SKY OBJECT PART II

Created by :

1. Nur Laila Sofiatun (4201411013)

2. Anis Ardyany P (4201411091)
3. Nurul Istiana (4201411118)
4. Harya Fitra Sahal S (4201411131)

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE FACULTY

SEMARANG STATE UNIVERSITY

2013
 SKY OBJECT PART II

A. ILLUSTRATING REVOLVING MOTION OF MOON TO EARTH AND

SUN

The Earth
Earth, which is our base from which we look into space, is constantly
moving. The earth orbits the sun in an elliptical orbit and the moon orbits the
earth with the same kind of orbit. Looking down from the north pole, the earth
spins in a counterclockwise direction on an imaginary line called its axis once
every day. This accounts for the fact that the sun rises in the east and sets in the
west. The earth’s axis is tilted with respect to the plane of its orbit at an angle
of about 23.4 degrees. We would also see that the moon also orbits the earth in
a counterclockwise motion.

Figure 1: The directions of the orbits of the earth and moon.

The average distance from the earth to the sun, the semimajor axis of its
orbit, is 149,597,890 km. This distance was not known until recently and it is
called the astronomical unit or AU. The distances of the other planets to the
sun are usually measured in astronomical units.Because of the tilt of the earth,
not every place on earth gets light every day. Also, some places have extremely
short days. As the earth revolves around the sun, the place where light shines
the brightest changes. This motion gives us the different seasons.
 Figure 2: The positions of earth at the different seasons. Counterclockwise
from lower left: summer, fall, winter, spring (northern hemisphere).

The earth’s orbit is called the ecliptic. The plane which contains the
ecliptic is the reference plane for the positions of most solar system bodies.
Viewed from earth, the ecliptic is the apparent motion of the sun among the
stars.The earth’s equator is a circle going around the earth which is on a plane
that is perpendicular to the earth’s axis.

Figure 3: The equatorial plane.

The Equinoxes
This equatorial plane is one of the most important in astronomy because
it intersects the plane of the ecliptic and gives us a reference point in space by
which we can measure the positions of stars. This plane also divides the earth
into halves, the northern half being the northern hemisphere, the other half
being the southern hemisphere. The intersection of these planes is a line, which
for convenience we will call the line of equinoxes. The real definition of
equinox is the point on the celestial sphere which intersects this line, but since
the celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere with any size, the equinoxes are
really lines.

Figure 4: The vernal equinox from two perspectives.

The Moon
The moon is the earth’s only natural satellite. Its average distance from
the earth is 384,403 km. Its revolution period around the earth is the same
length and direction as its rotation period, which results in the moon always
keeping one side turned toward the earth and the other side turned away from
the earth. This type of motion is called synchronous rotation. The side turned
away from the earth is called the moon’s dark side, even though it is lit half of
the time. The moon’s sidereal period of revolution is about 27.32 days long.

The Effect of the Moon

The moon has a noticeable effect on the earth in the form of tides, but it
also affects the motion and orbit of the earth. The moon does not orbit the
center of the earth, rather, they both revolve around the center of their masses
called the barycenter.
The sun acts on the earth and its moon as one entity with its center at
the barycenter. Since the earth revolves around the barycenter, which in turn
orbits the sun, the earth follows a wobbly path around the sun. This is
illustrated in the following example. To complicate things further, the
barycenter is not always in the same place due to the elliptical nature of the
moon’s orbit.
 Figure 7: The wobble of the earth's orbit.
*Image illustrative only; number of intersections is greater.

The sun attracts the moon in such a way that it perturbs its orbit every
31.807 days, this phenomenon is called evection. The moon also changes the
position of the earth’s equinoxes. The sun and moon each attract the earth’s
equatorial bulge, trying to bring it into alignment with themselves. This torque
is counteracted by the rotation of the earth. The combination of these two
forces is a slow rotation of the earth’s axis, which in turn results in a slow
westward rotation of the equinoxes.
The north pole is currently pointing to a spot near the star Polaris.
Because the vernal equinox is the starting point for most star charts, the charts
must be made for a certain period. The star charts must be updated periodically
to account for this movement of the reference point.Because of the seasonal
changes in the ice, snow, atmospheric distribution, and perhaps because of
movements in the material within the earth, the geographic poles constantly
change position in relation to the earth’s surface. This phenomenon is known
as the Chandler wobble.

B. MOON APPEARANCE FROM DIFFERENT POSITION TO EARTH

Moon’s Motions

Rotation and Revolution

Just as Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun, the Moon
rotates on its axis and revolves around Earth. The Moon's revolution around
Earth is responsible for the changes in its appearance. If the Moon rotates on its
axis, why can't you see it spin around in space? The reason is that the Moon's
rotation takes 27.3 days, the same amount of time it takes to revolve around
Earth. Because these two motions take the same amount of time, the same side
of the Moon always faces Earth.

