Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
NeuroView
*Correspondence: jpeber@aol.com
DOI 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.06.001
Architectural practice and neuroscience research use our brains and minds in much the same way. However,
the link between neuroscience knowledge and architectural design—with rare exceptions—has yet to be
made. The concept of linking these two fields is a challenge worth considering.
The design of places and spaces that pro- and exists, stairways, etc.). All of these what is, today, merely an empathetic
vide a context for human experiences— attributes are now evaluated in physical guess.
architecture—has a long and often dis- science terms. In their book, Edelman and Tononi (2000)
tinguished history. The conscious, frontal If we expand the horizon for neurosci- argue that a scientific approach to the still
lobe processes of shaping this context ence, it would eventually result in a new elusive concept of consciousness will
are only partially understood by architects knowledge base for architecture. We would gradually reveal that this mysterious pro-
and have yet to surface on the roiling then know how the design of classrooms cess is knowable. They believe that we
waters of neuroscience studies. Even less can support the cognitive activities of will eventually understand how con-
well understood is the role of architecture students, how the design of hospital rooms sciousness arises from particular neural
in shaping human experiences. Social and can enhance the recovery of patients, and processes resulting from the interactions
behavioral scientists have explored this how the design of offices and laboratories between our brain, our body, and the world.
terrain over the past 50 years, but the can facilitate interdisciplinary activities of We would next be able to identify the key
results of their work are shallow knowl- neuroscientists, and so forth. properties of conscious experiences and
edge. They enable us to observe the fact understand the role of qualia in neural
that children in classrooms lit with natural Understanding the Brain terms and how to connect these scientific
daylight achieve higher test scores, but Michael Gazzaniga began his essay in descriptions of consciousness to human
not why this happens. Neuron (Gazzaniga, 2008) by saying, knowledge and experiences. At that point,
More than 2000 years ago, a Roman ‘‘.scientists ask how the brain causes the way designers basically ‘‘think’’ about
architect, Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, was human beings to perceive, think, behave, occupants experiencing the spaces they
the author of De architectura, known today reproduce, eat, drink, and all the rest. are designing will be changed. The details
as The Ten Books on Architecture, a trea- Enormous advances have been made of how these processes change will only
tise written in Latin and Greek on architec- toward this goal, and today, the excite- unfold once neuroscience research prog-
ture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. ment in the field is palpable.’’ resses to provide a deeper knowledge
This work is the only surviving major After more than 15 years exploring ways base than what is now available.
book on architecture from classical antiq- in which these advances might be applied Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the
uity. Vitruvius is famous for asserting in this to architectural settings, I have come to German poet whose works span the fields
book that a structure must exhibit the believe that the key to understanding of poetry, drama, literature, theology, hu-
three qualities of firmitas, utilitas, venus- how our brains enable our minds to expe- manism, and science, said, ‘‘I call archi-
tas—that is, it must be strong or durable, rience architectural settings is conscious- tecture frozen music.’’ His statement
useful, and beautiful. It seems strange ness. There are a wide range of studies was probably intended to convey how
that 2000 years later this three-part and opinions on what consciousness is. much of the emotional response he had
requirement is still so little understood. As early as 1912, William James said that to architectural settings was the equiva-
Most neuroscientists think of architec- consciousness is a process whose func- lent of those he experienced with music.
ture as a profession concerned with tion is knowing. Most visitors to one of the great cathe-
aesthetic beauty—designs that please While we gnaw away at understanding drals of Europe are overwhelmed with
the observer through visual perception of the elements of consciousness, we may the ‘‘beauty’’ of the interior setting on first
the harmony, symmetry, and good propor- produce some clarity that eventually entering the nave—in fact, cathedrals are
tions crafted by the designer. But, archi- enables us to incorporate human experi- designed with a narthex (entry way) that is
tecture is more than aesthetics. Well- ences of architectural settings directly small to prepare our minds for the awe
designed buildings need to respond to the into the neural networks of designers. This inspiring experience that follows as we
functional needs of the occupants, and would be a multifaceted design process, enter the nave. If an organ is also playing
users need to be provided with adequate built on a foundation of new knowledge as we enter, this music will be included
lighting, well-modulated heating and cool- and resulting in a much richer and more in the dispositional memory record we
ing systems, structural soundness, and satisfactory context for our lives. Designers create. Visual, auditory, and emotional
public safety provisions (i.e., entrances will be consciously able to understand content are merged in our consciousness.
