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CDI
15,3
296
Received 2 January 2009
Revised 19 February 2010
11 March 2010
Accepted 11 March 2010
Career Development International
Vol. 15 No. 3, 2010
pp. 296-318
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1362-0436
DOI 10.1108/13620431011053758
The impact of cross-cultural
training for expatriates in a
Chinese firm
Chenyi Qin and Yehuda Baruch
Norwich Business School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the significance of cross-cultural training and
career attitudes for expatriation career move in the context of China, whether cross-cultural training is
perceived necessary, and the consequence of providing such cross-cultural training.
Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from 82 expatriates from a Chinese firm,
some of whom were expatriated to a foreign country and others who were expatriated from foreign
countries to China.
Findings – Expatriates adjusted well, and having a protean career attitude was a decisive factor.
While the impact of cross-cultural training prior to departure was not statistically significant, it was
well received and considered important.
Research limitations/implications – A limitation is the limited sample size. Implications are
presented for conducting cross-cultural training.
Practical implications – Developing cross-cultural training programs could add value to the firm
and its people.
Originality/value – Using a particular Chinese firm the paper highlights the value and necessity of
cross-cultural training for successful expatriation.
Keywords Expatriates, Performance management, Cross-cultural management, China
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
There is a clear evidence for the positive impact of HRM practice on organizational
performance, starting with the seminal work of Huselid(1995), and followed by
further evidence, backed up by recent meta-analyses (Combs et al., 2006; Tharenou
et al., 2007). This impact is consistent, though not very strong, and the evidence is
particularly clear when training impact is evaluated (Combs et al., 2006). Training is
thus a crucial HRM activity with wide-range implications, yet the measurement of
its impact is challenging (Yang et al., 1996). One special type of training is
cross-cultural training before taking up an expatriation appointment, which has
often been viewed as a way to increase the likelihood of success during the
assignment (Bolino and Feldman, 2000; Hurn, 2007; Tung, 1987; van Emmerik and
Euwema, 2009). This view is in line with the career literature which focus on global
career moves (Guzzo et al., 1994) and on new career attitudes such as the protean
(Briscoe et al., 2006), as well as the literature on cultural intelligence (Ang et al.,
2006; Ang et al., 2007; Brislin et al., 2006; Earley and Ang, 2003).
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the EURAM, Rome 2010.
 Pre-posting preparation for the intended expatriate and his/her family is taken care Cross-cultural
of prior to the expatriation, and may include cross-cultural training. Such training aims training for
to provide support and improve the maintenance of relations with the home
organization while on assignment (Mendenhall et al., 1987; Zetlin, 1994). Studies expatriates
conducted in western firms suggest that cross-cultural training improves managers’
cross-cultural effectiveness and performance, and reduces failure rates (Bhawuk and
Brislin, 2000; Black and Mendenhall, 1989, 1990; Deshpande and Viswesvaran, 1992; 297
Morris and Robie, 2001). The aim of these training is to ease the transition stage, which
follows the expatriation move and enable effective adjustment. The supporting
evidence is not strong, as Hechanova et al.’s (2003) meta-analysis identified a weak
negative relationship between attendance of cross-cultural training and expatriate
adjustment in the host workplace, and Bozionelos (2009) did not find such a significant
impact. The impact, though, may be indirect, and not immediate (van Eerde et al.,
2008).
Others suggest that cross-cultural training positively related to adjustment and job
satisfaction (Landis and Brislin, 1983; Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Bozionelos, 2009).
Along the same line, Zakaria (2000) listed the advantages firms may benefit from
providing cross-cultural training.
In a sharp contrast to the wealth of studies on this subject conducted in western
firms (see for example, Littrell et al., 2006), there is little known about cross-cultural
training in emerging economies. Firms in emerging economies, even if realizing the
importance of cross-cultural training, might face challenges in implementing
cross-cultural training policies under their unique and different circumstances.
In this study we aim to bridge this gap and explore the significance of cross-cultural
training for firms in an emerging economy, China. We examine whether the provision
of cross-cultural training is necessary and beneficial, and exploring the consequence of
providing cross-cultural training. Chinese firms may represent a useful case choice to
analyse these research questions.
We developed a framework focusing on the necessity of cross-cultural training in
China, within the context of changing career systems (Baruch, 2004) to help deepen
theoretical and practical understanding of their relevance for improving organizational
performance. The proposed framework focuses on the necessity of cross-cultural
training for the expatriates and their careers in an emerging economy context. The
article is organized in following way. First, we reviewed the literatures to generate
related hypotheses and establish our research model. We then introduce the
methodology section, which is quantitative empirical data based. Data analysis
follows, presenting the main findings, and finally we discuss the relevance of
cross-cultural training for individual careers and firms HRM in emerging economies
through the lenses of the Chinese case, offering conclusions and recommendations for
theory and practice.

