GED CONSULTANTS TRAINING

Chapter 

2
Design Loads
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VERTICAL LOADS
a) DEAD LOADS: included in dead loads are the weight of
all materials which are permanently attached to the
structure. In the case of a wood roof or wood floor
system this would include the weight of the roofing or
floor covering, sheathing, framing, insulation, ceiling (if
any), and any other permanent materials such as
automatic fire sprinklers. See ASCE7‐10 Chapter 3
“Dead Loads”.
Additional dead loads:
• A/C equipment: eg. 500 Lbs.
• Solar Panels: 3 Lbs./sq.Ft.
• Car weight: 3000 Lbs.
• Etc.

NOTE: all these loads were organized in tables, see “Seismic Calculation ” or
“Beam Calculation” Templates.
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VERTICAL LOADS
b) LIVE LOADS: included in live loads are the associated with use or occupancy of a structure. While dead
loads are applied permanently, live loads tend to fluctuate with time. Typically included are people,
furniture, contents, and so on. Building codes typically specify the minimum roof live loads Lr and
minimum floor loads L that must be used in the design of a structure. Not include construction or
environmental loads, such as wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load or flood load. See
ASCE7‐10 Chapter 4 “Live Loads”.

• Floor Live Load: typical occupancy or use floor live loads range from a minimum of 40 psf for residential
structures to values as high as 250 psf for heavy storage facilities. Members for which a value of KLLAT is
400 sq.ft. or more are permitted to be designed for a reduced live load in accordance with the
following formula:
Per ASCE7‐10 section 4.7.2:

NOTE: L shall not be less than 0.5Lo for members supporting

one floor and L shall no be less than 0.4Lo for members supporting
two or more floors.
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VERTICAL LOADS
• Roof Live Load: the live load on a roof is usually applied for a relatively short period of time during the
life of a structure. This fact is normally of no concern in the design of structures other than wood. Roof
load include loads that are imposed during the construction of the building including the roofing
process. Roof live loads that may occur after construction include re‐roofing operations, air‐
conditioning and mechanical equipment installation and servicing, and, perhaps, loads caused by
firefighting equipment.
The minimum uniformly distributed roof live loads Lo per Code are permitted to be reduced by:
Per ASCE7‐10 section 4.8:

AT= tributary area supported by the member.

F= for a sloped roof, the number of inches of rise per

foot.
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LATERAL LOADS
Regardless of the weather wind or seismic forces create the greatest forces on the structure as a whole, the design
need to demonstrate that all elements and connections are adequate for each load type.
a) WIND LOAD: The design wind loads for buildings and other structures, including the Main Wind‐Force Resisting
System (MWFRS) and component and cladding elements thereof, shall be determined using one of the
procedures as specified in Chapter 26 through 31 from ASCE7‐10.
Components receive wind loads directly or from cladding and transfer the load to the MWFRS. Cladding receives wind 
loads directly.
 Main Wind‐Force Resisting System: Can consist of a structural frame or an assemblage of structural elements that work 
together to transfer wind loads acting on the entire structure to the ground. Structural elements such as cross‐bracing, 
shear walls, roof trusses, and roof diaphragms are part of the Main Wind‐Force Resisting System (MWFRS)
 Components: fasteners, purlins, girts, studs, roof decking and roof trusses.
 Cladding: wall coverings, curtain walls, roof coverings, exterior windows (fixed and operable) and doors, and 
overhead doors.
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LATERAL LOADS
• Exposure Category:
Exposure B:

Exposure B suburban residential area with mostly single‐family  Exposure B urban area with numerous closely spaced obstructions having 
dwellings. Low‐rise structures, less than 30 ft (9.1 m) high, in  size of single family dwellings or larger. for all structures shown, terrain 
the center of the photograph have sites designated as exposure  representative of surface roughness category b extends more than twenty 
B with surface roughness Category B terrain around the site for  times the height of the structure or 2600 ft (792 m), whichever is greater, in 
a distance greater than 1500 ft (457 the upwind direction.
m) in any wind direction.
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LATERAL LOADS
Exposure C:

Exposure C open terrain with scattered

Exposure C flat open obstructions having heights generally
grassland with less than 30 ft for most wind directions,
scattered all 1‐story structures with a mean roof
obstructions having height less than 30 ft in the photograph
heights generally are less than 1500 ft or ten times the
less than 30 ft. height of the structure, whichever is
greater, from an open field that
prevents the use of exposure B.