NeuroView
The sounds of the music being played will rooms with furniture, landscapes, and city the third trimester, finds the sensory audi-
be included in the memory we recall on streets than when they viewed photo- tory modalities (including responses to
our next visit to a cathedral. graphs of objects, faces, house (eleva- sound and vibration) appearing, followed
Dispositions are described by Damasio tions), or other kinds of visual stimuli. By by visual development. When an infant is
in his book The Feeling of What Happens place recognition, the authors mean the born prematurely (especially if it occurs
(Damasio, 1999). He indicates that dispo- matching of current perceptual informa- early in the third trimester—at 7 or 8
sitions are records that are ‘‘dormant and tion to the memories of places that had months), the sequencing of sensory devel-
implicit.’’ These memory records that lie been encountered in the past and stored opment becomes an issue. Stimuli and
just below the surface of consciousness in one’s cognitive map. They do not use use of systems that are out of sequence
include our perception of the object (e.g., the term disposition, but it seems likely can create developmental problems, i.e.,
a cathedral), the sensory aspects of that that what is stored in the PPA are the visual development should not normally
object (such as color, shape, texture), as dispositions of past experiences of these begin until after the auditory modalities
well as records of the motor adjustments buildings. This research is one of the few are in place. It’s not that a premature infant
that accompanied the gathering of the projects that clearly relates neuroscience will be deaf or blind, but they may be more
sensory signals and emotional reactions to architectural knowledge. likely to loose acuity. An impaired auditory
we had when perceiving the cathedral system could prevent them from devel-
and hearing the music. When we return A Case History of How oping perfect pitch should they become
to a previous locale once recorded in Neuroscience Has Impacted Design musicians, and their visual system’s poor
a disposition (i.e., our next visit to a cathe- Neonatal intensive-care units (NICUs) in development could even lead to macular
dral), we allow the disposition to make hospitals provide one of the best illustra- degeneration in later life.
explicit the stored implicit information. tions of how neuroscience knowledge NICUs are historically designed to meet
We recall not just our sensory experience has changed architectural design. This the functional requirements of doctors
during the previous visit, but our past case is based on the work of Dr. Stanley and nurses (as is true of the rest of the
emotional reactions. According to Dama- Graven, at the Department of Community hospital), including abundant light to care
sio, this is why we can be conscious of and Family Health, College of Public for the babies and sound systems to let
what we recall inside of our head as Health, University of South Florida. the staff be called for important assign-
much as what we actually see, hear, or Graven has said that the Book of Eccle- ments. Dr. Stanley Graven has studied
touch in real time. It’s probably the ‘‘stuff’’ siastes points out that, ‘‘For everything the environmental impact of such designs
of which dreams are made. However, my there is a time and a season.’’ There is on premature infants. His work suggests
experience would suggest that places in a time in the course of an infant’s develop- (Graven et al., 1992) that NICUs should
our dreams are often ‘‘embellished dispo- ment when each series of events is de- be designed to facilitate development of
sition’’—that is, they are more elaborate signed to occur. There is no benefit in early the premature infant and minimize inter-
than the actual place we once visited. occurrence, although problems may arise ference with their neuronal systems.
due to late occurrences. Thus, it becomes These neuroscience studies are now
How the Brain and the Mind Relate important to design the environment and beginning to influence architectural de-
to Architectural Settings the care practice of the NICU to support sign decisions—a clear example of what
Research and facilitate development and minimize can happen when direct links are made
In 1999, Nancy Kanwisher and her asso- interference. Most of the important events between neuroscience and architecture.
