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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Pipes are essential components in any water supply and

distribution network. Water supply is the process of supply of water

from public water supply system to the end users. The water from the

source of public water supply system to individual buildings is

supplied through pipes. A large amount of capital is to be invested on

pipes while designing water supply distribution system.

The use of plastic pipes has increased tremendously in the recent

past for water supply and distribution systems both on the domestic

and irrigation front. This helped in replacing the conventional pipes

and proved to be helpful in overcoming most of the difficulties being

felt by water supply engineers. Such replacements have also proved to

be economical both during installation as well as long range

operations. Practical observations in the case of domestic pipes

revealed the presence of certain deposits on the inner walls of the

pipes over a period of usage. This problem increases when the fluid of

appreciable hardness flows for a considerable period of time.

This phenomenon will render the PVC pipes less useful when the

hardness or salinity of the water flowing in the pipes is high. Though,

considerable amount of research work is reported regarding the

friction factor studies, the causes for the deposit formation have not

been reported in literature. In this context it becomes necessary to

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investigate the reasons for the phenomenon of deposit formation in

PVC pipes.

A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit of circular cross section

carrying fluids under pressure. They are employed to convey water in

water distribution networks, for oil transportation, air in the case of

pneumatic systems and gases or stream for commercial and industrial

requirements. Pipes are also known to be used for power transmission

especially when high-pressure fluids are transmitted from one point to

another. In the case of hydropower generation, large pipes called

penstocks are utilized to convey water from reservoir to the turbine

under high pressures. In servo mechanisms and pneumatic control

systems, pipes carry oils or gases under high pressures varying with

time.

Generally the fluids flowing through the pipes occupy the

available cross-sectional area completely and thus run in full. Hence

the pressure of the fluid on the pipe may be above or below the

atmospheric pressure, and can also be altered as desired. In general

the pipes can be designed to withstand high pressures on positive side

called gauge pressures. But it is difficult to choose the material for a

pipe to withstand cavitation. This is mainly influenced by the amount

of negative pressure or vacuum pressure that is created inside the

pipe. If the pressure in the pipe is less than the vapour pressure of the

liquid flowing through it, then the phenomena of cavitation will

influence the selection of pipe material. In any case, there is certain

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limitation on the minimum negative pressure that should exist in the

pipe and the pressure should not be allowed to reduce below such a

limit.

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe it is subjected to

resistance known as frictional resistance. This is due to the Shear

force acting between the fluid particles and the pipe boundary walls. It

can also be due to the mutual attraction between the molecules of the

flowing fluid known as viscous drag. This frictional resistance reduces

some of the energy possessed by the flowing fluid in the direction of

flow.

The amount of loss of energy depends upon the amount of

frictional resistance which itself depends upon a number of factors

like:

a. the area of wetted surface

b. the nature or roughness of the surface

c. density of flowing fluid

d. velocity of flowing fluid

e. the type of flow

1.2 TYPES OF DOMESTIC PIPES

The domestic pipes are available in various types with different

sizes. They may be classified into three categories based on the

material used in their manufacturing.

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A) Metallic pipes: The pipes such as CI Pipes, Steel pipes and GI

Pipes.

B) Cement pipes: The pipes such as Cement pipes, Asbestos Cement

(AC) pipes, cement concrete pipes.

C) Plastic pipes: The pipes such as Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC) pipes,

Polythene Pipes (low density)

1.2.1 Cast Iron (CI) Pipes

These pipes are mostly used in water supply. They are well suited

for pressure and can withstand external load because of their

thickness. The pipes are easy in manufacturing, layout and joining.

These pipes are manufactured by vertical casting in sand moulds,

horizontal casting in sand moulds and centrifugal casting (spun

casting pipes).

CI pipes are heavy in weight. Therefore transportation is costlier

and they are not suitable for inaccessible places. Due to heavy weight

these are generally made in short length. This increases layout and

jointing cost. CI vertical casting pipes are not of very good quality and

can be replaced by centrifugal casting (spun casting) pipes.

