ASSIGNMENT 10:

LAB REPORT: METAL FATIGUE LAB

Date of Lab:
13 November 2008

Date of Submission:
3 December 2008

by

_______________________________________
Sreyes Kadapala
Kadapad6@erau.edu

Submitted to:
Dr. Richard Theis
Department of Humanities and Communications
College of Arts and Sciences

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements
Of
COM 221.04
Technical Report Writing
Fall 2008

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Prescott, Arizona
2
 iii

ABSTRACT
Structures such as bridges, buildings, aircraft, automobiles, and machines are under
constant loading of forces and stresses. Therefore, in the world of engineering, study of
material properties (fatigue, fatigue life, and fracture) of metals is a critical subject.

An experiment was conducted on November 13, 2008 where three (3) different types of
paper clips in sets of 20 were used to test the fatigue life of the metal. The paper clips
were categorized as small silver, small brass and large silver, according to their size and
color. The experiment was performed by cyclically bending the inner section of each clip
to a certain angle (45°, 90°, 135°,180°) and relapsing that inner section back to its
original position (i.e., parallel to the outer section), until the clip broke.

The purpose of this experiment was to study the strength of the material and the
characteristics of fatigue. Fatigue failure of a paper clip depends on the angle of bending
of the inner portion compared to the outer portion, and the external dimensions of the
paper clip. This lab report elaborates on the basic concepts of metal fatigue, the lab
experimental procedures, results of the lab experiment, and analysis of the results of the
lab experiment. This report found that, for all paper clips, there is an inverse relationship
between the angle of deflection and the number of cycles to failure. However, the
experiment was found to be prone to errors due to inconsistency in the bending angle and
the magnitude of force applied by the bender on the paper clip.

The report recommends that the experiment be repeated with an increased level of control
over the magnitude of force applied to attain usable data, measure the bending angles
accurately, and avoid human error. The report concludes by listing a critical graph which
establishes a relation between the bending angle and the cycles required by the metal to
break.
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................v
LIST OF EQUATIONS....................................................................................................vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS.......................................................................................................viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS....................................................................ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................x
1.0 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................1
1.1 Research Topic...........................................................................................................1
1.2 Background Information............................................................................................1
1.3 Justification................................................................................................................1
1.4 Research Problem......................................................................................................1
1.5 Purpose Statement......................................................................................................1
1.6 Textual Overview......................................................................................................2
2.0 THEORY.......................................................................................................................3
1.1 Technical Definitions.................................................................................................3
1.2 Theoretical Principles................................................................................................3
1.3 Expected Results........................................................................................................4
1.4 Equations....................................................................................................................5
1.5 Justification................................................................................................................6
3.0 APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES...........................................................................7
1.6 Apparatus...................................................................................................................7
1.7 Procedures................................................................................................................12
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................................19
1.8 Data..........................................................................................................................19
1.9 Graphical Representation of Data............................................................................21
1.10 Commentary on Data.............................................................................................24
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................25
1.11 Purpose...................................................................................................................25
5.2 Procedures................................................................................................................25
1.12 Key Results............................................................................................................25
5.4 Conclusions.............................................................................................................26
6.5 Recommendations....................................................................................................26
6.0 REFERENCES............................................................................................................27
7.0 ATTRIBUTIONS........................................................................................................28
8.0 APPENDIX I: SAMPLE CALCULATIONS..............................................................31
8.1 Average weight of one paper clip...........................................................................31
8.2 Average of cycles of failure....................................................................................32
9.0 APPENDIX II: RAW DATA.......................................................................................33
10.0 APPENDIX III: DATA SHEET................................................................................42
 v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Predicted Number of Cycles to Failure..............................................................4

Table 4.1.1: Average Cycles to Failure (Small silver).......................................................20
Table 4.1.2: Average Cycles to Failure (Small brass).......................................................20
Table 4.1.3: Average Cycles to Failure (Small brass).......................................................21
Table 8.1: Team 1 Raw Data for Sample Calculation of Average....................................31

LIST OF FIGURES
 vi

Figure 2.1: Typical Stress Cycles .......................................................................................4

