The History of Rome I
Roman Kindom
The Roman Kingdom (Latin: Rēgnum Rōmānum;
Classical Latin: [ˈreːŋ.nũː roːˈmaː.nũː]) was the period
of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a
monarchical form of government of the city of Rome and
its territories.
Little is certain about the history of the kingdom, as
nearly no written records from that time survive, and the
histories about it that were written during the Republic
and Empire are largely based on legends. However, the
history of the Roman Kingdom began with the city’s
founding, traditionally dated to 753 BC with settlements
around the Palatine Hill along the river Tiber in Central
Italy, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the
establishment of the Republic in about 509 BC.
1 Origin
The site of the founding of the Roman Kingdom and
eventual Republic and Empire had a ford where the Tiber
could be crossed. The Palatine Hill and hills surrounding
it presented easily defensible positions in the wide fertile
plain surrounding them. All of these features contributed
to the success of the city.
The traditional account of Roman history, which has
come down to us through Livy, Plutarch, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, and others, is that in Rome’s first cen-
turies it was ruled by a succession of seven kings. The
traditional chronology, as codified by Varro, allots 243
years for their reigns, an average of almost 35 years,
which, since the work of Barthold Georg Niebuhr, has
been generally discounted by modern scholarship. The
Gauls destroyed much of Rome’s historical records when
they sacked the city after the Battle of the Allia in 390
BC (Varronian, according to Polybius the battle occurred
in 387/6) and what was left was eventually lost to time
or theft. With no contemporary records of the king-
dom existing, all accounts of the kings must be carefully
questioned.[1]
2 Monarchy
Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom, Another officer appointed by the king was the praefectus
Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom and King urbi, who acted as the warden of the city. When the king
of Rome was absent from the city, the prefect held all of the king’s
powers and abilities, even to the point of being bestowed
1
The kings, excluding Romulus, who according to legend
held office by virtue of being the city’s founder, were all
elected by the people of Rome to serve for life, with none
of the kings relying on military force to gain or keep the
throne.
The insignia of the kings of Rome were twelve lictors
wielding the fasces bearing axes, the right to sit upon
a Curule chair, the purple Toga Picta, red shoes, and a
white diadem around the head. Of all these insignia, the
most important was the purple toga.
When the father of a family was a patrician, the sons were
as well. However, if a daughter got married to a man who
wasn't a patrician, their sons would never be patricians.
A patrician’s privileges included: Inter-regnum (power of
state reverted to the fathers), Auspices (a way to look for
the will of the gods), and Priesthoods.
2.1 Chief Executive
The king was invested with supreme military, executive,
and judicial authority through the use of imperium, for-
mally granted to the king by the Comitia Curiata with
the passing of the Lex curiata de imperio at the begin-
ning of each king’s reign. The imperium of the king was
held for life and protected him from ever being brought
to trial for his actions. As being the sole owner of im-
perium in Rome at the time, the king possessed ultimate
executive power and unchecked military authority as the
commander-in-chief of all Rome’s legions. Also, the laws
that kept citizens safe from magistrates’ misuse of im-
perium did not exist during the monarchical period.
Another power of the king was the power to either ap-
point or nominate all officials to offices. The king would
appoint a tribunus celerum to serve as both the tribune
of Ramnes tribe in Rome and as the commander of the
king’s personal bodyguard, the Celeres. The king was re-
quired to appoint the tribune upon entering office and the
tribune left office upon the king’s death. The tribune was
second in rank to the king and also possessed the power to
convene the Curiate Assembly and lay legislation before
it.
2 2 MONARCHY