Reflection of the Sun

The Moon seems to shine because its surface reflects sunlight. Just as
half of Earth experiences day as the other half experiences night, half of the
Moon is lighted while the other half is dark. As the Moon revolves around
Earth, you see different portions of its lighted side, causing the Moon's
appearance to change.

Phases of The Moon

Moon phases are the different forms that the Moon takes in its appearance from
Earth. The phase depends on the relative positions of the Moon, Earth, and the
Sun. A new moon occurs when the Moon is between Earth and the Sun. During
a new moon, the lighted half of the Moon is facing the Sun and the dark side
faces Earth. The Moon is in the sky, but it cannot be seen. The new moon rises
and sets with the Sun.

a. Crescent Moon
A crescent moon is part way between a half moon and a new moon, or
between a new moon and a half moon.

b. Half Moon
A half moon looks like half a circle. It is sometimes called a quarter moon
(this Moon has completed one quarter of an orbit around the Earth from
either the full or new position and one quarter of the moon's surface is
visible from Earth).
c. Gibbous Moon
A gibbous moon is between a full moon and a half moon, or between a
half moon and a full moon.

d. Full Moon
A full moon appears as an entire circle in the sky. The full moon is given
different names, depending on when it appears. For example, the "Harvest
moon" is the full moon that appears nearest to the Autumnal Equinox,
occurring in late September or early October.

e. New Moon
The new moon is the phase of the moon when the moon is not visible from
Earth, because the side of the moon that is facing us is not being lit by the
sun.

f. Moonrise from Earth

The moon rises and sets every day, appearing on the horizon just like the
sun. The time depends on the phase of the moon. It rises about 30 to 70
minutes later each day than the previous day, so the moon is out during
daytime as often is it's out at night. At the time of the new moon, the moon
rises at about the same time the sun rises, and it sets at about the same time
the sun sets. As the days go by (as it waxes to become a crescent moon, a
half moon, and a gibbous moon, on the way to a full moon), the moon rises
during daytime (after the sun rises), rising later each day, and it sets at
nighttime, setting later and later each night. At the full moon, the times of
moonrise and moonset have advanced so that the moon rises about the
same time the sun sets, and the moon sets at about the same time the sun
rises. As the moon wanes (becoming a half moon and a crescent moon, on
the way to a new moon), the moon rises during the night, after sunset,
rising later each night. It then sets in the daytime, after the sun rises.
Eventually, the moon rises so late at night that it's actually rising around
 sunrise, and it's setting around sunset. That's when it's a new moon once
again.

C. EXPALINING AND ILUSTRATING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLAR

ECLIPSE AND LUNAR ECLIPSE

a. Solar eclipse
 As seen from the Earth, a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes
between the Sun and Earth, and the Moon fully or partially blocks
("occults") the Sun. This can happen only at new moon, when the Sun and
the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth in an alignment referred to
as syzygy. In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the
Moon. In partial and annular eclipses only part of the Sun is obscured.
 If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit, a little closer to the Earth,
and in the same orbital plane, there would be total solar eclipses every
single month. However, the Moon's orbit is inclined (tilted) at more than 5
degrees to Earth's orbit around the Sun (see ecliptic) so its shadow at new
moon usually misses Earth. Earth's orbit is called the ecliptic plane as the
Moon's orbit must cross this plane in order for an eclipse (both solar as
well as lunar) to occur. In addition, the Moon's actual orbit is elliptical,
often taking it far enough away from Earth that its apparent size is not
large enough to block the Sun totally. The orbital planes cross each year at
a line of nodes resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses
occurring each year; no more than two of which can be total eclipses.
However, total solar eclipses are rare at any particular location because
totality exists only along a narrow path on Earth's surface traced by the
Moon's shadow or umbra.
There are three types of solar eclipses:
 Picture 1.1 Types of Solar Eclipse

 A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely
obscures the intensely bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter
solar corona to be visible. During any one eclipse, totality occurs at best
only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth.
 A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line
and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can
usually be seen from a large part of Earth outside of the track of an annular
or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can only be seen as a partial
eclipse, because the umbra passes above the Earth's polar regions and
never intersects Earth's surface.
 An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but
the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the
Sun appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of
the Moon.

(a) (b) (c)

Picture (a) Total eclipse (b) partial eclipse (c) annular eclipse
b. Lunar eclipse
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly behind the Earth
into its umbra (shadow). This can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and
Moon are aligned (in "syzygy") exactly, or very closely so, with the Earth
in the middle. Hence, a lunar eclipse can only occur the night of a full
moon. The type and length of an eclipse depend upon the Moon's location
relative to its orbital nodes. Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be
viewed from a certain relatively small area of the world, a lunar eclipse
may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of the Earth. A lunar
eclipse lasts for a few hours, whereas a total solar eclipse lasts for only a
few minutes at any given place, due to the smaller size of the moon's
shadow. Also unlike solar eclipses, lunar eclipses are safe to view without
any eye protection or special precautions, as they are no brighter (indeed
dimmer) than the full moon itself.