Figure 3.1: Charles Leonard® Protractor............................................................................7
Figure 3.2: C-ThruMR-12 Stainless Steel Ruler...............................................................7
Figure 3.3: Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers.........................................................................8
Figure 3.4: Staples® Small Silver Paper Clips....................................................................8
Figure 3.5: Staples® Small Brass Paper Clips.....................................................................9
Each paper clip has a length of 3.20 cm, a width of 0.75 cm at the wide end, and a width
of 0.70 cm at the narrow end...............................................................................................9
Figure 3.6: Staples® Large Silver Paper Clips ...................................................................9
Figure 3.7: Ohaus-Dial-O-Gram® Balance.......................................................................10
Figure 3.8: KodakEasy Share z812IS Digital Camera....................................................10
Figure 3.9: Apple ® i-Phone With the Stopwatch.............................................................11
Figure 3.10: HB Number 2 Pencil.....................................................................................11
Figure 3.2.1: Twenty (20) Staples® Small Silver Paper Clips..........................................12
Figure 3.2.2: Twenty (20) Staples® Small Brass Paper Clips...........................................12
Figure 3.2.3: Twenty (20) Staples® Large Silver Paper Clips..........................................13
Figure 3.2.4: Loops of the Small Brass Paper Clip............................................................13
Figure 3.2.5: Loops of the Small Silver Paper Clip...........................................................13
Figure 3.2.6: Loops of the Large Silver Paper Clip...........................................................14
Figure 3.2.7: Weighing the 3 Different Paper Clips..........................................................14
Figure 3.2.8: Small Silver Paperclip at 45˚ Angle.............................................................15
Figure 3.2.9: Small Silver Paperclip at 90˚ Angle.............................................................16
Figure 3.2.10: Small Silver Paperclip at 135˚ Angle.........................................................16
Figure 3.2.11: Small Silver Paper Clip at 135˚ Angle.......................................................17
Figure 3.2.12: Small Silver Paper Clip Which Failed due to Fatigue................................17
Figure 4.2.2: 45º Bar Graph...............................................................................................21
Figure 4.2.3: 90º Bar Graph...............................................................................................22
Figure 4.2.4: 135º Bar Graph.............................................................................................23
Figure 4.2.5: 180º Bar Graph.............................................................................................23
Figure 5.3.6: Failure Comparison by Brand......................................................................25
Figure 7.1: Dr. Theis..........................................................................................................28
Figure 7.2: Jake Jacot.........................................................................................................28
Figure 7.3: Shyam Thota....................................................................................................29
Figure 7.4: Sreyes Kadapala..............................................................................................29
Figure 7.5: Team Members for the Experiment.................................................................29
Team 1 Raw Data ..............................................................................................................34
Team 2 Raw Data ..............................................................................................................36
 vii

LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 2.4: Average Cycles to Failure.............................................................................5

 viii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

A ................................................................Area...............................................................in2

F ...............................................................Force................................................................lb

X .......................................................Average Value.........................................................--

X n .................................................Value of the nth term....................................................--

l .........................................................Original length........................................................in

n .......................................................Number of terms.......................................................--

δ ...........................................................Elongation............................................................in

ε ...............................................................Strain................................................................--

θ .....................................................Angle of Deflection..................................................deg

° .....................................................Angle of Deflection..................................................deg

σ ...............................................................Stress..........................................................lb/in2
 ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

B58.......................................................Building 58...........................................................--

COM 221.04......................Technical Report Writing Section 4........................................--

ERAU.............................Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University......................................--

IT................................................Information Technology.................................................--
 x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank several people for their guidance throughout the
compilation and writing of this report:

• Dr. Richard Theis for his contributions throughout Fall 2008 semester and COM
221.04.

• Shyam Thota, Steven Colenso, Jake Jacot, and Praful Chowdri for their help and
willingness to answer questions regarding formatting and content.
Final Lab Report 1/44 Kadapala

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Topic

This lab report discusses and elaborates the lab experiment performed on November 13,
2008. The lab experiment’s focus was to introduce the topic of metal fatigue. When
cyclic bending stresses are applied on metals, cracks are formed at various points on the
surface of the metal. This cyclic application of bending stresses leads metals to fail or
break. The breaking of metals due this cyclic application of stresses is known as metal
fatigue. In this lab experiment, cyclic stresses are induced in paper clips by bending the
paper clip’s inner surface at certain angles.

1.2 Background Information

In the world of engineering, metal fatigue is a critical concept as metals are used in
buildings, bridges, and machines. Various types of metals are subjected to cyclic stresses
and the cyclic stresses and forces over time. Therefore, the metal will eventually fail.
This failure often costs millions of dollars and thousands of human being lives. For
example, the Aloha Airlines’ airplane accident on April 28, 1988 was caused due to metal
fatigue failure.

1.3 Justification

In the contemporary world, machines are dependent upon metals, and metals play a
central role in the lives of people across the globe. However, machines have been
improvised since late 1800s. Hence, increasing the risk of fatigue failure of machines
comprised of metals. Engineers and scientists have been working on decreasing the
factors causing metal fatigue.

1.4 Research Problem

The factors causing metal fatigue and theory behind metal fatigue are unknown to college
students until their junior year. However, college students concur that metal fatigue is one
of the reasons behind the breaking and cracking of metals. The initial hypothesis for the
lab experiment was the small silver category of paper clips will take least number of
cycles to be broken into two separate parts.

1.5 Purpose Statement

The purpose of the lab report is to introduce metal fatigue to the reader of the report,
display the results of the lab experiment conducted to the reader, and help the reader
analyze the results of the conducted experiment.
Final Lab Report 2/44 Kadapala

1.6 Textual Overview

This lab report was written for a reader without any scientific background, and the lab
report provides the reader with basic background knowledge and principles to understand
the conducted lab experiment.

Initially, the lab report presents theoretical information about metal fatigue. Next, the
experiment’s procedures are summarized, and the generated results are listed, analyzed,
discussed, and explained in statements, tables and graphics. Finally, conclusions and
recommendations were made and discussed.
Final Lab Report 3/44 Kadapala

2.0 THEORY

1.1 Technical Definitions

• Angle of Deflection: The angle an object is deflected, or bent, from the

equilibrium or starting position.

