A physical signal(Temperature / Pressure / Level / Flow etc) measured by a sensor is

converted to an electrical signal by a transducer. These signals are non standard signals.
These non standard signals are converted to a standard signal by a Transmitter. These
standard signals are fed to processor (PLC / DCS / Stand alone controller ).

Signal flow - Instrument Sensor Transducer PLC.jpg1653x483 56.9 KB

Different type of standard signals are used in Industrial Instrumentation . 4-20 ma,0-5 VDC,
1-5 VDC.

4-20 ma

PLC/DCS use analog to digital converter to convert voltage signal to digital numbers which
are understandably by CPU.

The measuring device has 250 ohm resistor. As for current signals,they are converted to
voltage signals like this

4 ma * 250 ohm = 1 v
20ms * 250 ohm = 5v

The converted 1 -5 vdc will go to analog digital converter.

Why 4 ma is used instead of 0

ma and why 20 ma is used?

If instrument is faulty,it can be easily identified. If the output is 0 ma it will be difficult to
identify whether it is a faulty signal or a good signal.For error detection 4 ma is good.

20 ma is used as maximum because the human heart can withstand up to 30 ma of current

only. For safety reason 20 ma chosen as maximum value.

Scaling of 4-20 ma is easy.

4 ma = 0 %
8 ma = 25%
12 ma = 50%
16 ma = 75%
20 ma = 100%

What are the advantages 4-20 ma signal comparing to voltage signals (0-5v ,1-5v) ?

1.Voltage Drop - Very long cables have resistance and that will cause a voltage drop. The
voltage drop will affect the reading. Current signal doesn't have this problem.

2.Electromagnetic interference - Current signals are immune to electromagnetic interference.

How to calculate percentage signal corresponding to ma signal ?

MV - Measured Value
LRV - Low range Value
Span = 20 ma - 4 ma = 16 ma.

Formula to calculate percentage signal

(MV - LRV) / Span * 100 %

Calculate percentage value corresponding to 14.98 ma.

(14.98 - 4 ) / 16 * 100 % = 68.6 %

Many industrial processes require information on and control of both linear and angular
position, and rate of motion. Some transducers use position-sensing devices to convert
temperature, level, and/or pressure into electrical units, and controllers can use position-
sensing devices to monitor the position of an adjustable valve for feedback control.
Potentiometers:
The wiper or slider arm of a linear potentiometer can be mechanically connected to the
moving section of a sensor. Where angular displacement is involved, a single or multiturn (up
to 10 turns) rotational type of potentiometer can be used.

Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs):

lvdt.png1097x555 17.9 KB

LVDTs are devices used for measuring small distances and are an alternative to the
potentiometer. The device consists of a primary coil with two secondary windings, one on
either side of the primary. A movable core, when centrally placed in the primary, will give
equal coupling to each of the secondary coils. When an ac voltage is applied to the primary,
equal voltages will be obtained from the secondary windings. when the core is centrally
positioned.

An output voltage proportional to displacement is obtained for limited travel. These devices
are not as cost-effective as potentiometers but have the advantage of being non-contact. The
non-contact electrically isolated, accurate, and have better longevity than potentiometers

Capacitive:
Capacitive devices can be used to measure angular or linear displacement. There are three
methods of changing the capacitance.

 Changing the distance between the plates,

 Moving one plate with respect to the other plate to reduce the overlapping area
between the plates,
 Moving a dielectric material between fixed plates.

All the three are shown in below picture:

capasen.png1043x401 18.6 KB

Capacitance variation is a very accurate method of measuring displacement and is used

extensively in micromechanical devices where the distance is small, giving high capacitance
per unit area. Capacitive devices are used in the measurement of pressure, acceleration, and
level.

Light interference lasers:

Monochromatic (single frequency) light can be generated with a laser and collimated into a
narrow beam. The light from the laser beam is split and a percentage goes to a detector, but
the main beam goes to a mirror attached to an object whose change in distance is being
measured, as shown below:

laserr.png907x333 13.1 KB

The reflected beam is then directed to the detector via the beam splitter and a mirror. A
change in the position of the object of one-quarter wavelength increases both the incident and
reflected beam length one-quarter wavelength, giving a change at the detector of one-half
wavelength. When the reflected beam is in phase with the incident beam, (d) is N times an
even number of quarter-wavelengths of the laser beam, the light amplitudes add, and an
output is obtained from the detector.

The movement of the object generates interference fringes between the incident light and the
reflected light. These fringes can be counted to give the distance the object moves. The
wavelength of the light generated by a laser is about 5 × 10−7m, so that relative positioning
to one-quarter wavelength (0.125 m) over a distance of 50 cm to 1m is achievable.
Accelerometers:
Accelerometers sense speed changes by measuring the force produced by the change in the
velocity of a known mass. The accelerometer is a piezoelectric device.

peizoelec.png1064x354 33.3 KB

The seismic mass produces a force on the piezoelectric element during acceleration, which
causes the lattice structure to be strained. The strain produces an electric charge on the edges
of the crystal.An amplifier can be integrated into the package to buffer the high output
impedance of the crystal.

Accelerometers are used in industry for the measurement of changes in velocity of moving
equipment, in the automotive industry as crash sensors for air bag deployment, and in
shipping crates to measure shock during the shipment of expensive and fragile equipment.

A circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe, when any spark or thermal effect produced
(that is, by breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally, by short-circuit or earth fault is
incapable, of causing ignition of a gas or vapour.
They work by restricting the electrical energy available in hazardous area circuits to a level at
which any sparks or hot spots caused by circuit faults are too weak to cause ignition.

The only method to achieve IS loop is by using Safety Barriers.

This can be classified into 2 types:

Active Barriers = In this case line resistance is negligible and is dominant these days.

Passive Barriers = In this case, the barriers also impose resistance to the tune of 200 ohms
(app) on the loop and this factor needs to be considered while selecting the instrument.
Typical IS loop.jpg661x508 39.6 KB

IS Certification

Intrinsic safety certification is classified as

Ex(ia) Applicable for individual inst.
Ex(ib) Applicable for complete system/Loop.

Ex(ib) shall include all components connected with loop like cables, local indicator,
transmitter etc.

Intrinsic Safety Principles

This is based on principle of restricting the electrical energy available in hazardous area
circuits, such that any sparks or hot surfaces that may occur as a result of electrical faults are
too weak to cause ignition. The useful power is about 1W, which is sufficient for most
modern Instrumentation.

This is the only technique accepted for Zone 0 areas. It is also safe for personnel, since the
voltages are low and it allows the field equipment to be maintained and calibrated ‘live’
without the need for power isolation