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A Survey of Tap Water Quality in Kuala Lumpur

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Urban Water Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1, March 2007, 1 – 13

55

5 A survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur

60

C. ONG, S. IBRAHIM and B. SEN GUPTA*

10 Institute of Post Graduate Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
65

A safe drinking water programme known as The National Drinking Water Quality
Surveillance Programme (NDWQSP) was launched by the Ministry of Health,
15 Government of Malaysia in 1983 to ensure safe practices in water treatment and
distribution. The aim of this work was to assess the effectiveness of this programme in the 70
improvement of tap water quality in and around Kuala Lumpur. The results indicate that
there was no microbial contamination in 100 random samples collected from 20 selected
areas. Other quality parameters such as colour, pH, turbidity, hardness, magnesium,
20 sulphate and chloride were within acceptable limits. Heavy metals such as Cuþ2, Pbþ2,
Cr (total), Niþ2, Cdþ2, Fe (total) and Mn (total) were also under control. The only 75
exception was Baþ2, which did not comply with the standard and was up to ten times
higher than the guideline value. Moreover, there was significant variation in water quality
as indicated by the test results.
25
Keywords: Tap water quality; Survey; Kuala Lumpur; Malaysia 80

contamination in tap water. The current study confirms

1. Introduction
30
The safe drinking water programme was initiated by the
Ministry of Health, Government of Malaysia in 1983 under
the auspices of the International Drinking Water Supply
and Sanitation Decade. The programme was named as The
35 National Drinking Water Quality Surveillance Programme
(NDWQSP). It was a multi-disciplinary quality assurance
programme involving various public service agencies and
was aimed at standardizing safe practices in water
treatment and distribution (Siru 1994). The initial aim
40 was to ensure microbial safety of the water, and turbidity,
residual chlorine and faecal coliform were the main control
parameters. Despite a humble beginning nearly two
decades ago, Malaysia has made commendable progress
in terms of drinking water safety. The present study follows
45 up the progress in the quality of tap water in the last two
decades. For this purpose, a survey was conducted in 20
selected residential areas in and around Kuala Lumpur and
17 parameters were studied to assess the water quality
together with the consumer response in those areas. The
50 water quality was generally satisfactory and analyses of 100
random samples confirmed that there was no microbial
the success of the quality assurance programme under
NDWQSP. 85
In Malaysia, both surface and ground water are used
as drinking water after necessary treatment. In the Klang
Valley, most of the tap water supply comes from surface
water sources that include rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
However, groundwater is used on a considerable scale for 90
public consumption in other states of Malaysia; for
example, in Kelantan, Perlis, Terengganu, Pahang,
Kedah, Sarawak and Sabah ground water is pumped
from wells that are drilled into aquifers. According to
the information from Water Supplies Department of 95
Malaysia (Ong 2001), water is treated in a conventional
manner comprising clarification, filtration and disinfection
processes. The clean water that fulfils the guidelines set
by the Malaysian Health Ministry is then pumped to the
balancing tank and the service reservoir for storage 100
before being supplied to consumers. The aim of this work
is to find out some of the physical and chemical
parameters of tap water that are of health and aesthetic
concern and to study the consumers’ response to the
quality of tap water. 105

