Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1. Everything is composed of atoms, which are the indivisible building blocks of matter and
cannot be destroyed.
2. All atoms of an element are identical.
3. The atoms of different elements vary in size and mass.
4. Compounds are produced through different whole-number combinations of atoms.
5. A chemical reaction results in the rearrangement of atoms in the reactant and product
compounds.

Atomic theory has been revised over the years to incorporate the existence of atomic isotopes
and the interconversion of mass and energy. In addition, the discovery of subatomic particles
has shown that atoms can be divided into smaller parts. However, Dalton’s importance in the
development of modern atomic theory has been recognized by the designation of the atomic
mass unit as a Dalton.

John Dalton proposed that all matter is composed of very small things which he called atoms.
This was not a completely new concept as the ancient Greeks (notably Democritus) had
proposed that all matter is composed of small, indivisible (cannot be divided) objects. When
Dalton proposed his model electrons and the nucleus were unknown.

Figure 4.2: The atom according to Dalton.

J.J Thomson
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron by experimenting with a Crookes, or cathode
ray, tube. He demonstrated that cathode rays were negatively charged. In addition, he also
studied positively charged particles in neon gas. Thomson realized that the accepted model of
an atom did not account for negatively or positively charged particles. Therefore, he proposed a
model of the atom which he likened to plum pudding. The negative electrons represented the
raisins in the pudding and the dough contained the positive charge. Thomson's model of the
atom did explain some of the electrical properties of the atom due to the electrons, but failed to
recognize the positive charges in the atom as particles.

After the electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897, people realized that atoms were
made up of even smaller particles than they had previously thought. However, the atomic
nucleus had not been discovered yet and so the “plum pudding model” was put forward in
1904. In this model, the atom is made up of negative electrons that float in a “soup” of positive
charge, much like plums in a pudding or raisins in a fruit cake (Figure 4.3). In 1906, Thomson
was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in this field. However, even with the Plum Pudding
Model, there was still no understanding of how these electrons in the atom were arranged.

Figure 4.3: The atom according to the Plum Pudding model.

Rutherford

The Rutherford model is a model of the atom devised by Ernest Rutherford. Rutherford directed the
famous Geiger–Marsden experiment in 1909 which suggested, upon Rutherford's 1911 analysis,
that J. J. Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom was incorrect. Rutherford's new model [1] for
the atom, based on the experimental results, contained the new features of a relatively high central
charge concentrated into a very small volume in comparison to the rest of the atom and with this
central volume also containing the bulk of the atomic mass of the atom. This region would be known
as the "nucleus" of the atom.

Rutherford's model of the atom (ESAAQ)

Rutherford carried out some experiments which led to a change in ideas around the
atom. His new model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core
called a nucleus surrounded by lighter, negatively charged electrons. Another way of
thinking about this model was that the atom was seen to be like a mini solar system
where the electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbiting around the sun. A simplified
picture of this is shown alongside. This model is sometimes known as the planetary
model of the atom.

Figure 4.4: Rutherford's model of the atom.

Bohr
The discoveries of the electron and radioactivity at the end of the 19th century led to different models for
the structure of the atom. In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a theory for the hydrogen atom based on
quantum theory that energy is transferred only in certain well defined quantities. Electrons should move
around the nucleus but only in prescribed orbits. When jumping from one orbit to another with lower
energy, a light quantum is emitted. Bohr's theory could explain why atoms emitted light in fixed
wavelengths.

Bohr's model of the atom (ESAAR)

There were, however, some problems with Rutherford's model: for example it could not
explain the very interesting observation that atoms only emit light at certain wavelengths
or frequencies. Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons could
only orbit the nucleus in certain special orbits at different energy levels around the
nucleus.

Figure 4.5: Bohr's model of the atom.

Quantum Mechanical Model
The quantum mechanical model is based on quantum theory, which
says matter also has properties associated with waves. According to
quantum theory, it’s impossible to know the exact position and
momentum of an electron at the same time. This is known as
the Uncertainty Principle.

The quantum mechanical model of the atom uses complex shapes

of orbitals (sometimes called electron clouds), volumes of space in
which there is likely to be an electron. So, this model is based on
probability rather than certainty.

Four numbers, called quantum numbers, were introduced to describe

the characteristics of electrons and their orbitals:

 Principal quantum number: n

 Angular momentum quantum number: l

 Magnetic quantum number:

 Spin quantum number: