction of the approaching flow to the
propeller in the plane just one propeller diameter before is
well approximated by the following equation:
0.5
R 1 (1 ± + CT) } (20)
2 unsteady theories(27x43), as shown in Fig. 18. Also a
where,
2T
Cr = r.p 17.2R2
T : propeller thrust
: ship speed
This equation is shown in Fig. 17 with data obtained by the
measurements in uniform and non-uniform flow in the
cavitation tunnel.
The estimated effective ship wake was then averaged in a
radial direction at each angular position to obtain the local
= ; Elliptic weight
2 1 - x 1'1.5
f3(x)
cL 1 + x
= 2 cot-1 Flat plate-type weight
c 2 '
where,
c : chord length
2x
x -= = cosch
Here 11(x) corresponds to the averaged wake already tried.
To see the improvement in quasi-steady response by
adopting these weight functions, the response of an airfoil to
sinusoidal gust was calculated and compared with that using
comparison of the difference in phases is shown in Fig.19. In
these figures, an approximated curve of Tanibayashi's
three-dimensional response(") is also shown. It can be seen
that the quasi-steady response of the airfoil using the
averaged wake gives a good approximation to the three-
dimensional response of the airfoil, if the reduced frequency
is relatively small. This explains why a good prediction was
obtained in the quasi-steady calculation of the blade stress
on the propeller of a container ship. Of the three weight
functions, Mx) is considered the most suitable, since it not

9
MTB181 April 1988
Three-dimensional theory, Arg:F(k)
0 Breslin, Z=3
4- Yamazaki, Z=4
300
(1, Koyama, Z=5
3r/2
- .
-0
200
loo
r/2
3 4
Reduced frequency k
Fig. 19 Difference between two-and three-
dimensional response phases
Single screw container ship(Service condition)
Modified (Weight function : f3(r))
0.10 , ,, Quasi-steady
-- Modified (Weight function : ft t rn
- Conventional
0.08 --- Unsteady lifting surface theory
0 Measurements
90 180 270
8 (degree)
Fig. 20 Comparison of thrust fluctuations of one blade
only gives the closest response to that using Koyama's
three-dimensional unsteady theory(27) and the approximation
by Ta.nibayashi("), but also predicts the phase difference,
which also approximates well with that using the three:
dimensional unsteady theories.
Thus, it can be concluded that the wake averaged along
the chord with weight function Mx), which is similar to the
expression for the vortex distribution of a flat plate, will
further improve the quasi-steady calculation of propeller
blade dynamic load and give more realistic results.
(3) Results of calculation
To see the effectiveness of the idea of the wake averaged
along the chord with weight function Mx) in calculating
propeller blade dynamic loading, the results of the calcula-
tions were compared with those using the unsteady propeller
lifting surface theory and model test data.
Fig. 20 shows the thrust fluctuations of the one of the
blades of the container ship propeller. Measurements were
conducted in the towing tank, using a one-component blade
dynarnometer(45). Calculation was performed using the same
wake distribution as that shown in Fig. 11. Three kinds of
calculated results are shown in the figure, i. e., results using
the conventional quasi-steady method, the quasi-steady
method with averaged wake with weight function and the
10
Single screw container ship (Service condition)
7
N=110,prn, rIR =0..3
6
5
/ 4
3
Ii
2
Measurements (Tokyo -Los Angeles, 1979)( el
Modified cjuisi -steady .caldulation
1 I I i I
0 60 - 120 - - 180- - 240 ' 360
8 (degree)
Fig. 21 Comparison of dynamic blade stress
unsteady theory(27). It is evident that the quasi-steady
method with the averaged wake with weight function f3(x)
gives the most realistic results of the three weight functions
Even though this improved method overestimates a little on
the port side in comparison with the test data, almost the
methbd
same level of accuracy is achieved as by the unsteady
propeller lifting surface theory.
Using this improved method and the effective wake
estimation method, the dynamic blade stress on the propeller
of the "HAKONE MARU" was calculated and coMpared
with full-scale data. The results are shown in Fig. 21.
Prediction was considered to be very good from a practical
point of view, even though the calculated results Show a
360 slightly sharp stress peak, raising the question as to Whether
the estimated ship wake was contracted excessively.
Thus, it is shown that an averaged wake with weight
function Mx) works well in propeller dynamic load calcula-
tion and that the improved quasi-steady method is effective
in practical application.
2.3.6 Estimation of dynamic blade stress due to ship
motion
The quasi-steady approach alloWs the dynamic blade
stress on a propeller to be calculated during ship motion, if the
additional axial and tangential velocities induced by tinning,
pitching, heaving etc., are properly estimated. The quasi-
steady approach assumes the following local advance coeffi-
cient:
Is {1 w0(0) + u(0)} (24)
J (61
{1 + --.12(w1(0) + z4cos8 + uzsint71
ux, uy, uz : additional velocities due to ship motion
non-dimensionalized by
To see the usefulness of this method, calculation was conduct-
ed assuming the drift angle for the turning conditions (see Fig:
9) and relative speed of the aft-part of the ship in pitching
conditions (see Fig. 10).
Results are also shown in Fig. 9 for turning conditions and
in Fig. 22 for pitching conditions.
For simplicity, the conventional quasi-steady approach
was used It can be qualitatively pointed out, the quasi-steady
calculation estimates the change in blade stress, except in the
 MTB181. April 1988