*Corresponding author. Email: B.Sengupta@qub.ac.uk

Urban Water Journal

ISSN 1573-062X print/ISSN 1744-9006 online ª 2007 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/15730620601145923
 2 C. Ong et al.
The fieldwork comprises testing of tap water samples in
110 20 selected areas in the Klang Valley as well as a consumer
survey on the physical quality of tap water. The 20 areas
where water samples were collected are SS 1, SS 2, SS 3,
SS 4, Sunway, Subang Jaya, USJ, Puchong, Sri Damansara,
Damansara Jaya, Tropicana, Bandar Utama, Taman Tun,
115 Bangsar, Section 12, Section 14, Section 17, Section 19,
Section 10 and PJ Old Town (S1). These locations are
shown in Appendix 1 (figure A1).
2. Methodology
120
The survey was conducted in 20 selected areas where four
different houses in each area were used for sampling. The
collection, storage and testing procedures for all the water
samples were carried out as described below. The result
125 reported in this work is based on the average of four
households in each area.
2.1 Collection
130 (1) Sampling points were selected such that the samples
were representative of the water from the direct
supply. Therefore, samples were drawn from either
the garden tap or the kitchen sink.
(2) Before each collection, the tap was wiped to remove
135 any dirt by a clean cloth. Then the tap was turned on
at a maximum flow for 1 min.
(3) The collection bottle was rinsed twice with the water
being collected and the tap water was collected in a
1500 ml polyethylene plastic bottle without adjusting
140 the flow.
(4) The procedure was repeated after 30 min to collect a
second sample and the two samples were mixed in
equal volumes to form a composite sample.
145
150
155
160
Figure 1. Colour of tap water (TCU) in selected areas.
2.2 Storage
(1) All samples were tested for pH, temperature, colour, 165
residual chlorine, hardness, turbidity and sulphate
immediately after collection. Microbiological analysis
was carried out immediately after collection for
randomly selected samples.
(2) When the analysis could not be carried out immediately 170
(e.g. for heavy metals), the samples were stored in the
collection bottle and refrigerated in the dark at 48C.
2.3 Testing methods
175
The samples were tested according to APHA (American 1
Public Health Association) Standard Methods, 18th edition
1992 for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. All
the parameters were examined by the methods suggested in
APHA, 18th edition (1992). 180
3. Results and discussion
Each parameter is shown in the form of a bar chart for all
selected areas. Bar charts are widely used in water 185
industries for quality control and benchmarking purposes
and are deemed as appropriate for representing field data.
3.1 Colour
190
Colour in drinking water is caused mainly owing to organic
matter, usually humic material and colloidal forms of iron
and manganese. As shown in figure 1, the colour of tap
water in different areas varied from 5 TCU (true colour
units) to 20 TCU with an average of 6.8 TCU. In most 195
areas the colour is acceptable and significantly below the
permissible value of 15 TCU. However, samples from USJ 2
200
205
210
215
 Survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur
and Puchong were yellowish with value of 20 TCU and 15
TCU respectively.
220
3.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of water’s ability to absorb or
scattered light. Turbidity is caused by the presence of
particulate matter in water such as clay, silt, colloidal
225 3 particles, plankton and other microscopic organisms (Katz
1986). As shown in figure 2, the turbidity of tap water
ranged from 0.13 NTU to 4.86 NTU with an average of
0.86 NTU. The turbidity of tap water was generally low
(51 NTU) except for areas such as Tropicana, Bandar
230 Utama, USJ and Puchong. These four areas did not comply
with the recommended value of 1 NTU for safe drinking
water using chlorine as disinfectants.
3.3 Hardness
235
The principal source of hardness in water is dissolved
polyvalent metallic ions from sedimentary rocks, seepage
and run-off from soils. Water with the hardness above
200 mg/L (approximately) may cause scale deposition in
240 the distribution system, as well as increased soap consump-
tion. In contrast, soft water, with hardness less than about
100 mg/L, has a greater tendency to cause corrosion of
pipes, resulting in the presence of certain heavy metals, such
as cadmium, copper, lead and zinc in drinking water. The
245 degree to which such corrosion and dissolution of metals
occur also depends on the pH, alkalinity and dissolved
oxygen concentration. There is no conclusive evidence that
water hardness causes adverse health effects in humans
other than an increased risk of kidney stone (Bellizzi et al.
250 1999).
255
260
265
270 Figure 2. Turbidity of water (NTU) in selected areas.
3
As shown in figure 3, the hardness of tap water in these
20 selected areas ranged from 48 mg CaCO3/L to 92 mg
CaCO3/L with an average of 65 mg CaCO3/L. The tap
water in all these areas is considered soft as the hardness
level is below 100 mg CaCO3/L. Although there is no 275
health-based guideline value, soft water and low pH may
cause corrosion of pipes resulting in the presence of certain
heavy metals such as cadmium, copper, lead and zinc. A
hardness of 100 mg/L would ensure CaCO3 encrustation of
the mains and very little corrosion. 280
3.4 pH
The principal system regulating pH in natural waters is the
carbon dioxide – bicarbonate – carbonate equilibrium phe- 285
nomenon. Although minor variations in pH have little or
no direct impact on water consumers, it is one of the most
important operational parameters. The pH should be less
than 7 for more effective disinfection with chlorine.
As shown in figure 4, the pH of tap water in 20 selected 290
areas varied from 6.70 to 7.99 with an average of 7.72. In
Malaysia, chlorine is used to disinfect water for public
supply. However, the lower the pH the higher is the
corrosion of copper, lead, zinc and cadmium. If the tap
water is above pH 6, then corrosion of lead and cadmium is 295
insignificant.
The corrosion of copper and zinc might occur due to
slightly acidic tap water in areas such as section 12,
Tropicana and Bandar Utama. The pH values of tap water
in other areas were above 7. While corrosion may not be 300
significant, the disinfection would be less effective at pH
47. Therefore, consumers in these areas should boil their
drinking water for safety reasons. Generally, the pH values
of tap water in these areas were acceptable as they fell
305
310
315
320
 4 C. Ong et al.