1.2.2 Steel Pipes

These pipes are extensively used for water supply. They are best

suitable for long distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide

satisfactory performance during service. These pipes have excellent

mechanical properties and are ideally suited for welding. The pipes are
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made in length more than twice the length of CI pipes; which saves in

transport, layout of pipe and joining cost. There is minimum damage

to the pipes in transportation. The pipes being light in weight are used

for large diameter pipe lines.

1.2.3 Galvanized Iron (G.I) Pipes

GI pipes are made from hot rolled coils of specified thickness. The

pipes are fully galvanized. They are available in 8 mm dia. to 100 mm

dia. GI pipes are available in three grades depending on the thickness

of the sheet used in the pipe. The three grades are as follows.

Light- Class A: The pipes marked in yellow color for identification

Medium- Class B: The pipe is marked in blue color for identification.

Heavy - Class C: The pipe is marked in red color for identification.

GI pipes are available in 6 meter length. They are commonly used

for plumbing and are equally good for high pressure supply lines. The

thickness and weight of 15 mm GI pipe are shown in the Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Details of 15 mm G.I. Pipe

Class of
S.No. Thickness of sheet Weight per meter
Pipe
1 Class A 2 mm 1.00 Kg.
2 Class B 2.65 mm 1.28 Kg
3 Class C 3.25 mm 1.50 Kg
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1.2.4 Cement Pipes

Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their

corrosion resistance. These pipes are bulky, heavy and require careful

transportation and handling. The layout process of these pipes is

costlier than steel pipes.

1.2.5 Asbestos Cement (A.C) Pipes

These pipes are light in weight and easy in transportation and

layout. They have smooth internal surface and are not affected by

corrosion (rust). The pipes are extensively used for water supply

systems. Holes can be drilled in these pipes. These pipes are not

costlier.

1.2.6 Cement Concrete (C.C) Pipes

Concrete pipes are made by centrifugal spinning or vibratory

processes. Reinforced concrete pipes used in water supply are

classified as P1, P2 and P3 with test pressure of 2.0, 4.0 and 6.0

Kg/cm2 respectively. For use on gravity mains the working pressure

should not exceed 2/3 of the test pressure. For use on pumping

mains the working pressure should not exceed half of the test

pressure. Generally concrete pipes have corrosion resistant properties

similar to those of prestressed concrete pipe although they have their

own features which significantly affect corrosion performance.

Concrete pipes are made by performance.

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1.2.7 Un-Plasticized PVC (UPVC) Pipes

These pipes are rigid PVC pipes. They are light in weight, tough,

resistant to chemical attack and large in length. Due to large in length

the cost of handling is much whereas transportation and installation

cost is less. Smooth internal surface of pipes provide less friction

which results in saving of energy. These pipes being more resistant to

corrosion when compared to metallic and concrete pipes, but not

suitable for very hot areas.

1.3 SELECTION OF PIPE FOR DOMESTIC USE

Water supply is the process of supply of water from public water

supply system to individual buildings. The entire supply and

distribution of water to various parts of the building is being done

with different sizes of pipes. A large amount of capital is invested on

pipes while providing water supply and distribution systems. The

important factors to be considered while selecting the pipes in the

water supply and distribution system are

A) Water carrying capacity

B) Strength of pipe

C) Life and durability of pipe

D) Expenditure on transportation

E) Jointing process, maintenance and repairs.

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In view of above factors and with the advent of polymeric or plastic

material pipes into fluid transport, the usage of PVC pipes has

abundantly increased over the past 4 decades, replacing metallic and

concrete pipes in various fluid flow situations.PVC pipes can be

extensively used for domestic service connections and plumbing

systems. An Indian Standard specification IS 3076-1968, suggested

Low-Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) pipes for potable water supplies on

the basis of extensive investigations. Owing to these reasons, in the

past 4 decades the usage of PVC pipes increased tremendously in

domestic systems where the pipes are used for pumping the water

from an underground source to the over-head tank, and from there to

the user points. Over the years, the usage of PVC pipes has dominated

the usage of all other pipes.