Exposure D
Exposure D a building at the shoreline (excluding shorelines
in hurricane-prone regions) with wind flowing over open water
for a distance of at least 1 mile. Shorelines in exposure D
include coastal areas of California.
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• Topographic Factor Buildings sited on the upper half of an isolated hill or escarpment may experience significantly 
higher wind speeds than buildings situated on level ground. To account for these higher wind speeds, the velocity 
pressure exposure coeffi cients in Tables 27.3‐1, 28.3‐1, 29.3‐1, and 30.3‐1 are multiplied by a topographic factor 
Kzt. If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet all the conditions specified in Section 26.8.1 then Kzt
= 1.0.                             

 K1 : is related to the shape of the topographic feature and the maximum speed‐up with the crest.
 K2 : accounts for the reduction in speed‐up with the distance upwind or downwind of the crest.
 K3: accounts for the reduction in speed‐up with height above the local ground surface.

Lh= distance upwind of crest of hill 
or escarpment in Fig. 26‐8‐1 to 
where the difference in ground 
elevation is half the height of the 
hill or scarpment.
x= distance upwind or downwind of 
crest in Fig. 26‐8‐1 in Ft.
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• Basic wind Speed: there are different maps for different categories 
of building occupancies.
I. For Risk Category II buildings and structures use Fig. 26.5‐1A
II. For Risk Category III & IV buildings and structures use Fig. 26.5‐1B
III. For Risk Category I buildings and structures use Fig. 26.5‐1C

• Importance Factor: shall be taken as 1.0, regardless of its risk category assignment
.
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b) SEISMIC LOAD: “STATIC LATERAL LOAD PROCEDURE”

The code specifies a number of structures for which a dynamic analysis is required. For example, regular structures over 240 Ft. in
height and irregular structures grater than five stories or greater than 65 Ft. in height must be design using a dynamic analysis (
dynamic lateral force procedure).
For buildings which do not require a dynamic analysis, the code provides a simplified method known as the Static Lateral Force
Procedure.
Story forces increase with increasing height above the base of the building. The magnitude of the story forces depends on the
mass (dead load) distribution provided by the Code bases it forces on the fundamental mode of vibration of the structure. The
fundamental mode is also known as the first mode of vibration.
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VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SEISMIC FORCES:

where: Cvx= vertical distribution factor

V= total design lateral force or shear at the base of the structure (kip)
wi and wx = the portion of the total effective seismic weight of the structure (W) located or assigned to Level i
or x
hi and hx = the height (ft) from the base to Level i or x
k = an exponent related to the structure period as follows: for structures having a period of 0.5 s or less, k = 1;
for structures having a period of 2.5 s or more, k = 2; for structures having a period between 0.5 and 2.5 s, k
shall be 2 or shall be determined by linear interpolation between 1 and 2.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SEISMIC FORCES: The seismic design story shear in any story (Vx) (kip) shall be determined
from the following equation:

where Fi = the portion of the seismic base shear (V) (kip) induced at Level i. The seismic design story shear (Vx) (kip) shall
be distributed to the various vertical elements of the seismic force‐resisting system in the story under consideration based
on the relative lateral stiffness of the vertical resisting elements and the diaphragm.
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CONCEPTS
• BASE SHEAR: it is calculated from an expression which is in the form:
For the Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure:
Where: V= base shear
Cs= seismic response coefficient
W= effective seismic weight of building. Shall include the dead load above the base and other loads above the
base as listed below:
1) In areas used for storage, a min. of 25% of the floor live load shall be included. (See exceptions)
2) Where provisions for partitions is required by section 4.2.2 in the floor load design, the actual
partition weight or a min. weight of 10 psf of floor area, whichever is greater.
3) Total operating weight of permanent equipment.
4) Weight of landscaping and other materials at roof gardens and similar areas.
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CONCEPTS
• SESIMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT
where: = design spectral response acceleration in the short period range
R= response modification factor. See ASCE7‐10 table 12.2‐1.
I= occupancy importance factor. See ASCE7‐10 table 1.5‐2.
Cs need not exceed the following: from ASCE7‐10 figure 22‐12

shall not be less than:

For structures located where S1 is equal or greater than 0.6g, Cs shall not be less than:
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CONCEPTS
• DESIGN SPECTRAL RESPONSE ACCELERATIONS SDS & SD1
where: SDS= short period design spectral response acceleration
SD1= one‐second design spectral response acceleration
SMS= max. considered earthquake (MCER) spectral response acceleration for short
period.
SM1= MCER spectral response acceleration for 1 second.
Ss= mapped MCER spectral response acceleration parameter for short periods per
“U.S.G.S. Sesimic Design Maps”.
S1= mapped MCER spectral response acceleration parameter for 1 second per
“U.S.G.S. Sesimic Design Maps”.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/designmaps/us/application.php
Fa= site coefficient, per ASCE‐10 table 11.4‐1 or per web site
Fv= site coefficient, per ASCE‐10 table 11.4‐2 or per web site
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CONCEPTS
• SITE CLASS: based on the site soil properties, the site shall be classified as Site Class A, B, C, D, E, or F in accordance with
Chapter 20 from ASCE7‐10. Where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the site class, Site Class D
shall be used unless the authority having jurisdiction or geotechnical data determines Site Class E or F soils are present at the
site.
• IMPORTANCE FACTOR:
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CONCEPTS
• RISK CATEGORY: buildings and other structures
shall be classified, based on the risk to human
life, health, and welfare associated with their
damage or failure by nature of their occupancy
or use, according to Table 1.5‐1 for the
purposes of applying fl ood, wind, snow, earth‐
quake, and ice provisions. Each building or
other structure shall be assigned to the highest
applicable risk category or categories
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CONCEPTS
• APPROXIMATE FUNDAMENTAL PERIOD OF VIBRATION: can be defined as the length of time (in seconds) that it takes for the
first or fundamental mode (deflected shape) to undergo one cycle of free vibration.