Unskewed
propeller
Oakland -Tokyo
57% D.W. Load
N= 109 rpm

Definition Skewed
Skew angle : 0, degrees propeller
Skew : 8,18 X 100% Perspective view
Calm sea 8,= 360/z degrees
Phase a Generating line
: Number of blades
b I Measured Skew : s =(-8,/r/180) X
c (gauge mark : 68)
( 100/cosfif ) %
1,,,= 1.14 m/s
Calculated
=0 Leading
( r/R =0.3)
= 1.14 m/s Leading edge
edge
120 180 240 300 360
Mid -chord
8 (deg.) line
(Skew line)
Fig. 22 Comparison of blade stress in ship motion
Trailing edge

blade angle range in which the wake distribution in the

propeller plane is considerably disturbed by the aft-part of the Projected view

ship's hull. Fig. 23 Definition of she*

2.4 Concluding remarks
Full-scale measurements of blade stress on the propeller of 0.5R
a container ship revealed several important results.
The level of mean blade stress on the propeller of the
container ship was almost the same as had been assumed in
the design stage. The double amplitude of fluctuating blade
stress was at almost the same level as the mean stress.
20°0PSI
The increase in dynamic blade stress due to ship motion is Chord
_500
not necessarily greater than that during the operation of the
ship in calm sea. The mean blade stress increases with the
0.0
)500
500
increase in ship motion. 3500
(a)Principal stresses on the back side.
In order to estimate dynamic blade stress in the early
design stages of conventional propellers, the modified quasi-
steady method with the introduction of an averaged wake with
weight function was studied in combination with the ship's
wake estimation method and beam theory.
It is worth noting that for conventional propellers, the
000

0.45R
16
7111./11.11111111111
modified quasi-steady method gives almost the same level of 8200 (MAX)
accuracy as the unsteady lifting surface theory does in 0.9 Chord

estimating dynamic blade load. Fatigue fracture of the blade 4 000

always starts in certain defects in the propeller, which cannot 31500 415°°
be avoided in casting products such as propellers. The method ( b) Principal stresses on the face side
proposed here for estimating dynamic blade stress provides an Fig. 24 Blade stress distribution of highly skewed
opportunity to check the extent of allowable defects for the propeller for San Cremente Class Ore/Bluk/
reliable operation of a ship. Oil Carrier(48)

3. Dynamic blade stress on highly skewed propellers
3.1 Introduction
In view of the recent demand for reductions in shipboard
vibration in the shipping world, extensive investigations have
been made on the hydrodynamic mechanism of propeller-
induced pressure fluctuations, and devices for reducing excita-
tion levels have also been produced and applied to ships(46)(4).
Of these devices a highly skewed propeller (the definition of
skew is shown in Fig. 23) has been recognized as an effective
countermeasure in reducing cavitation-induced pressure fluctu-
ations through its application to ships"8)49). The highly
skewed propeller is not a new type of propeller, since, in
reference (50), Bourne already pictured a highly skewed
propeller in 1861. Since designing procedures had not then
been established in those days, the idea of a highly skewed
propeller remained only an idea.
In the early 1970's, Morgan reintroduced highly skewed
propellers with a design procedure based on the lifting line and
lifting surface theories113). The idea was applied to propellers
for San Cremente class Ore/Bulk/Oil carriers. The results of
full-scale tests showed that highly skewed propellers were
effective in reducing shaft force and pressure fluctuations

11
MTB181 April 1988

Propeller 'A Propeller B Propeller C Propeller D

No. a/aA(10) NO. alaA( 10) N°. 6/6A( 10) No. a/6(10)
2 0.06 2 0.06 2 0.05 2 0:05
4 0.24 4 0.24 4 0.25 4 0.37
6 0.42 6 0.42 6. 2.45 6 0.68
8 0.61 8 0.61 8 0.65 B 0.99
10 1.00 10 0.79 10 0.85 10 1.30

CA( 10) =5.4 kgimm2

Fig. 25 Principal stress distribution of propeller

Propeller : C Table 3 Principal specifications of 75 KDWT bauxite carrier

I

I-9A 255.00m
Lpp 248.00m
Ael
BINLO 35.35m
AM) 18.30m

Full load draft Design 12.20m

Strength 12.80m
Dead weight Approx.75 500t at de ,= 12.20m
Approx.80 500t at 4,.= 12.80m
Main engine Mitsubishi MS-21-2 turbine x 1
Max. output: 19 000PS x 80rpm
Normal output: 19 000PS x 80rprn
Speed Max. speed in sea trial : Approx.16.9kn
Full load service speed: 16.1kn

50% Chord length Worn L.E. 50% chord length from LE Propeller Highly skewed propeller
Diameter: 7.8m
No. of blades: 5
T.E.