with imperium while inside the city. sions. Also, two criminal detectives (Quaestores Parri-
The king even received the right to be the only person to cidi) were appointed by him as well as a two-man crim-
appoint patricians to the Senate. inal court (Duumviri Perduellionis) which oversaw cases
of treason. According to Livy, Lucius Tarquinius Super-
bus, the seventh and final king of Rome, judged capital
2.2 Chief Priest criminal cases without the advice of counsellors, thereby
creating fear amongst those who might think to oppose
[2]
What is known for certain is that the king alone possessed him.
the right to the auspice on behalf of Rome as its chief
augur, and no public business could be performed with-
out the will of the gods made known through auspices. 2.5 Election of the kings
The people knew the king as a mediator between them
and the gods (cf. Latin pontifex, “bridge-builder”, in this Whenever a king died, Rome entered a period of in-
sense, between men and the gods) and thus viewed the terregnum. Supreme power of the state would devolve
king with religious awe. This made the king the head to the Senate, which was responsible for finding a new
of the national religion and its chief executive. Having king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its
the power to control the Roman calendar, he conducted own members—the interrex—to serve for a period of five
all religious ceremonies and appointed lower religious of- days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of
fices and officers. It is said that Romulus himself insti- Rome. After the five-day period, the interrex would ap-
tuted the augurs and was believed to have been the best point (with the Senate’s consent) another Senator for an-
augur of all. Likewise, King Numa Pompilius instituted other five-day term. This process would continue until a
the pontiffs and through them developed the foundations new king was elected. Once the interrex found a suitable
of the religious dogma of Rome. nominee to the kingship, he would bring the nominee be-
fore the Senate and the Senate would review him. If the
Senate passed the nominee, the interrex would convene
2.3 Chief Legislator the Curiate Assembly and preside over it during the elec-
tion of the King.
Main article: Leges regiae Once proposed to the Curiate Assembly, the people of
Rome could either accept or reject him. If accepted, the
Under the kings, the Senate and Curiate Assembly had king-elect did not immediately enter office. Two other
very little power and authority; they were not indepen- acts still had to take place before he was invested with the
dent bodies in that they didn't possess the right to meet full regal authority and power.
together and discuss questions of state at their own will. First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods
They could only be called together by the king and could respecting his appointment by means of the auspices,
only discuss the matters the king laid before them. While since the king would serve as high priest of Rome. This
the Curiate Assembly did have the power to pass laws ceremony was performed by an augur, who conducted the
that had been submitted by the king, the Senate was ef- king-elect to the citadel where he was placed on a stone
fectively an honorary council. It could advise the king on seat as the people waited below. If found worthy of the
his action but by no means could prevent him from act- kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given fa-
ing. The only thing that the king could not do without vorable tokens, thus confirming the king’s priestly char-
the approval of the Senate and Curiate Assembly was to acter.
declare war against a foreign nation.
The second act which had to be performed was the con-
ferral of the imperium upon the king. The Curiate As-
2.4 Chief Judge sembly’s previous vote only determined who was to be
king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary
The king’s imperium both granted him military powers power of the king upon him. Accordingly, the king him-
and qualified him to pronounce legal judgment in all cases self proposed to the Curiate Assembly a law granting him
as the chief justice of Rome. Though he could assign pon- imperium, and the Curiate Assembly by voting in favor
tiffs to act as minor judges in some cases, he had supreme of the law would grant it.
authority in all cases brought before him, both civil and
In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but
criminal. This made the king supreme in times of both
the Senate had most of the control over the process.
war and peace. While some writers believed there was
no appeal from the king’s decisions, others believed that
a proposal for appeal could be brought before the king by 2.6 Senate
any patrician during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly.
To assist the king, a council advised him during all tri- Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and
als, but this council had no power to control his deci- Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom
3.1 Romulus 3