Picture 2 Lunar Eclipse

Types of lunar eclipse

The shadow of the Earth can be divided into two distinctive parts: the
umbra and penumbra. Within the umbra, there is no direct solar radiation.
However, as a result of the Sun’s large angular size, solar illumination is
only partially blocked in the outer portion of the Earth’s shadow, which is
given the name penumbra. A penumbral eclipse occurs when the Moon
passes through the Earth’s penumbra. The penumbra causes a subtle
darkening of the Moon's surface. A special type of penumbral eclipse is a
 total penumbral eclipse, during which the Moon lies exclusively within
the Earth’s penumbra. Total penumbral eclipses are rare, and when these
occur, that portion of the Moon which is closest to the umbra can appear
somewhat darker than the rest of the Moon.
A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the Moon enters the
umbra. When the Moon travels completely into the Earth’s umbra, one
observes a total lunar eclipse. The Moon’s speed through the shadow is
about one kilometer per second (2,300 mph), and totality may last up to
nearly 107 minutes. Nevertheless, the total time between the Moon’s first
and last contact with the shadow is much longer, and could last up to 4
hours. The relative distance of the Moon from the Earth at the time of an
eclipse can affect the eclipse’s duration. In particular, when the Moon is
near its apogee, the farthest point from the Earth in its orbit, its orbital
speed is the slowest. The diameter of the umbra does not decrease
appreciably within the changes in the orbital distance of the moon. Thus, a
totally eclipsed Moon occurring near apogee will lengthen the duration of
totality.

c. The Differences between Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse

Picture 3 Solar eclipse and Lunar eclipse

A solar eclipse :
1. Occurs when moon comes in between the Earth and the Sun.
2. The Sun shows corona at its edges.
 3. It occurs on the day of new moon
4. solar eclipse can only be viewed from a certain relatively small area of
the world
5. special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when
viewing a solar eclipse
6. The maximum time of a solar eclipse is 7 minutes 40 seconds

A lunar eclipse :
1. Occurs when earth comes in between the Sun and the Moon.
2. The Moon doesn't show the corona.
3. It occurs on the day of full moon.
4. a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of the
Earth.
5. lunar eclipses are safe to view without any eye protection or special
precautions, as they are no brighter (indeed dimmer) than the full moon
itself.
6. In a lunar eclipse, the total phase can last for a maximum of 1 hour and
40 minutes.

D. OBSERVATION THAT CAN BE DONE WHEN THE ECLIPSE

HAPPENED

1. When there is a total sun , the moon will cover the entire surface of the sun
, leaving only bias. Of events that only lasts for 2-3 seconds, the man can
stare directly at the sun unprotected .
2. Sunglasses
In looking at a solar eclipse, people can use sunglasses as a tool. Of course
this is done in the duration of time that should not be too long . Due
sunglasses can not filter out the sunlight. Sunglasses only serves to reduce
glare. Therefore, looking at a solar eclipse with sunglasses should only be
done in less than one minute.
3. To view a solar eclipse in a longer duration of time, necessary tools safer .
That tool is a solar filter.
4. Filter mylar paper which can be obtained at the nearest photography shop .
5. Simple pinhole camera for observation of the solar eclipse. The principle is
to make the hole as small as possible on a piece of paper and then
projecting the shadow of the Sun during an eclipse. The image produced
by this small hole is projected directly from the events that took place in
the sky. In addition, you can also use the reflection of two heavy paper.
Way, the first paper and placed in a small hole in front of the paper only
with tilt angle facing the sun. The reflection in the second paper that can
be seen .
6. Shade of a tree can serve as a natural pinhole camera. Look for trees that
are not so shady, where sunlight can still penetrate the thick foliage. When
the moon began to enter into the Sun disc then we will look at the shadow
of a tree projection. These projections will follow the movement of the
Moon in front of the sun disc.
7. Mirror reflection. To be able to do so, you must direct the sunlight with
mirrors to the ground. Shadow that is in this land that we can enjoy
comfortably .
8. Other techniques such as looking through a magnetic floppy disks, CDs, a
burning piece of film negative is often used as an alternative. Although it
managed to reduce the sunlight reaching the eye, this technique still leaves
the danger. There are infrared wavelengths that are not visible to the eye
but can still penetrate significantly simpler filters above. As a result, large
amounts of infrared light will fall onto the retina. The use of equipment in
the long Watu will make the eyes become sore and even can lead to
permanent disability of the eye (the eye being insensitive, etc.). Use of
simple tools above should be avoided .
9. The final way is to use equipment that is professionally prepared to see
this eclipse, example with a special mask. However, you should be able to
ascertain first whether the equipment is still feasible to use .
 Sources :
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_a_solar_and_a_luna
r_eclipse accessed at October 4th, 2013 21.34 WIB
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse accessed at October 4th, 2013 21.45
WIB
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse accessed at October 4th, 2013 21.52
WIB
http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2013/05/10/095479249/Ini-Cara-Mengamati-
Gerhana-Matahari accessed at October 7th, 2013. 20.00 WIB.