Theoretical background and hypotheses development

We built our conceptual framework on current career theory, combined with training
and development theory and practice (Bee and Bee, 1994; DeNisi and Griffin, 2001)
within cross-cultural context, and organizational strategy to expatriation management
(Baruch and Altman, 2002). We place the work within the context of the theory of
cultural intelligence (Earley and Ang, 2003).
CDI Cross-cultural training
15,3 Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are very significant for the awareness and development
of cultural problems in international business (Hofstede, 1980). In the lights of
globalization, Landis and Brislin (1983) argued that it is necessary to train people in
order to help them to fit in the diverse global workforce and environment, thus work
effectively and successfully in different context. There is a strong relationship between
298 cross-cultural training and adjustment to the new environment (Black and Mendenhall,
1990). Cross-cultural training has been regarded as an effective way to stimulate
communication, activity, and business in moves involving the crossing of national
borders (Ashamalla and Crocitto, 1997). Attending cross-cultural training before
taking up the expatriate job was suggested to be positively related to job satisfaction
(Bozionelos, 2009). Similarly, Hogan and Goodson (1990) researched in Japanese MNCs
found that expatriates given cross-cultural training had a lower failure rate compared
with expatriates without such training.
Zakaria (2000) listed the following advantages for firms that provide cross-cultural
training to expatriates. Cross-cultural training could switch attitude from home-cultural
management mind-set to diverse-cultural management mind-set. Thus, diverse-cultural
management mind-set will improve competitiveness and global fit compared with the
home-cultural management mind-set, and helping expatriates adapt better compared
with expatriates in other organizations. Cross-cultural training will reduce culture shock,
the effects that people feel unfamiliar and shocked to be confronted with a new culture
(Deal and Kennedy, 1982). Expatriates (and their families) given cross-cultural training
experienced less cultural shock and better fit for the new environment compared with the
expatriates without cross-cultural training (Eschbach et al., 2001). Oberg (1960)
suggested that the adjustment process comprises of four stages and estimated the total
adjustment time to last about one year and a half. Minimizing the cultural shock and
make the adjustment process faster and more smoothly became a significant issue for
managing expatriates. Cross-cultural training is also a means of reducing pressure and
uncertainty, such as being anxious and having negative attitude towards work, thus
better enhance the expatriates’ ability to fit in the new environment and prevent failures
(Befus, 1988; Caligiuri et al., 2001; Zakaria, 2000). From the practical point of
cost-effectiveness, Mervosh and McCleniahan (1997) argue that firms should invest in
cross-cultural training to reduce failure rates. Therefore, we hypothesize:
H1a. Cross-cultural training evaluation is positively associated with better
expatriate adaptation to the host environment.
H1b. Cross-cultural training evaluation is positively associated with higher level of
career success.
H1c. Cross-cultural training evaluation is positively associated with higher level of
job satisfaction.

Psychological contract
Psychological contract is described as the unwritten intangible expectations which
exist between employees and their employers (Argyris, 1960; Arnold et al., 2005;
Schein, 1965). Wellin (2007) argued that psychological contract could “add value to
people at work and to the prosperity of organization”. The reasons are that
establishing clear and positive psychological contracts would help organizations to
support their employees, predict their behaviour, and improve employees’ engagement Cross-cultural
and sharing of strategic goals. Thus, positive psychological contract, namely one that training for
is fulfilled and well received by the employee, could be associated with higher
organizational commitment, higher engagement, and higher performance (Wellin, expatriates
2007). A positive psychological contract could result in high levels of job satisfaction
and motivation, as well as high level of organizational commitment (Guest, 1998).
Within the global context, organizations should adjust the perception of 299
employment relationship and generate and follow HRM policy in order to survive
and keep a leading position within the industry. Conversely, psychological contract
breach (Robinson, 1996) and its violation could result in low loyalty, low commitment,
neglect behaviour, and high exit rate, thus low performance (Turnley and Feldman,
1999). Psychological contract breach is the experience of inequity, which could lead to
dissatisfaction, thus low commitment and low performance. Conversely, such inequity
perception could be amended by increasing salary and reward, or some other
conditions (Rousseau, 1989) Hence:
H2a. The more positive psychological contract set, the higher organization
commitment will be perceived.
H2b. The more positive psychological contract set, the better performance will be
perceived.

Family package
The relationship between work and family encompasses both conflict and support
(Baruch and Quick, 2007; Friedman and Greenhaus, 2000). When people experience
changes, such as in expatriation, support from family would have profound effect on
people’s ability to adjust new environment (Adam et al., 1996). Family structure would
also influence job satisfaction and expatriates adjustment (Shaffer and Harrison, 1998).
People with significant family responsibility would consider non-work factors, such as
spouse and children, as the most significant factors when making the decision. Spouse
satisfaction and adjustment have a clear impact on expatriate satisfaction and
adjustment (Shaffer and Harrison, 1998) while the gender of the expatriated person is
of high relevance, in particular in non western societies (Adler, 1984, 2001). Along the
same line, Harvey and Wiese (1998) argued that it is difficult for male to act as a
support role in the new environment compared with females in general.
Communication between family members and family’s ability to adjust new
environment played important roles in expatriates’ work adjustment (Caligiuri et al.,
1998). Tung (1981) indicated that one of the main reasons for expatriation failure is lack
of family adjustment. In addition, different gender needs different approaches (Adler,
1984; Altman and Shortland, 2008). The overall input suggests that having a family
package for the expatriation and training will have positive impact, although some
suggested that “spousal support did not relate to adjustment or performance” (Kraimer
et al., 2001). According to this review, we offer the following hypotheses:
H3a. The better family package the organization offers, the higher level of job
satisfaction will emerge.
H3b. The variety family package organization considers and offers, the better
adjustment will be for the expatriate to the new environment.
CDI Free choice
15,3 The next discussion focuses on whether the individual could choose to accept
expatriation assignment or not. Free choice has been considered a necessary factor
influencing expatriates’ success through the process of job transitions (Feldman, 1988;
Wanous, 1980; Hall, 1976). Similarly, Kraimer and Wayne (2004) found that there is a
positive relationship between having a free choice and expatriate adjustment. More
300 specifically, if the organization initiates the expatriation, forces people to be
transferred, and enforces the expatriation against job changers’ requirements, negative
attitude will emerge, resulting in job dissatisfaction and negative adjustment to the
new environment (Black and Stephens, 1989). Furthermore, Feldman and Thomas
(1992) proposed that “expatriates who perceive they have free choice over whether to
accept their overseas assignments are more likely to have successful expatriate
assignments” – in line with Dickmann and Harris (2005). Similar proposition
suggested by Cerdin and Pargneux (2009) posits that individuals’ free choice has an
effect on expatriates’ success.
The reason is that free choice could cause employees to judge whether the
expatriation fits their will, skills, and knowledge. It may be associated with the
tendency of people to be more committed to their own choice. Having a free choice may
reduce the perception of problems, which may emerge after expatriation, and support
expatriates facing challenging conditions in the new environment. In addition, free
choice plays an important role in improving underemployment for expatriates (Bolino
and Feldman, 2000). Therefore, an organization may wish to set alternative projects to
give the expatriates a choice in order to satisfy their needs of work and family balance.
Otherwise, expatriates may lose the motivation to go abroad (Harvey, 1995). Based on
this literature we propose the following:
H4a. Having the choice to accept or reject the assignment on offer will have a
positive effect on expatriate adjustment.
H4b. Having the choice to accept or reject the assignment on offer will have a
positive effect on career success.

Protean career
The protean career was originally suggested by Hall (1976) and was later validated in a
number of studies, either as a dual component construct (Briscoe et al., 2006) or as a
single construct (Baruch and Quick, 2007). Hall described protean career as “a process
which the person, not the organization, is managing. It consists of the entire person’s
varied experience in education, training, work in several organizations, changes in
occupational field, etc . . . The protean person’s own personal career choice and search
for self-fulfillment are the unifying or integrative elements in his or her life” (Hall,
1976). Under protean career held attitudes, individuals take their own responsibilities
and decide on their own career path, rather than serve for the organizations or regard
organizations as “agents” towards career. Hence, individuals could perceive career
success through the process of self-identification and self-development, such as high
quality life, work-family balance, self-actualization and fulfillment (Baruch and Quick,
2007). From the employers’ perspective, instead of manage employees, organizations
can provide more opportunities and resources for employees to identify themselves,
increase various experience and develop adaptation compared with the traditional
approach (Hall and Moss, 1998). Protean career attitude plays a significant role in Cross-cultural
career success (McDonald et al., 2005; Vos and Soens, 2008). More specifically, the training for
characteristics of protean career satisfy expatriates’ need, such as various experience,
better adaptation and flexibility (Dickmann and Harris, 2005). Thus, protean career expatriates
could be regarded as antecedent of job satisfaction, career success, and development
success (Cerdin and Pargneux, 2009). Therefore, we suggest:
H5a. The more individuals are characterized by a protean career attitude, the better 301
career success individuals are likely to achieve.
H5b. The more individuals are characterized by a protean career attitude, the more
likely individuals will be to reach job satisfaction.

Organizational commitment
Organizational commitment may relate to various aspects though earlier definitions
are not always clear (Cohen, 2003; Suliman and Iles, 2000). Previous research found
that there is a weak relationship between employee commitment and performance
(Steers, 1977; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Mowday et al., 1982). However, Becker et al.
(1996) argued that “certain forms of commitment are related to performance in
predictable and meaningful ways”, while Baruch (1998) suggested that in time of
breaching of psychological contracts, the concept of mutual commitment is
unattainable. The inconclusive evidence might emerge due to the complex nature of
the construct (Iles et al., 1996). Yet, there is certain evidence for the important role of
organizational commitment in determining performance, and how to achieve it (e.g. by
working hard – see Leong et al., 1994).
A positive psychological contract could result in high level of commitment (Guest,
1998). Adding a supplementary point, Turnley and Feldman (1999) suggest that
violation of psychological contract could result in low commitment. Hence,
organizational commitment may mediate the relationship between fulfilment of
psychological contract and performance. The higher expatriates investment in the
organization, the higher cost associated with leaving, and the more expatriates were
willing to commit to the organization, in line with the side bet theory (Becker, 1960).
Traditional career is positively related to organizational commitment, while protean
career is positively related to occupational commitment (Pham et al., 2009). Lastly,
expatriates’ perception of employment opportunities had an effect on the feeling of
present jobs (Bateman and Strasser, 1984; Farrell and Rusbult, 1981) and the
commitment to continuously serve the present organization (Becker, 1960). Thus we
hypothesize:
H6a. Organizational commitment will have a positive effect on performance.
H6b. The relationship between psychological contract and performance will be
mediated by organizational commitment.

Expatriate adjustment
Reducing failure rate of expatriation and making it more successful is of high
importance for global firms. According to Black and Mendenhall (1990), expatriate
success or failure was influenced by expatriate adjustment. Moreover, expatriate
adjustment was positively related to organizational performance (Caligiuri et al., 2001).
CDI If expatriates could establish awareness and try to be familiar with behaviour and
15,3 norm of the host country, cross-cultural adjustment would be easier (Black and
Mendenhall, 1990). The more expatriate is aware of behaviour and norm within the
host country, the easier the adjustment will be, and subsequently, the higher
performance could be achieved. Perceiving organizational support (for example: family
package and cross-cultural training organizational offers, freely chooses the place and
302 the time to go abroad) had a positive effect on expatriate adjustment, which conversely
influenced the organizational performance (Kraimer et al., 2001).
In addition, specific career practices such as mentoring has lead to career success
when mentoring played an important role in affecting expatriates’ adjustment and
development, and career success reflected the mentoring process (Mezias and
Scandura, 2005). Expatriates who discuss their careers with their mentors and took
advice before accepting or rejecting expatriation assignment are more likely to gain
career success (Schein, 1971). Therefore, we assume a relationship between expatriate
adjustment and career success, in line with our next hypotheses:
H7a. The better adjustment for the assignment, the higher performance will be
achieved.
H7b. The better adjustment for the assignment, the higher level of career success
will be achieved.
H7c. The relationship between family package, cross-cultural training, free choice,
and performance will be mediated by expatriate adjustment.
Taken together, all the hypotheses form the framework as follows (Figure 1).

Methodology
Sample and procedure
Participants were 82 expatriates employed by Shanghai Jin Jiang International (Group)
Company Limited. They include 62 Chinese (expatriated to foreign country) and 20
foreigners (expatriated to China). Of these, 49 were male, and 33 were female. This
sample was chosen because the company is a well-established Chinese firm, which

Figure 1.
operates in a wide scope of industry, such as hotel, freight transport, finance, real Cross-cultural
estate, and travel. We thus believe that the sample fairly represents the industry in training for
China. Data were collected from participants by internet-mediated questionnaire. The
questionnaire was distributed to every expatriate by using the intranet of the firm. It expatriates
was then sent to first author.
Surveys were distributed to 100 expatriates and 82 were returned, representing a 82
per cent response rate, considered high compared with the norm for surveys responses 303
(Baruch and Holtom, 2008; Schalm and Kelloway, 2001). We believe that the main
reason for this high response rate is the culture within Chinese state-owned firms. The
HR manager of the firm sent the invitation letter to every expatriate, asking for
completing the questionnaire. Expatriates, thus, tend to complete the questionnaire
because of their felt obligation to the manager (Osland, 1990).

Measurement and analysis

In line with our framework, we measured 12 variables via the questionnaire. We
employed a Likert scale, ranging from 1 (less important) to 7 (most important).
Psychological contract. Psychological contract was measured by expatriates’
expectation from the firm and the firm’s expectation to their expatriates. Fourteen
items listed in expatriates’ expectation from the firm, such as “learning environment,
job security, social status, and career aspiration”. Thirteen items listed in the firm’s
expectation to their expatriates, e.g. “high-quality performance, commitment, and
loyalty” (Rousseau, 1989).
Family package. The measurement of family package variable comprised of five
items developed for this study. Sample items are “children’s education, spouse
company, and financial provider.” Adjustment was considering about whether the
process was smooth or not, whether received support or not, and whether faced
cultural shock or not. A sample item is: “My adjustment process was quite smooth”.
Cross-cultural training. The measurement of cross-cultural training divided into
four variables, which were significance of cross-cultural training, selection of the
expatriates, evaluation of cross-cultural training, and feeling of cross-cultural training.
A sample item is: “Were you given the following? if yes, indicate the level of quality . . .
items included ‘Language training’; ‘Immersion cultural experiences’ etc.”
Free choice to accept or reject the offer. The variables of free choice of accept or reject
the offer are below the selection part, which belong to one of the part of cross-cultural
training section. We used six items – a sample item is: “I had much choice to accept or
reject the offer”.
Career attitude. Career attitude was measured based on the concept of protean
career (Baruch and Quick, 2007), which was self-managing career, for instance,
whether in charge of your own career or not, and make your career choice based on
financial consideration or others. We used six items – a sample item is: “For me, career
success means being in charge of my own career” (Baruch and Quick, 2007).
Career success. Career success was measured by ten items (Cook et al., 1981), which
was aimed to test the opinion and point of view of success, such as earning high income
or having high level of freedom and autonomy. A sample item is: “I am satisfied with
the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals”.
Job satisfaction was measured by a three-item measure (Cook et al., 1981). A sample
item is: “I am generally satisfied with the kind of work I do in my job.”
CDI Organizational commitment. Organizational commitment was measured by 15
15,3 items according to Mowday (1979). A sample item is: “I am willing to put in a great deal
of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organization to be
successful”.
Performance. Performance was measured as suggested by Baruch (1996), via
presenting the score respondents reporting the score they had, and then what they
304 believe they should have:
.
In Jin Jiang Corporation, performance appraisal scale is from 0 to 100. Please tell
us what was the average of your last two performance appraisal evaluations?
.
What do you think your performance appraisal score should have been (using
the same score).