25% chord length

from T.E.
5% chord length
from T.E.
GT
BACK KYOWA
KFC 2 -D17 -23
Fig. 26 Arrangement of active strain gauges on blade
induced on a ship's hull as expected, but that the blades were
damaged in reverse operation.
Looking at the blade stress distribution on the blade,
which is shown in Mg. 24, it was thought that the blade stress
concentration near the trailing edge was responsible for the
damage to the blade.
Thus, a skewed propeller requires more care in its strength
design than a conventional propeller, since both bending and
torsional moments due to hydrodynamic loading act on the
blade because of the geometry of the skewed blade. Based on
the blade stress measurements of a series of highly skewed
propellers(5"-("1, the criteria for designing highly skewed
propellers were proposed. These criteria can easily be checked
in the early stages of geometric design using an FEM program
for the design condition of the propeller. Then, based on the
systematic design of highly skewed propellers, a practical
guidance to selecting the amount of skew will be proposed
from the point of view of strength. The usefulness of the
guidance was demonstrated by applying it to the design of a
propeller for a container ship.
3.2 Highly skewed propeller series
FACE In order to understand the blade stress distribution of
highly skewed propellers, a series of propellers, of which the
skew angle was systematically changed, were designed and
blade stress measurements *ere conducted in uniform and
simulated wake flows in a cavitation tunnel.
The ship, for which the skewed propeller series was
designed, was a 75 KDWT bauxite carrier("). The principal
dimensions of the ship and its engine are shown in Table 3.
At first, a conventional propeller was designed using an
available propeller chart. The conventional propeller also had
a certain amount of skew 19 degrees (26%). The skew angle
Was then changed to 36, 46 and 59 degrees, corresponding to
50%, 64% and 82% skew.
The principal specifications of the propellers designed are
shown in Table 4. Blade stress distribution calculated using the
propeller lifting surface theory by the quasi-continuous method
(QCM)(54) and an FEM program (NASTRAN)(55) is shown in
Fig. 25. The level of non-dimensiotialied stress on the blade
is shown as equistress lines. Stress concentration tended to
appear when the skew angle exceeded 46 degrees (64%).

12
 MTB181 April 1988

EM,cM Pms. N

C,,. ev, e,,

6, cr,,, a X a,

n rps in air

eh eh eh,
eh = e e, ahr. 61,, ant bx.,

C,. e

n rps and J
Principal stress analysis
in water
crmls, Cr I
61)=A/(1v)±(1+v)
62
46 = 1/2 tanl(A/B)
A =(ari a,)/2
7 B=(6,;)/2
C = (err+ cf, 2a,)
Definition
e : Blade strain E : Youngs modulus
a : Blade stress v : Poisson ratio
Suffix T s, t. 3 components D : Propeller diameter Scaling2
h; Hydrodynamic force Suffix M; Model (
c ; Centrifugal force s:Ship I a n ) kDm) I

pm: Density of prop, material n : Shaft speed (model, rps) (N/60\2 (Ds\2
P.: Density of water N : Shaft speed (ship, rpm) n ) kDm)
Fig. 27 Flow chart of blade stress
L analysis

Table 4 Principal specifications of propellers Symbol Propeller Measuring point

A 'IR =0.25, s/C = 0.5
2.0
'/R0.25. s/C =0.5
Propeller A B C D
r/R =0.59. s/C = 0.95
D(m) 7.80 " II 7.80 D .n/R =0.59, x/C =0.95

PID).., 0.8141 0.8629 0.8713 0.8782 0 A(8 = Cr). = 10.7 kg/mm 2

14,,/Ad 0.8057 v 0.8057

d /D 0.1846 II II 0.1846

Z II II 5

Rake angle(deg) 0 3.0 3.0 2.0

Skew(deg) 19 36 46 59

Pitch distribution Const. Tip Tip Tip

unloaded unloaded unloaded 90 180 270 360

P).0/ter 1.0 0.627 0.627 0.507 8 ( deg)

Diameter of model propeller (m) : 0.25 Fig. 28 Changes in blade stress during one revolution
of propeller
3.3 Measurements of dynamic blade stress in simulated
wake a plate representing the stern part.
To check the behavior of dynamic blade stress with skew, Fig. 28 shows the change in blade stress during one
blade stress measurements were conducted in a simulated revolution of the propeller. It is interesting to note that even
wake in a cavitation tunnel. though high skew with unloading near the blade tip was
Six 3-component strain gauges (KYOWA KFC-2-D17-23) applied to propellers C and D, the blade stress along the
were fixed to the propeller blades as active gauges. Fig. 26 trailing edge increases considerably, when the blade tip passes
shows an example of the strain gauge arrangement on the through the high wake zone.
blade. All the gauges were coated with epoxy resin for In Fig. 29, the mean and amplitude of blade stress were
water-proofing. In order to avoid the effect of water tempera- plotted for propellers A, B, C and D, together with the line
ture changes on the strain gauge outputs, 6 sets of three dummy representing the relation between the corrosion fatigue
gauges were also fixed to the hub of the propeller in the same strength and mean tensile strength of the propeller material-
way as the active gauges. NiAlBz(56). The mean and amplitude of blade stress at gauges
In measuring the blade stress, a special procedure was Nos. 5 and 6 of highly skewed propellers .0 and D are very large
used to scale up the measured data to full-scale. By combining and these data points are far away from the limit line. This
the blade stress measurements in air and water, and also at the means that propellers C and D are not safe from the point of
extremely low propeller shaft speed and at the specified view of fatigue strength. On the other hand, in the case of
propeller shaft speed, blade stresses due to centrifugal and conventional propeller A or the highly skewed propeller B, all
hydrodynamic forces are separated and scaled up. the data points are under the limit line.
The block diagram of the measurements, the procedure of The same tendency was reported by Yamasaki et al. in
analyzing and scaling up the blade stress are shown in Fig. 27. their study on the strength of skewed propellerg5". A propeller
Axial wake distribution for the estimated full-scale wake with 100% skew was designed for a container ship. The stress
of the subject ship was simulated using wire mesh screens and distribution of the blade calculated by the FEM showed the