• Compression Stress: Stress that causes deformation in the direction of the

applied load.

• Cycle: One cycle is defined as deforming the paper clip to the specified angle of
deflection and then returning the paper clip to the equilibrium, or starting,
position.

• Cycles to Failure: The total number of cycles a paper clip can withstand before
reaching the point of fatigue (i.e., the paper clip breaks).

• Fatigue Point: The point at which metal becomes fatigued and can no longer
support the load, or force, being applied.

• Force (Cyclic) Loading: Strength or power exerted upon a metal

repeatedly at a constant rate.

• Metal Fatigue: The phenomenon leading to the fracture of a metal under

cyclic forces, stresses or strains.

• Tensile Stress: Force acting upon a small area within a surface plane.

• Tensile Strain: Amount of elongation or compression that occurs in a

metal at a given stress or load

• Shear Stress: Stress that acts parallel to a surface.

1.2 Theoretical Principles

This section will educate the reader about the basic principles and concepts of metal
fatigue. During the lab experiment, the paper clips were exposed to bending stresses in
continuous cycles. Initially, when the cyclic forces were applied during the bending of
the paper clip microscopic cracks begin to develop. As the cyclic loading was continued,
these cracks were beginning to propagate until the metal is no longer able to carry the
stress load, and consequently failed (Engineers Edge). During the application of cyclic
bending stress, the metal undergoes tensile stress and compressive stress. Figure 2.1
Final Lab Report 4/44 Kadapala

illustrates a metal under tension and compression:

Figure 2.1: Typical Stress Cycles

(Engineers Edge, 2008)

As illustrated in Figure 2.1, tensile stress is considered to be positive while compression

stress is considered to be negative. The top two graphs depict a sinusoidal stress curve,
and the bottom graph represents the stress cycle on an aircraft wing during flight
(Engineers Edge).

1.3 Expected Results

The expected results of the experiment were that the metal paper clips being bent to a
certain angle will eventually fail. Depending upon the frequency and intensity of the
stress applied the number of cycles could differ. Due to the large silver paper clips being
thicker and taller than the other two paper clips (i.e., small silver and small brass), the
large silver will take more cycles, and more force will have to be applied to break the
large silver clips while compared to the small silver and small brass paper clips. Team 1’s
predictions for the number of cycles to failure for each of the four angles (45,
90,135,180) are depicted in Table 2.1, on the top of the following page:

Table 2.1: Predicted Number of Cycles to Failure

Final Lab Report 5/44 Kadapala

Brand θ = 45º θ = 90º θ = 135º θ = 180º

Small silver 30 20 10 5
Small brass 65 30 15 10
Large silver 75 40 30 20

As depicted in Table 2.1, small silver and small brasses are expected to have similar
fatigue points. Large silver is expected to have the highest cycles to failure due to the
thicker composition of large silver paper clips.

1.4 Equations

Tensile stress ( σ or S) can be quantitatively defined as the force applied (F) on the metal
per unit area (A) of the metal. This definition is described by the equation,

F
σ = Equation 2.1
A

Tensile strain (ε) can be quantitatively defined as the change in the length (Δl) of the
metal per unit length (l). This definition is described by the equation,

Elongation ∆l
ε= = Equation 2.2
Length l

The average weight of one (1) paper clip can be calculated using the following equation:

Total Weight of 20 paper clips

Avg. weight = Equation 2.3
20

The total weight of twenty (20) paper clips is found using a weighing scale. A sample
calculation is depicted in section 8.1

The average cycles to failure for a category of paper clips for either of the bending angles
can be calculated using the following equation:

Avg. cycles to failure

Test #1(Cycles ) + Test # 2(Cycles ) + Test #3(Cycles ) + Test # 4(Cycles )+ Test #5( Cycles)
=
5

Equation 2.4
Final Lab Report 6/44 Kadapala

1.5 Justification

By incorporating theoretical principles of fatigue, stress, and strain, the reader is able to
develop the skills required to understand metal fatigue in structures of machines. The data
of fatigue of a metal is vital for engineering or prototyping a machine. Whether the
machine is an aircraft, car or even a small drill machine, fatigue failure occurs on every
metal of the machine. To ensure the durability and long-life for the machine, the
engineers first determine the fatigue strength data from experiments on the metal being
used. Then the engineer manufactures the machine using the metals experimented and
tested upon.
Final Lab Report 7/44 Kadapala

3.0 APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES

1.6 Apparatus

The following equipment was used during the experiment:

• One (1) data sheet constituting of two pages (provided by Dr. Theis)

• One (1) 180° Charles Leonard® Protractor, as illustrated in Figure 3.1:

Figure 3.1: Charles Leonard® Protractor

The protractor pictured in Figure 3.1 measures angles up to 180°.