325
380

330
385

335
390

340
Figure 3. Hardness mg CaCO3/L in selected areas. 395

345
400

350
405

355
410

Figure 4. pH of tap water in selected areas.

360
within the recommended interim standards of pH 6.5 to 8.5
for drinking water.
365
3.5 Chlorine
In Malaysia, chlorine is widely used to disinfect drinking
water. It is important to control the concentration of free
chlorine in the water, as any free chlorine adversely affects
370 the taste and odour of water. Concentrations higher than
the taste and odour threshold of 5 mg/L and 2 mg/L,
respectively, may give rise to complaints from consumers.
Chlorine is usually present in disinfected drinking water at
concentrations of 0.2 to 1.0 mg/L.
375 As shown in figure 5, the residual free chlorine in tap
water of these selected areas varied from 0.3 mg/L to
2.10 mg/L with an average of 0.75 mg/L as Cl2/L. This was
considered adequate to ensure protection against any
415
microbial contamination in the supply system. A low level
of residual chlorine generally shows the effectiveness of
chlorine as disinfectant. However, if the level is too high
then there might be complaints regarding taste and odour
from consumers. In a recent study, Codony et al. (2005) 4420
demonstrated the count of microbial cells in drinking water
system can increase by 10 fold in the absence of residual
chlorine. Areas such as SS 1, Taman Tun, Sunway and
section 17 had high residual chlorine. The residual chlorine
in SS1 and Taman Tun exceeded the odour threshold of 425
2 mg/L (as Cl2/L). As the taste threshold is at 5 mg/L, all
the water samples complied with the guideline value.
3.6 Sulphate
430
Sulphates occur naturally in drinking water. As shown in
figure 6, the concentration of sulphate in tap water of the
 Survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur 5

435
490

440
495

445
500
Figure 5. Residual free chlorine concentration, mg/L.