Due to light weight, good mechanical strength even with low wall

thickness and improved manufacturing techniques, more flexibility,

durability, reliability at continuously changing pressures, resistance

to atmospheric and working conditions PVC pipes are the best choice

for domestic use. Even though PVC pipes are available in wide range

of diameters, for domestic use the size is mostly limited to 26mm and

40mm.

1.4 PVC PIPES

A Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) pipe is made from a plastic and vinyl

combination material. The pipes are durable, hard to damage, and

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long lasting. A PVC pipe does not rust, rot, or wear over time. For that

reason, PVC piping is most commonly used in water systems,

underground wiring, and sewer lines.

Due to the ability of PVC pipe to withstand extreme movement and

bending, it is also increasingly used in earthquake prone areas. PVC

pipe can withstand the rigorous shaking of the earth without

experiencing any damage. The smooth surface of the PVC pipe is also

resistant to bacterial contamination, such as E. coli. Therefore, many

water companies rely on PVC pipe in their systems in order to keep

them free of contamination.

1.4.1 History of PVC Pipes

PVC was discovered as early as 1835, but the first definite report of

the polymerization of vinyl chloride did not come until about 35 years

later. At that time, the material was reported to be an off-white solid

that could be heated to 130 degrees C without degradation.

In 1912 the first industrial developments were initiated in

Germany. Throughout the 1920’s, attempts were made to use PVC

copolymers that easier to process than PVC. These early attempts

were only marginally successful. By 1932, the first tubes made from a

PVC copolymer were produced. Nearly three years later the first PVC

pipes were produced using a roll mill and hydraulic extruder. This two

step process involved melting the PVC powder on a roll mill and rolling

the sheet produced up to a billet. The PVC could then be processed in

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a discontinuously working ram extruder to make pipe. Never-the-less,

these early PVC pipes were deemed suitable for drinking water supply

piping and waste water piping because of their chemical resistance,

lack of taste or odor and smooth interior surface.

From 1936 to 1939 over 400 residences were installed with PVC

drinking water and waste pipelines in central Germany. Various test

pipelines of PVC were laid in Leipzig, Dresden, Magdeburg, Berlin,

Hamburg, Cologne, Heidelberg and Wiesbaden during the period of

1936 to 1941.

The 1950’s and 1960’s were decades of dramatic advances for PVC

pipe and fittings technology. Encouraged by the results obtained from

primitive pre-war PVC pipelines, several European and American

companies realized the enormous potential for PVC pipes. These

companies pursued the technology, both in formulation and

processing. Systematic research and trials were successful in the

development of effective stabilizers, lubricants and processing aids,

together with processing machinery engineered specifically for PVC.

During this time period, PVC pipe began competing with traditional

products in a number of major markets, such as: gas distribution;

sewer and drainage; water distribution; electrical conduit; chemical

processing; and drain, waste and vent piping.

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1.4.2 Manufacturing of PVC Pipes

Chemical Combination:

The monomer used for the manufacture of PVC is vinyl chloride.

There are two ways of producing the monomer vinyl chloride. One

method is by cracking ethylene dichloride in vapour phase at a

temperature of 5000C and the other method is by reacting acetylene

with hydrogen chloride in the presence of catalyst

5000C
CH2Cl – CH2Cl --------------------- H2C = CHCl + HCl
Pressure Vinyl chloride

1500C
HCl + CH= CH--- ---------- CH2 = CHCl
Catalyst

Poly Vinyl Chloride is produced by heating a water-emulsion of

vinyl chloride in presence of small amount of benzoyl peroxide or

hydrogen peroxide in an autoclave under pressure.

Polymerization --- CH2 – CH---

CH2 = CH ------------------------ |
| Cl
Cl (P.V.C.)