According to legend, Romulus established the Senate af-

ter he founded Rome by personally selecting the most
noble men (wealthy men with legitimate wives and chil-
dren) to serve as a council for the city. As such, the
Senate was the King’s advisory council as the Council
of State. The Senate was composed of 300 Senators,
with 100 Senators representing each of the three ancient
tribes of Rome: the Ramnes (Latins), Tities (Sabines),
and Luceres (Etruscans) tribes. Within each tribe, a Sen-
ator was selected from each of the tribe’s ten curiae. The
king had the sole authority to appoint the Senators, but
this selection was done in accordance with ancient cus-
tom.
Under the monarchy, the Senate possessed very little Early Rome
power and authority as the king held most of the political
power of the state and could exercise those powers with-
out the Senate’s consent. The chief function of the Senate To provide his citizens with wives, Romulus invited the
was to serve as the king’s council and be his legislative co- neighboring tribes to a festival in Rome where he ab-
ordinator. Once legislation proposed by the king passed ducted the young women from amongst them (known as
the Comitia Curiata, the Senate could either veto it or The Rape of the Sabine Women). After the ensuing war
accept it as law. The king was, by custom, to seek the ad- with the Sabines, Romulus shared the kingship with the
vice of the Senate on major issues. However, it was left Sabine king Titus Tatius.[5]
to him to decide what issues, if any, were brought before Romulus selected 100 of the most noble men to form the
them and he was free to accept or reject their advice as Roman senate as an advisory council to the king. He
he saw fit. Only the king possessed the power to convene surrounded himself with a greater state and in particu-
the Senate, except during the interregnum, during which lar called into his service twelve lictors.[4] Some think
the Senate possessed the authority to convene itself. he fixed upon this number from the number of the birds
who foretold his sovereignty. These men he called pa-
tres (from pater, father, head), and their descendants
3 Legendary kings of Rome became the patricians. He created three divisions of
equites, called centuries: Ramnes (Romans), Tities (after
Astronomical year numbering the Sabine king) and Luceres (Etruscans). He also divided
the populace into 30 curiae, named after 30 of the Sabine
women who had intervened to end the war between Ro-
Dates are approximate,
mulus and Tatius. The curiae formed the voting units in
consult particular article
the Comitia Curiata.[6]
for details

3.1 Romulus
Romulus was Rome’s first king and the city’s founder. Af-
ter the government of Alba was transferred to Numitor,
Romulus and Remus decided to build a city in the local-
ity where they had been exposed. In 753 BC, Romulus
began building the city upon the Palatine Hill. After de-
feating Remus, Romulus thus became the sole ruler and
the city was called after him. His first work was to for-
tify the Palantine Hill where he had been brought up. He
permitted men of all classes to come to Rome as citizens,
including slaves and freemen without distinction.[3] After
the claims of religion had been duly acknowledged, Ro-
mulus called his people to a council. To unite them into
one political body he gave them a body of laws, which he
thought would only be respected by a rude and uncivilized
race of men if he inspired them with awe by assuming the
outward symbol of power.[4] Growth of the city region during the kingdom
4 3 LEGENDARY KINGS OF ROME

In addition to the war with the Sabines and other tribes 3.4 Ancus Marcius
after the Rape of the Sabine Women, Romulus waged war
against the Fidenates and Veientes.[7] He reigned for 36 Following the mysterious death of Tullus, the Romans
years. elected a peaceful and religious king in his place, Numa’s
After his death at age 54, Romulus was deified as the war grandson, Ancus Marcius. Much like his grandfather,
god Quirinus and served not only as one of the three ma- Ancus did little to expand the borders of Rome and only
jor gods of Rome but also as the deified likeness of the fought war to defend the territory. He also built Rome’s
city of Rome. first prison on the Capitoline Hill.
Ancus further fortified the Janiculum Hill on the western
bank, and built the first bridge across the Tiber River. He
also founded the port of Ostia on the Tyrrhenian Sea and
established Rome’s first salt works. Rome grew, as Ancus
3.2 Numa Pompilius used diplomacy to peacefully unite smaller surrounding
cities into alliance with Rome. Thus, he completed the
After Romulus died, there was an interregnum for one conquest of the Latins and relocated them to the Aventine
year, during which ten men chosen from the senate gov- Hill, thus forming the plebeian class of Romans.
erned Rome as successive interreges. Eventually, the sen- He died a natural death, like his grandfather, after 25
ate chose the Sabine Numa Pompilius, to succeed Romu- years as king, marking the end of Rome’s Latin-Sabine
lus, on account of his reputation for justice and piety.[8] kings.
Numa’s reign was marked by peace and religious reform.
He constructed a new temple to Janus and, after estab-
lishing peace with Rome’s neighbours, closed the doors 3.5 Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
of the temple to indicate a state of peace. They remained
closed for the rest of his reign.[9] Lucius Tarquinius Priscus was the fifth king of Rome and
the first of Etruscan birth. After immigrating to Rome,
He established the Vestal Virgins at Rome, as well as the
he gained favor with Ancus, who later adopted him as
Salii, and the flamines for Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. He
son. Upon ascending the throne, he waged wars against
also established the office and duties of Pontifex Max-
the Sabines and Etruscans, doubling the size of Rome and
imus.[10]
bringing great treasures to the city.
Numa reformed the Roman calendar by adjusting it for
One of his first reforms was to add 100 new members
the solar and lunar year, as well as by adding the months
to the Senate from the conquered Etruscan tribes, bring-
of January and February to bring the total number of
ing the total number of senators to 200. He used the
months to twelve.[9]
treasures Rome had acquired from the conquests to build
Numa reigned for 43 years. great monuments for Rome. Among these were Rome’s
great sewer systems, the Cloaca Maxima, which he used
to drain the swamp-like area between the Seven Hills of
Rome. In its place, he began construction on the Roman
Forum. He also founded the Roman games.
3.3 Tullus Hostilius
Priscus initiated great building projects. The most famous
is the Circus Maximus, a giant stadium for chariot races.
Tullus Hostilius was warlike like Romulus, and com- After that, he started the building of the temple-fortress
pletely unlike Numa in his lack of respect for the gods. to the god Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. However, before
Tullus waged war against Alba Longa, Fidenae and Veii it was completed, he was killed by a son of Ancus Mar-
and the Sabines. During Tullus’s reign, the city of Alba cius, after 38 years as king. His reign is best remembered
Longa was completely destroyed and Tullus integrated its for introducing the Roman symbols of military and civil
population into Rome. offices, and the Roman triumph, being the first Roman to
Tullus is attributed with constructing a new home for the celebrate one.
Senate, the Curia Hostilia, which survived for 562 years
after his death.
3.6 Servius Tullius
According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the
gods until, towards the end of his reign, he fell ill and Priscus was succeeded by his son-in-law Servius Tullius,
became superstitious. However, when Tullus called upon Rome’s second king of Etruscan birth, and the son of a
Jupiter and begged assistance, Jupiter responded with a slave. Like his father-in-law, Servius fought successful
bolt of lightning that burned the king and his house to wars against the Etruscans. He used the booty to build
ashes.[11] the first wall all around the Seven Hills of Rome, the
His reign lasted for 31 years. pomerium. He also reorganized the army.
 5