The software SPSS (16 Ed) was used to do the data analysis. The reliability, regression,
correlation and t-test, Cronbach’s alpha, R-square, significance, beta, and Pearson
correlation were used to test the hypotheses.

Findings
We first tested the sets of items for each variable for its Cronbach’s alpha reliability
coefficient. The alpha coefficient of most of the variables was above the threshold of
0.70 (Nunnally, 1978), or very close, which can be accepted and used for newly
developed measures (Hair et al., 2006).
As can be seen in Table I, cross-cultural training variable proved to be a significant
antecedent of cross-cultural training as well as the option to decide whether to accept or
reject the expatriation. This led to feeling of high satisfaction. However, a relatively
low number of expatriates received cross-cultural training before expatriation
(mean ¼ 2.6). The evaluation of cross-cultural training provided was perceived to be at
a medium level.
Protean career and career success were associated. High income and high position
listed second (mean ¼ 5.75), pointing out that traditional career attitude still occupied
among expatriates.
Organizational commitment was closely related to cross-cultural training, protean
career, job satisfaction, free choice (p , 0:01), career success, expectation from the
firm, the firm’s expectation, family package, and expatriate adjustment; while
expatriate adjustment was associated with cross-cultural training, organizational
performance, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, free choice (p , 0:01),
career success, expectation from the firm, and firm’s expectation, and family package.
Yet, our data indicated that there was no connection between evaluation of
cross-cultural training preparation and expatriate adjustment, which might be due to
the fact that only a minority of employees of the firm received cross-cultural training;
nevertheless the process of expatriate adjustment seemed positive.
Organizational performance was highly connected with job satisfaction, free choice
to accept or reject the expatriation, as well as expatriate adjustment and expectation
from the firm. It is quite surprising to find that organizational performance was not
related to self-performance evaluation. Self-evaluated performance was related to
family package, which was not suggested as a hypothesis.
Career success was strongly linked with cross-cultural training, organizational
commitment, protean career, job satisfaction, free choice, expectation from the firm,
 Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Expectation from JJ 5.24 0.56 (0.76)

2. JJ’s expectation 5.33 0.58 0.52 * * (0.77)
3. Family package 5.24 0.98 0.19 0.33 * * (0.72)
4. Adjustment 5.33 0.73 0.52 * * 0.29 * * 0.27 * (0.69)
5. Significance of CCT 5.06 0.79 0.44 * * 0.57 * * 0.38 * * 0.44 * * (0.88)
6. Preparation 2.61 2.20 2 0.074 2 0.025 0.11 0.08 0.20 (0.91)
7. Protean career 5.04 0.66 0.17 0.30 * * 0.29 * * 0.11 0.36 * * 0.22 (0.69)
8. Career success 5.23 0.59 0.52 * * 0.64 * * 0.45 * * 0.29 * * 0.51 * * 20.074 0.42 * * (0.68)
9. Organizational
commitment 5.13 0.56 0.33 * * 0.45 * * 0.31 * * 0.39 * * 0.41 * * 0.15 0.48 * * 0.43 * * (0.79)
10. Job satisfaction 5.67 0.73 0.46 * * 0.42 * * 0.24 * 0.56 * * 0.41 * * 0.24 * 0.36 * * 0.35 * * 0.56 * * (0.77)
11. Organizatonal
performance 0.89 0.058 0.27 * 0.066 0.12 0.39 * * 20.051 0.11 20.054 20.015 .14 0.32 * *
12. Self-performance 0.86 0.10 0.054 0.051 0.34 * * 0.19 20.041 0.011 0.062 0.087 0.19 0.20 0.16
Notes: * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed); * * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)
Cross-cultural

expatriates

and reliability results

deviation, Correlation,
Mean, Standard
training for

305

Table I.
CDI firm’s expectation, family package, and expatriate adjustment. The same as expatriate
15,3 adjustment, there was no enough evidence to show the relationship between evaluation
of cross-cultural training preparation and career success, not supporting the associated
hypothesis.
While Job satisfaction exerted a positive effect on free choice, career success,
expectation from the firm, firm’s expectation, expatriate adjustment, quality of
306 expatriate preparation and family package, evidently supported the associated
hypothesis.

Regression analysis
Performance (organization)
Table II demonstrated a close relationship between free choice and organizational
performance (sig: ¼ 0:041, beta ¼ 0:236), as well as between expatriate adjustment
and organizational performance (sig: ¼ 0:029, beta ¼ 0:272). Thus, hypothesis re free
choice, expatriate adjustment and performance were supported. However, although
almost all expatriates regarded cross-cultural training as a vital factor (Cronbach’s
alpha ¼ 0.88), there was no clear evidence proving any relationship between
cross-cultural training and organizational performance. Yet, a fair level of over 32 per
cent of variances of independent variables can be explained by the regression model,
though the dependent variables were not highly dependent on organizational
performance. Hence, it may be not necessary for the firm to provide cross-cultural
training if its purpose is to directly improve performance.