13
 MTB181 April 1988

Prepeller, Tension Compression

A 0
06 Conventional 0.7R Highly
0 propeller - skewed
2.6%c
05 322xx o Face plane propeller

3i%C © Back plane

06
05
MPNo.80 -3 MPNo.80 -5

Relation between corrosion fatigue strength MP No.80-3

up to 108 cycles and mean tensile strength 1 0.3R max, thickness point
2 0.4R max. thickness point
0.6 3 0.5R max. thickness point
MP No.80 -5
4 0.5 R 80%C from LE
5 0.6R 50%C from L.E
6 0.6R80%C from LE.
E 0.4 7 0.712 80%C from L.E.
10 15 20
7 (kg/mm2) 5

Fig. 29 Mean and amplitude of blade stress of highly skewd 3 a/1

Ci
propeller series 0.2

existence of stress concentration with almost the maximum

value near the trailing edge around 0.7R. The results of model I ,

0 0.2 0.4 0.6

tests in non-uniform flow showed that the blade stress near the
trailing edge increased considerably when the blade passed
through the high wake zone. The mean and the amplitude of
the blade stress for the 100% highly skewed propeller, together
with that for the conventional propeller, were analyzed from
reference (57) and plotted in Fig. 30. Even though the data are
for the model scale, the same tendency as that for propellers C
and D can be seen clearly.
From the results, it can be seen clearly that the dynamic
blade stress of the highly skewed propellers, with stress
concentration near the trailing edge, becomes very high and
dangerous from the point of view of fatigue failure.
3.4 Measurements of dynamic bla.de stress in transient
conditions
In the case of highly skewed propellers, it is generally
understood that blade stress may be critical in transient
conditions such as crash astern and crash ahead(58), but no
quantitative verification exists. Calculation of blade stress
distribution during transient conditions is usually quite diffi-
cult due to the complexity of the flow field around the
propeller.
To oyercome the difficulty in simulating flow fields in
transient conditions, a quasi-steady approach was utilized in
model tests in a towing tank(59).
(1) Transient conditions
In order to simulate these transient conditions in a towing
tank, a 7m long model of a ship was used for the tests. The
W ( kg/mm2)
Fig. 30 Mean and amplitude of blade stress of highly
skewed and conventional propellers07)
principal specifications of the model are shown in Table 3.
The typical transient operation of a bulk carrier is
shown in Fig. 31. It can easily be seen that since the speed
of the ship is low in comparison with the speed of the
propeller tip, the quasi-steady approach to simulating tran-
sient conditions is reasonable.
Three of the series of highly skewed propeller models,
the principal specifications of which are shown in Table 4,
were fitted to this model. Assuming a series of full-scale
skewed propellers was fitted to the ship, transient ship speed
and propeller shaft speed were estimated using the typical
relation shown in Fig. 31 and Pig. 32.
The numbers marked in the figure correspond to
C) : Steady ahead conditions
e - 0 : Crash astern conditions
0 : Steady astern conditions
C) - C) : Crash ahead conditions
Blade stress measurements were conducted at transient
points for (j) - S. 3-component strain gauges were applied
to 4 points on both the face and back side of the propeller
blades. The procedure for measuring blade stress was the
same as that described earlier.
(2) Results and discussion

115 KDWT Bulk carrier

150

Crash astern test

100

Crash ahead test

5b

0
10 15
T (min.)
50 Fig. 31 Example of crash astern and
crash ahead tests With 115
100 liDWT Bulk carrier.

- 14
 MTB181 April 1988

20 20

100
10 10
\ Vs
o

10
100 Gauge position : 1

Test condition 0 (2) 0 0 0 ® 0 0 o 10

Fig. 32 Estimated transient operating conditions

of the ship MOW

20

10

10 Propeller A
-- Propeller B
-- Propeller D
(0.25R, point of max. thickness)
20
Fig. 34 Dynamic blade stresses in transient conditions(0.25R,
face, point of max. thickness)

Gauge position : 3

10[

Propeller A
Propeller B
Propeller D

Fig. 33 Mean thrust and torque changes in transient conditions

a
Propeller A ( 51 R, mid -chord)
Fig. 33 shows the changes in mean thrust and torque ---- Propeller B (051 R, 95% chord length from L.E.)
during crash astern and crash ahead conditions. Thrust and --- Propeller D ( 0.59 R 95 % chord length from LE.)