ciates published an article in Neuron of development will occur without specific
(Epstein et al., 1999) that established intervention if the architectural setting and A Case History of How Design
grounds for linking the brain to experi- the interactions between the infant and the Impacts the Brain
ences with architecture. She called the caring adult are appropriate. Thorncrown Chapel (Figure 1) provides
place in the brain where this link is made Neuroscience studies of the developing a rich illustration of how good design
the parahippocampal place area (PPA). human fetus have identified three stages: impacts our brains and minds. The
The PPA is defined as the set of all contig- (1) the most important neurodevelopment chapel’s history begins in 1971, when
uous voxels within the parahippocampal in the early stages of life include the basic Jim Reed, a native of Pine Bluff, Arkansas,
region that respond significantly more structure of the brain, the development of purchased land in Eureka Springs, Arkan-
during viewing of scenes than during the nerve tracks, the development of the sas, to build his retirement home. Other
viewing of faces or objects. They found sensory organs, and the basic connec- people admired his location and would
that PPA activity (1) is not affected by tions and pathways; (2) the basic structure often stop at his property to gain a better
the subjects’ familiarity with the place of the eyes and ears, with their path- view of the beautiful Ozark hills. One day
depicted, (2) does not increase when ways into central nuclei and then to the while walking up the hill to his house, the
subjects experience a sense of motion cortex—which is genetically driven but idea came to him that he and his wife
through the scene, and (3) is greater when environmentally modified; and (3) new should build a glass chapel in the woods
viewing novel versus repeated scenes. pathways, memory circuits, and the whole to give wayfarers a place to rest, reflect,
The authors had earlier reported that the range of connections for the neurons in and refresh themselves.
PPA was significantly more active when the cortex, made in response to stimuli. He asked his architect friend Fay Jones
subjects viewed complex scenes such as The second stage, which occurs early in to design the chapel. Fay says,
NeuroView
floor and raised into place. Light, sha- woods provides a ‘‘quiet’’ experi- our environment and navigate
dows, and reflections play a major role ence for our auditory cortex that through it?)
in Thorncrown’s ambience. Because of could be soothing, which suggests These areas can serve as categories for
the chapel’s elaborate trusses and the that the sense of ‘‘quiet’’ experi- the 70+ hypotheses developed by ANFA.
surrounding trees, constantly changing enced by urban dwellers may be In my book Brain Landscape (Eberhard,
patterns of light and shadows appear more soothing (because of the 2009), I discuss these hypotheses and
during the day. At night, reflections of the ambient noise where they live) than their potential utilization in graduate
crosses in the lights appear to surround the experience of rural dwellers. research. For example:
the entire building.
Our available knowledge of the brain Linkages with Potential d The brain is hard-wired to respond
and mind can provide some plausible Neuroscience Application to proportions based on the golden
hypotheses about the cognitive and The Academy of Neuroscience for Archi- mean (as illustrated by the architect
emotional experiences associated with tecture (ANFA) was created in 2003 to Palladio)
the Thorncrown Chapel: explore ways to link the research of neuro- d A distributed set of brain activities
NeuroView
and the midbrain—work together to ment. Neuroscientists know that if they and graduate assistants to move into this
yield a special sense of awe (as in imaginatively utilize the scientific process new field, architecture would have a
Thorncrown Chapel) to study the brain they can find new knowl- greater potential to improve the lives of
d Facilities for the aging that allow edge of value—and sometimes find new generations yet to come.
residents to furnish rooms with their knowledge that is unique and so important
personal furniture provide support that it deserves a Nobel Prize. REFERENCES
for episodic memory through links We spend more than 90% of our waking
Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens:
to their autobiographical past hours inside of buildings. It consequently Body, Emotion and the Making of Consciousness
seems appropriate to consider making (London: Heinemann).
Conclusion a special effort to encourage doctoral
Eberhard, J. (2009). Brain Landscape: The Coexis-
Somewhere deep in the recesses of and postdoctoral students in neurosci- tence of Neuroscience and Architecture (New
consciousness, the way we go about ence programs to undertake research York: Oxford University Press).
shaping designs and the way we conceive programs and projects related to hypoth- Edelman, G., and Tononi, G. (2000). A Universe of
solutions to neuroscience hypotheses are eses derived from the ANFA studies of Consciousness (New York: Basic Books).
similar and basic. These basic networks architectural experiences. New sources Epstein, R., Harris, A., Stanley, D., and Kanwisher,
that distinguish humans from other of funding are likely to emerge for the N. (1999). Neuron 23, 115–125.
species are a shared mystery. Architects support of interdisciplinary science in the
Gazzaniga, M. (2008). Neuron 60, 412–415.
know that by thinking creatively they can next few years. Professors and research
find three-dimensional solutions to human directors in neuroscience who read this Graven, S.N., Bowen, F.W., Jr., Brooten, D., Eaton,
A., Graven, M.N., Hack, M., Hall, L.A., Hansen, N.,
habitats—and sometimes do this so well essay are invited to explore this new Hurt, H., Kavalhuna, R., et al. (1992). J. Perinatol.
that history books will record their achieve- horizon. By encouraging their students 12, 164–172.