Performance (self)
According to Table III, some 22 per cent of variances of the independent variables can
be explained by the regression model (R square of 0.22). Different from organizational
performance, self-performance was strongly related to family package (sig , 0.05).
That is to say, expatriates believed that their performance would improve if suitable
family package was on offer. Without being distracted by the concern of taking care of

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 1
Gender 0.144 0.235 0.250 0.215
Age 2 0.253 20.222 20.207 2 0.225
Step 2
Expectation from JJ 0.241 0.253 0.133
JJ’s expectation 20.128 20.123 2 0.105
Free choice 0.272 0.275 0.236
Family package 20.031 20.051 2 0.078
Step 3
Preparation 0.122 0.098
Step 4
Table II. Organizational commitment 2 0.040
Regression analysis Adjustment 0.272
results: organizational R square 0.111 0.257 0.271 0.318
performance Adjusted R square 0.088 0.197 0.202 0.233
 Cross-cultural
Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
training for
Step 1 expatriates
Gender 0.239 0.188 0.184 0.179
Age 2 0.143 20.120 20.124 2 0.120
Step 2
Expectation from JJ 20.022 20.024 2 0.068 307
JJ’s expectation 20.079 20.080 2 0.112
Free choice 0.195 0.194 0.165
Family package 0.267 0.271 0.245
Step 3
Preparation 20.026 2 0.051
Step 4
Organizational commitment 0.108
Adjustment 0.080 Table III.
R square 0.102 0.200 0.201 0.216 Regression analysis
Adjusted R square 0.080 0.136 0.125 0.118 results: self-performance

their spouse and children, expatriates leaving for different countries and environment
would be able to concentrate on their work there. In addition to that, the beta (2 0.051)
of cross-cultural training was not significant in explaining performance self evaluation.
Therefore, offering suitable cross-cultural training was not associated with improved
performance.

Job satisfaction
Table IV showed that over half of variance in the independent variable can be
explained by the regression model, especially when organizational commitment and
expatriate adjustment added into the model. Organizational commitment and

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 1
Gender 20.070 0.023 0.057 0.033
Age 20.098 2 0.030 0.004 0.008
Step 2
Expectation from JJ 0.213 0.240 0.089
JJ’s expectation 0.196 0.206 0.123
Free choice 0.278 0.286 0.196
Family package 0.082 0.037 2 0.042
Step 3
Preparation 0.272 0.198
Step 4
Organizational commitment 0.285
Adjustment 0.287 Table IV.
R square 0.010 0.324 0.395 0.533 Regression analysis
Adjusted R square 20.015 0.270 0.338 0.474 results: job satisfaction
CDI expatriate adjustment were strongly connected with job satisfaction. Organizational
15,3 commitment (sig. ¼ 0.005, beta ¼ 0.285), expatriate adjustment (sig. ¼ 0.006,
beta ¼ 0.287) and cross-cultural training (sig. ¼ 0.021, beta ¼ 0.198) play vital roles
in influencing job satisfaction and free choice (sig. ¼ 0.041, beta ¼ 0.196) as well,
which means the hypothesis among job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
expatriate adjustment, cross-cultural training, and free choice was favoured. Therefore,
308 it is necessary to provide suitable cross-cultural training to increase job satisfaction of
expatriates.

Career success
As can be seen in Table V, 59 per cent of variance in the independent variable can be
explained by the regression model. Almost variables had a significant effect on career
success. Career success was highly associated with psychological contract
(sig. ¼ 0.038) and family package (sig. ¼ 0.000), while the table did not show any
relationship between preparation of cross-cultural training and career success
(beta ¼ 2 0.093). That is, even though the firm provided cross-cultural training, it did
not contribute to expatriates’ realization of career success.

Comparison
T-test was conducted for each variable comparing expatriates expatriated to foreign
country and to China. The results depicted in Tables VI-VII represent significant
differences in feeling, career success, protean career, firm’s expectation, and mild
difference in expatriate adjustment and self-performance, for both comparing direction
of expatriation (to vs from China; and gender based).

Discussion
We studied the possible impact of career attitude, the provision of cross cultural
training, and other factors on the success of expatriates in the context of China, an
emerging economy. This study answers recent calls to examine careers beyond the

Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 1
Gender 2 0.166 20.171 20.181 2 0.170
Age 0.032 0.122 0.113 0.124
Step 2
Expectation from JJ 0.214 0.206 0.220
JJ’s expectation 0.402 0.399 0.358
Free choice 0.016 0.014 0.003
Family package 0.350 0.364 0.350
Step 3
Preparation 20.080 2 0.093
Step 4
Organizational commitment 0.128
Table V. Adjustment 2 0.051
Regression analysis R square 0.032 0.574 0.580 0.591
results: career success Adjusted R square 0.008 0.540 0.540 0.540
 Category n Mean SD Std. error mean F Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed)