torque change with the propeller shaft speed, except in the
range in which propeller is accelerating the ship in crash
ahead condition O. At point 8, the torque value is higher
than that under the normal operating conditions of the ship.
The maximum torque is 12% higher than that under normal
operating conditions. The torque value at is a little
exaggerated, say about 15%.
Both mean principal stress and double amplitude of the
fluctuating component were analyzed and shown in Fig. 34 at
a point of the maximum thickness of 0.25R (root) and in Fig.
35 at points near the trailing edge of 0.5R - 0.6R, where the
Fig. 35 Dynamic blade stresses in transient conditions(face)
high peak blade stress was expected. The results can be
summarized as follows:
As to the blade stress near the root on the face side, the
dynamic blade stress behavior is similar for all propellers.
The mean principal stress Er near the trailing edge in the
mid-radius area becomes extremely high (it becomes close
to the yield strength of the material) in case of the
propeller D, while increase in Z/ o- is small.
Thus, it can be concluded that a highly skewed propeller

15
MTB181 April 1988

Table 5 Parameters and operating conditions of

systematically changed skewed propeller
Propeller Z A.M. Po., Design param. Skew KT
Base 5 0.806 0.814 T.U.p=0.63 46(64%),s = -0.145 0.21
a 0.806 adjusted T.U. p = 0.63 46(64%),s = -0.145 0.20

b 5 0.806 adjusted T.U. p=0.60 46(64%),s = -0.145 0.20

c 5 0.806 adjusted L.I. p= 0.85 46(64%),s= -0.145 0.20

d 5 0.806 adjusted L.D. p =1.15 46(64%),s = -0.145 0.20

e 5 0.806 adjusted T.U. p =0.60 25(35%),s = -0.3 0.20

f 5 0.806 adjusted T.U. p= 0.60 33(46%)s= -0.4 0.20

e 5 0.806 0.863 T.U. p =0.6o 41(57%),s = ' , 0.5 0.20

h 5 0.806 adiusted T.U. p=0.60 49(68%),s = -0.6 0.20

i 5 0.806 1.035 T.U. p =0.60 41(57%),s = -0.5 0.20

j 5 0.806 0.947 T.U. p0.60 41(57%),s = -0.5 0,20
k 0.806 0.776 T.U. p= 0.60 41(57%),s = -0.5 0,20

m 5 0.806 0.863 T.U. p = 0.60 41(57%),s = -0.5 0.22

n 5 0.806 0.863 T.U. p =0.60 41(57%),s= -0.5 0.18

g' 5 0.75 adjusted T.U. p=0.60 41(57%),s= -0.5 0.20

le 5 0.70 adjusted T.U. p =0.60 41(57%),s = -0.5 0.20

g 5 0.65 adjusted T.U. p =0.60 41(57%),s = -0.5 0.20

o 5 1 0.65 adjusted 'f.O.p=o.so 25(35%),s = -0.3 0.20

P 5 0.70 adjusted T.U. p =0.60 33(46%),s = -0.9 0.20
q 5 0.65 adjusted T.U. p =0.60 33(46%),s = -0.4 0.20

4a 4 0.6 adjusted T.U. p0.60 91(46%), g type 0.20

4b 4 0.7 adjusted T.U. p=0.60 49(55%), h type 0.20

4c 4 0.5 adjusted T.U. p=0.60 33(37%), f type 0.20

4d 4 0.65 adjusted T.U. p =0.60 91(46%), g type 0.20

4e 4 0.74 adjusted T.U. p=0.60 49(55%), h type 0.20

9f 4 0.56 adjusted T.U. p=0.60 33(37%), g type 0.20

Abbreviations : T.U. : Tip Unloaded, L.I. : Linear Increasing 'Skew deg.(%), s =S/ Rh.
L.D. : Linear Decreasing

with stress concentration near the trailing edge in the

mid-radius area should be avoided.
3.5 Criteria for selecting skew angle
(1) Criteria
From the results of the model tests reported in 3.3 and 3.
4, the following criteria are recommended from the point of
view of strength design.
Any stress concentration with the maximum stress on the
blade near the trailing edge around the mid radius area
should be avoided.
Stress concentration patterns with a low stress level on = 4.98kg/mm2
4.90kg /mm2
the blade near the trailing edge around the mid-radius area Propeller : e Propeller

are acceptable.
Based on these results, a systematic design study of highly
skewed propellers was conducted to obtain guidance for
selecting skew angle.
(2) Design procedures for highly skewed propellers
Propeller C, which was used in the study described in
section 3.2, was chosen as a base for the systematic design
study. The design procedure was as follows:
a) The basic geometric parameters were kept the same for
propeller C. The same ship performance data as those for
dmax = 5.07kg/mm 2
propeller C were used. Propeller : g Propeller

® Thickness design was carried out under a design stress of
5.3kg/nrun2.
0 A pitch ratio of 0.7R was chosen so that open water
characteristics at the design point were equal to that of
propeller C.
Fig. 36 Example of principal stress distribution:
C) The lifting surface program QCM was used to obtain
pressure distribution on the blade, while the NASTRAN
program was used to calculate the blade stress distribu-