PVC is a chemically inert and non-inflammable powder having a

high softening point of 1480C. There are two kinds of PVC plastics (i)

Plasticized PVC and (ii) rigid PVC.

Plasticized PVC is produced by mixing plasticizers like dibutyl

phthalate, tricresyl phosphate etc., with Poly Vinyl Chloride resin

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uniformly. It is used for making rain-coats, table-clothes, curtains,

coatings for electric wire and cables, toilet articles, tool handles, radio,

T.V. components, conveyer belts, pipes, bends, coupling, valves, etc.

Rigid PVC or unplasticized PVC has high rigidity and high chemical

inertness. It is mainly used for making sheets used to line big

containers, tanks, etc. Other materials like refrigerator components,

tray, cycle, and motor cycle mudguards, tubes, pipes etc. are also

manufactured out of unplasticized PVC.

The total chlorine content of PVC is about 56% and this can be

further increased to 60 – 65% by dissolving it in a suitable solvent like

chlorobenzene at about 1000C. The advantage of increasing the

chlorine content is that the polymer becomes more resistant to acids

and alkalis.

Preparing Ingredients:

The first step in manufacturing PVC pipes is to prepare the

ingredients. PVC is created in a chemical process that bonds the vinyl

and chloride. The process involves the polymerization of Vinyl

Chloride Monomer (VCM). Most manufacturers use suspended

polymerization that involves use of a polymerization reactor to mix

chemicals and a polymerization initiator. The resulting PVC resin is

suspended in water and then removed for degassing and water

removal, which is accomplished by use of a centrifuge. The product is

then dried and turned into a granulated dust for transportation to the
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manufacturing plant, where it will be heated to the melting point.

Early manufacturing melted the dry powder as a sheet on a roll mill.

Once this was done it was molded into a solid product that was ready

to be rolled.

Additives:

Early PVC production created a rigid and stiff product. As a result

of experimentation with other polymers and oil products during the

1950s and the subsequent decades, the PVC product improved

dramatically. While formulas for PVC are patented by individual

companies, most modern PVC ingredients include various types of

stabilizers and lubricants to facilitate processing. Colors are also

added during the manufacturing process to indicate the appropriate

use of the piping. Dark grey pipe is used for industrial pressure

applications, white and blue pipes indicate cold water uses, and green

is used for sewer applications.

Extrusion:

While rolled PVC was produced beginning in the 1930s, no

extrusion process to form PVC pipe was perfected until the 1950s and

1960s. Modifications to such processes are still underway, but today

there are two predominant types of PVC pipe--cellular core and solid

wall. Three separate layers are extruded to create the cellular core

pipe, with hard outer layer walls sandwiching a cellular core center.
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All three layers are immediately incorporated into one pipe during the

manufacturing process. Solid wall PVC pipes are formed in a single

manufacturing step. PVC pipe is extruded to meet industry-standard

10 and 20 feet lengths. Pipes are tested for compliance with industry

and government standards for durability and the ability to withstand

pressure.

1.4.3 Physical properties of PVC Pipes

Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) is a versatile engineering plastic having

following Physical Properties.

Table1.2: Physical properties of PVC pipes

Grey, Dark Grey, White,

Colour
Blue, Green
Specific Gravity 1.38

Water absorption (%in 24 hrs @ 23°C) 0.05

Compressive Strength (Mpa) 66

Tensile Strength (Mpa @26°C) 52

Flexural Strength (izod) (kgf.m) 0.098

Specific Heat (Cal / g 1°C ) Approx 0.25

Coefficient of linear thermal expansion 5 X 10-5 0C

Maximum Operating Temperature
600C
(Under Pressure)
Softening temperature (BS 2782) °C 78°C

Electrical Resistance Greater than 1014 ohm.com

Thermal Conductivity 16 X 10° wm 1°C

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Heat Resistance at continuous