• One (1) C-Thru MR-12 stainless steel ruler with metric and English
measurements as depicted in Figure 3.2:


Figure 3.2: C-Thru MR-12 Stainless Steel Ruler

The ruler depicted in Figure 3.2 measures up to thirty (30) centimeters or twelve (12)
inches. The measuring device can measure accurately up to 1 mm or 1/16 in.
Final Lab Report 8/44 Kadapala

• One (1) set of Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers, as illustrated in Figure 3.3:

Figure 3.3: Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers

The Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers are 6 inch in length and weigh 2.35 oz and are
made in China.

• Twenty (20) Staples® small silver paper clips. Each paper clip has a length of
3.20 cm, a width of 0.70 cm at the wide end, and a width of 0.60 cm at the narrow
end as illustrated in Figure 3.4:

Figure 3.4: Staples® Small Silver Paper Clips

The Staples® small silver paper clips illustrated on the bottom of the previous
page, in Figure 3.4, are made of galvanized steel and weigh 0.43 gram. The paper
clips’ contour is elliptical in shape and consist of three (3) 180° turns at the ends.
Final Lab Report 9/44 Kadapala

• Twenty (20) Staples® small brass paper clips. The Staples® small brass paper
clips are made of galvanized steel and weigh 0.43 grams. Figure 3.5 illustrates
small brass clips:

Figure 3.5: Staples® Small Brass Paper Clips

Each paper clip has a length of 3.20 cm, a width of 0.75 cm at the wide end, and
a width of 0.70 cm at the narrow end.

• Twenty (20) Staples® large silver paper clips. The Staples® large silver paper
clips are made of galvanized steel and weigh 1.40 grams as illustrated in Figure
3.6:

Figure 3.6: Staples® Large Silver Paper Clips

The paper clips illustrated in Figure 3.6, are elliptical in shape and consist of
three (3) 180° turns. Each paper clip has a length of 4.80 cm, a width of 1.10 cm
at the wide end, and a width of 0.80 cm at the narrow end.
Final Lab Report 10/44 Kadapala

• One (1) Ohaus-Dial-O-Gram® balance as depicted in 7:

Figure 3.7: Ohaus-Dial-O-Gram® Balance

The balance pictured in 7, Ohaus-Dial-O-Gram® balance was used to measure the


weight of the three different paper clips. The balance is manufactured by Ohaus ,
is accurate to 0.01 grams, and can measure up to 310 grams.

• One (1) Kodak Easy Share z812IS digital camera as depicted in Figure 3.8:


Figure 3.8: Kodak Easy Share z812IS Digital Camera
(Source: http://www.kodak.com/)

The digital camera depicted in Figure 3.8 was used to take digital pictures for

pictorial reference. The digital camera is manufactured by Kodak and marketed as
the “Easy Share z812IS.” The digital camera is 6.4 inches wide, 7.4 inches tall, 4.3
inches thick, and weighs 1.2 pounds.

• One (1) Apple® i-Phone was used as a stopwatch. Figure 3.9 depicts an i-Phone
with the stopwatch application in use:
Final Lab Report 11/44 Kadapala

Figure 3.9: Apple ® i-Phone With the Stopwatch

(Source: www.apple.com)

Figure 3.9 illustrates the i-Phone with two thousand nine hundred and fifty two
(2952) minutes clocked.

• One (1) HB Number 2 pencil as illustrated in Figure 3.10:

Figure 3.10: HB Number 2 Pencil

(Source: www.google.com)

A HB Number 2 pencil is used for writing purposes such as exams, essays, and
class room notes.
Final Lab Report 12/44 Kadapala

1.7 Procedures

The lab experiment was performed on November 13th, 2008 in B58, room 102 at ERAU
in Prescott, Arizona. The following procedures were used to complete the experiment:

1.0 Set of twenty (20) Staples® small silver paper clips were collected as depicted in
Figure 3.2.1:

Figure 3.2.1: Twenty (20) Staples® Small Silver Paper Clips

2.0 Set of twenty (20) Staples® small brass paper clips were collected as depicted in
Figure 3.2.2:

Figure 3.2.2: Twenty (20) Staples® Small Brass Paper Clips

3.0 Set of twenty (20) Staples® large silver paper clips were collected as depicted in
Figure 3.2.3, on the top of the following page:
Final Lab Report 13/44 Kadapala

Figure 3.2.3: Twenty (20) Staples® Large Silver Paper Clips

4.0 The length and the width (inner loop and outer loop) of one (1) Staples® small brass

paper clip were measured using the C-Thru MR-12 stainless steel ruler. Each paper
clip consisted of two widths, the inner loop width and outer loop width. Figure
3.2.4, below, illustrates the inner and outer loops of the small brass paper clip. The
measurements were recorded in the data sheet by the recorder.

Outer Loop

Inner Loop
Figure 3.2.4: Loops of the Small Brass Paper Clip

5.0 The length and the width (inner loop and outer loop) of one (1) Staples® small silver

paper clip were measured using the C-Thru MR-12 stainless steel ruler. Figure
3.2.5, below, illustrates the inner and outer loops of the small silver paper clip. The
measurements were recorded in the data sheet by the recorder.