Free choice 1 62 5.40 0.94 0.13 0.51 0.48 0.247 80 0.81

2 20 5.34 0.81 0.18 0.266 36.67 0.79
Quality of preparation 1 62 2.60 2.11 0.27 3.68 0.059 2 0.062 80 0.95
2 20 2.64 2.51 0.56 2 0.056 28.19 0.96
Feeling 1 62 5.73 0.78 0.099 0.027 0.87 1.525 80 0.13
2 20 5.43 0.75 0.17 1.551 33.1 0.13
Career success 1 62 5.16 0.63 0.080 1.30 0.26 2 1.819 80 0.073
2 20 5.44 0.41 0.091 2 2.255 50.21 0.030
Organizational commitment 1 62 5.13 0.61 0.077 4.04 0.048 2 0.236 80 0.81
2 20 5.16 0.40 0.090 2 0.290 48.99 0.77
Organizational performance 1 62 0.88 0.059 0.0076 0.57 0.45 2 0.611 80 0.54
2 20 0.89 0.056 0.013 2 0.630 33.95 0.53
Protean career 1 62 5.26 0.69 0.088 0.24 0.63 2 2.449 80 0.017
2 20 5.72 0.81 0.18 2 2.258 28.52 0.032
Job satisfaction 1 62 5.66 0.71 0.090 0.99 0.32 2 0.204 80 0.84
2 20 5.70 0.841 0.19 2 0.187 28.24 0.85
Expectation from Jin Jiang Company 1 62 5.24 0.57 0.073 0.01 0.93 0.165 80 0.87
2 20 5.22 0.55 0.12 0.170 33.57 0.87
JJ’s expectation 1 62 5.24 0.60 0.076 2.99 0.088 2 2.575 80 0.012
2 20 5.61 0.40 0.089 2 3.147 48.50 0.003
Family package 1 62 5.24 1.02 0.13 0.53 0.47 2 0.084 80 0.93
2 20 5.26 0.88 0.20 2 0.090 36.78 0.93
Adjustment 1 62 5.38 0.745 0.094 0.312 0.58 1.028 80 0.31
2 20 5.18 0.70 0.16 1.053 33.51 0.30
Self-performance 1 62 0.86 0.11 0.014 0.12 0.73 2 0.698 80 0.49
2 20 0.88 0.057 0.013 2 0.950 63.66 0.35
Note: Chinese expatriates to foreign country (1) vs foreign expatriates to China (2)
Cross-cultural

expatriates

T-test comparison
training for

309

Table VI.
 CDI
15,3

310

vs females
Table VII.
T-test comparison: males
Gender n Mean SD Std. error mean F Sig. t df Sig. (two-tailed)

Free choice 1 49 5.38 0.96 0.138 1.23 0.26 0.019 80 0.99

2 33 5.38 0.82 0.148 0.019 75.58 0.98
Quality of preparation 1 49 2.79 2.17 0.318 0.41 0.52 0.90 80 0.37
2 33 2.34 2.23 0.39 0.90 67.49 0.37
Feeling 1 49 5.62 0.79 0.119 0.54 0.46 20.54 80 0.59
2 33 5.72 0.77 0.139 20.54 70.19 0.59
Career success 1 49 5.18 0.60 0.086 0.022 0.88 20.82 80 0.41
2 33 5.29 0.59 0.10 20.83 69.69 0.41
Organizational commitment 1 49 5.19 0.60 0.086 2.36 0.13 1.06 80 0.29
2 33 5.05 0.49 0.086 1.108 76.79 0.28
Organizational performance 1 49 0.90 0.056 0.0081 0.025 0.88 2.86 80 0.005
2 33 0.86 0.055 0.0096 2.88 69.76 0.005
Protean career 1 49 5.40 0.78 0.11 0.23 0.63 0.36 80 0.72
2 33 5.34 0.70 0.12 0.37 73.38 0.72
Job satisfaction 1 49 5.71 0.69 0.099 0.64 0.43 0.65 80 0.52
2 33 5.61 0.80 0.134 0.63 61.72 0.53
Expectation from Jin Jiang Company 1 49 5.26 0.58 0.083 0.037 0.85 0.37 80 0.71
2 33 5.21 0.54 0.094 0.38 72.18 0.71
JJ’s expectation 1 49 5.35 0.57 0.081 0.11 0.75 0.50 80 0.62
2 33 5.29 0.60 0.10 0.50 66.51 0.62
Family package 1 49 5.38 0.98 0.14 0.092 0.76 1.58 80 0.12
2 33 5.04 0.97 0.17 1.58 69.04 0.12
Adjustment 1 49 5.35 0.78 0.11 0.17 0.69 0.37 80 0.71
2 33 5.29 0.66 0.11 0.38 75.79 0.71
Self-performance 1 49 0.88 0.05 0.0071 2.10 0.15 2.11 80 0.038
2 33 0.84 0.14 0.025 1.80 37.15 0.079
Notes: Males (1); Females (2)
context of western societies, and using contemporary career concepts (Sullivan and Cross-cultural
Baruch, 2009; Baruch and Bozionelos, 2010). Overall, our model was supported, and training for
may serve to help both theoretical progress in the study of careers in international
context, and practical management in terms of the relevance of provision of training. expatriates
Comparing the populations under study, we found that expatriates who were
expatriated to foreign country felt a higher level of satisfaction, happiness, sense of
being trusted by the firm and easiness through the process of adjustment. They 311
received much more support and were in a good mood when overcoming cultural shock
during the adjustment process. Furthermore, there was significant relation between the
place expatriates expatriated to and career success, protean career and firm’s
expectation. Compared with expatriates to foreign country, expatriates to the firm
presented a higher level of career success, protean career, psychological contract, and
self-performance.