66
Drainage (°C)
Support Combustion No. Self Extinguishing

Density 1390 kg/m3

Young's modulus (E) 2900-3300 MPa

Tensile strength(σt) 50-80 MPa

Elongation at break 20-40%

Glass temperature 82 °C[1]

Melting point 100–260 °C

Heat transfer coefficient (λ) 0.16 W/(m·K)

Effective heat of combustion 17.95 MJ/kg

Linear expansion coefficient (α) 8 X 10−5/0K

Specific heat (c) 0.9 kJ/(kg·K)

Water absorption (ASTM) 0.04-0.4

Price 0.5-1.25 €/kg

1.4.4 Comparison of various pipe materials with PVC

The various other pipes were compared with the PVC pipe in the

aspects of their corrosion resistance, health criterion, thermal

expansion, and resistance to ultra violet rays. The effect of hard water,

soft water, and sub zero temperature on all the pipes is also

compared. The joining techniques, availability of fittings, ease in

installation and flow properties for friction were also compared. The

following table illustrates the comparison of PVC pipes with all other

pipes.
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Table 1.3: Comparison of various piping materials with PVC Pipes

CRITERIA GI PIPE COPPER PIPE HDPE PVC PIPE

PIPE
EFFECT OF High scale formation Scale Scale
HARD WATER scale is prohibited due formation formation is
formation to smooth bore is prohibited
prohibited due to smooth
due to bore
smooth
bore
EFFECT OF Gets Gets corroded No Effect No Effect
SOFT WATER corroded due to acidic
nature of water
HEALTH Low due Good with Very good Very good
CRITERION to lead ferrule but lead
content content in solder
and is bad for health
corrosion
JOINTING Threaded Soldered/Ferrule Fusion Solvent
TECHNIQUES Weld cement
CORROSION Very Low Low No Effect No Effect
RESISTANCE
THERMAL Very good Very good Limited Not
STRENGTH Recommended
PROPERTY AT
60 c TEMP.
AVAILABILITY Very good Average Low Good
OF FITTINGS
THERMAL Low, Low, good for Very Very special
EXPANSION good for concealed piping High, not care is
concealed to be required for
piping used for concealed
concealed piping
piping
UV Very good Very good Very good Low
RESISTANCE
EASE IN Not Easy Average Not Easy Easy
INSTALLATION
FLOW Low Very good Very good Very good
PROPERITES
FOR FRICTION
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1.5 DEPOSIT FORMATION IN PVC PIPES

There are several factors influencing the formation of deposits

in PVC pipes. Some of those factors are water quality parameters such

as hardness, flow characteristics such as pressure/velocity, pipe

characteristic such as inner surface of the pipe and also usage (age) of

the pipe. The reasons for deposits formation on the inner walls of the

PVC pipes may be attributed to the electromagnetic forces that are

being developed in between the flowing fluid and pipe walls, which is a

common phenomenon of any plastic material. These electromagnetic

forces may be probably acting on the water flowing through the pipe,

thus precipitating the salts on the inner surface of the pipe. Such salt

particles, because of their affinity, stick on the walls of the pipe and

remain there. The pressure of the flowing fluid and the crystalline

nature of the particles (dissolved or suspended) present in the fluid

are the factors affecting the thickness of deposits.

1.5.1 Hardness of water

The hardness of water due to the presence of salts is the major

factor influencing the deposit formation. Hardness of water is defined

as the presence of multivalent cations. Hardness of water can cause

water to form scales and a resistance to soap. It can also be defined as

water that does not produce lather with soap solutions, but produces

white precipitate (scum). For example, sodium stearate reacts with

calcium:

2C17H35COONa + Ca2+ → (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2Na+

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Hardness of water may also be defined as the soap-consuming

capacity of water, or the capacity of precipitation of soap as a

characteristic property of water that prevents the lathering of soap.