Outer Loop
Inner Loop

Figure 3.2.5: Loops of the Small Silver Paper Clip

6.0 The length and the width (inner loop and outer loop) of one (1) Staples® large silver

paper clip were measured using the C-Thru MR-12 stainless steel ruler. Figure
3.2.6, below, illustrates the inner and outer loops of the large silver paper clip. The
measurements were recorded in the data sheet by the recorder.
 Final Lab Report 14/44 Kadapala

Inner Loop

Outer Loop

Figure 3.2.6: Loops of the Large Silver Paper Clip

7.0 All the twenty (20) small silver paper clips were placed on the Ohaus-Dial-O-Gram®
Balance and were weighed as illustrated in Figure 3.2.7:

Measure-
ment
Scale

Paper
Clips
on
the scale

Figure 3.2.7: Weighing the 3 Different Paper Clips

7.1 The weight of the twenty (20) Staples® small silver paper clips was divided
by 20 to get the average weight of one (1) small silver paper clip (for further explanation
refer to section 8.1). The average weight of one (1) small silver paper clip was recorded
in the data sheet by the recorder.

8.0 All the twenty (20) Staples® large silver paper clips were placed on the Ohaus-Dial-
O-Gram® Balance and were weighed in a similar procedure used for weighing the
small silver paper clips. Figure 3.2.7 illustrates the weighing of the twenty (20)
large silver paper clips similar to the weighing of small silver paper clips.

8.1 The weight of the twenty (20) Staples® large silver paper clips was divided
by 20 to get the average weight of one (1) large silver paper clip ( for further explanation
refer to section 8.1). The average weight of one (1) large silver paper clip was recorded in
 Final Lab Report 15/44 Kadapala

the data sheet by the recorder.

9.0 All the twenty (20) Staples® small brass paper clips were placed on the Ohaus-Dial-
O-Gram® Balance and were weighed in a similar procedure used for weighing the
small silver paper clips. Figure 3.2.7 illustrates the weighing of the twenty (20)
small brass paper clips similar to the weighing of small silver paper clips.

9.1 The weight of the twenty (20) Staples® small brass paper clips was divided
by 20 to get the average weight of one (1) small brass paper clip (for further explanation
refer to section 8.1). The average weight of one (1) small brass paper clip was recorded in
the data sheet by the recorder.

10.0 The Staples® small silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles as illustrated
below in Figure 3.2.8. The inner loop of the paper clip was placed parallel to the
horizontal line (zero degrees). The top stem of the paper clip was bent back (i.e., till
45°) and forth (i.e., back to the original position) until the paper clip broke.

10.1 The small silver paper clip was placed on the sheet. The first angle was 45°.
The paper clip was bent up to 45°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers,
as depicted in Figure 3.2.8, below. The number of cycles (one cycle is the bending of the
stem to 45° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) was counted and
recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

Metal
piece
being
bent up to
45° with
the help of
the pliers

Figure 3.2.8: Small Silver Paperclip at 45˚ Angle

10.2 Another small silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The second
angle was 90°. The paper clip was bent up to 90°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart® Long
Nosed Pliers, as depicted in Figure 3.2.9, on the following page. The number of cycles
(one cycle is the bending of the stem to 90° and then back to its original position at zero
degrees) were counted and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5)
 Final Lab Report 16/44 Kadapala

times.

Metal piece
being
bent up to 90°
with
the help of the
pliers

Figure 3.2.9: Small Silver Paperclip at 90˚ Angle

10.3 Another small silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The third
angle was 135°. The paper clip was bent up to 135°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart®
Long Nosed Pliers, as illustrated in Figure 3.2.10, below. The number of cycles (one
cycle was the bending of the stem to 135° and then back to its original position at zero
degrees) were counted and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5)
times.

Metal
piece
being
bent up to
135° with
the help of
the pliers

Figure 3.2.10: Small Silver Paperclip at 135˚ Angle

10.4 Another small silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The forth
angle was 180 °. The paper clip was bent up to 180°, repeatedly Wal-Mart® Long Nosed
Pliers, as depicted in Figure 3.2.11, on the following page. The number of cycles (one
 Final Lab Report 17/44 Kadapala

cycle was the bending of the stem to 180° and then back to its original position at zero
degrees) were counted and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5)
times.

Metal piece
being
bent up to
180° with
the help of the
pliers

Figure 3.2.11: Small Silver Paper Clip at 135˚ Angle

10.5 Figure 3.2.12 displays a failed small silver paper clip:

Point
where
the
paper
clip
breaks

Figure 3.2.12: Small Silver Paper Clip Which Failed due to Fatigue

11.0 The Staples® small brass paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles as illustrated
in Figure 3.2.8 (similar to the placement of small silver paper clips). The inner loop
of the paper clip was placed parallel to the horizontal line (zero degrees). The top
stem of the paper clip was bent back (i.e., till 45°) and forth (i.e., back to the
original position at zero degrees) until the paper clip broke.