16
 MTB181 April 1988

Table 6 Results of systematic blade stress -calculations

m.b s.3 b.s.(n t.e)4
r/R ce. r/R a" Evaluation Comments
Base' 0.55R - X
a 0.5R 4.9 - X 1

b root 4.8 0.5R 4.3 0

c 0.6R 7.9 - X
d 0.6R 5.1 - X
e root 4.9 - 0 2

f root 5.0 - 0
g root 5.1 0.5R 3.6 0
h 0.5R 5.5 - X
i root 5.2 0.6R 3.4 0 3

j root 5.1 0.6R 3.6 0

k root 4.9 0.55R 4.0 0
an root 5.5 0.55R 3.6 0 4

n root 4.3 0.5R 3.6 0

g' root 5.4 0.5R 4.8 X 5

87 0.5R 5.9 - X 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

g' 0.5R 7.0 - - X

r/R

o root 5.8 - 0 6
Fig. 38 -Skew distribution

P root 5.6 0.6R 3.8 0 Skew series propeller

9 root 5.9 0.6R 4.8 0 z=5- =4
4a root 4.9 0.6R 4.6 X 7 0@A Without stress concentration
® Stress concentration
4b root 4.4 0.6R 4.2 X near trailing edge @
80
9c root 5.5 0.6R 5.3 X
4d root 4.6 0.6R 3.7 .0 a, =0.8 (Ad Aa-0.55)X100
4e root 4.2 0.6R 3.3 0 h
4f root 5.1 0.55R 3.9 0 @C
1: Propeller C (See Table 4) 2: Blade stress (kg/min')
m.b.s. : Maximum blade stress at root or x.xR near trailing edge e'
g
b.s.(n.t.e.) : Blade stress (near trailing edge)
Container ship 4b, "if_ 4e
Comments:
Pitch distribution changed ID El
Skew distribution changed 4a Qs Op f
changed from g
Loading changed from g 40
Expanded blade area ratio changed from g 4c A 4f
Combination of expanded blade area ratio and skew distribution 0 0e
For 4-bladed propeller Safe zone

@A

Propeller a ---- c --- 20

....,.. b d I i j
.,s..- .. ..3.......r...
I

....., 0.4 01.6 01.8 1.0

AdAd
... =.'.,.. ..... ..
.... ..... Pig. 39 Guidance for selecting maximum .skew
1.0
... .........../.. \4
/ ....,.._ ..........
., skew (see Fig. 38), effect of pitch, effect of loading, effect of
.....'''''''
,t. N
blade area, and the effect of the number of blades were studied.
V As a result, the following guidance for selecting skew was
0.5

01.2 0.4
I I

r/R
Fig. 37 Pitch distribution
06 I1
tion.
Table 5 summarizes the systematic change in the propeller
parameters and loading conditions, and Table 6 summarizes
the results of blade stress calculations. Examples of blade
stress distribution are shown in Fig. 36. As shown in both
tables, the effect of pitch distribution (see Fig. 37), effect of
08
I
10
proposed. If we assume a skew and pitch distribution, the
parameter which plays the most important role in selecting the
applicable skew is the blade area ratio. Thus, the data shown
in Table 6 are plotted in relation to skew s' (%) and blade area
ratio Ac/Ad, and shown in Fig. 39. In the figure, the data for
skewed propeller series A, B, C and D are also plotted, since
the skew and pitch distribution is not so different from that of
a g-type series propeller.
From this figure, the maximum applicable skew s' (%) can
be expressed as follows:
s' =0.8(Ae1 Ad -0.55) x 100(%) (20
This relationship was deduced from the criteria under the

17
MTB1 81 April 1988

Gauge point
Table 7 Principal dimensions Table 8 Principal specifics- KTO =0.173
cn 0.25 R Point of max. thickness
of the container ship tions of the propeller C) 0.40R Max. 111 =t411

Ship Container ship Dl(m) 7.0

15
0.50R 10% chord length Ave. ©;C)
0.60R from trailing edge Min.
Hull Lpp 191.00m 0.9714 0 0.70R
Ad 0.6756 *Compression
BMLO 32.20m
dB, 9.50m t/C) O., 0.0406 10
0 if
Eriine Diesel d/D 0.1757 a
MR 18 890 Ps Rake (ang.) 3.0 rArs.' ®
0 _
93 rpm Skew (%) 50

Material NiAl Bz a-C)..r*

cf
oxf 0I,/ cf
,--
0O88 12
1.0. 1.4
Kr/Kro
Fig. 42 Dynamic blade stresses in simulated wake
No. cr(kg/mm2)
2 0.15
4 1.24
Relation between corrosion
6 2.33
fatigue strength (108) and
8 3.43
10 4.52
Fig. 40 Principal stress mean tensile_ strength
distribution

0.25R, face, mid -chord

--- 0.6R, face. 10% chord length from T.E.

KT= 0.173
10 15 20

T (kg/mrn2)

Fig. 43 Mean and amplitude of blade stress

90 180 270 360

8 (leg.)
Fig. 41 Change in blade stress during one revolution
of propeller

following conditions:
g-type skew and pitch distribution
Blade peak stress near the trailing edge greater than 85%
of the maximum stress at the root was also avoided.
3.6 An example of propeller design
To see the usefulness of the criteria and also the practical
guidance described in 3.5, design of a propeller was conducted
and its characteristics were checked by model tests. A
container ship propeller was chosen, since the guidance was
deduced from a systematic study of skewed propellers designed
for a full ship.
The principal specifications of the ship are shown in Table
7. Design conditions were as follows:
D =7.0m
Z=5
A.= 26.0 m2 (A./ Ad = 0.6756) Fig. 44 Full-scale highly skewed propeller installed on the
Design stress = 5.3 kg/mm2 container ship
g-type skew and pitch distribution
The principal specifications of the propeller which was load. The maximum blade stress occurs at the root, and the
designed are shown in Table 8. peak value along the trailing edge near 0.6R was 80% of the
The relation between skew s' (%) and the blade area ratio maximum value.
Ile/Ad is plotted in Fig. 39. The propeller has the maximum Strain gauges were put on the model propeller of the
skew applicable for the blade area ratio. subject ship, the scale ratio of which was 1:28. Measurements
Fig. 40 shows the blade stress distribution at the design were conducted in a simulated wake in the cavitation tunnel.