Table 1.4 describes the classifications of hardness given in various

textbooks

Table1.4: Classification of hardness of water

Hardness (mg/L) as
Description Hardness (gr/gal)
CaCo3

Extremely soft 0-45 0-2.6

Soft 46-90 2.6-5.2

Moderately hard 91-130 5.2-7.6

Hard 131-170 7.6-10.0

Very hard 171-250 10.0-15.0

Excessively hard OVER 250 OVER 15.0

1.5.1.1 Causes of Hardness

Most hardness in water is caused by the presence of dissolved

calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions. Other cations, such as

Al3+ and Fe3+ can contribute to hardness; however their presence is

less critical.
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The most common, and troublesome, form of hardness is caused

by the presence of calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2) which is picked

up by rain water passing through lime stone (CaCO3). As rain water

falls it dissolves carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and becomes

slightly acidic because carbonic acid (H2CO3) is formed:

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ------>H2CO3 (aq)

In the above equation g=gas, l=liquid and aq=aqueous (i.e. dissolved in

water). In the following equation s= solid.

CaCO3 is not very soluble in water however, when the dilute acid

runs through the lime stone a reaction occurs that creates calcium

bicarbonate which is readily soluble:

CaCO3 (s) + H2CO3 (aq) --->Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3- (aq)

Thus the rain water has picked up Ca2+ and HCO3 - (bicarbonate)

ions and become hard. When hard water is heated the previous two

reactions are reversed and calcium carbonate, water and carbon

dioxide are formed:

Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3 - (aq) ----> CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Since calcium carbonate is much less soluble in water than

calcium bicarbonate it precipitates out of solution as a solid known as

scale or lime scale. Because this type of hardness is easily removed

(i.e. by simple heating) it is known as temporary hardness. Scale

normally appears around heating elements and hot water systems.

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However, if the water is exceptionally hard scaling may occur in cold

water pipes.

Other types of temporary hardness are caused by the presence of

Mg2+ions and the precipitation of magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)

can contribute to scaling problems.

Combinations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions with chloride (Cl-), sulphate

(SO4 2-) and nitrate (NO3 2-) ions are known as permanent hardness.

For example in some areas CaSO4 may cause considerable hardness.

Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling.

The term hardness total hardness is used to describe the

combination of calcium and magnesium hardness. However, hardness

values are usually quoted in terms of CaCO3 because this is the most

common cause of scaling.

1.5.1.2 Types of Hardness

The hardness of water can be classified into two types as

'temporary' and 'permanent' hardness.

Temporary hardness:

Temporary hardness is due to the combination of calcium ions and

bicarbonate ions present in water. It can be removed by boiling the

water or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide). Boiling promotes

the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates

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calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is softer upon

cooling.

The following is the equilibrium reaction when calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) is dissolved in water:

CaCO3(s) + CO2 (aq) + H2O ⇋ Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)

Upon heating, less CO2 is able to dissolve into the water. Since

there is not enough CO2 around, the reaction cannot proceed from left

to right, and therefore the CaCO3 will not dissolve as rapidly. Instead,

the reaction is forced to the left (i.e., products to reactants) to re-

establish equilibrium, and solid CaCO3 is formed. Boiling the water

will remove hardness as long as the solid CaCO3 that precipitates out

is removed. After cooling, if enough time passes, the water will pick up

CO2 from the air and the reaction will again proceed from left to right,

allowing the CaCO3 to "re-dissolve" into the water.

Permanent hardness:

Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content) that cannot be

removed by boiling. It is usually caused by the presence in the water

of calcium and magnesium sulfates and/or chlorides which become

more soluble as the temperature rises. Despite the name, permanent

hardness can be removed by using a water softener or ion exchange

column, where the calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged with

the sodium ions in the column.

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Hard water causes scaling, which is the left-over mineral deposits

that are formed after the hard water had evaporated. This is also

known as lime scale. The scale can clog pipes, ruin water heaters, coat

the insides of tea and coffee pots, and decrease the life of toilet

flushing units. Similarly, insoluble salt residues that remain in hair

after shampooing with hard water tend to leave hair rougher and

harder to untangle.