450
505

455
510

460
515

465
Figure 6. Sulphate concentration in tap water, mg/L.
520

selected areas ranged from 3.0 mg/L to 13.3 mg/L with an
470 average value of 7.0 mg/L. The lowest taste threshold of
sulphate is its sodium salt at a concentration of 250 mg/L.
As the concentration of sulphate in tap water of these areas
is much lower than the lowest threshold value, the presence
of sulphate should not affect the taste of water.
475
3.7 Zinc
Zinc is an essential element in human nutrition. The daily
requirement is 4 to 10 mg depending on age and sex (Cohen
480 et al. 1960).
It can be observed from figure 7 that the concentration
of zinc in tap water of the selected areas varied from
2.2 micrograms/L (mg/L) to 453.0 micrograms/L (mg/L)
with an average of 130.2 mg/L. The presence of a trace
485 element such as zinc is good as it is essential for human
nutrition. The concentrations of zinc in tap water of
these areas were much lower than the guideline value of
5 mg/L.
525
3.8 Barium
Barium in water comes primarily from natural sources, such
as igneous and sedimentary rocks. The solubility of barium
compounds increases as the pH level decreases (US EPA 530
1985b). Barium is not considered an essential element for
human nutrition (Schroeder et al. 1972).
As shown in figure 8, the concentration of barium in tap
water varied from 3.15 mg/L to 20.5 mg/L with an average
of 12.1 mg/L. The lowest concentration was found at 535
section 10 and the highest was at Puchong. Barium in tap
water is regulated at 0.3 mg/L. None of the tap water
sample from these 20 selected areas can meet the regulatory
guideline and they are more than 10 times higher in
concentration. 540
 6 C. Ong et al.
545
550
555 Figure 7. Zinc concentration in tap water in selected areas.
560
565
570 Figure 8. Barium concentration in tap water selected areas, mg/L.
3.9 Cadmium
Cadmium contamination of drinking water may occur
575 because of its presence as an impurity in the zinc of
galvanized pipes or cadmium containing solders in fittings
and taps in the distribution system. Chronic exposure to
cadmium in humans results in kidney dysfunction, hyper-
tension, anaemia and liver damage (Ros and Sloof 1987).
580 As shown in figure 9, the concentration of cadmium
ranges from 0.124 micrograms/L (mg/L) to 2.56 micro-
grams/L (mg/L) with an average mean concentration at
1.33 mg/L. All the tap water samples except for the one
from section 10 exceeded the guideline value of 0.3 mg/L.
585 The residence time of water in the distribution network has
a bearing upon the concentration of cadmium in the water.
It is very difficult to compare the results in this case as the
contact time of water with the plumbing system varies from
one area to another.
590
3.10 Chromium
Chromium and its salts are used in leather tanning
industry, in photography, the manufacture of paints,
595
600
605
610
615
620
625
pigments and catalyst, chrome alloy, chrome plating and
corrosion control. The current provisional guideline for
total chromium is micrograms/L (50 mg/L).
It may be observed from figure 10 that the concentration
of chromium in tap water ranged from 0.036 mg/L to 630
3.57 mg/L with an average concentration of 1.24 mg/L. The
concentration of chromium for all the 20 samples complied
with the current provisional guideline of 50 mg/L for total
chromium.
635
3.11 Copper
Copper is an essential element in human metabolism with a
recommended daily allowance of 2.0 to 3.0 mg/day.
Copper is extensively used in domestic plumbing systems, 640
and levels in tap water can therefore be considerably higher
than the level present in water entering the distribution
system. Based on the provisional health-based guideline of
2 mg/L, copper in tap water should not give rise to taste
problem however staining of laundry may occur. 645
As shown in figure 11, the concentration of copper in the
tap water ranged from 0.099 micrograms/L (mg/L) to
2.00 micrograms/L (mg/L) with an average of 0.794 mg/L.
 Survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur 7

650
705

655
710

660
715

665
720
Figure 9. Cadmium concentration in tap water in selected areas, micrograms/L.

670
725

675
730

680
735

Figure 10. Total chromium concentration in tap water, micrograms/L.