where: hn= structural height, the vertical distance from the base to the highest level of the seismic force‐
resisting system of the structure. For pitched or sloped roofs, the structural height is from the base to
the average height of the roof.
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CONCEPTS
• SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY: A classification assigned to a structure based on its Risk Category and the severity of the design
earthquake ground motion at the site.
Risk Category I, II, or III structures located where the mapped spectral response acceleration parameter at 1‐s period, S1, is
greater than or equal to 0.75 shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category E. Risk Category IV structures located where the
mapped spectral response acceleration parameter at 1‐s period, S1, is greater than or equal to 0.75 shall be assigned to Seismic
Design Category F. All other structures shall be assigned to a Seismic Design Category based on their Risk Category and the design
spectral response acceleration parameters, SDS and SD1.
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CONCEPTS
• RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTOR “R”:
Experience in past earthquakes has
demonstrated that buildings designed to a
significantly lower base shear can adequately
resist seismic forces without collapse. This
experience provides the basis for use of the R
factor. The reason for adequate performance at
a lower base shear is thought to be the result of
both extra or reserve strength in the structural
system, and stable inelastic behavior of the
structural elements. The code allows use of R
values significantly greater than 1.0.
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CONCEPTS
 Combinations of Framing Systems in Different Directions: Different seismic force‐resisting systems are permitted to be used to
resist seismic forces along each of the two orthogonal axes of the structure. Where different systems are used, the respective R,
Cd, and Ω0 coefficients shall apply to each system, including the structural system limitations contained in Table 12.2‐1.
 Combinations of Framing Systems in the Same Direction: where different seismic force‐resisting systems are used in
combination to resist seismic forces in the same direction, other than those combinations considered as dual systems, the most
stringent applicable structural system limitations contained in Table 12.2‐1 shall apply and the design shall comply with the
requirements below.
I) R, Cd, and Ω0 Values for Vertical Combinations: where a structure has a vertical combination in the same direction,
the following requirements shall apply:
I.I) Where the lower system has a lower Response Modification Coefficient, R, the design coefficients
(R, Ω0, and Cd) for the upper system are permitted to be used to calculate the forces and drifts of the
upper system. For the design of the lower system, the design coefficients (R, Ω0, and Cd) shall be used.
Forces transferred from the upper system to the lower system shall be increased by multiplying by the
ratio of the higher response modification coefficient to the lower response modification coefficient.
I.II) Where the upper system has a lower Response Modification Coefficient, the Design Coefficients (R, Ω0,
and Cd) for the upper system shall be used for both systems.
EXCEPTIONS: 1. Rooftop structures not exceeding two stories in height and 10 percent of the total structure weight.2.
Other supported structural systems with a weight equal to or less than 10 percent of the weight of the structure.3.
Detached one‐ and two‐family dwellings of light‐frame construction.
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CONCEPTS
II) R, Cd, and Ω0 Values for Horizontal Combinations: The value of the response modification coefficient, R, used for
design in the direction under consideration shall not be greater than the least value of R for any of the systems utilized in that
direction. The deflection amplification factor, Cd, and the over strength factor, Ω0, shall be consistent with R required in that
direction.
EXCEPTION: Resisting elements are permitted to be designed using the least value of R for the different
structural systems found in each independent line of resistance if the following three conditions are met: (1) Risk
Category I or II building, (2) two stories or less above grade plane, and (3) use of light‐frame construction or flexible
diaphragms. The value of R used for design of diaphragms in such structures shall not be greater than the least value of
R for any of the systems utilized in that same direction.
• REDUNDANCY FACTOR: conditions where ρ is 1.0:
 Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category B or C.
 Drift calculation and P‐delta effects.
 Design of nonstructural components.
 Design of nonbuilding structures that are not similar to buildings.
 Design of collector elements, splices, and their connections for which the seismic load effects including over strength factor of
Section 12.4.3 are used.
 Design of members or connections where the seismic load effects including overstrength factor of Section 12.4.3 are required
for design.
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CONCEPTS
 Diaphragm loads determined using Eq. 12.10‐1.
 Structures with damping systems designed in accordance with Chapter 18.
 Design of structural walls for out‐of‐plane forces, including their anchorage.
For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F, ρ shall equal 1.3 unless one of the two conditions shown in
ASCE7‐10 section 12.3.4.2 is met, whereby ρ is permitted to be taken as 1.0:
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SEISMIC LOAD EFFECTS AND COMBINATIONS

All members of the structure, including those not part of the seismic force‐resisting system, shall be designed using 
the seismic load effects unless otherwise exempted by this standard. 
1) Seismic Load Effect:
a) For use in load combination 5 in Section 2.3.2 (SD) or load combinations 5 & 6 Section 2.4.1 (ASD), E shall
be determined as follows:

b) For use in load combination 7 in Section 2.3.2 (SD) or load combinations 8 Section 2.4.1 (ASD), E shall be
determined as follows:

1.1) Horizontal Seismic Load Effect: Qe= effects of horizontal seismic forces from V or Fp.
ρ= redundancy factor as defined before
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SEISMIC LOAD EFFECTS AND COMBINATIONS

1.2) Vertical Seismic Load Effect: Sds= design spectral response acceleration parameter at short
periods.
D= effect of dead load
1.3) Seismic load combinations:

SD (LRFD)

ASD

MIN. UPWARD FORCE FOR HORIZONTAL CANTILEVERS FOR SEISMIC CATEGORIES D THROUGH F
In structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E, or F, horizontal cantilever structural members shall be designed 
for a minimum net upward force of 0.2 times the dead load in addition to the applicable load combinations