11.1 The small brass paper clip was placed on the sheet. The first angle was 45°.
The paper clip was bent up to 45°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers,
similar to the silver paper clips as depicted in Figure 3.2.8 (similar to the placement of
small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle is the bending of the stem to
 Final Lab Report 18/44 Kadapala

45° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) was counted and recorded in the
data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

11.2 Another small brass paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The second
angle was 90°. The paper clip was bent up to 90°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart® Long
Nosed Pliers, similar to the silver paper clips as depicted in Figure 3.2.9 (similar to the
placement of small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle is the bending of
the stem to 90° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) were counted and
recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

11.3 Another small brass paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The third
angle was 135°. The paper clip was bent up to 135°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart®
Long Nosed Pliers, similar to the silver paper clips as depicted in Figure 3.2.10 (similar
to the placement of small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle was the
bending of the stem to 135° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) were
counted and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

11.4 Another small brass paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The forth
angle was 180 °. The paper clip was bent up to 180°, repeatedly Wal-Mart® Long Nosed
Pliers, similar to the silver paper clips as illustrated in Figure 3.2.11 (similar to the
placement of small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle was the bending
of the stem to 180° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) were counted
and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

12.0 The Staples® large silver paper clip is placed on the sheet of angles, in such a way
that the paper clip is parallel to the horizontal line of the angles diagram. The top
stem of the paper clip is bent back and forth until the stem breaks.

12.1 The large silver paper clip was placed on the sheet. The first angle was 45°.
The paper clip was bent up to 45°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart® Long Nosed Pliers,
similar to the silver paper clips as illustrated in Figure 3.2.8 (similar to the placement of
small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle is the bending of the stem to
45° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) was counted and recorded in the
data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

12.2 Another large silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The second
angle was 90°. The paper clip was bent up to 90°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart® Long
Nosed Pliers, as similar to the silver paper clips as depicted in Figure 3.2.9 (similar to the
placement of small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle is the bending of
the stem to 90° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) were counted and
recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

12.3 Another large silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The third
angle was 135°. The paper clip was bent up to 135°, repeatedly using the Wal-Mart®
Long Nosed Pliers, similar to the silver paper clips as illustrated in Figure 3.2.10 (similar
to the placement of small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle was the
 Final Lab Report 19/44 Kadapala

bending of the stem to 135° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) were
counted and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.
12.4 Another large silver paper clip was placed on the sheet of angles. The forth
angle was 180 °. The paper clip was bent up to 180°, repeatedly Wal-Mart® Long Nosed
Pliers, similar to the silver paper clips as depicted in Figure 3.2.11 (similar to the
placement of small silver paper clips). The number of cycles (one cycle was the bending
of the stem to 180° and then back to its original position at zero degrees) were counted
and recorded in the data sheet. This step was repeated five (5) times.

13.0 The pictures of the apparatus were taken using the Kodak Easy Share z812IS
digital camera (the camera is illustrated in Figure 3.10).

14.0 The experiment area was cleaned by up ensuring that every piece of the broken
paper clips was disposed.

15.0 The completed data sheet was submitted to the class instructor for review, and
comparison with the other groups’ data sheets.

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.8 Data

Each team collected and recorded data from the lab experiment which was conducted on
November 13, 2008. The instructor allowed each team to have the data recorded by the
remaining three teams to generate accurate results. However, the lab experiment was
found to be prone to errors, and the generated results were constantly inconsistent. The
inconsistency was due to the irregularity in the bending angle and cyclic force and
stresses applied at the point of application.
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Table 4.1.1 depicts the average number of cycles to failure in reference to the angle of
deflection for small silver paper clips. Averages are depicted for both individual team
data and for the entire data set given by the instructor.

Table 4.1.1: Average Cycles to Failure (Small silver)

Team Size θ = θ = θ = θ =
Brand 45º 90º 135º 180º
1 Small Silver 71.8 18.6 13.2 3.4
2 Small Silver 55.6 22.6 8.8 7.4
3 Small Silver 34.2 10.8 7.2 3
4 Small Silver 278.6 26 17.4 4.8
Average Small Silver 110.05 19.5 8.98 11.65

Table indicates that with an increased angle of deflection, the number of cycles to failure
decreased as predicted by the team.

Table 4.1.2 depicts the average number of cycles to failure for small brass paper clips:

Table 4.1.2: Average Cycles to Failure (Small brass)

Team Size θ = θ = θ = θ =
Brand 45º 90º 135º 180º
1 Small Brass 52.8 19.6 8.4 8
2 Small Brass 105.6 20.8 12.6 5
3 Small Brass 15.4 9.6 8 4
4 Small Brass 146.4 12 8 5.4
Average Small Brass 80.05 15.5 9.25 5.6

Table 4.1.2 indicates that with an increased angle of deflection, the number of cycles to
failure decreased as predicted by the team.
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Table 4.1.3 depicts the average number of cycles to failure for large silver paper clips:

Table 4.1.3: Average Cycles to Failure (Small brass)

Team Size θ = θ = θ = θ =
Brand 45º 90º 135º 180º
1 Large Silver 44.8 13.6 5.4 1.8
2 Large Silver 75.6 13.6 6.4 2.6
3 Large Silver 26.4 12 6.2 1.6
4 Large Silver 183.6 11.2 4.6 2.6
Average Large Silver 82.6 12.6 5.65 8.6

Table 4.1.3 indicates with an increased angle of deflection, the number of cycles to
failure decreased as predicted by the team. An observation was made by the team that the
averages for large silver clips are higher than the averages for either small silver or small
brass paper clips.