18

Dynamic blade stress was measured not only at design
load Kro(= 0.173), but also at K/ K0 =0.8, 1.2, 1.4 to see the
changes in dynamic blade stress caused by loading.
Fig. 41 shows the changes in blade stress during one
revolution of the propeller. In this case, the change in blade
stress at the 90% chord length point from the leading edge at
0.6R (gauge No. 5) is not so different from that near the
mid-chord point of the blade root (gauge No. 2). In Fig. 42, the
maximum and average values of blade stress are plotted
against the thrust coefficient. It can be seen that the maximum
blade stress near the trailing edge of the skewed propeller
increased considerably with the increase in propeller loading.
The mean and amplitude of blade stress are plotted in Fig.
43. In this case, all the data points are lower than the limit line.
Thus, it can be said that this highly skewed propeller is safe
from the point of view of fatigue strength and it has been
installed on the ship and is now in operation (Fig. 44).
4. Conclusions
In order to ensure the reliable operation of ships, strength
design of marine propellers is one of the most important items
to be considered. Since a propeller operates in a non-uniform
flow field, i.e., in the wake of a ship's hull, the blades suffer
from periodical changes in dynamic load. For this reason,
corrosion fatigue strength is considered to be the key mechani-
cal characteristic of the propeller material. Thus, checking
the dynamic blade stress of the propeller in the early stages of
propeller design is important.
In these circumstances, a method of estimating the
dynamic blade stress of conventional propellers operating in
the wake of a ship's hull was studied in the first part of this
paper based on data obtained by full-scale measurements of a
container ship. The important conclusions are as follows:
A modified quasi-steady method, with the introduction of
the idea of an averaged wake with weight function for
estimating dynamic blade load, gives almost the same level
of accuracy as existing unsteady propeller lifting surface
calculations for conventional propellers.
The most difficult part of the estimation method is to
estimate the ship's wake distribution or effective ship's wake
distribution correctly.
References
Kume H., Fracture of Marine Propeller Blades, Proc. 2nd
Symp. Marine Propeller, SNAJ (1971)
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, Kosen Kisoku Shyu, Part D, Chapter 7:
Propellers (1985)
Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the
Classification of Ships, Part 5 Main and Auxiliary Machinery,
Chapter 7: Propellers (1985)
American Bureau of Shipping, Section 37, Propellers and
Propulsion Shafting (1985)
Det Norske Veritas, Rules for Classification of Steel Ships,
Part 3, Chapter 3: Hull Equipment and Appendages, Section 7:
Propellers (1985)
Bureau Veritas, Rules and Rugulations for Construction and
Classification of Steel Vessels, Volume C: Machinery System,
Section 17-7: Propellers (1982)
Keil H. et. al., Flugelblatsschvvingungen am Propeller eines
Frachschiffes, JSTG, 64 Band (1970)
Chirila J.C, Dynamische Beanspruchung von Propellerflugeln
auf den Motorschiff "PEKARI", SCHIFF und HAFEN Heft 3,
11i1TB181 April 1988
Full-scale measurements showed that the mean stress level
near the root is almost the same as that estimated in the
design stages. Ship motion increases mainly the mean stress
level whilst changes in amplitude are small.
Further accumulation of full-scale data is necessary, since
the data obtained here are limited.
Regarding the dynamic blade stress of highly skewed
propellers, based on the examination of a series of highly
skewed propellers, criteria for designing highly skewed propel-
lers were proposed as follows:
Any stress concentration with maximum stress on the
blade near the trailing edge around the mid-radius area is to
be avoided.
Stress concentration patterns with a low stress level on the
blade near the trailing edge around the mid-radius area are
acceptable.
A practical guidance for selecting the amount of skew was
also derived from the criteria through systematic design
studies of highly skewed propellers.
Due to strong demand for the reduction of ship vibration,
highly skewed propellers will be increasingly used on all kinds
of ships. However, fractures of highly skewed propellers have
recently been reported(58). Thus, the criteria and practical
guidance proposed here will be useful in designing highly
skewed propellers with reliable ship operation. The accumula-
tion of full-scale data on blade stress measurements of highly
skewed propellers is also needed to check the criteria.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to express his foremost apprecia-
tion to Professor Emeritus T. Nishiyama of Tohoku Univer-
sity, for his valuable advice, suggestions and continuous
encouragement.
He also would like to express his appreciation to Prof. H.
Abe and Prof. T. Ohta of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, and Prof. R. Kobayashi of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering II of Tohoku University for their
valuable criticism of this paper.
Furthermore, the author would also like to express his
sincere thanks to Professor Emeritus R. Yamazaki of Kyushu
University, for his valuable comments.
22 Jahrgang (1971)
Dashnaw F.J., Propeller Strain Measurements on the S.S.
Michigan, Marine Technology Vol. 8 No. 4 (1971)
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Schiffspropellerflugeln, JSTG, 64 Band (1970)
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Large-Sized Propellers, Report 74, SRAJ (1975)
Committee of Ship Structure, Symp. on Vibration and
Shipboard Noise and Countermeasures, SNAJ (1970)
Cumming R.A., Morgan Wm., B. and Boswell R.J., Highly
Skewed Propellers, Trans. SNAME Vol. 80 (1972)
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the Propeller Plane, Jour. SNAJ Vol. 145 (1979)
Lammers A. and Lauden J., Laser Doppler Velocimeter Flow
Measurements, Proc. 16th ITTC, Leningrad (1981)
Sasajima 'H., Tanaka I. and Suzuki T., Wake Distribution of
Full Ships, Jour. SNAJ Vol. 120 (1966)
Hoekstra M., Prediction of Full Scale Wake Characteristics
Based on Model Wake Survey, Proc. Symp. on High Powered
19
MTB181 April 1988
Propulsion of Large Ships, Wageningen (1974)
Dyne G., A Study of the Scale Effect on Wake, Propeller
Cavitation and Vibrating Pressure at Hull of Two Tanker
Models, Trans. SNAME Vol. 82 (1974)
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Distribution of a Simple Hull Form, Jour. SNAJ Vol. 160
(1986)
Sasajirna T. et al., Propeller Stress Measurement on Con-
tainer Ship "HAKONE MARU", ISME Tokyo '73, MESJ,
Tokyo (1973)
Watanabe K., Hieda N., Sasajima T. and Matsuo T.,
Propeller Stress Measurements on the Container Ship "HA-
KONE MARU" , Jour. MESJ Vol. 9 No. 12 (1974)
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(1935)
McCarthy J.H., On the Calculation of Thrust and Torque
Fluctuations of Propellers in Non-uniform Wake Flow,
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Uniform Flows, Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering,
Kyushu Uuiversity, Vol. 25 No. 2 (1966)
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Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University,
Vol. 28 No. 2 (1969)
Tsakonas S., Breslin J. and Miller M., Correlation and
Application of an Unsteady Flow Theory for Propeller Forces,
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Marine Propeller Performance by Numerical Lifting Surface,
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Unsteady Propeller Lifting Surface Problems, Jour. SAN J
Vol. 158 (1985)
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' Nomenclature
Symbol Description
A: Sectional area of blade section
A,: Expanded blade area
Chord length
Cr: Thrust loading coefficient
Diameter of propeller
Young's modulus
20
Wake, Jour. SNAJ Vol. 137 (1975)
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/ F(k)I: Amplitude of three-dimensional reduc-
tion factor
Arg F(k): Phase of three-dimensional reduction
factor
f(x): Weight function
J: Advance coefficient
k: Reduced frequency
 MTB181 April 1988