Roman nobles. Lucretia told her relatives about the at-

tack, and committed suicide to avoid the dishonour of
the episode. Four men, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, and
including Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, Publius Valerius
Poplicola, and Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus incited a
revolution that deposed and expelled Tarquinius and his
family from Rome in 509 BC.
Tarquin was viewed so negatively that the word for king,
rex, held a negative connotation in Latin language until
the fall of the Roman Empire.
Brutus and Collatinus became Rome’s first consuls, mark-
ing the beginning of the Roman Republic. This new gov-
ernment would survive for the next 500 years until the rise
of Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus, and would cover a
period during which Rome’s authority and area of control
extended to cover great areas of Europe, North Africa,
and the Middle East.
The City of the Four Regions, roughly corresponding to the city
limits during the later kingdom. The division is traditionally,
though probably incorrectly, attributed to Servius Tullius. 4 Public offices after the monarchy
Main article: Roman Republic
Servius Tullius instituted a new constitution, further de-
veloping the citizen classes. He instituted Rome’s first
census which divided the population into five economic To replace the leadership of the kings, a new office was
classes, and formed the Centuriate Assembly. He used created with the title of consul. Initially, the consuls pos-
the census to divide the population into four urban tribes sessed all of the king’s powers in the form of two men,
based on location, thus establishing the Tribal Assembly. elected for a one-year term, who could veto each other’s
He also oversaw the construction of the temple to Diana actions. Later, the consuls’ powers were broken down fur-
on the Aventine Hill. ther by adding other magistrates that each held a small
portion of the king’s original powers. First among these
Servius’ reforms made a big change in Roman life: vot- was the praetor, which removed the consuls’ judicial au-
ing rights based on socio-economic status, favoring elites. thority from them. Next came the censor, which stripped
However, over time, Servius increasingly favored the from the consuls the power to conduct the census.
poor in order to gain support from plebs, often at the ex-
pense of patricians. After a 44-year reign, Servius was The Romans instituted the idea of a dictatorship. A dicta-
killed in a conspiracy by his daughter Tullia and her hus- tor would have complete authority over civil and military
band Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. matters within the Roman imperium, and was not legally
responsible for his actions as a dictator and therefore was
unquestionable. However, the power of the dictator was
3.7 Lucius Tarquinius Superbus so absolute that Ancient Romans were hesitant in elect-
ing one, reserving this decision only to times of severe
The seventh and final king of Rome was Lucius Tar- emergencies. Although this seems similar to the roles
quinius Superbus. He was the son of Priscus and the son- of a king, dictators of Rome were limited to serving a
in-law of Servius whom he and his wife had killed. maximum six-month term limit. Contrary to the modern
notion of a dictator as a usurper, Roman Dictators were
Tarquinius waged a number of wars against Rome’s freely chosen, usually from the ranks of consuls, during
neighbours, including against the Volsci, Gabii and the turbulent periods when one-man rule proved more effi-
Rutuli. He also secured Rome’s position as head of the cient.
Latin cities. He also engaged in a series of public works,
notably the completion of the Temple of Jupiter Opti- The king’s religious powers were given to two new of-
mus Maximus, and works on the Cloaca Maxima and the fices: the Rex Sacrorum and the Pontifex Maximus. The
Circus Maximus. Rex Sacrorum was the de jure highest religious official
for the Republic. His sole task was to make the annual
However, Tarquin’s reign is remembered for his use of sacrifice to Jupiter, a privilege that had been previously
violence and intimidation to control Rome, and his disre- reserved for the king. The pontifex maximus, however,
spect of Roman custom and the Roman Senate. was the de facto highest religious official, who held most
Tensions came to a head when the king’s son, Sextus Tar- of the king’s religious authority. He had the power to ap-
quinius, raped Lucretia, wife and daughter to powerful point all vestal virgins, flamens, pontiffs, and even the Rex
6 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