1.9 Graphical Representation of Data

Figure 4.2.2 depicts the number of cycles to failure for each brand of paper clip for an
angle of forty five (45) degrees (θ =45º):

Figure 4.2.2: 45º Bar Graph

As seen in Figure 4.2.2, most of the data is relatively inconsistent. If a general trend line
would be drawn, then the line would not be linear as expected. There is an obvious
distinction between data points for separate teams.
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Figure 4.2.3 illustrates the number of cycles to failure for each brand of paper clip for an
angle of ninety (90) degrees (θ =90º):

Figure 4.2.3: 90º Bar Graph

As seen in Figure 4.2.3, small silver generally has a larger number of cycles to failure
than small brass or large silver. The data is not suitable for comparing small brass to large
silver.

Figure 4.2.4, on the top following page, depicts the number of cycles to failure for each
brand of paper clip for an angle of one hundred and thirty five (135) degrees (θ =135º):
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Figure 4.2.4: 135º Bar Graph

As illustrated in Figure 4.2.4, there is a separation of data when comparing brands.

However, the data is inconsistent because for some data point’s small brass has the best
endurance, yet for data points 15 to 20, small brass fails in the shortest number of bends.

Figure 4.2.5 depicts the number of cycles to failure for each brand of paper clip for an
angle of one hundred and eight (180) degrees (θ =180º):

Figure 4.2.5: 180º Bar Graph

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As seen, on the bottom of the pervious page, in Figure 4.2.5, small silver paper clips are
generally consistent for θ =180º. However, the data for small brass and large silver do
not allow for conclusions to be drawn.

1.10 Commentary on Data

Although general trends could be established, the data obtained from each team was not
consistent enough to draw specific conclusions. However, the number of cycles to failure
was inversely proportional to the angle of deflection (i.e., as the angle of deflection
increased, the number of cycles to failure decreased regardless of the type of paper clip).

The inconsistency in data is most likely due to a number of factors such as the following:
a) The various methods used by each team to bend the paper clips,
b) The differences in magnitude of the force applied to bend the paper clips,
c) The speed at which the paper clips were bent, and
d) The time elapsed between each cycle (i.e., the time interval when one cycle was
completed and another cycle was started).

All of these factors could be controlled by establishing specific instructions and creating
a controlled experiment. The data obtained was rendered as inappropriate for scientific
purposes since the data generated was constantly inconsistent.
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5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1.11 Purpose

This experiment served two purposes: a) The experiment introduced the topic of metal
fatigue to readers and allowed the readers to draw conclusions from experimental data,
and b) The experiment allowed students to write a technical lab report in preparation for
future classes.

5.2 Procedures

From each of the three brands of paper clips, twenty paper clips were collected, measured
and weighed. The paper clips were then bent to a specified angle of deflection until the
paper clips experienced fatigue failure. Data was recorded for each paper clip, and the
cumulative data from each team was compiled and distributed to the other three teams.

1.12 Key Results

The general trend of the data depicted that the number of cycles to failure for each paper
clip was essentially independent of its physical characteristics. When related to the angle
of deflection, however, a very clear relationship emerged: the number of cycles to failure
for a paper clip was inversely dependent on the angle of deflection (i.e., as the angle of
deflection increased, the number of cycles to failure decreased). This relationship is
illustrated in Figure 5.3.6:

Figure 5.3.6: Failure Comparison by Brand

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As illustrated on the bottom of the previous page, in Figure 5.3.6, an increase in the angle
of deflection resulted in a decrease in the number of cycles to failure for all paper clips,
regardless of brand.

5.4 Conclusions

The lab report explained the procedures and the results of the lab experiment which was
conducted on November 13, 2008. This experiment tries to describe the relation between
the cycles of failure and the bending angle for the three categories of paper clips (i.e.,
small silver, small brass, and large silver). As explained in the section 4.0 Results, the
breaking of metal (paper clips in this case), was dependent on the bending angle and the
force applied.

The initial hypothesis was found to be incorrect. The small silver and small brass paper
clips failed much earlier than the large silver paper clips at high bending angles. It was
also observed that paper clips (metal) undergo fatigue failure after a finite number of
cycles for any bending angle. This study predicts that metals could break due to finite or
infinite number of cyclic forces or stresses being applied on them.

6.5 Recommendations

There are limitations while conducting undergraduate college experiments. The

procedures used for performing the experiment could have been altered to minimize
errors. The factors affecting the inaccuracy of the results are human error, unknown
material composition, and inconsistent bending angle. To ensure accurate results, the
experimenters must make sure of the following:
a) The bending angle should be the same for every cycle of bending.
b) The experimenters could use a device which applies constant force on the paper
clip for every cycle.
c) Each category of paper clips were tested five (5) times for each angle (45°, 90°,
135°, 180°), which could be insufficient to make any conclusions. Hence, more
number of tests were to be conducted.