Cross-cultural training
China is a high-context country according to Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions, and
culture is an important factor in realizing careers (Malach-Pines and Kaspi-Baruch,
2008; Tams and Arthur, 2007). For instance, Chinese paid more attention to
relationship, and accepted or rejected business in indirect way (Osland, 1990), not same
as some low-context western country. That may explain why feeling and adjustment
variables of foreign expatriates to the firm in China were relatively lower than Chinese
expatriates to foreign destinations. It is relatively easier for Chinese expatriates
(high-context) to follow the process foreign organization (low-context) regulated step
by step. On the contrary, it is very difficult for foreign expatriates (low-context) to
understand Chinese (high-context) culture, especially how to establish the relationship.
That implied the significance of cross-cultural training for foreign expatriates when
they need to be expatriated to China. Our results are in accordance with Branine (1996),
where a western firm faced obstacles for the success of development programmes in
China due to lack of recognition in what Chinese company really need.
On the other hand, although almost all the expatriates under our study felt that
cross-cultural training is very significant, the data showed that fewer people received
cross-cultural training before expatriation. Moreover, the adjustment would relatively
satisfy among almost the expatriates. Therefore, it could infer that maybe the need to
provide cross-cultural training in such a state-owned firm is not explicit and direct.
Other evidence showed in the model implies that cross-cultural training did not have a
direct effect on expatriate adjustment and career success (H3a and H3b). Yet,
psychological contract, family package, having a free choice, and protean career were
of profound relevance to performance, career success, and job satisfaction.
Gender differences existed, but these should not be considered major. Females felt
lower level of fit in terms of preparation, and in terms of performance, but not relating
to other variables.
Bearing in mind the cultural difference between China and western countries, and as
the model infer indirect impact, providing cross-cultural training prior to expatriation
may nevertheless be of importance and relevance, at least to improve the feeling of the
expatriates. Other findings supported H3c, that the better cross-cultural training
organization provides, the higher rate of job satisfaction will emerge. To sum up,
although the firm did not provide comprehensive much cross-cultural training for the
CDI expatriates, the adjustment and the performance of the expatriates were relatively
15,3 positive. We assume that adding cross-cultural training would improve the adjustment
and performance, even if indirectly.

Strengths and weaknesses

The major limitation we had in this study is the limited sample size. Yet, even so we
312 were able to test our hypotheses using relevant statistical procedures, and reach
conclusions of relevance to expatriation management in the context of an emerging
economy.

Conclusion and recommendation

In conclusion, in order to improve organizational performance, a number of ways may
be feasible, based on the many variables related to performance, such as psychological
contract, family package, free choice, and protean career. Generating a fair and
acceptable psychological contract, expatriates adjustment and organizational
commitment were positively related to performance. Family package and
cross-cultural training were positively related to job satisfaction. Also, protean
career, free choice, and expatriates adjustment were positively related to career
success. In addition, the comparison of foreign expatriates and Chinese expatriates,
found that Chinese expatriates fit better than foreign expatriates. Moreover, Chinese
expatriates received less cross-cultural training than foreign expatriates. Hence, it
could assume that without cross-cultural training, Chinese expatriates could fit well
and bear culture shock. The gender comparison revealed other differences, and we
argue that although females’ status changed a lot, males’ performance was
nevertheless presented as better than females in expatriation.
Although some evidence showed that there is no direct statistical significant
support to argue the necessity to provide cross-cultural training, almost expatriates
recognize the significance of such cross-cultural training. Therefore, it is recommended
that firms could design a set of cross-cultural training programs focus on different level
of expatriates. We believe that cross-cultural training would add value to the
expatriation and subsequently to the organization as a whole. Cross-cultural training
can help expatriates feel better and gain smoother adjustment and by providing a basic
knowledge of culture in the target country of expatriation.

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About the authors

Chenyi Qin received a combined bachelor degree in International Business (a Sino-Australian
Cooperative Program) from Shanghai Institute of Foreign Trade, China (Bachelor of
Management) and Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia (Bachelor of Business).
CDI She graduated with a master degree in International Human Resource Management from the
University of East Anglia. Her research interests focus in the areas of cross-cultural training of
15,3 expatriates in Chinese organizations.
Yehuda Baruch is Professor of Management at UEA Norwich UK, formerly held visiting
positions at the University of Texas at Arlington, George Mason University, University of
Canterbury NZ, and London Business School. He has published extensively in the areas of Global
and Strategic HRM, Careers, and technology management, including some 100 refereed papers,
318 in journals including Journal of Management, Human Resource Management, Organizational
Dynamics, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Human Relations, and Organization Studies and over
30 books and book chapters, including Managing Career: Theory and Practice and co-edited
“Winning reviews: a guide for evaluating scholarly writing” and “Opening the black box of
editorship” and “Global careers”. Professor Baruch is the Editor of Group & Organization
Management and is past chair of the Careers Division of the Academy of Management.

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