In industrial settings, water hardness must be constantly

monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and

other equipment that comes in contact with water. Hardness is

controlled by the addition of chemicals and by large-scale softening

with zeolite (Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O) and ion exchange resins.

1.5.1.3 Estimation of Hardness

For finding the hardness of water in ppm or mg/lt or any unit, it is

necessary that all the hard salts should be represented as equivalents

of calcium carbonate salt. The choice of calcium carbonate in

particular is due to its molecular weight being 100 and equivalent

weight 50 which is found to be a convenient number and also it is the

most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water treatment. The

conversion of other hard salts to calcium carbonate equivalent can be

achieved by using the following formula.

Equivalent of Weight of hardness producing salt in mg

Calcium = -------------------------------------------------×50
Carbonate Equivalent weight of salt
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The same formula can be modified if we change the equivalent

weight of salt and equivalent weight of CaCO3 (50) as the molecular

weight of salt and molecular weight of CaCO3 (100).

Equivalent of Weight of hardness producing salt in mg

Calcium = -------------------------------------------------- × 100
Carbonate Molecular weight of the salt

Table1.5 gives the multiplication factors for converting into calcium

carbonate equivalents.

Table 1.5: Multiplication factors for converting calcium carbonate

equivalents.

Hard salt Molecular Equivalent Multiplication

Weight weight Factor

Ca(HCO3)2 162 81 100/162

Mg(HCO3)2 146 73 100/146
CaSO4 136 68 100/136
CaCl2 111 55.5 100/111
MgSO4 120 60 100/120
MgCl2 95 47.5 100/95
CaCO3 100 50 100/100
MgCO3 84 42 100/84
Mg(NO3)2 ` 148 74 100/148
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1.5.2 Velocity and Pressure of flowing water

The velocity of flowing water and the pressure drop over the length

of the pipe are also influencing the deposit formation. These two

parameters are interrelated. The procedure for determining these

parameters and the formulae used are explained below.

The velocity of hydraulic fluid through a conductor (pipe, tube or

hose) is dependent on flow rate and cross sectional area.

Recommended fluid velocities through pipes and hoses in hydraulic

systems are shown in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Recommended Velocities of flow in various pipes

Service Velocity (m/sec)

Suction/Intake 0.6 – 1.2

Return 1.5 - 4

Pressure/Discharge 2 – 5.5

The values at the lower end of the range are to be used for lower

pressures or where operation is continuous.

Pressure drop in conductors is an important consideration for the

designer especially in systems where long pipe or hose runs are

necessary. Friction between the fluid flowing through a conductor and

its inside wall causes losses, which are quantified as pressure drop.
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The velocity and pressure drop in the pipe flow are inter related.

Hence the pressure drop has been considered as study parameter.

1.5.3 Age of the Pipe

It has been observed practically that when water, especially ground

water, flows in a PVC pipe, the salts and various dissolved particles

present in water, generally tend to deposit on the inner walls of the

pipe. As the phenomena of deposits formation continues gradually

with the period of usage, the thickness of deposits also increases with

age of the pipe. Such deposits may strengthen over a period of time,

thus hindering the flow as well as friction factor and eventually even

close the pipe completely. Thus in the case of PVC pipes, it is observed

that as the usage increases, the diameter of the pipe is getting

reduced because of the deposits that are taking place along the inner

walls of the pipes. In the coastal regions, where the water is saline in

nature, the deposits have occupied the entire area of cross section of

the pipe because of which the entire pipe system had to be replaced.