In addition to the experimenters’ precautions, a lab monitor could assist the students in
conducting the experiment.
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6.0 REFERENCES

Engineers Edge (2000). Fatigue – Strength (Mechanics) of Materials. Engineers Edge.

Retrieved November 28, 2008, from
http://www.engineersedge.com/material_science.
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7.0 ATTRIBUTIONS

Person Task
Dr. Richard Theis Setup, Experiment
Jake Jacot Bender
Shyam Thota Recorder, Timer
Sreyes Kadapala Photographer

Figure 7.1, Figure 7.2, Figure 7.3, and Figure 7.4 display the images of the conductors
of the lab experiment on November 13, 2008, and the professor who guided the
experimenters to conduct the experiment:

Figure 7.1: Dr. Theis

Dr. Theis was responsible for the setup of the experiment.

Figure 7.2: Jake Jacot

Jake Jacot was responsible for the bending of the paper clips.
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Figure 7.3: Shyam Thota

Shyam Thota was responsible for the recording and timing the results.

Figure 7.4: Sreyes Kadapala

Sreyes Kadapala was responsible for the photographs which were to be taken of the
experiment. Figure 7.5, illustrates an image of the team which conducted the lab
experiment on November 13, 2008

Figure 7.5: Team Members for the Experiment

In Figure 7.5 from left to right in order: Jake Jacot, Shyam Thota, and Sreyes Kadapala.
Final Lab Report 30/44 Kadapala

Staples® is a registered trademark of Staples Inc. USA.

Ohaus® is a registered trademark of Ohaus Corporation USA.

Wal-Mart® is a registered trademark of Wal-Mart America Inc. USA.

Charles Leonard® is a registered trademark of Charles Leonard Inc. USA

Kodak® is a registered trademark of Kodak USA.

Apple® is a registered trademark of Apple Inc. USA.


C-Thru is a registered trademark of C-Thru Inc. USA.
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8.0 APPENDIX I: SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

In order to accurately compare the data of one team to the data of another team, an
average value was needed. To calculate the average, Table 8.1 was used.

A sample calculation for calculating the average number of cycles to failure is depicted in
Table 8.1:

Table 8.1: Team 1 Raw Data for Sample Calculation of Average

Size Brand Test # θ = 90º
Small A 1 50
A 2 40
A 3 50
A 4 20
A 5 30

The data in column four of Table8.1 was added together to calculate the sum of the
values:
50 + 40 + 50 + 20 + 30 = 190

The sum of data values in column four of Table8.1 was then divided by the total number
of data values (5) as illustrated below:

190 / 5 = 38

The average of the sample data is found to be 38.

8.1 Average weight of one paper clip

The average weight of one (1) paper clip for the small silver category was calculated as
follows:

The total weight is of twenty (20) Staples® small silver paper clips was measured using
Ohaus-Dial-O-Gram® Balance, and the total weight was measured 8.3 grams.

Totalweight 8.3 g
Avg. weight = = = 0.43g
20 20
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8.2 Average of cycles of failure

The average of cycles to failure for the Staples® small silver paper clips for bending
angle of 45° after five (5) tests was calculated as follows:

Avg. of cycles to failure = cycles to failure in each attempt / number of attempts.

For example, the calculation done below is an average of small silver paper clips bent at
an angle of 45° for five (5) cycles.

94 + 100 + 94 + 77 + 120 485

Avg. of cycles to failure = = = 97
5 5
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9.0 APPENDIX II: RAW DATA

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SCANNED IN DATA SHEET FOR TEAM 1 (PAGE 1)

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SCANNED IN DATA SHEET FOR TEAM 2 (PAGE 1)

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SCANNED IN DATA SHEET FOR TEAM 3 (PAGE 1)

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SCANNED IN DATA SHEET FOR TEAM 4 (PAGE 1)

Team 4 (Couch, Mueller, Cummings, Freienmuth)

Size Brand Test # θ = 45º θ = 90º θ = 135º θ = 180º
Small A 1 91 29 17 3
A 2 550 21 26 6
A 3 513 23 10 4
A 4 26 26 11 5
A 5 213 31 23 6
Small B 1 205 14 14 3
B 2 120 13 9 6
B 3 138 9 5 8
B 4 49 17 6 5
B 5 220 7 6 5
Large C 1 182 2 2 1
C 2 231 28 3 6
C 3 123 8 2 2
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10.0 APPENDIX III: DATA SHEET

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Data Sheet Page 1

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Data Sheet Page 2

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Team 3 (Blevins, Boyken, Nishida)

Size Brand Test # Π= 45º Π= 90º Π = 135º Π= 180º
Small A 1 60 7 3 3
A 2 28 11 14 5
A 3 16 6 7 3
A 4 31 16 4 2
A 5 36 14 8 2
Small B 1 8 6 13 4
B 2 8 5 7 5
B 3 33 4 10 3
B 4 10 11 3 3
B 5 18 8 7 5
Large C 1 32 8 5 1
C 2 15 4 2 1
C 3 36 24 10 4
C 4 32 6 2 1
C 5 17 18 12 1

Raw Data For Each Team