685
The copper concentrations in all the samples were below
the 5.00 mg/L. Therefore, the presence of copper should
not impart any colour and undesirable bitter taste. At these
690 low concentrations, the presence of copper should not stain
laundry and plumbing fixtures.
Copper is an essential element in human metabolism with
daily requirement of 2.0 to 3.0 mg. It is obvious that the
concentration of copper in the samples do not exceed the
695 health-based guidelines. However, daily consumption of
2L of such water would not provide the daily requirement
of copper for our body.
3.12 Lead
700
Lead is the commonest of the heavy elements. The amount
of lead dissolved from the plumbing systems depend on
740
several factors, including the presence of chloride and
dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, water hardness and
standing time of the water (Schock 1989). A study based on
simulation shows that the tap water supply may be severely
contaminated by lead (Clement et al. 2000) and needs 745
serious attention from environmental health agencies.
As shown in figure 12, the lead concentration in tap
water samples varied from 6.03 micrograms/L (mg/L)
to less than 0.1 micrograms/L (mg/L), with an average
concentration of 0.75 mg/L. The concentration of lead in all 750
the water samples conformed to the regulatory value of
0.01 mg/L or 10 mg/L. The concentration of lead in samples
taken from Puchong, section 10 and Taman Tun were
higher than that in other areas. The concentration of lead
would be higher if the water is soft, low in pH and has a 755
long residence time in the distribution system.
 8 C. Ong et al.

760
815

765
820

770
825

Figure 11. Copper concentration in tap water in selected areas, micrograms/L.

775
830

780
835

785
840

790
845

Figure 12. Lead concentration in tap water, micrograms/L.

795
3.13 Iron
The presence of iron in our drinking water may contribute
a certain taste and colour that might not be acceptable.
However, the taste is usually not noticeable at iron
800 concentration below 0.3 mg/L.
As shown in figure 13, the total concentration of iron in
tap water in these selected areas ranged from 11.6 micro-
grams/L (mg/L) to 98.7 micrograms/L (mg/L) with an
average concentration of 34.7 mg/L. Since iron concentra-
805 tion was below 100 mg/L in the samples, the water did not
develop any turbidity and colour, typical of iron. At the
same time, any noticeable change in taste or stains on
laundry was not found. All the tap water samples complied
with the regulatory value of 300 mg/L of iron for domestic
810 water supply.
3.14 Manganese
850
Manganese is abundant in the earth’s crust. It is widely
used in the manufacture of steel and other alloys.
Manganese dioxide and other manganese compounds are
used in other products such as batteries, glass and
fireworks. Laboratory studies on animals tested with water 855
of different manganese concentration showed neurotoxic
effects. Based on various reports, a provisional health-
based guideline value of 0.5 mg/L is considered adequate
to protect public health. If the concentration of manganese
is below 0.1 mg/L, then both guidelines for organoleptic 860
properties and health guidelines can be met (Ong 2001).
It may be observed from figure 14 that the concentration
of manganese in tap water of the selected areas varied from
‘below detection limit’ to 5.33 micrograms/L (mg/L) with
 Survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur 9

865
920

870
925

875
930

880 Figure 13. Total iron concentration in tap water, micrograms/L.

935

885
940

890
945

895
950
Figure 14. Manganese concentration in tap water, micrograms/L.

900
an average concentration of 1.43 mg/L. Manganese affects
the organoleptic properties of tap water and human health
at different concentrations. As all the tap water samples
have manganese concentration below 20 mg/L, no staining
905 of plumbing fixtures, and laundry might occur. The taste of
tap water also should not be influenced at these concentra-
tions. All samples also comply with the provisional health
based guideline of 500 mg/L.
910
3.15 Magnesium
The importance of magnesium intake in drinking water is
both quantitative and qualitative. Magnesium in water is
more readily assimilated by the intestinal tract than the
915 same quantity in food, therefore resulting in higher bio-
availability (Dawson et al. 1978). If the water is corrosive, it
will be filtered in processing stations through an antic-
orrosive filter with optimum Mg/Ca ratio to ensure the
highest Mg/Ca ratio in tap water with the best anticorrosive 955
power.
As shown in figure 15, the concentration of magnesium
in the tap water ranged from 66 mg/L to 733 mg/L with an
average concentration of 469 mg/L. The concentrations of
magnesium in all water samples were much higher than 960
30 mg/L. There is no provisional guideline for magnesium.
However it is advisable to have a concentration of 30 mg/L
of magnesium in tap water. This is because magnesium
deficiency increases toxicity of cadmium and lead and it is
shown that magnesium has an inverse relationship to 965
cardiovascular disease (Ong 2001).
Magnesium is usually linked to water hardness as
calcium and magnesium contribute to the bulk of total
hardness. If the water hardness in the samples is low and
the concentration of magnesium is quite high, it can be 970
assumed that the concentration of calcium in these samples
is quite low.
 10 C. Ong et al.