(V.V.Nageswara Rao and G.K.Viswanadh, (2004)

1.6 IMPORTANCE OF PRESENT STUDY

The use of plastic pipes has increased at an exponential rate for

domestic purpose, especially for plumbing and water supply in the

recent years. It has been observed practically that when ground water

flows in a PVC pipe, the salts and other solids (dissolved and

suspended) that are present in water are gradually being deposited on

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the inner walls of the pipe. In the coastal regions where the water is

saline in nature, the deposits have occupied the entire area of cross

section of the pipe, due to which the entire pipe system had to be

replaced. The research work done by the previous authors on PVC

pipes is related to friction factor investigations and studies on head

loss equations only. The main aspect of deposits formation has not

been taken into the preview of the study. In this context it becomes

necessary to investigate the reasons for deposit formation, the

thickness of deposits and its rate of development. Hence the present

study is aimed to study the deposit formation and suggests the

criterion for avoiding the formation of these deposits.

1.7 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The deposit formation is the major problem in the case of

domestically used PVC pipes. Hence it becomes necessary to

investigate the reasons for the deposit formation. The probable

reasons are assumed to be the hardness of water, velocity or pressure

of flowing water and also the usage (age) of the pipe. If these reasons

are investigated and modeled, the criterion for avoiding the formation

of these deposits can be suggested.

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The basic objectives of the present study are

1. Observing the effect of hardness of water, pressure

drop/velocity in the pipe and age of the pipe separately on the

deposit formation

2. Establishing the relationships between the thickness of

deposition and all the factors influencing the formation of

deposits

3. Establishing the combined equation for the thickness of

deposition in terms of variable parameters

4. Developing a numerical model using an Artificial Neural

Networks technique to check the validation of experimental

results

5. Comparing the experimental results with the field data

To achieve the above objectives, experiments have been conducted

and the data obtained from the experiments has been analyzed to get

all the above objectives.

1.8 FORMAT OF PRESENTATION

The entire work has been divided into seven chapters covering the

investigations on deposits in domestically used PVC pipes. A brief

description of each chapter is presented as follows:

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In the first chapter, the introduction of proposed work is explained.

The various types of pipe materials, the selection of pipe for domestic

use, details of PVC pipes and deposit formation in the PVC pipes have

been enumerated. The scope and objectives of the present work along

with the format of the thesis are presented.

In the second chapter, a detailed discussion on the literature is

presented. The review of literature covers the studies on flow through

water distribution pipes regarding various losses and hydraulic

friction factor, formation of biofilm and scale deposits, their effects

and prevention in water pipe lines, the various factors influencing the

formation of scale in water distributing pipes, some modeling studies

in the field of hydraulic engineering. The applications of an Artificial

Neural Networks technique in water resources engineering problems

are also reviewed.

Chapter three deals with the problem formulation. The evaluation

methodology consists of the design of experimental setup, pipe

characteristics, fluid and flow characteristics is described. A brief

description of study parameters, experimental procedure and the

method of measuring deposit formation has been presented.

Chapter four covers the experimental investigations of the study.

The basic observations to study the deposits formation against

hardness of water, pressure drop and age of the pipe are presented.

The linear equations for the variation of thickness of deposits are also
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developed in each case. A combined equation for the thickness of

deposits in terms of three variable parameters has been established

using multiple linear regression analysis. The collection of field data

and comparison of experimental results with field observations are

also mentioned. The analysis of deposits is presented at the end of

this chapter.

Chapter five introduces an Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) model.

In this chapter the need for Artificial Intelligence, introduction and

functioning of Neural Networks and back propagation algorithm

adopted in the development of model are described. The procedure for

development of ANN models and the selection of optimal model have

been explained in this chapter.

In chapter six, the main results of experimental work have been

listed. The importance of present study, the trend of development of

deposits, the comparison of experimental results with the field

observations and the model validation with the experimental results

were discussed. The figures showing the variation of thickness of

deposits in the pipe, drawn from experimental data have been

presented at the end of this chapter.

In chapter seven, the conclusions from the analysis of

experimental and field data are listed. The recommendations to

avoid/reduce the deposits formation and the future scope that can be

extended further is also mentioned in this chapter.