Sacrorum himself. By the beginning of the 1st Century

BC, the Rex Sacrorum was all but forgotten and the pon-
tifex maximus given almost complete religious authority
over the Roman religion.

5 Notes
[1] Asimov, Isaac. Asimov’s Chronology of the World. New
York: HarperCollins, 1991. p. 69.

[2] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.49

[3] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8

[4] “Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 1, chap-

ter 8”. www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-09.

[5] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:9-13

[6] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8, 13

[7] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:14-15

[8] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:17-18

[9] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:19

[10] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20

[11] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:31

6 References
• Livy: Ab Urbe Condita.

7 External links
• Frank, Tenney: An Economic History of Rome.
1920.
• Patria Potestas: a view of suppressed matrilineality
in the early legends of Rome
• The Kings of Rome

• Nova Roma - Educational Organization about “All

Things Roman”

• History of Rome podcasts History of Rome podcasts

 7

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text
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Bot, Mullinm, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Kind Tennis Fan, Gloriousglib, Pktlaurence, Mishalkb, Razumukhin, Eurodyne, Czdanek,
Mpatterson248 and Anonymous: 376

8.2 Images
• File:Castel_Gandolfo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Castel_Gandolfo.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: http://files.mojeeuro.meu.zoznam.sk/200000288-390ab3a04d/2_Commemorative_coin_Vatican_city_2010.
jpg labelbasis Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Las_cuatro_regiones_de_Roma.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Las_cuatro_regiones_de_
Roma.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was
Filipvr at English Wikipedia
• File:Platner_-_Ancient_Rome_city_growth.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Platner_-_Ancient_
Rome_city_growth.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist:
The original uploader was Filipvr at English Wikipedia
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
8 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg License:

CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj
• File:Rome_in_753_BC.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png License: GFDL
Contributors:
• Roma_Romolo_753aC_png.png Original artist: Roma_Romolo_753aC_png.png: Cristiano64
• File:SPQRomani.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Piotr Michał Jaworski (<a href='//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedysta:Piom' class='extiw' title='pl:
Wikipedysta:Piom'>PioM</a> EN DE PL)
• File:She-wolf_suckles_Romulus_and_Remus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/She-wolf_suckles_
Romulus_and_Remus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own book scan from Emmanuel Müller-Baden (dir.), Bibliothek des
allgemeinen und praktischen Wissens, I, Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co, Berlin-Leipzig-Wien-Stuttgart, 1904. Image copied from
de:Bild:Kapitolinische-woelfin 1b-640x480.jpg Original artist: Benutzer:Wolpertinger on WP de
• File:Spqrstone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Spqrstone.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Originally from sv.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User Lamré on sv.wikipedia

8.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0