975
1030

980
1035

985
1040

990 Figure 15. Concentration of magnesium tap water, mg/L.

1045

995
1050

1000
1055

1005
1060

1010
Figure 16. Nickel concentration in tap water, micrograms/L. 1065

contamination of nickel in the water distribution system is

3.16 Nickel
1015
Nickel concentrations in drinking water around the world
are normally below 20 micrograms/L (mg/L). The max-
imum recommended value based on human health criteria
is 0.02 mg/L, which should provide protection for nickel-
1020 sensitive individuals (Grandjean et al. 1989).
As indicated in figure 16, the concentration of Nickel in
the tap water samples ranged from ‘below detection limit’
to 4.71 micrograms/L (mg/L) with an average concentration
of 1.18 mg/L. All the water samples conform to the health
1025 based guideline value of 20 mg/L. The concentration of
nickel is very low and therefore can be assumed that the
insignificant.
1070
4. Conclusions
From the analyses of water samples from 20 selected areas
in the Klang Valley, the tap water quality may be
considered as safe for drinking. Among the 16 parameters 1075
studied for each sample, most of them complied with
the guideline values of the Ministry of Health, Malaysia.
The only exception was barium, which was higher than the
approved limit. It is suggested that a special study be
commissioned to investigate the reasons for the high 1080
 Survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur
concentration of barium in all water samples. However,
there is no evidence that barium is carcinogenic and causes
adverse health effects at low concentrations.
The survey showed that consumers’ feedback on the
1085 smell, colour, turbidity and taste of the tap water were
acceptable except on certain days. The consumer survey
showed that 74% of the households used to boil tap
water before drinking. Moreover, 50% of the consumers
had water filter fitted to their kitchen supply. It shows
1090 that there is a lack of confidence among the consumers
about the quality of tap water. The result of the survey,
however, is not the true representative of the whole of
Malaysia. At the same time, the survey covered a
significant area in and around Kuala Lumpur, in the
1095 Klang Valley, covering urban population. In general, the
awareness about drinking water quality has increased in
the region, which has been reflected in this work as well
as in a recent report published from south-east Asia
(Chung et al. 1997, Kruawal 2005).
1100
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 12 C. Ong et al.

Appendix A
1190
The 20 different areas in and around Kuala Lumpur (known as the Klang Valley) are shown in figure A1 using numbers 1 to 1245
20. The number code for each area is shown in table A1.

1195
1250

1200
1255

1205
1260

1210
1265

1215
1270

1220
1275

1225
1280

1230
1285

1235
1290

Figure A1. Sampling locations in the Klang Valley.

1240
1295
 Survey of tap water quality in Kuala Lumpur 13

Table A1. Number codes for the selected areas in the Klang
Valley.

Area Code used in the map

1300
SS1 SS1 1355
SS2 SS2
SS3 SS3
SS4 SS4
Sunway Bandar Sunway
1305 Subang Jaya Subang Jaya
USJ USJ 1360
Puchong Puchong
Sri Damansara (Sri D’sara) Bandar Sri Damansara
Damansara Jaya (D’sara Jaya) Damansara Jaya
Tropicana Tropicana
1310 Bandar Utama (Bdr Utama) Bandar Utama
Taman Tun Taman Tun 1365
Bangsar Bangsar
Section 12 (Sect 12) S12
Section 14 (Sect 14) S14
Section 17 (Sect 17) S17
1315 Section 19 (Sect 19) S19
Section 10 (Sect 10) S10 1370
Petaling Jaya Old Town (PJ Old Town) S1

1320
1375

1325
1380

1330
1385

1335
1390

1340
1395

1345
1400

1350

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