K T: Thrust coefficient Greek letters

L: Length of ship or length of equivalent )6: Hydrodynamic pitch angle
plate fl: Drift angle of ship
Mc: Bending moment of blade due to centrif- fif: Blade face pitch angle
ugal force )5'p: Pitching angle of ship
Mg: Bending moment of blade due to torque fly: Rolling angle of ship
Mt: Bending moment of blade due to thrust F: Circulation
N: Propeller shaft speed (rpm) 6: Displacement thickness of turbulent
n: Propeller shaft speed (rps) boundary layer
p: Pitch 0: Angular coordinate measured from
P: Pitch ratio generating line
Radius of propeller OR: Rake angle

rp: Representative radius of hydrodynamic eh: Angle between leading edge and generat-
force ing line
7-0: Radius of centrifugal force T: Angle between trailing edge and generat-

Re: Reynolds number ing line

Skew p: Density of fluid
s (= SIR): Non-dimensional skew a: Blade stress
s' C= s(x =1.0)): Non-dimensional skew at tip Fr: Mean blade stress
/S(k)/: Amplitude of two-dimensional reduction ZIcs: Double amplitude of fluctuating blade
factor (Sear's function) stress
Arg S(k): Phase of two-dimensional reduction am.: Maximum blade stress during one revo-
factor (Sear's function) lution
Thrust crmin: Minimum blade stress during one revolu-
Tp: Period of pitching motion tion
TR:Period of rolling motion Major principal stress
ux, u, us: Additional velocities due to ship motion a2: Minor principal stress
non-dimensionalized by 14 al,: Blade stress due to hydrodynamic force
Vs: Ship speed crc: Blade stress due to centrifugal force
v, vt: Axial and tangential component of local co (=Zan): Angular speed of propeller
velocity e: Drag-lift ratio
W: Weight of blade Coordinate system
w, w0(0), w,(0): Wake fraction 0-yz: Rectangular coordinate system fixed in
Tv: Wake fraction averaged along chord propeller plane
x(= r/R): Non-dimensional propeller radius 0-re: Polar coordinate system fixed in propel-
Height of neutral axis of blade section ler plane
from face Subscripts
Number of blades Ship
M: Model
a: Axial component
Tangential component

21